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--- a/META/CHANGELOG.md
+++ b/META/CHANGELOG.md
@ -1,26 +1,61 @@
- 2026-10-26T1839 · [[Prescott Bush]]
+- 2026-10-26T2016 · [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
- 2026-10-26T1839 · [[W. Averell Harriman]]
+- 2026-10-26T2016 · [[Point Four Program]]
 - 2026-10-26T2016 · [[Nicaragua]]
 - 2026-10-26T2015 · [[Newsweek]]
 - 2026-10-26T2015 · [[W. Averell Harriman]]
 - 2026-10-26T2015 · [[George H.W. Bush]]
 - 2026-10-26T2015 · [[Allen Dulles]]
 - 2026-10-26T2014 · [[Antony C. Sutton]]
 - 2026-10-26T2013 · [[Yale University]]
 - 2026-10-26T2013 · [[Brown Brothers Harriman]]
 - 2026-10-26T2012 · [[Union Banking Corporation]]
 - 2026-10-26T2012 · [[Prescott Bush]]
 - 2026-10-26T2009 · [[Skull and Bones]]
 - 2026-10-26T2006 · [[William Howard Taft]]
 - 2026-10-26T2005 · [[Neil Mallon]]
 - 2026-10-26T2005 · [[Russell and Company]]
 - 2026-10-26T2004 · [[William Huntington Russell]]
 - 2026-10-26T2004 · [[Knight Woolley]]
 - 2026-10-26T2003 · [[E. Roland Harriman]]
 - 2026-10-26T1935 · [[Columbia University]]
 - 2026-10-26T1935 · [[Office of Strategic Services]]
 - 2026-10-26T1935 · [[Alan Greenberg]]
 - 2026-10-26T1935 · [[Kirkland & Ellis]]
 - 2026-10-26T1935 · [[William Barr]]
 - 2026-10-26T1935 · [[Jeffrey Epstein]]
 - 2026-10-26T1931 · [[Dalton School]]
 - 2026-10-26T1931 · [[Donald Barr]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Eugenics]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Whitney family]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Robert A. Lovett]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Henry Luce]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[William P. Bundy]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[William F. Buckley Jr.]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[F. Trubee Davison]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Church Committee]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Time]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Standard Oil]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Rockefeller Foundation]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[National Review]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Council on Foreign Relations]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Central Intelligence Agency]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Dorothy Payne Whitney]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Joseph McCarthy]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Howard Hunt]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[McGeorge Bundy]]
 - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Dean Acheson]]
 - 2026-10-26T1838 · [[World War II]]
 - 2026-10-26T1838 · [[Council on Foreign Relations]]
 - 2026-10-26T1838 · [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]]
 - 2026-10-26T1838 · [[John J. McCloy]]
 - 2026-10-26T1837 · [[John Foster Dulles]]
 - 2026-10-26T1837 · [[Ngo Dinh Diem]]
 - 2026-10-26T1837 · [[Eugenics]]
 - 2026-10-26T1837 · [[Nicaragua]]
 - 2026-10-26T1836 · [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]]
 - 2026-10-26T1836 · [[Business Plot]]
 - 2026-10-26T1836 · [[Union Banking Corporation]]
 - 2026-10-26T1835 · [[Central Intelligence Agency]]
 - 2026-10-26T1835 · [[George W. Bush]]
 - 2026-10-26T1834 · [[Rockefeller family]]
 - 2026-10-26T1834 · [[John Kerry]]
 - 2026-10-26T1834 · [[George H.W. Bush]]
 - 2026-10-26T1834 · [[McGeorge Bundy]]
 - 2026-10-26T1833 · [[Yale University]]
 - 2026-10-26T1830 · [[Skull and Bones]]
 - 2026-10-26T1829 · [[Antony C. Sutton]]
 - 2026-10-26T1829 · [[Brown Brothers Harriman]]
 - 2026-10-26T1829 · [[Henry L. Stimson]]
 - 2026-10-15T2143 · [[Project Monarch]]
 - 2026-10-15T2143 · [[Kalshi]]
@ -51,7 +86,6 @@
 - 2026-10-15T2127 · [[General Motors]]
 - 2026-10-15T2126 · [[Hughes Aircraft Company]]
 - 2026-10-15T2126 · [[Joe Biden]]
 - 2026-10-15T2125 · [[Standard Oil]]
 - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Galo Plaza]]
 - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Rockefeller Commission 1975]]
 - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Project MKUltra]]
@ -64,37 +98,3 @@
 - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[Beirut]]
 - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]]
 - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[Barack Obama]]
 - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[Pennsylvania]]
 - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]]
 - 2026-10-15T2021 · [[Stargate Project]]
 - 2026-10-15T2021 · [[Kenneth A. Kress]]
 - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[IBM]]
 - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[Ashley Gorski]]
 - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[United States v. Epstein]]
 - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[Laura Menninger]]
 - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[Arif Durrani]]
 - 2026-10-15T2017 · [[Jonathan Pollard]]
 - 2026-10-15T2017 · [[Peter Videnieks]]
 - 2026-10-15T2017 · [[Financial General Bankshares]]
 - 2026-10-15T2016 · [[Rene Schneider]]
 - 2026-10-15T2016 · [[Orlando Letelier]]
 - 2026-10-15T2015 · [[Larry Summers]]
 - 2026-10-15T2014 · [[Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation]]
 - 2026-10-15T2014 · [[Leslie Kean]]
 - 2026-10-15T2011 · [[George Knapp]]
 - 2026-10-15T2011 · [[Sandia National Laboratories]]
 - 2026-10-15T2011 · [[Lockheed Aircraft Company]]
 - 2026-10-15T2011 · [[Lockheed Skunk Works]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Aerojet]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Jacques Vallee]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Jack Blum]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Kit Green]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Kamal Adham]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Faisal Saud al-Fulaij]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Advanced Theoretical Physics Working Group]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Southern Air Transport]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Atomic Energy Commission]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Francis Gary Powers]]
 - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Richard Bissell]]
 - 2026-10-15T2008 · [[Robert Byck]]
 - 2026-10-15T2008 · [[Crack Cocaine]]
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Allen
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Allen
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-05-15
-updated: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-26
 title: Allen Dulles
 aliases:
  - Allen Welsh Dulles
@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ relations:
    with: "[[Warren Commission]]"
    start: 1963-11-29
    end: 1964-09-24
-    fn: 19
+    fn: 20
 ---
 Allen Welsh Dulles (April 7, 1893 - January 29, 1969) served as [[Director of Central Intelligence]] from February 26, 1953, to November 29, 1961 - the longest tenure of any DCI, the first civilian DCI, and the only brother of a sitting Secretary of State to hold the position. Dulles built the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] into the instrument of Cold War covert action that executed [[Operation AJAX]] in [[Iran]] (1953), [[Operation PBSUCCESS]] in [[Guatemala]] (1954), and the [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion of [[Cuba]] (1961). The Bay of Pigs disaster cost him his position - President [[John F. Kennedy]] forced his resignation, along with [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Charles P. Cabell|C.P. Cabell]] - and his subsequent appointment by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] to the [[Warren Commission]] investigating Kennedy's assassination placed him in the remarkable position of overseeing the investigation of the event that had ended both his patron's life and his own career.[^1]
@ -72,17 +72,17 @@ On August 26, 1960 Dulles cabled the Leopoldville station that the station offic
 ### Correspondence with Senator McCarthy, 1953
-In July 1953 [[Joseph McCarthy]], as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to Dulles about [[William P. Bundy]], an employee of the Central Intelligence Agency, whom McCarthy linked to a $400 contribution to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]].[^11] McCarthy's letter of July 27, 1953 said the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency."[^12] The CIA reply of July 22, 1953, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, gave the agency's account of Bundy's disclosure on his March 1951 application and of the field investigation and loyalty determinations that followed. It deferred comment on the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution until a review was complete.[^11] A newspaper article by [[Allen Drury]] dated August 4, 1953 reported that Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation.[^13] McCarthy replied on August 3 that Bundy's contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^14]
+In July 1953 [[Joseph McCarthy]], as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to Dulles about [[William P. Bundy]], an employee of the Central Intelligence Agency, whom McCarthy linked to a $400 contribution to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]].[^11] McCarthy's letter of July 27, 1953 said the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency."[^12] The CIA reply of July 22, 1953, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, gave the agency's account of Bundy's disclosure on his March 1951 application and of the field investigation and loyalty determinations that followed. It deferred comment on the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution until a review was complete.[^11] A newspaper article by [[Allen Drury]] dated August 4, 1953 reported that Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation, and reported that on July 22 Dulles informed McCarthy of the results of a CIA security check on Bundy and of Bundy's 1940 membership in the United Public Workers of America.[^13] Dulles's reply of August 1, 1953, as quoted in that article, read: "After most careful consideration of your letter, I feel that the proper course to pursue is to follow the procedure described in the President's executive order," and he declined to comment on certain phases of the matter pending the conclusion of those proceedings.[^13] McCarthy replied on August 3 that Bundy's contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^14] An FBI memorandum of July 10, 1953 recorded that Dulles told the Bureau's liaison agent [[Sam Papich]] he had taken the position that permitting CIA employees to testify before the McCarthy committee would be prejudicial to the interests of the United States, that he had been in touch with the White House about the position and had its support, and that he wanted to know where McCarthy obtained his information; Papich answered that the Bureau was not supplying it.[^15]
-On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." The letter answered press reports that CIA classified material had been printed at the [[Government Printing Office]]. It said the agency's legislative counsel had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, 1953, and it asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^15]
+On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." The letter answered press reports that CIA classified material had been printed at the [[Government Printing Office]]. It said the agency's legislative counsel had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, 1953, and it asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^16]
 ### MKULTRA: The Sandoz Panic and the Olson Death
-Dulles approved MKULTRA on April 13, 1953, ten days after Richard Helms proposed a program for the "covert use of biological and chemical materials," with an initial $300,000 exempt from normal financial controls and payable blindly on the signatures of Gottlieb and TSS chief [[Willis Gibbons]]. Acting in a climate of Cold War urgency, that same month Dulles approved a $240,000 payment after an intelligence report claimed [[Sandoz]] wanted to sell 10 kilograms of [[LSD]] on the open market; CIA officers flew to Switzerland with a black bag of cash only to learn Sandoz had produced barely 40 grams in fifteen years, the entire panic stemming from a military attaché who confused milligrams with kilograms. When [[Frank Olson]] died in November 1953 after Gottlieb dosed him with LSD at [[Deep Creek Lodge]], Dulles ordered Inspector General [[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] to investigate; the resulting reprimands were softened through six drafts and placed in no personnel file.[^16]
+Dulles approved MKULTRA on April 13, 1953, ten days after Richard Helms proposed a program for the "covert use of biological and chemical materials," with an initial $300,000 exempt from normal financial controls and payable blindly on the signatures of Gottlieb and TSS chief [[Willis Gibbons]]. Acting in a climate of Cold War urgency, that same month Dulles approved a $240,000 payment after an intelligence report claimed [[Sandoz]] wanted to sell 10 kilograms of [[LSD]] on the open market; CIA officers flew to Switzerland with a black bag of cash only to learn Sandoz had produced barely 40 grams in fifteen years, the entire panic stemming from a military attaché who confused milligrams with kilograms. When [[Frank Olson]] died in November 1953 after Gottlieb dosed him with LSD at [[Deep Creek Lodge]], Dulles ordered Inspector General [[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] to investigate; the resulting reprimands were softened through six drafts and placed in no personnel file.[^17]
 ### Rockefeller's Special Group and the Human Ecology Front
-Under Eisenhower, Dulles reported all CIA covert operations, including MKULTRA, the coups, and assassination planning, to the NSC "[[Special Group]]" chaired by [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the structure formalized by NSC 5412/2 in December 1955 that gave the president plausible deniability; in a 1955 "Family Jewels" briefing Dulles described the full range of covert programs to Rockefeller's board. When MKULTRA needed a research hospital, Dulles sought Rockefeller's approval for a scheme to channel CIA money through private foundations to win matching federal grants for a wing at [[Georgetown University Hospital]]. The program's primary funding front, the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]], was organized at Dulles's initiative through [[Harold Wolff]], the Cornell neurologist who had treated Dulles's brain-damaged son; Dulles attended one of its first board meetings. His relationship with [[D. Ewen Cameron]] predated the funding: in November 1945, still with the OSS, Dulles had sent Cameron to Nuremberg to assess whether [[Rudolf Hess]] was fit to stand trial.[^17]
+Under Eisenhower, Dulles reported all CIA covert operations, including MKULTRA, the coups, and assassination planning, to the NSC "[[Special Group]]" chaired by [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the structure formalized by NSC 5412/2 in December 1955 that gave the president plausible deniability; in a 1955 "Family Jewels" briefing Dulles described the full range of covert programs to Rockefeller's board. When MKULTRA needed a research hospital, Dulles sought Rockefeller's approval for a scheme to channel CIA money through private foundations to win matching federal grants for a wing at [[Georgetown University Hospital]]. The program's primary funding front, the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]], was organized at Dulles's initiative through [[Harold Wolff]], the Cornell neurologist who had treated Dulles's brain-damaged son; Dulles attended one of its first board meetings. His relationship with [[D. Ewen Cameron]] predated the funding: in November 1945, still with the OSS, Dulles had sent Cameron to Nuremberg to assess whether [[Rudolf Hess]] was fit to stand trial.[^18]
 ### Bay of Pigs and Forced Resignation
@ -90,25 +90,31 @@ The Bay of Pigs invasion of April 17-19, 1961 was the catastrophic failure that
 Kennedy publicly accepted responsibility but was privately furious. He reportedly told aide [[Ted Sorensen]] that he wanted to "splinter the CIA into a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds" - a remark almost certainly apocryphal in its precise wording but consistent with his documented anger. The Taylor Commission's findings and the classified Kirkpatrick IG report both pointed to fundamental CIA failures in planning, execution, and judgment.
-Dulles submitted his resignation in September 1961; it was formally accepted November 29, 1961. He was replaced by [[John McCone]]. The CIA's own history states that a "humiliated President Kennedy did not wait for either report before cleaning house at CIA" and that he accepted resignations from Dulles and from Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell, who stayed at their posts until their successors were selected a few months later.[^18] Bissell and Cabell were also forced out. CIA veterans viewed their dismissal as Kennedy scapegoating the agency for a failure the [[White House]] had co-created by canceling the air strikes.[^1]
+Dulles submitted his resignation in September 1961; it was formally accepted November 29, 1961. He was replaced by [[John McCone]]. The CIA's own history states that a "humiliated President Kennedy did not wait for either report before cleaning house at CIA" and that he accepted resignations from Dulles and from Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell, who stayed at their posts until their successors were selected a few months later.[^19] Bissell and Cabell were also forced out. CIA veterans viewed their dismissal as Kennedy scapegoating the agency for a failure the [[White House]] had co-created by canceling the air strikes.[^1]
 ### The Warren Commission
-On November 29, 1963 - exactly two years after Dulles's forced resignation - President Lyndon Johnson appointed the Warren Commission to investigate Kennedy's assassination. Among the seven commissioners Johnson named was Allen Dulles despite Kennedy’s firing of Dulles.[^19]
+On November 29, 1963 - exactly two years after Dulles's forced resignation - President Lyndon Johnson appointed the Warren Commission to investigate Kennedy's assassination. Among the seven commissioners Johnson named was Allen Dulles despite Kennedy’s firing of Dulles.[^20]
 The investigation was examining whether CIA-connected parties (specifically the anti-Castro exile networks and organized crime figures that Dulles had directly overseen) had any role in the assassination. He was now in a position to shape what evidence the Commission sought, what witnesses it called, and what conclusions it reached regarding the CIA programs he had run.
-Dulles was reportedly among the most active commissioners in shaping the investigation's scope. He briefed commissioners on CIA history and procedures. Book V of the Church Committee's final report states that, with the exception of Dulles, it is unlikely anyone on the Warren Commission knew of the CIA's assassination efforts, and that Dulles knew of the plots with underworld figures that had taken place during his tenure as Director of Central Intelligence.[^20] The Church Committee's 1975 interim report states that Dulles "did not inform the other members about the plots that had occurred during his term as DCI,"[^21] and also states that "it is not entirely certain that Dulles was ever made aware of the true nature of the underworld operation."[^22] The [[ZR/RIFLE]] assassination plotting program was, in the same period, not disclosed to the Commission at the agency level by [[Richard Helms]] as Deputy Director for Plans. Helms testified that Dulles "was sitting right there" in the Commission's deliberations and "knew about this," and that he did not know what Dulles had said to the Commission about the plots.[^23] The CIA's failure to disclose the assassination plots to the Warren Commission was documented by the Church Committee in 1975; Dulles's role as both a commissioner and the former DCI who had authorized the programs is the structural conflict of interest the Commission's composition created.
+Dulles was reportedly among the most active commissioners in shaping the investigation's scope. He briefed commissioners on CIA history and procedures. Book V of the Church Committee's final report states that, with the exception of Dulles, it is unlikely anyone on the Warren Commission knew of the CIA's assassination efforts, and that Dulles knew of the plots with underworld figures that had taken place during his tenure as Director of Central Intelligence.[^21] The Church Committee's 1975 interim report states that Dulles "did not inform the other members about the plots that had occurred during his term as DCI,"[^22] and also states that "it is not entirely certain that Dulles was ever made aware of the true nature of the underworld operation."[^23] The [[ZR/RIFLE]] assassination plotting program was, in the same period, not disclosed to the Commission at the agency level by [[Richard Helms]] as Deputy Director for Plans. Helms testified that Dulles "was sitting right there" in the Commission's deliberations and "knew about this," and that he did not know what Dulles had said to the Commission about the plots.[^24] The CIA's failure to disclose the assassination plots to the Warren Commission was documented by the Church Committee in 1975; Dulles's role as both a commissioner and the former DCI who had authorized the programs is the structural conflict of interest the Commission's composition created.
-Angleton testified that Dulles consulted him before agreeing to President Johnson's request that he serve, that the two were in frequent contact, and that they informally discussed the progress of the investigation and what further work the CIA could do.[^24] At the January 22, 1964 executive session, the Commission took up a report that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had been a paid FBI informant. Dulles asked whether the purpose of such a hire could have been to penetrate the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]]. He said that practically any American could obtain a passport good for anywhere, and that the Passport Bureau had no record of Oswald's defection. Near the end of the meeting, Dulles said: "I think this record ought to be destroyed."[^25] FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s files held an index card on Dulles that cross-referenced a November 29, 1963 memorandum.[^26]
+Angleton testified that Dulles consulted him before agreeing to President Johnson's request that he serve, that the two were in frequent contact, and that they informally discussed the progress of the investigation and what further work the CIA could do.[^25] At the January 22, 1964 executive session, the Commission took up a report that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had been a paid FBI informant. Dulles asked whether the purpose of such a hire could have been to penetrate the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]]. He said that practically any American could obtain a passport good for anywhere, and that the Passport Bureau had no record of Oswald's defection. Near the end of the meeting, Dulles said: "I think this record ought to be destroyed."[^26] FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s files held an index card on Dulles that cross-referenced a November 29, 1963 memorandum.[^27]
-The [[HSCA|House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (1979) found that the Warren Commission's failure to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy was "attributable in part to the failure of the Commission to receive all the relevant information that was in the possession of other agencies and departments of the Government," and that the CIA "was deficient in its collection and sharing of information both prior to and subsequent to the assassination."[^27] The report does not name Dulles in those findings. It states that the committee did not ignore the possibility that certain CIA officials who knew that close scrutiny of United States-Cuban relations could have exposed the CIA-Mafia plots might have tried to keep the CIA's or the Warren Commission's inquiry from the question of Cuban complicity, and that it determined that only Deputy Director Helms was in a position to have both the knowledge and the power to accomplish such a cover-up and was satisfied, on the basis of its investigation, that it was "highly unlikely he in fact did so."[^28] It found that the details of the AMLASH plot and the CIA-Mafia plots should have been provided to the Warren Commission.[^29]
+The [[HSCA|House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (1979) found that the Warren Commission's failure to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy was "attributable in part to the failure of the Commission to receive all the relevant information that was in the possession of other agencies and departments of the Government," and that the CIA "was deficient in its collection and sharing of information both prior to and subsequent to the assassination."[^28] The report does not name Dulles in those findings. It states that the committee did not ignore the possibility that certain CIA officials who knew that close scrutiny of United States-Cuban relations could have exposed the CIA-Mafia plots might have tried to keep the CIA's or the Warren Commission's inquiry from the question of Cuban complicity, and that it determined that only Deputy Director Helms was in a position to have both the knowledge and the power to accomplish such a cover-up and was satisfied, on the basis of its investigation, that it was "highly unlikely he in fact did so."[^29] It found that the details of the AMLASH plot and the CIA-Mafia plots should have been provided to the Warren Commission.[^30]
 ### Dallas Council on World Affairs and Neil Mallon
 A Dallas News editorial of October 27, 1953 refers to a meeting of the Dallas Council on World Affairs the previous week, which had drawn interest in what the head of the Central Intelligence Agency might say.[^31] On February 27, 1954, Dulles wrote to Vice President [[Richard Nixon|Richard M. Nixon]] that a Texas correspondent had sent him a copy of a February 24, 1954 letter that the correspondent had written to Nixon about the council. Dulles described the council as "an excellent forum of persons who take a deep interest in our foreign relations." He wrote that he had known [[Neil Mallon]] "for several years," and that Mallon had made "a real accomplishment in organizing the Council and keeping it a live and vigorous organization." The routing block of the letter shows a copy sent to Mallon.[^32] On February 5, 1958, the council's executive director, Roger Kennedy, wrote to Dulles asking him to speak in Dallas in April or May; Dulles's reply to Kennedy, dated February 13, 1958 (drafted February 7), declined the invitation at that time.[^33] The council's letterhead on Kennedy's letter lists [[Earle Cabell]] and "H. N. Mallon" (executive committee) among its members. The Handbook of Texas names Earle Cabell's brother as Charles Pearre Cabell, deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1953.[^34]
 [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CovertAction Information Bulletin (number 41, Summer 1992) states that Mallon, a Dresser Industries chairman, "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives." Kimery's article gives this as its own claim.[^35]
 ### Death and Legacy
 Dulles spent his post-CIA years writing, lecturing, and defending the covert action programs he had built. His book *The Craft of Intelligence* (1963) was the first major public account of CIA operations by a former director. He died in Washington on January 29, 1969, of influenza complicated by pneumonia, eighteen months before the full extent of MKULTRA and the assassination plots became public.
-The 2022 report of the United Nations Eminent Person summarized the argument of Greg Poulgrain's 2020 book, *JFK vs. Allen Dulles: Battleground Indonesia*, which posits that Dulles formed a motive to remove [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] following a policy conflict over the United Nations' intended intervention in the dispute over the sovereignty of West New Guinea.[^30] The report recorded Poulgrain's proposition that the Operation Celeste documents, which refer to a plan to kill Hammarskjöld by causing his plane to crash, mention Dulles by name, stating: "UNO is becoming troublesome and it is felt that Hammarskjöld should be removed. Allen Dulles agrees and has promised full cooperation from his people."[^30] Poulgrain compared this with the Church Committee's account of Dulles expressing a "wish [to] give every possible support" to a plan to kill Lumumba.[^30] The report stated that it was not necessary at that stage to assess the probative value of Poulgrain's information, and that it underscored the importance of "proving or disproving the veracity of the Operation Celeste hypothesis and Dulles's alleged involvement (as relied on by Poulgrain)."[^31]
+The 2022 report of the United Nations Eminent Person summarized the argument of Greg Poulgrain's 2020 book, *JFK vs. Allen Dulles: Battleground Indonesia*, which posits that Dulles formed a motive to remove [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] following a policy conflict over the United Nations' intended intervention in the dispute over the sovereignty of West New Guinea.[^36] The report recorded Poulgrain's proposition that the Operation Celeste documents, which refer to a plan to kill Hammarskjöld by causing his plane to crash, mention Dulles by name, stating: "UNO is becoming troublesome and it is felt that Hammarskjöld should be removed. Allen Dulles agrees and has promised full cooperation from his people."[^36] Poulgrain compared this with the Church Committee's account of Dulles expressing a "wish [to] give every possible support" to a plan to kill Lumumba.[^36] The report stated that it was not necessary at that stage to assess the probative value of Poulgrain's information, and that it underscored the importance of "proving or disproving the veracity of the Operation Celeste hypothesis and Dulles's alleged involvement (as relied on by Poulgrain)."[^37]
 ### Footnotes
@ -126,20 +132,26 @@ The 2022 report of the United Nations Eminent Person summarized the argument of
 [^12]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7
 [^13]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4
 [^14]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9
-[^15]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2
+[^15]: Federal Bureau of Investigation memorandum, "Information Concerning Allen W. Dulles," July 10, 1953, FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31, https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison
-[^16]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 4; "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," Joint Senate Hearing, August 3, 1977.
+[^16]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2
-[^17]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995, Ch. 18; John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 9.
+[^17]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 4; "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," Joint Senate Hearing, August 3, 1977.
-[^18]: Warner, Michael, "The CIA's Internal Probe of the Bay of Pigs Affair: Lessons Unlearned," *Studies in Intelligence*, Winter 1998-1999. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Internal-Probe-Bay-Pigs.pdf
+[^18]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995, Ch. 18; John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 9.
-[^19]: Executive Order 11130, "Appointing a Commission To Report Upon the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy," November 29, 1963. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11130-appointing-commission-report-upon-the-assassination-president-john-f
+[^19]: Warner, Michael, "The CIA's Internal Probe of the Bay of Pigs Affair: Lessons Unlearned," *Studies in Intelligence*, Winter 1998-1999. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Internal-Probe-Bay-Pigs.pdf
-[^20]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Book V, Final Report, April 23, 1976, pp. 67-68. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
+[^20]: Executive Order 11130, "Appointing a Commission To Report Upon the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy," November 29, 1963. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11130-appointing-commission-report-upon-the-assassination-president-john-f
-[^21]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, p. 269, note 1. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^21]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Book V, Final Report, April 23, 1976, pp. 67-68. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
-[^22]: *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, p. 267. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^22]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, p. 269, note 1. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
-[^23]: Book V, p. 70 (Helms testimony of July 18, 1975). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
+[^23]: *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, p. 267. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
-[^24]: Book V, p. 69 (note 134, Angleton testimony of February 6, 1976, pp. 31-34). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
+[^24]: Book V, p. 70 (Helms testimony of July 18, 1975). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
-[^25]: Warren Commission, executive session transcript, January 22, 1964, 5:30 to 7:00 p.m. https://aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcexec/pdf/WcEx0122.pdf
+[^25]: Book V, p. 69 (note 134, Angleton testimony of February 6, 1976, pp. 31-34). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
-[^26]: U.S. Assassination Records Review Board, memorandum by Ronald G. Haron, "Assassination Records Among the Files of J. Edgar Hoover (FBI-36)," January 8, 1998. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/RHARON/HARON/FBIMEM.002.pdf
+[^26]: Warren Commission, executive session transcript, January 22, 1964, 5:30 to 7:00 p.m. https://aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcexec/pdf/WcEx0122.pdf
-[^27]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (1979), summary Findings I.D.4 and I.D.5(b) (p. 4). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
+[^27]: U.S. Assassination Records Review Board, memorandum by Ronald G. Haron, "Assassination Records Among the Files of J. Edgar Hoover (FBI-36)," January 8, 1998. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/RHARON/HARON/FBIMEM.002.pdf
-[^28]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, p. 128. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
+[^28]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (1979), summary Findings I.D.4 and I.D.5(b) (p. 4). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
-[^29]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, pp. 112-116. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
+[^29]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, p. 128. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
-[^30]: A/76/892, report of the Eminent Person, August 25, 2022, paragraphs 241 to 244. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf
+[^30]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, pp. 112-116. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
-[^31]: A/76/892, paragraph 246. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf
+[^31]: "World Affairs Council," editorial, Dallas News, October 27, 1953, CIA reading room clipping, CIA-RDP70-00058R000100080037-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp70-00058r000100080037-2
 [^32]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to the Honorable Richard M. Nixon, Vice-President of the United States, February 27, 1954, with distribution "cc - Neil Mallon," CIA-RDP80R01731R000900110025-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000900110025-8
 [^33]: Roger Kennedy, Executive Director, Dallas Council on World Affairs, letter of February 5, 1958 to Allen Dulles, Central Intelligence Agency, with council letterhead, and Dulles's reply to Kennedy drafted February 7 and dated February 13, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800110043-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800110043-4
 [^34]: Michael V. Hazel, "Cabell, Earle," and "Cabell, Charles Pearre," Handbook of Texas Online, Texas State Historical Association (brothers; sons of Ben E. and Sadie Pearre Cabell; Earle on the Dallas Council on World Affairs; Charles deputy director of the CIA from 1953). https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-earle ; https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-charles-pearre
 [^35]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CovertAction Information Bulletin no. 41 (Summer 1992), passage on Henry Neil Mallon, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
 [^36]: A/76/892, report of the Eminent Person, August 25, 2022, paragraphs 241 to 244. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf
 [^37]: A/76/892, paragraph 246. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Dean
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Dean
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-05-15
-updated: 2026-05-17
+updated: 2026-10-26
 title: Dean Acheson
 aliases:
  - Dean Gooderham Acheson
@ -22,6 +22,11 @@ relations:
    role: "recipient of the report of February 1, 1951"
    start: 1951-02
    fn: 4
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[William P. Bundy]]"
    role: "son-in-law; William P. Bundy married Mary Acheson in 1943"
    start: 1943
    fn: 6
 ---
 Dean Gooderham Acheson (April 11, 1893 - October 12, 1971) was [[United States|U.S.]] Secretary of State from 1949 to 1953 under President [[Harry Truman]], and one of the principal architects of American [[Cold War]] foreign policy. Acheson helped design the [[Truman Doctrine]], [[NATO]], and the [[Marshall Plan]], and was responsible for approving [[NSC-68]] - the 1950 policy document that militarized the "containment" strategy [[George Kennan]] had formulated, over Kennan's explicit objections. Acheson's memoir, *Present at the Creation* (Norton, 1969), took its title from his self-assessment of having helped build the postwar international order.[^1]
@ -54,9 +59,13 @@ The [[Korean War]] that began June 1950 dominated the second half of Acheson's t
 The war eventually led to Truman's firing of General [[Douglas MacArthur]] in April 1951 after MacArthur publicly challenged Truman's authority over war strategy - a civil-military confrontation that Acheson supported Truman in resolving in favor of civilian control.[^5]
 ### Son-in-law, William P. Bundy
 [[William P. Bundy]] married [[Mary Acheson]], Acheson's daughter, in 1943. He later held posts at the CIA, the Defense Department and the State Department.[^6] In July 1953 the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations chairman [[Joseph McCarthy]] pressed the CIA about Bundy's $400 contribution to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]]. A newspaper report of August 4, 1953 said that Bundy's stated reason for the contribution was to help his father-in-law, Dean Acheson, in clearing Hiss.[^7]
 ### Legacy
-Acheson was a target of Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]]'s attacks, primarily over the "loss" of [[China]] to communism - which McCarthy attributed to State Department subversion - and over Acheson's refusal to condemn former State Department official Alger Hiss following Hiss's conviction for perjury in connection with Soviet espionage. McCarthy called Acheson's State Department a "Dean Acheson College of Cowardly Communist Containment."
+Acheson was a target of Senator Joseph McCarthy's attacks, primarily over the "loss" of [[China]] to communism - which McCarthy attributed to State Department subversion - and over Acheson's refusal to condemn former State Department official Alger Hiss following Hiss's conviction for perjury in connection with Soviet espionage. McCarthy called Acheson's State Department a "Dean Acheson College of Cowardly Communist Containment."
 After leaving government, Acheson returned to law practice and remained influential in Democratic foreign policy circles, advising subsequent administrations informally. He won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] for History in 1970 for *Present at the Creation*. He died at Sandy Spring, Maryland, on October 12, 1971.
@ -67,3 +76,5 @@ After leaving government, Acheson returned to law practice and remained influent
 [^3]: FRUS 1950, volume IV, Document 127 (Truman to Acheson, March 1, 1950) and Document 131 (Barrett to Acheson, March 6, 1950) with the editorial note on Acheson's discussion with Truman. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v04/d131
 [^4]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 238 (the report's final date and Acheson's receipt on February 15, 1951).
 [^5]: Brands, H.W. *The General vs. the President: MacArthur and Truman at the Brink of Nuclear War.* Doubleday, 2016. Hogan, Michael J. *A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954.* Cambridge University Press, 1998.
 [^6]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189
 [^7]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Donald
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Donald
@ -0,0 +1,162 @@
 ---
 title: Donald Barr
 aliases:
  - Donald Barr
  - Donald Barr (1921-2004)
  - Donald Barr (educator)
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 category: "Scientists & Researchers"
 tags:
  - Person
  - OSS
  - Education
  - Headmaster
  - Dalton
  - Hackley
  - Columbia
  - Epstein
  - ScienceFiction
 summary: "Donald Barr (1921-2004) was an OSS veteran, Columbia engineering dean and Science Honors Program director, headmaster of the Dalton School from 1964 to 1974 and of Hackley from 1975, and the father of William Barr."
 location: "New York, New York"
 born: 1921-08-02
 died: 2004-02-05
 relations:
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Columbia University]]"
    end: 1964
    role: "instructor in English, then assistant to the dean and assistant dean, School of Engineering"
    fn: 2
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Columbia University Science Honors Program]]"
    start: 1958
    end: 1964
    role: "director"
    fn: 7
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Office of Strategic Services]]"
    role: "Army service with the OSS in Washington and Europe; Research and Analysis Branch (brief), per the CIA review of his son's memoir"
    fn: 1
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Dalton School]]"
    start: 1964
    end: 1974
    role: "headmaster"
    fn: 18
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Hackley School]]"
    start: 1975
    role: "headmaster (still in post December 1985)"
    fn: 1
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[National Council on Educational Research]]"
    start: 1982
    end: 1988
    role: "member, nominated by Ronald Reagan May 28, 1982; reappointed December 11, 1985"
    fn: 30
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Jeffrey Epstein]]"
    start: 1974
    role: "teacher of mathematics and physics; hire attributed to Barr by some accounts, left open by others"
    fn: 23
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[William Barr]]"
    role: "father"
    fn: 4
 ---
 Donald Barr (August 2, 1921 to February 5, 2004) was an American educator and writer. He served with the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) in the Second World War, ran the Science Honors Program at [[Columbia University]]'s School of Engineering, was headmaster of the [[Dalton School]] in [[New York City]] from 1964 to 1974 and of the [[Hackley School]] in [[Tarrytown, New York]] from 1975, and sat on the federal [[National Council on Educational Research]]. He wrote a book on American education, two science-fiction novels and children's science books. He was the father of [[William Barr]], who served as [[U.S. Attorney General|attorney general]] from 1991 to 1993 and again from 2019 to 2020.[^1][^2] He is a different man from [[Donald Barrios]], a Miami figure of a similar name.
 ### Columbia and the Office of Strategic Services
 Barr was born in Manhattan, majored in mathematics and anthropology at [[Columbia College]] and graduated in 1941. He went into the Army and served with the OSS in Washington, D.C., and Europe.[^1][^2] [[Marie Brenner]] wrote in [[Vanity Fair]] that "during the war, Barr joined the OSS" and afterward taught English at Columbia.[^3] The [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] [[Center for the Study of Intelligence]] review of his son's memoir, *One Damn Thing After Another* (William Morrow, 2022), refers to the elder Barr's "brief service in the Research and Analysis Branch of the Office of Strategic Services during World War II."[^4] The Gale reference notice on his death says he "joined the Army as part of the OSS," without dates.[^5]
 The [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] holds OSS personnel files in Record Group 226, Entry 224. Its name database, dated December 23, 2010, lists a "Barr, Donald" with a T-5 serial number 36647447 and, on the following line, a Pfc serial number 39227927, in box 38.[^6] The database gives no middle initial, birthplace or unit, and records found do not establish whether either serial belongs to the Columbia graduate.
 After the war Barr returned to Columbia, taught in the English department, and received a master's degree from the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in 1950 in English and comparative literature while completing course requirements for a doctorate.[^2] The Gale notice gives the master's year as 1951 and says he completed coursework without writing a dissertation.[^5] He also taught field-work courses in sociology and political science at the School of Engineering. In 1955 the Engineering School asked him to oversee its efforts to identify promising elementary and secondary science students, and he moved into the Engineering Dean's Office.[^2] The Gale notice dates his service as assistant to the dean of the School of Engineering from 1956 to 1959, followed by about five years as assistant dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science.[^5]
 ### Science Honors Program
 The Columbia School of Engineering announced the Science Honors Program on June 10, 1958: sixty selected high-school students from the New York area would attend Saturday classes and conferences on the Morningside Heights campus, taught by university faculty. The program ran under Columbia's Joint Program for Technical Education, which had been set up in 1956 with funds from the [[Hebrew Technical Institute]] of New York, and the institute made an additional grant of $25,000 to staff and equip it. [[John R. Dunning]], dean of the School of Engineering, explained the program at the announcement. The advisory board included the anthropologist [[Margaret Mead]], the educator [[Paul F. Brandwein]] and Barr, who was listed as director.[^7]
 In September 1959 *Consulting Engineer* reported that the program had planned for 60 students, received about 220 nominees, and enlarged the first class to 75 and then to 150 after the [[Fund for the Advancement of Education]], a [[Ford Foundation]] subsidiary, matched the Hebrew Technical Institute grant. Barr, quoted as director, said of the intelligence tests used in selection, "We do not put a great deal of emphasis on the I.Q. tests, however," and described the first-semester lectures as ranging from "the genetics of marine fungi to switching theory."[^8] By 1963 *Nature and Science*, the magazine of the [[American Museum of Natural History]], listed him on its national board of editors as director of the Science Honors Program.[^9]
 Barr became assistant dean of the Engineering faculty in 1959. In 1963 the [[National Science Foundation]], which had supported the Science Honors Program, asked him to administer its Cooperative College-School Program, which he did until he became headmaster at Dalton the following year.[^2] The 2004 New York Times obituary says the program he established "served as a model for similar programs elsewhere administered by the National Science Foundation."[^1]
 In an October 30, 1976 paper for the [[National Institute of Education]], Barr recalled that roughly seventeen years earlier he had been directing a study of underachievement among high-ability students in New York City public high schools under a grant from a middle-sized foundation, and at the same time "a massive enrichment program for gifted high-school students at Columbia University" that had used up "its original grant from a very small foundation." He wrote that when he asked the middle-sized foundation for $50,000 for the enrichment program, its executive director declined and told him, "If you wanted to found a symphony orchestra of chimpanzees, I could get you $100,000 tomorrow."[^10]
 ### Writing
 *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty?*, a book on American education, was first published in 1971 by [[Atheneum Publishers]], with [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner]] also listed as a publisher.[^11] The 1972 printing carries the subtitle *Dilemmas in American Education Today*. In it Barr wrote that "in the spring of 1964" Dalton "hired me as headmaster."[^12] The [[SF Encyclopedia]] gives the title as *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty, or The Education of a Headmaster*.[^13] The [[Dalton School Archives]] catalogues the book among publications by Dalton staff, and also an article by Barr, "Sex, Love, and Modern Education," in [[Columbia College Today]] for fall 1967.[^14]
 *Space Relations: A Slightly Gothic Interplanetary Tale* was published in 1973 in New York by [[Charterhouse (publisher)|Charterhouse]], a division of [[David McKay Company]], with copyright in Barr's name and Library of Congress catalog card number 73-79958. A [[Fawcett Publications|Fawcett]] Crest paperback followed, first printed in February 1975. The dedication reads "To MAB. with thirty years' love," and is followed by a stanza from [[Richard Wagner]]'s opera *[[Tannhäuser]]* and two other epigraphs, one from [[Alfred North Whitehead]] on human sacrifice and slavery.[^15] The protagonist, John Armbruster Craig, is a 38-year-old official of the Extraterrestrial Service whose physiological record is held by the Health Executive's computer in Bethesda, with an identifier branded on his forearm (pp. 7-8). He is being examined before a mission to the planet Kossar to negotiate a treaty, and he had earlier spent two years as a slave in the mines of Treghast (pp. 11-13). Later chapters show people taken from ships listed by sex, approximate age and ship at a slave compound and sold at auction (pp. 38-39, 49-50). A woman addressed as Lady Morgan tells Craig she will give him the name Smitty and that he is "attached to my person" (excerpt on the front leaf).[^15] The SF Encyclopedia describes the novel as a space opera with literary analogues to its plot and lists a second novel, *A Planet in Arms* (Fawcett, 1981).[^13]
 [[Wayne Madsen]], writing in September 2019, read the novel as a portrait of sexual slavery and as a parallel to the residences of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] in New York, New Mexico, Paris and the Virgin Islands, and read the Wagner epigraph as an admiration for fascism. He described the elder Barr as "influential in hiring" Epstein.[^16]
 Barr's children's nonfiction includes *The How and Why Wonder Book of Atomic Energy* (1961) and *The How and Why Wonder Book of Building* (1964).[^5] The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers Association's notice adds that he wrote textbooks in science and mathematics while at Columbia.[^17]
 ### Dalton School, 1964 to 1974
 *Time* reported on April 5, 1971 that "the board of trustees picked a stubborn new headmaster in 1964," a former assistant dean at Columbia's engineering school who "arrived at Dalton with a dim view of 'orthodox' progressive education's emphasis on emotional development." He carried out trustee decisions to make the all-girl high school coeducational and to more than double the school to 1,000 students, sent his own four sons to Horace Mann, added tests to supplement written evaluations, wrote on teenage sex, and tried to ban blue jeans and long hair on boys. In 1970 he expelled five sixth-graders, and at a November 1970 board meeting a faction of trustees asked for his removal; an evaluation committee was named and, two months later, the board voted unanimously to keep him. In March 1971 supporters circulated a 21-page memorandum naming the PTA president as a plotter against him, and a mail poll of parents run by the Honest Ballot Association went 435 to 300 against the PTA president.[^18] The Dalton School Archives holds a personnel series for Barr covering 1964 to 1972, and a folder of the 1971 *Time* items, a parent's letter of May 24, 1971 and "Education: Notes from a Controversialist" (August 1971).[^14] Brenner reported that a 1971 *New York* magazine article, "The Parents' Revolt at Dalton," covered the dispute.[^3]
 On February 20, 1974 the [[New York Times]] reported, under the headline "Barr Quits Dalton School Post, Charging Trustees' Interference," that Barr had resigned "in protest of what he considers the trustee's interference with his leadership." In a letter to faculty and parents the day before he wrote, "I am not comfortable with the definition of board-head relations that I see becoming current in schools everywhere." The board said the resignation "was not requested and not expected." [[Richard Ravitch]], president of the board, said, "The issue is the prerogatives of the board and the headmaster." The article recalled that "a faction of the former board and some of the parents sought his ouster in 1971," and reported that in January 1974 the school had dismissed clerical and administrative staff and announced that more than half a dozen teaching positions would be eliminated in the fall, with the board having hired an outside committee to study the school. Barr said he would remain until June 7. Enrollment was 1,254.[^19]
 Marie Brenner, interviewed by [[NPR]] in December 2019, said that Barr "began running afoul of many of the parents at the Dalton School because he became progressively more conservative," that parents and trustees mounted "an immense pushback against what many of them called the Captain Queeg who was running the Dalton School," and that his son watched him being "criticized quite publicly in The New York Times, in New York magazine, in the early 1970s." Of the end of his tenure she said, "he was allowed legally to resign."[^20] In *Vanity Fair* she quoted Ravitch: "I brought in the dean of the Harvard School of Education and the head of Teachers College to evaluate Barr... I fired him. It took years to get him out, but we did it." Brenner wrote that Barr announced his resignation "as part of an arrangement" and that the Dalton yearbook after his departure said, "The whole of Dalton owes a great debt to Donald Barr."[^3]
 The 2004 obituary says his "sometimes stormy tenure ended in 1974 with his departure after disputes with the trustees over budget priorities and his disciplinarian approach to substance abuse."[^1] The Dalton archives hold the issues of the student newspaper, *The Daltonian*, of February 6 and March 14, 1974; the catalogue entry for the March 14 issue says it covers Barr's resignation.[^14] Peter Branch, then upper school director, was appointed interim headmaster; his appointment began July 1, 1974, and Barr's contract expired June 30, according to what Branch told [[Thomas Volscho]].[^21]
 In his deposition before the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]] on August 18, 2025, William Barr was asked whether his father's role as Dalton headmaster had been a consideration in the Ethics Office analysis of his continued involvement in the Epstein matters. He answered: "Actually, I don't even think... I don't know whether I was aware of that at that time. Obviously not. It's not pertinent at all."[^22]
 ### Jeffrey Epstein's hiring
 The school's own newspaper is the earliest record. Volscho reported in the [[Daily Beast]] on July 12, 2019 that the September 1974 issue of *The Daltonian* announced Epstein had joined the mathematics department and would also teach physics, that Epstein's arrival followed the summer of 1974, and that Epstein later confirmed in a deposition that he taught there from 1974 to 1976. Volscho wrote that reports of a 1973 start are incorrect because the 1973-74 yearbook does not mention him, and that Barr resigned in February 1974, "seven months before Jeffrey Epstein began teaching there that fall." He wrote that "it is possible that Donald Barr may have hired Epstein, if he made personnel decisions long in advance," that *The Daltonian* showed the school lost four mathematics teachers before the 1974-75 year, and that the school may therefore have hired Epstein "in part, out of an urgent need to fill vacant positions." In an update Volscho added that Branch did not recall hiring Epstein and was relatively certain that Barr, or possibly the head of the mathematics department, had hired him, because hiring decisions were typically made in the spring; Branch also said Barr liked to hire unconventional teachers.[^21]
 The New York Times reported on July 12, 2019 ([[Mike Baker]] and [[Amy Julia Harris]]) that Epstein, from Brooklyn, "was just 21 when he joined the faculty at Dalton, arriving without a college degree," and that the student newspaper reported in September 1974 that he was starting as a math and physics teacher. The article states: "In February 1974, Mr. Barr had announced that he was resigning as headmaster, protesting the meddling by the board of trustees, but that he would stay on until the end of the school year. It is unclear whether Mr. Barr hired Mr. Epstein during that time." It quotes Susan Semel, a Dalton social studies teacher from the 1960s into the 1980s and the author of a history of the school: "Barr didn't care about credentials as long as you were interesting and knew your stuff." It reports that Dalton officials did not respond to requests for comment.[^23] Semel told NPR in July 2019 that Barr made several unconventional hires, while NPR wrote that it was "unclear if he hired Epstein," and that "Donald Barr would hire young people, and not necessarily young people who had a lot of credentials."[^24]
 Brenner wrote in *Vanity Fair* that for his teaching staff Barr "brought in photographers, White Russian aristocrats, anti-Castro Cuban grandees, and a group of gifted college dropouts, including one Jeffrey Epstein," and that William Barr "recently claimed he hadn't made the Dalton-Epstein connection until he read about it in the press."[^3] [[Calder McHugh]], writing for [[Yahoo Finance]] on July 13, 2019 from anonymous former students, stated that "Donald Barr, Dalton's headmaster and father of Attorney General Bill Barr, hired Epstein to teach math and science," placing Epstein at the school "in the early 1970s" for about two years, with appearances in Dalton yearbooks of 1975 and 1976; the article says the school did not respond to a request for comment.[^25]
 On Epstein's departure, Branch told the Times that Epstein "was a young teacher who didn't come up to snuff... So, ultimately, he was asked to leave," and that he had no recollection of complaints about conduct.[^23] In the update to Volscho's article, Branch said that mathematics and science faculty had asked him what he was going to do about Epstein, that his teaching had not improved over the previous year, and that he then informed Epstein it was time to move on. Volscho also wrote that Epstein told the school he was not returning after the 1975-76 year, and that [[Edward Jay Epstein]] had been told by investigators from [[Kroll]], retained by [[L Brands]], that Epstein had faked his resume to obtain the Dalton job.[^21]
 ### Hackley School and federal advisory work
 The 2004 obituary says that "the next year" Barr became headmaster of Hackley, "where he soon dismissed more than two dozen students for disruptive conduct and poor academic performance."[^1] Columbia College Today also dates the move to the year after his departure from Dalton.[^2] The Gale notice says he received stronger parental support at Hackley and strengthened programs in academic subjects and the arts.[^5] The New York Times reported on March 13, 1977, in "Barr Puts His Stamp on Hackley," that he had run a private school "in the cramped confines of Manhattan before becoming headmaster of the Hackley School on an 83-acre campus in Tarrytown."[^26]
 At the National Institute of Education's November 17-19, 1976 Curriculum Development Conference in Washington, the conference report records Barr's warning to the institute about its wish for synthesis: "Don't treat our statements as data!"[^27] His paper of October 30, 1976 for the institute's Curriculum Development Task Force, signed from Hackley School, set out two models of sponsorship. The first, the "Culture Ministry" approach, he identified with "a congeries of governmental agencies, major foundations, big test publishers, big textbook publishers" and a network of consultants, in which projects are designed "de haut en bas." He recommended that the institute separate the initiation and funding of projects, limit grant size, and avoid "incursions into or arrangements with the private sector."[^10] The February 8, 1977 task force report on the institute's role lists him among those consulted,[^28] and a 1977 National School Boards Association report on career education carries his contribution under the heading "Beware of implementation which destroys the ideals."[^29]
 President [[Ronald Reagan]] announced on May 28, 1982 his intention to nominate Barr, "headmaster of the Hackley School in Tarrytown, N.Y.," to the National Council on Educational Research, to succeed Helen S. Astin for the remainder of a term expiring in 1982 and then a full term.[^30] On December 11, 1985 Reagan reappointed him for a term expiring September 30, 1988; the announcement describes him as then headmaster of Hackley and gives his birth as August 2, 1921, in New York City.[^31]
 ### Death
 Barr died on February 5, 2004, of heart failure, at a hospital in [[Langhorne, Pennsylvania]]. He was 82. His wife had died in 2001, and he was survived by four sons, among them William, and eight grandchildren.[^2][^17] The New York Times published an obituary on February 10, 2004, headed "Donald Barr, 82, Headmaster And Science Honors Educator."[^1]
 [^1]: Wolfgang Saxon, "Donald Barr, 82, Headmaster And Science Honors Educator," *The New York Times*, February 10, 2004, section B, p. 8 (national edition). https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/10/nyregion/donald-barr-82-headmaster-and-science-honors-educator.html
 [^2]: "Obituaries," *Columbia College Today*, May 2004, class of 1941 (compiled by Lisa Palladino). https://web.archive.org/web/20190905000723/https://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/may04/obituaries1.html
 [^3]: Marie Brenner, "'I Had No Problem Being Politically Different': Young William Barr Among the Manhattan Liberals," *Vanity Fair*, October 7, 2019 (December 2019 issue). https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2019/10/the-untold-tale-of-young-william-barr
 [^4]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, review essay on William P. Barr, *One Damn Thing After Another: Memoirs of an Attorney General* (William Morrow, 2022), *Studies in Intelligence* 67, no. 1 (extracts, March 2023). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/4-Review-Essay-Barr-Memoir.pdf
 [^5]: Gale, "Barr, Donald 1921-2004," obituary notice, *Something About the Author*, as reproduced at Encyclopedia.com. https://www.encyclopedia.com/children/scholarly-magazines/barr-donald-1921-2004
 [^6]: National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the Office of Strategic Services, RG 226, Entry 224, OSS Personnel Files, name database dated 12/23/2010. https://www.archives.gov/iwg/declassified-records/rg-226-oss/personnel-database.pdf
 [^7]: "College Science Courses for Gifted Secondary Pupils," *School and Society* 86, no. 2141 (November 22, 1958), p. 422. https://archive.org/details/sim_usa-today_1958-11-22_86_2141
 [^8]: Marjorie Oden, "Field Notes," *Consulting Engineer* 13, no. 3 (September 1959), pp. 149-153. https://archive.org/details/sim_consulting-engineer_1959-09_13_3
 [^9]: *Nature and Science* (American Museum of Natural History / Doubleday), national board of editors listing, 1963. https://archive.org/details/naturescience01amer
 [^10]: Donald Barr, "Educational Policy and Curriculum Design," paper for the National Institute of Education Curriculum Development Task Force, October 30, 1976 (ERIC ED 170 251). https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41153549_0619
 [^11]: Open Library, catalog record for *Who pushed Humpty Dumpty?* by Donald Barr, first publication year 1971, publishers Atheneum and Scribner. https://openlibrary.org/search.json?q=who+pushed+humpty+dumpty+barr
 [^12]: Donald Barr, *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty? Dilemmas in American Education Today* (Atheneum, 1972 printing). https://archive.org/details/whopushedhumptyd0000dona
 [^13]: [JC], entry "Barr, Donald," *SF Encyclopedia*. https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/barr_donald
 [^14]: Dalton School Archives, agent record "Barr, Donald, Headmaster, 1921-2004," personnel series 1964-1972, the 1971 *Time* items, *The Daltonian* issues of February 6 and March 14, 1974, and published-materials entries for *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty?* (1971) and "Sex, Love, and Modern Education," *Columbia College Today*, fall 1967. https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/agents/people/276
 [^15]: Donald Barr, *Space Relations: A Slightly Gothic Interplanetary Tale* (Charterhouse, New York, 1973; Fawcett Crest paperback, first printing February 1975), copyright page, dedication, epigraphs and text, pp. 7-13, 38-39, 49-50. https://archive.org/details/space-relations
 [^16]: Wayne Madsen, "Daddy Dearest: the weirdness of Donald Barr, the father of Trump's mob lawyer Attorney General," *Wayne Madsen Report*, September 26, 2019. https://archive.org/details/Madsen190930
 [^17]: Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers Association, "RIP: Donald Barr (1921-2004)," February 11, 2004. https://www.sfwa.org/2004/02/11/donald-barr-1921-2004
 [^18]: "Education: The Dalton Brawl," *Time*, April 5, 1971, pp. 44-45. https://time.com/archive/6814618/education-the-dalton-brawl/
 [^19]: Gene I. Maeroff, "Barr Quits Dalton School Post, Charging Trustees' Interference," *The New York Times*, February 20, 1974, p. 41. https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/20/archives/barr-quits-dalton-school-post-charging-trustees-interference.html
 [^20]: Rachel Martin, interview with Marie Brenner, "'Vanity Fair': Father-Son Dynamic May Explain Tenure Of AG Barr," NPR, December 10, 2019 (as carried by KJZZ). https://www.kjzz.org/politics/2019-12-10/vanity-fair-father-son-dynamic-may-explain-tenure-of-ag-barr
 [^21]: Thomas Volscho, "Jeffrey Epstein Dodged Questions About Sex With His Dalton Prep School Students," *The Daily Beast*, July 12, 2019 (updated September 27, 2019). https://web.archive.org/web/20200117212831/https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students
 [^22]: Deposition of William P. Barr, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, August 18, 2025, p. 51. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Barr-Transcript.pdf
 [^23]: Mike Baker and Amy Julia Harris, "Jeffrey Epstein Taught at Dalton. His Behavior Was Noticed," *The New York Times*, July 12, 2019 (print: July 15, 2019, p. A16, "New Teacher in Gold Chains, and Lingering Questions Over Conduct"). https://web.archive.org/web/20200107115402/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html
 [^24]: Cat Schuknecht, "A Young Jeffrey Epstein Made An Impression On His High School Students," NPR, July 19, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/07/19/742725946/a-young-jeffrey-epstein-made-an-impression-on-his-high-school-students
 [^25]: Calder McHugh, "Jeffrey Epstein's prep-school students remember their 'flamboyantly' dressed teacher," Yahoo Finance, July 13, 2019. https://finance.yahoo.com/news/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-school-math-teacher-yearbook-photos-125122535.html
 [^26]: Gene I. Maeroff, "Barr Puts His Stamp on Hackley," *The New York Times*, March 13, 1977. https://www.nytimes.com/1977/03/13/archives/barr-puts-his-stamp-on-hackley.html
 [^27]: Nel Noddings, *A Report of the NIE Curriculum Development Conference (Washington, D.C., November 17-19, 1976)*, National Institute of Education (ERIC ED 144 217). https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41153363_0430
 [^28]: Jon Schaffarzick and Gary Sykes, *NIE's Role in Curriculum Development: Findings, Policy Options, and Recommendations*, National Institute of Education, February 8, 1977 (ERIC ED 140 401). https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41153432_0608
 [^29]: National School Boards Association, *Career Education*, Research Report 1977-3 (ERIC ED 146 399), contents and section "Barr: Beware of implementation which destroys the ideals." https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41153504_0724
 [^30]: The American Presidency Project, "Nomination of 10 Members of the National Council on Educational Research, and Designation of Chairman," May 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/nomination-10-members-the-national-council-educational-research-and-designation-chairman
 [^31]: The American Presidency Project, "Appointment of Three Members of the National Council on Educational Research," December 11, 1985. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/appointment-three-members-the-national-council-educational-research
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/F.
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/F.
@ -0,0 +1,294 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 aliases:
  - F. Trubee Davison
  - Trubee Davison
  - Frederick Trubee Davison
  - Fredrick Trubee Davison
  - Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison
  - F.T. Davison
 category: "Intelligence & Government"
 tags:
  - Person
  - SkullAndBones
  - YaleUniversity
  - FirstYaleUnit
  - NavalAviation
  - AssistantSecretaryOfWar
  - AmericanMuseumOfNaturalHistory
  - CentralIntelligenceAgency
  - PeacockPoint
  - JPMorgan
  - RedCross
  - Geronimo
  - NationalCrimeCommission
  - ArmyAirForces
 summary: "Founder of the First Yale Unit, Assistant Secretary of War for Air, president of the American Museum of Natural History and CIA Assistant Director for Personnel."
 born: 1896-02-07
 died: 1974-11-14
 location: "Locust Valley, New York"
 relations:
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    start: 1917
    role: "member of the Yale class of 1918"
    fn: 17
  - type: founded
    with: "[[First Yale Unit]]"
    start: 1916
    end: 1917
    role: "organized the Yale volunteer aviation group that became the first unit of the Navy air reserve"
    fn: 16
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Calvin Coolidge]]"
    start: 1926
    end: 1933
    role: "Assistant Secretary of War for Air, appointed July 16, 1926"
    fn: 3
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[New York State Assembly]]"
    start: 1922
    end: 1926
    role: "member for the Nassau County 2nd District"
    fn: 39
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[American Museum of Natural History]]"
    start: 1933
    end: 1951
    role: "president, elected January 1933 to succeed Henry Fairfield Osborn"
    fn: 54
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
    start: 1951
    end: 1952
    role: "Assistant Director for Personnel, assistant to Walter Bedell Smith"
    fn: 61
  - type: reported_to
    with: "[[Walter Bedell Smith]]"
    start: 1951
    end: 1952
    role: "assistant to the Director of Central Intelligence"
    fn: 61
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[American Museum of Natural History]]"
    start: 1923
    role: "trustee, later honorary trustee"
    fn: 52
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[National Crime Commission]]"
    start: 1925
    end: 1936
    role: "chairman"
    fn: 3
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Army Air Forces]]"
    start: 1941
    end: 1945
    role: "colonel, later brigadier general (promoted June 3, 1945), Special Projects Division"
    fn: 3
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Henry P. Davison]]"
    role: "son"
    fn: 7
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Henry P. Davison Jr.]]"
    role: "younger brother"
    fn: 7
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Artemus L. Gates]]"
    role: "brother-in-law, husband of his sister Alice Davison"
    fn: 7
  - type: spouse_of
    with: "[[Dorothy Peabody Davison]]"
    role: "wife"
    fn: 69
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Endicott Peabody Davison]]"
    role: "son"
    fn: 20
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]]"
    role: "son"
    fn: 19
 ---
 Frederick Trubee Davison (February 7, 1896 to November 14, 1974) was born in [[New York City]], graduated from the [[Groton School]] in 1914, and was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the class of 1918 at [[Yale University]] and a graduate of [[Columbia Law School]] (1922). He organized the [[First Yale Unit]] of naval aviators, was a member of the [[New York State Assembly]] from 1922 to 1926 and [[Assistant Secretary of War]] for Air from 1926 to 1933, chaired the [[National Crime Commission]], and was president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] from 1933 to 1951. He was promoted to brigadier general in the [[Army Air Forces]] on June 3, 1945, and from July 1951 to April 1952 served the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] as Assistant Director for Personnel.[^1][^2][^3][^4] He was the son of [[Henry P. Davison]], a senior partner of [[J. P. Morgan & Company]] and a chairman of the [[American Red Cross]] War Council.[^5]
 ### Family and the Morgan partnership
 The family collection at the [[Pritzker Military Museum & Library]] records that Henry Pomeroy Davison was born in [[Troy, Pennsylvania]] in 1867 and began as a bookkeeper in a bank managed by a family member.[^5] He met his future wife, [[Mary Kate Trubee]], at a bank in [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]], and they married on April 13, 1893.[^5] Three years later the couple moved to New York City, where Davison held a position at the [[Astor Place Bank]], later became president of the [[Liberty National Bank]] and took part in founding the [[Bankers Trust Company]].[^5] The finding aid states that he became a senior partner of J. P. Morgan & Company in 1909.[^5]
 Kate Trubee Davison organized the Nassau County chapter of the American Red Cross in 1917 and chaired it for twenty-seven years, according to the same finding aid.[^6] The finding aid lists the children as Alice, born in 1899 and married to [[Artemus L. Gates]] in 1922; [[Henry P. Davison Jr.]], born April 3, 1898; Frances, born in 1903 and married to [[Ward Cheney]] in 1926; and Frederick Trubee, born February 7, 1896.[^7]
 The finding aid traces the career of Henry Davison Jr. in some detail. He served in the [[American Ambulance Corps]] in France during the First World War and spent a year at [[Cambridge University]]. In 1929 he became a partner at J. P. Morgan & Company, in 1940 a vice president and director when the firm became an incorporated bank and trust company, in 1953 senior vice president, and in 1955 president. After the firm merged with [[Guaranty Trust Company]] he was elected vice chairman of [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]], and he died on July 2, 1961.[^8]
 The finding aid says that Henry Davison attended a secret meeting at [[Jekyll Island]], Georgia, in 1910, and states: "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the [[Federal Reserve]]."[^9]
 [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 chart of families places the Davison family under J. P. Morgan, beside the [[Rockefeller family]] and the Payne family under [[Standard Oil]], the [[Harriman family]] under railroads and the [[Weyerhaeuser family]] under lumber.[^10] In his text Sutton wrote that "some of his partners were" members of the society, and that the senior Davison's "son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920."[^11]
 On May 10, 1917, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] appointed a War Council for the American National Red Cross. In his 1919 history of the organization, Henry Davison wrote that "I was asked to take the chairmanship."[^12] He wrote that the council "went out of existence on February 28th, 1919."[^13] The first War Fund drive, held in the week of June 18 to June 25, 1917, reported subscriptions of approximately $114,000,000 according to the same appendix.[^13] Davison wrote that the council met at Red Cross headquarters during the day, and that in the evenings "we continued them at my house in Washington."[^14]
 The family estate was at [[Peacock Point]], [[Locust Valley, New York]], on [[Long Island]]; a [[Yale News]] article reproduces a photograph captioned "Henry P. Davison in helmet, and Albert Ditman in glasses by F-boat at Peacock Point, Long Island, ca. 1916."[^15] The Navy history describes the Davison home at Locust Valley and the family memorabilia kept there.[^16]
 ### Yale and Skull and Bones
 Davison entered Yale in the class of 1918, and the crew he joined in June 1916 became the core of the aviation group he went on to lead.[^1] Sutton's index of members by class year lists "Davison, Fredrick Trubee" under the class of 1918 and "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" under the class of 1920.[^17] The younger brother appears as "H.P. Davison, Jr." in Sutton's text.[^11]
 The [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at [[Sterling Memorial Library]], had found a letter dated June 7, 1918, from [[Winter Mead]], class of 1919, to Davison. The magazine quoted the letter's account of a skull "exhumed from its tomb at [[Fort Sill]] by your club," with the magazine's bracketed expansions of its abbreviations.[^18] The magazine reported that the yearbook entries for [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]], Mead and Davison confirmed that all three were members of the society, and that Haffner's entry placed him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918.[^18] The magazine also stated that Mead was not at Fort Sill.[^18] The letter is one of the documents cited in the rumor that members took [[Geronimo]]'s skull from Fort Sill.
 Davison's sons are also recorded as members. The [[Covert Action Information Bulletin]], in its 1990 article on the society, stated that two of Davison's sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^19] The Yale Alumni Magazine identified Endicott Peabody Davison, class of 1945, as a son of Trubee Davison, and reported that he took part in a meeting with the San Carlos Apache chairman [[Ned Anderson]] at which the Bonesmen produced a display case with a skull "like the one in the photo."[^20] Sutton's post-war list of Morgan partners includes Henry P. Davison, Jr. (The Order '20) and Daniel P. Davison (The Order '49).[^21]
 Sutton's chart lists [[Henry L. Stimson]] among the old-line families, and the Yale obituary record for 1950 to 1951 lists Stimson, class of 1888, with Skull and Bones among his activities.[^10][^22]
 ### The First Yale Unit
 The Navy's account of naval aviation in the First World War calls Davison "the young man most responsible for the formation of the unit."[^16] The Yale crew was in training on June 13, 1916, when President Woodrow Wilson ordered additional troops to the Mexican border. Davison recalled that "It could never be said that the race with Harvard was forgotten," adding that "it did lose magnitude as the prospect of war with Mexico loomed larger."[^16] Several crew members had agreed beforehand that they would enter aviation if war came.[^16]
 The original group included [[Allan Ames]], Henry P. Davison Jr., [[John Farwell]], Artemus L. Gates, [[Erl Gould]], [[Robert A. Lovett]], [[Albert Sturtevant]], [[John Vorys]] and [[C. D. Wiman]]. The Navy history adds [[Wellesley Laud-Brown]] and Albert Ditman as the two non-Yale men.[^16] Among the men consulted about how the group could learn to fly was [[John Hays Hammond Jr.]], then governor of the [[Aero Club of America]], who referred the youths to [[Henry Woodhouse]]. Woodhouse and [[Robert Peary]] had proposed a line of air stations along the East Coast, and the Yale men were to be trained as pilots of the first Aerial Coastal Patrol Unit.[^16]
 [[Rodman Wanamaker]], who ran a flying school at [[Port Washington, New York]], supplied one Curtiss flying boat and the instructor [[David McCulloch]].[^23] The Navy history describes the summer at Locust Valley and the unit's maneuvers off [[Sandy Hook]] with a fleet of battleships, destroyers and coastal patrol boats.[^23] That fall the unit received two seaplanes from friends and neighbors, one of them from Davison's father, then a partner in the J. P. Morgan firm.[^23]
 The Navy history lists further members who joined as 1917 arrived, among them Charles Beach, Graham Brush, Reginald Coombe, [[David Ingalls]], Robert Ireland, Francis Lynch, [[Kenneth MacLeish]], Archibald McIlwaine, Curtis Read, Russell Read, [[William A. Rockefeller]], Kenneth Smith, W. P. Thompson, C. M. Stewart and Samuel Walker.[^23] Davison conceded that the coastal defense idea was remote from the trouble with Mexico, and said that "But the plan was essentially sound and during the World War I period was adopted by the Navy Department."[^16]
 Davison had seen war-ravaged Paris on trips to Europe with his father, and in 1915 he joined the [[American Ambulance Field Service]], transporting soldiers to hospitals outside [[Paris]].[^24] The Yale News account states that on March 24, 1917, at the [[Naval Submarine Base New London]] in [[New London, Connecticut]], the pilots formally enlisted as the Navy's first air reserve squadron, and that Davison was given the rank of lieutenant, junior grade.[^24] Seven others were given the rank of ensign and the rest were made petty officers.[^24] In March 1917 the unit moved to [[West Palm Beach, Florida]], under a Navy lieutenant, [[E. O. McDonnell]], and its members were enrolled in the Navy.[^25] At Palm Beach the pilots flew solo, practiced shooting at kites with machine guns mounted in airplanes, dropped dummy bombs on targets and learned to land in tight spaces.[^26]
 The Yale News account adds that the unit was also the subject of the society's tapping. On April 19, 1917, Tap Day in New Haven, two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida to tap students at noon. Davison was the first tapped for Skull and Bones, and eleven other members of the First Yale Unit were tapped with him.[^27]
 The Yale News photograph captions record that Kenneth MacLeish was shot down over [[Belgium]] and was never found.[^28] The Navy history states that Sturtevant was the first naval aviator brought down in combat and that David Ingalls became the Navy's first ace.[^29]
 ### The crash of July 28, 1917
 Paine records that the flying tests for naval aviators were to begin on July 28, 1917, before a board of [[Commander Read]], Lieutenant Commander Johnson and Lieutenant McDonnell.[^30] Davison was injured in a seaplane accident at [[Huntington, New York]] on that date, on his final examination flight.[^31] The Navy history states: "It was ironic that Davison was one of the few of the Yale unit who never earned his wings. He was injured in a crash on his final examination flight."[^31]
 [[Ralph D. Paine]]'s 1925 history of the unit, *The First Yale Unit*, describes the flight. Davison climbed steadily, came down in a spiral toward a yacht near which he meant to alight, and appeared to stretch his glide too far on a turn. The machine side-slipped and pitched into the harbor, and Lieutenant McDonnell plunged in to free Davison's legs from the wires.[^30]
 Paine quotes Davison's own report to the Commandant of the [[Third Naval District]], which reads: "I was injured in a seaplane accident on July 28th, 1917, while on duty with the detachment of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps at Huntington, Long Island, and was removed to [[St. Luke's Hospital]], New York."[^32] A Navy memorandum quoted by Paine states that a Board of Medical Survey recommended two months' sick leave, extended by periods of two months because the injury "would keep him unfit for duty for a considerable length of time."[^33] Paine describes him as "a man with a broken back," the fracture of a vertebra having injured the tissues of the spinal cord, and records six weeks in the hospital before he could be moved to his own home.[^34] The Air Force biography states that he was "badly injured, suffering a broken back, in the crash of a seaplane he was piloting on a training flight over Huntington Bay, New York," and that he was awarded the [[Navy Cross]] in 1919. The citation credits him with "exceptionally meritorious service in a duty of great responsibility in the organization of the first Yale Aviation Unit which formed the nucleus of the first Naval Reserve Flying Corps, from which the U.S. Naval Aviation Force, Foreign Service, afterwards grew."[^3][^35]
 Paine wrote that during the period of training "their able leader, Lieutenant Trubee Davison, crashed and broke his back," and that in spite of the handicap "he continued to direct and inspire his comrades."[^36] Paine also recalled Davison limping into his office in [[London]] after the Armistice, still badly crippled, to locate the grave of a member of the unit killed in France.[^37]
 Davison never received his wings. In 1966, at the fiftieth anniversary celebration of the naval air reserve, Vice Admiral [[Paul Ramsey]], then Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air), presented him with a set of Navy wings and designated him an honorary Naval Aviator. The Navy history lists the wings among his memorabilia at Locust Valley, along with five college diplomas, his Army and Navy commissioning papers, a citation for the Navy Cross and his Yale letter for crew.[^38]
 ### New York State Assembly
 The Nassau County 2nd District seat in the New York State Assembly is listed for "F. Trubee Davison" from 1922 to 1926, after [[Theodore Roosevelt]] held it for 1920 and 1921.[^39] The family finding aid gives the same span.[^2]
 In August 1925 [[Time (magazine)|Time]] reported that the organizers of the National Crime Commission had chosen Davison as chairman, a man of twenty-nine who was then a member of the New York Assembly.[^40]
 ### Assistant Secretary of War for Air
 The Air Force biography records that Davison "on July 16, 1926, was appointed Assistant Secretary of War, having previously spent five years in the New York Legislature," and lists "Assistant Secretary of War (Air) from 1926 to 1933."[^3] The Congressional Directory corrected to January 13, 1933 lists F. Trubee Davison as Assistant Secretary of War in the War Department, and the edition corrected to June 3, 1933 lists the office of Assistant Secretary of War as "[Vacant.]" beside a separate entry for The Assistant Secretary of War, Harry H. Woodring.[^41] A 1951 [[Associated Press]] item and the 1974 [[New York Times]] obituary both gave the span as 1926 to 1932. The Springfield Sun of July 1951 placed him in the "[[Calvin Coolidge|Coolidge]] and [[Herbert Hoover|Hoover]] Administrations," and the Navy history gives the service as "late in the '20's and early '30's," for six years.[^42][^43][^44][^45]
 In August 1932 Time reported that David Ingalls had resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Aeronautics and taken the Republican nomination for Governor of Ohio, while Davison, "remaining in the Cabinet," had declared himself a candidate for the Republican nomination for Governor of New York, in a telegram to [[James L. Downey]], the Nassau County committeeman who had offered to withdraw as candidate for Attorney General to give Davison the head of the ticket.[^46]
 A telegram of March 26, 1927, from the [[Secretary of State]] to the chargé in [[Haiti]], printed in the [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] for 1927, opens with the words "For Secretary of War Davis." It relays a message to [[Admiral Williams]] that "Henderson with 1,500 marines will be sent, arriving [[Shanghai]] in about 30 days," and states that a regiment of infantry from [[Manila]] could reach Shanghai in seven days if the situation demanded. The message is signed "Davison," and the volume's editorial note identifies the signatory as "F. Trubee Davison, Assistant Secretary of War."[^47]
 Other Yale Unit members held the parallel posts. David Ingalls was Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air from 1929 to 1932. Robert A. Lovett served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air in the Second World War and was Secretary of Defense from 1951 to 1953. Artemus L. Gates was Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air from September 1941 to July 1945.[^44] John Vorys, another member of the unit, served four terms as a Congressman from Ohio.[^44] Lovett's post was held in the War Department under Henry L. Stimson, who served as Secretary of War from July 10, 1940, to September 21, 1945.[^48]
 Yale News reproduces a photograph taken December 12, 1928, of "Assistant Secretary of War for Aviation F. Trubee Davison, [[Charles Lindbergh]], [[Harry Guggenheim]], and [[Edward T. Warner]], assistant secretary of the Navy for aviation" in Washington.[^49] The Air Force biography adds that Davison was commissioned a colonel in the Specialist Reserve Corps of the Army on September 12, 1927, and that he was chairman of the National Crime Commission from 1925 to 1936; Time reported in August 1925 that the organizers of the commission had chosen him as chairman, at the age of twenty-nine.[^3][^40]
 ### Second World War
 In June 1941 Davison was assigned to Headquarters, Air Force Combat Command, [[Bolling Field]], as Acting Deputy Chief of Staff and aide-de-camp to Lieutenant General [[Delos C. Emmons]]. In January 1943 he went to Headquarters, Army Air Forces, as A-1 of the Air Staff, later Special Projects Officer, and in March 1943 became Chief of the Special Projects Division, responsible for having ready "an adequate plan for demobilization of the Army." He represented the Army Air Forces on the Interdepartmental Group on Material Demobilization Planning and on the subcommittee on the disposal of transport aircraft under the "Baruch plan," and dealt with the Office of the Under Secretary of War on contract termination and the disposal of surpluses.[^3] The American Museum of Natural History recorded that on June 5, 1941 its president "was granted indefinite leave of absence in order to take up his duties as Colonel in the Air Corps, U. S. Army," and that an Administrative Committee of trustees (A. Perry Osborn, Malcolm P. Aldrich, Cleveland E. Dodge, [[E. Roland Harriman]] and H. B. Clark) was created to consult with the First Vice-President.[^50] He was promoted to brigadier general on June 3, 1945 and received the Army Distinguished Service Medal in October 1945.[^3] The Springfield Sun editorial of July 1951 describes the same service as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel under [[Henry H. Arnold]].[^51]
 ### American Museum of Natural History
 The museum's roster of trustees lists "Davison, Frederick Trubee" from 1923, and "Davison, Henry P." from 1916 to 1922.[^52] The museum's annual report for 1922 records that his father, elected to the board on February 7, 1916, served as Treasurer and Chairman of the Finance Committee until his death on May 6, 1922, and that at his suggestion the board appointed an Advisory Committee on Investments of financial experts.[^53]
 The annual report for 1933 states: "Upon the retirement of President [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] from the Presidency of the Museum, on January 9, 1933, in order that he might devote himself to his scientific researches, Professor Osborn was elected Honorary President for life. His resignation, after twenty-five years as President of the Board of Trustees, was accepted with great regret. Mr. Frederick Trubee Davison was elected to the Presidency."[^54] The 1932 report, in Osborn's final acknowledgments, welcomed "his warm personal friend, F. Trubee Davison, fifth President of the American Museum," and named the "Jesup-Morgan-Osborn principles" that the new administration was expected to continue.[^55] The 1933 volume opens with Davison's first report as president, written "entering upon its duties as a layman," which thanks "my distinguished predecessor, Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, who for twenty-five years exerted outstanding qualities of leadership." It states that the museum had 1,102,096 visitors in 1933; that the late Harry Payne Whitney's offer of $750,000 for the South Oceanic Bird Wing, conditioned on matching city funds, left the city a quarter of a million dollars short of its pledge, and that the trustees offered to buy $250,000 of city bonds to cover it; and that [[Charles Hayden]] and the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]] had made possible the Hayden Planetarium, the federal government agreeing to purchase bonds for its building.[^54] The report also records the donation by Colonel and Mrs. Lindbergh of the airplane they used on their Arctic and Pacific flights.[^54]
 The museum held the Third International Congress of Eugenics in its halls from August 21 to 23, 1932, during Osborn's presidency, and partially opened its Hall of the Natural History of Man on that occasion; the same report lists Davison among the trustees re-elected to the Class of 1937.[^55] The 1933 report records the annual meeting of January 8, 1934, at which the officers re-elected were President F. Trubee Davison, First Vice-President [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]], Second Vice-President Cleveland E. Dodge, Treasurer James H. Perkins and Secretary Clarence L. Hay. It also records that [[John D. Rockefeller III]] was elected in 1933 to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of [[Frederick F. Brewster]], and that [[Frederick M. Warburg]] was elected to the vacancy left by his father, [[Felix Warburg]].[^54]
 The 1933 report lists the "Davison African Expedition Fund" among the museum's special funds, with a balance of $50,561.04 under the name F. Trubee Davison, and states that "President F. Trubee Davison returned from Africa the middle of October with five elephants to complete the group in the new African Hall," "Financed by President Davison."[^54] The 1974 Times obituary adds that he and his wife, with [[Martin Johnson]] and [[Osa Johnson]], made the 1933 field trip to Africa.[^45] The annual report for 1952 describes the "Davison-Willis Expedition to Madagascar, organized by F. Trubee Davison," which brought back ethnographic objects, photographs and color-film records of native crafts and ceremonies to the Department of Anthropology.[^56]
 The annual report for 1950 opens with the statement of his successor, [[Alexander M. White]]: "In June, 1951, a change of command took place at the Museum, Trubee Davison turning over the helm to me after eighteen years of leadership. They had not been easy years for any institution, covering as they did the depression period of the thirties and World War II." The report thanks Davison and the late A. Perry Osborn "for successfully piloting the ship through this stormy period." The officers for 1951 to 1952 list "President Emeritus, F. Trubee Davison," with White as president, Malcolm P. Aldrich as First Vice-President and E. Roland Harriman as Treasurer.[^57] The Navy history states that Davison retired in 1951 "after 18 years as president of the Museum of Natural History in New York," and the Springfield Sun editorial describes him as "president of the American Museum of Natural History for almost 18 years, and had planned to retire in October."[^38][^58] The Times obituary states that he remained an honorary trustee until his death and was "instrumental in the drive to obtain funds that helped the museum overcome many financial crises and eventually to build the Hayden Planetarium."[^45]
 ### Central Intelligence Agency
 The Associated Press reported in July 1951 that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air, will join the Central Intelligence Agency on July 16."[^59] The item states that a CIA spokesman confirmed he would become "a principal assistant" to "Lt. Gen. [[Walter Bedell Smith]], head of the agency," and that "He will not replace any other assistant." The spokesman added that Davison "probably would do personnel work."[^60] The 1974 Times obituary states that in July 1951 he became director of personnel of the Agency and assistant to Smith, and that "He left his post the following April, when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the C.I.A.'s personnel."[^45]
 The Springfield Sun editorial, headed "General Smith Names A Deputy," reports that Davison had "been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^61] It says he had been "serving as a leader of civil defense in Nassau County, New York," and that in June 1941 he "became an Air Force colonel, retiring as a one-star general after serving as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel" under Arnold, whom it calls "the late General of the Air Force."[^51] The editorial describes him as "a flier, a lawyer, an administrator, a politician, a combat veteran of two wars."[^51] The same editorial says that the CIA "has been rather unfortunate in its chiefs."[^51]
 In the Agency's own papers he appears as Assistant Director for Personnel. A memorandum of September 10, 1951 from [[Allen Dulles]], then Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, is addressed to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)" and asks whether he or a member of his staff could arrange to see an individual named in attached correspondence.[^62] A CIA official routing slip carries a memorandum dated September 11, 1951, from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, whose text includes the line "I will see this fellow myself," followed by the initials "F.T.D."[^63]
 Davison chaired the Agency's Career Service Committee. The minutes of its second meeting, on October 1, 1951, list "F. Trubee Davison - AD/Personnel, Chairman" with Matthew Baird, Director of Training. They record that the committee separated a "Trainee Program" from a "Career Service Program," that "the establishment of a Career Corps, as such, had been disapproved by the DCI," that of the first class of nineteen trainees sixteen had recently graduated and fourteen had been placed, and that a working group would take up a proposed two-year service requirement for selection.[^64] On October 3, 1951 the committee's executive secretary asked the Director of Personnel and the General Counsel to nominate representatives to five working groups (trainees, employee rating, rotation, career benefits and extension training), citing a memorandum "from General Davison entitled 'Career Service Committee'" of September 28, 1951.[^65] The minutes of the committee's fourteenth meeting, in January 1952, list Davison as AD/Personnel with Matthew Baird and [[Sherman Kent]], Assistant Director for National Estimates, and record the committee's review of a Personnel Evaluation Report and of "Selection Criteria for Participation in CIA Career Service Program."[^66]
 The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the agency's director of personnel in 1951.[^67] State Department papers of May 1951 in the same CIA files, concerning the working group on plans for the new Psychological Strategy Board, name W. P. Davison, executive secretary of the Psychological Operations Coordinating Board; he is a different person.[^68]
 ### Family after 1951 and death
 The Yale News photograph of a 1966 reunion of the First Yale Unit identifies his wife as [[Dorothy Peabody Davison]].[^69] The Times obituary states that he died on the night of Thursday, November 14, 1974 at his home on Peacock Point, Locust Valley, aged 78; that he was survived by his widow and three sons, Endicott, Daniel and Gates; and that the funeral service was held at St. John's of Lattingtown Episcopal Church, Locust Valley. It states that he was "lamed for life by a plane crash during his service in World War I" and had taught himself to walk without crutches and ultimately without a cane.[^45] The Library of Congress name authority and the museum's archives catalog both give his dates as 1896 to 1974.[^70] The family finding aid at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library gives his death as 1976.[^71]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies: Yale's pioneering pilots form first naval aviation unit" (August 17, 2014), text on Frederick Trubee Davison, class of 1918 (1896 to 1974), with captions from the F. Trubee Davison papers, 1882 to 1961, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
 [^2]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Frederick Trubee Davison (born February 7, 1896; First Yale Unit; New York State Assembly, Nassau County 2nd District, 1922 to 1926; Director of Personnel, CIA; Assistant Secretary of War in charge of aviation). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
 [^3]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography (current as of October 2024): born New York, February 7, 1896; Groton 1914; Yale 1918; Columbia Law 1922; appointed Assistant Secretary of War July 16, 1926; Assistant Secretary of War (Air) 1926 to 1933; Chairman, National Crime Commission, 1925 to 1936; wartime assignments; brigadier general June 3, 1945; Navy Cross (1919) and Army Distinguished Service Medal (October 1945); July 28, 1917 crash. https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/
 [^4]: United States Air Force biography and *New York Times*, November 16, 1974 (see the Air Force biography and Times obituary cited above). https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html
 [^5]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection (PMML ID 320755, Call No. PAPERS 00013), biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison, finding aid written by Kathryn Hofherr (June 2008) and updated by Andrea Martinez (2018). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
 [^6]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Kate Trubee Davison (Nassau County chapter, 1917, chairman for twenty-seven years). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
 [^7]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on the children (Alice, Henry Jr., Frances, Frederick Trubee). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
 [^8]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr. (American Ambulance Corps in France; a year at Cambridge; partner at J. P. Morgan & Company 1929; vice president and director 1940; senior vice president 1953; president 1955; vice chairman after the merger with Guaranty Trust; died July 2, 1961). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
 [^9]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison (senior partner 1909; secret meeting at Jekyll Island, Georgia, the following year; "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve."). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
 [^10]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," family list including "Davison (J. P. Morgan)," "Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil)," "Harriman (railroads)," "Weyerhaeuser (lumber)," and the old-line families including Stimson. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^11]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), text on the Morgan partnership ("some of his partners were"; "whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^12]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), pp. 7 to 8: "On the 10th of May, 1917, President Wilson appointed a War Council for the American National Red Cross, and I was asked to take the chairmanship." https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi
 [^13]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), appendix, "The Story in Figures": the War Council "went out of existence on February 28th, 1919." https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi
 [^14]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), chapter II, "Massing the Forces of Mercy," on the War Council's meetings at Headquarters and at the chairman's house in Washington. https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi
 [^15]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Henry P. Davison in helmet, and Albert Ditman in glasses by F-boat at Peacock Point, Long Island, ca. 1916," F. Trubee Davison papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
 [^16]: Capt. Paul Jayson, USNR, "F. Trubee Davison, Founder of the First Yale Unit," in Adrian O. Van Wyen and the editors of Naval Aviation News, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 21 ("the young man most responsible for the formation of the unit"; June 13, 1916 training and Mexican border; Davison's Mexico quotation; Locust Valley memorabilia). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
 [^17]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: "Davison, Fredrick Trubee" under the class of 1918 and "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" under the class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^18]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006 (Wayback Machine capture of June 14, 2006), including the letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18 quoted with the magazine's expansions, Mead's location, and the yearbook entries for Haffner, Mead and Davison. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
 [^19]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, listing Endicott Peabody Davison and Daniel Pomeroy Davison among the members. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
 [^20]: Lassila and Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006 (Wayback Machine capture of June 14, 2006), on Endicott Peabody Davison '45, "a son of Trubee Davison," and the display case produced at the meeting with Ned Anderson. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
 [^21]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), list of post-World War II partners of J. P. Morgan: "Henry P. Davison, Jr. (The Order '20)" and "Daniel P. Davison (The Order '49)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^22]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951*, entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11 (Skull and Bones among his activities).
 [^23]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (crew list including Henry P. Davison Jr., Lovett, Gates and Vorys; non-Yale men; John Hayes Hammond Jr. and Henry Woodhouse; Woodhouse and Admiral Peary's coastal plan). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
 [^24]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on Davison's service with the American Ambulance Field Service in 1915, the enlistment of the pilots at the Naval Submarine Base in New London on March 24, and his rank of lieutenant, junior grade. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
 [^25]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (March 1917 transfer to West Palm Beach under Lieutenant E. O. McDonnell, enrolled in the Navy). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
 [^26]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on the unit's training at Palm Beach, Florida, in 1917. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
 [^27]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on Tap Day, April 19 (1917): two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida "to 'tap' their fellow students at noon"; Davison "was the first to be tapped (Skull & Bones) as were 11 other members of the First Yale Unit." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
 [^28]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Kenneth MacLeish, who was shot down over Belgium, was never found, a casualty of war." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
 [^29]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (Sturtevant the first naval aviator brought down in combat; Ingalls the Navy's first ace). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
 [^30]: Ralph D. Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), account of the flying tests set to begin July 28, the examining board, and the seaplane's descent and loss of control near the yacht at Huntington. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
 [^31]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 23 ("It was ironic that Davison was one of the few of the Yale unit who never earned his wings. He was injured in a crash on his final examination flight."). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
 [^32]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), quotation of Davison's report to the Commandant of the Third Naval District. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
 [^33]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), Davison's report and the Board of Medical Survey recommendation of two months' sick leave, extended in two-month periods, "a broken back." https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
 [^34]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), chapter "Trubee, the Crippled Leader" (the fracture of a vertebra; six weeks in St. Luke's Hospital before removal to his home). https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
 [^35]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography (Navy Cross citation, 1919). https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/
 [^36]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), text on the period of training ("their able leader, Lieutenant Trubee Davison, crashed and broke his back"; "he continued to direct and inspire his comrades"). https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
 [^37]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), author's recollection of Davison in London after the Armistice. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
 [^38]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 21 (1966 presentation of Navy wings by Vice Admiral Paul Ramsey; retirement in 1951 "after 18 years as president of the Museum of Natural History in New York"; memorabilia list). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
 [^39]: Political Graveyard, "Members of the New York State Assembly, 1920-29," Nassau County 2nd District: "Theodore Roosevelt 1920-21" and "F. Trubee Davison 1922-26." https://politicalgraveyard.com/geo/NY/ofc/asmbly1920s.html
 [^40]: "Political Notes: Crime Chairman," *Time*, August 24, 1925 (National Crime Commission chairmanship; Davison identified as twenty-nine and a member of the New York Assembly). https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,720818,00.html
 [^41]: *Official Congressional Directory*, 72nd Congress, 2nd session, edition corrected to January 13, 1933 (War Department listing for the Assistant Secretary of War, F. Trubee Davison), and 73rd Congress, 1st session, edition corrected to June 3, 1933 (Assistant Secretary of War, "[Vacant.]"; The Assistant Secretary of War, Harry H. Woodring). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CDIR-1933-01-13/text/CDIR-1933-01-13.txt ; https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CDIR-1933-06-03/text/CDIR-1933-06-03.txt
 [^42]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA reading room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000): "Gen. Davison was Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1926 to 1932. He has been president of the American Museum of Natural History in New York since 1933." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
 [^43]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," editorial, *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "He was Assistant Secretary of War in the Coolidge and Hoover Administrations." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6
 [^44]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 23 (Davison as Assistant Secretary of War for Air, "late in the '20's and early '30's"; Ingalls as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air 1929 to 1932; Lovett as Assistant Secretary of War for Air and later Secretary of Defense 1951 to 1953; Gates as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air September 1941 to July 1945). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
 [^45]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78. Led Natural History Museum. Aviation Pioneer Served as Assistant War Secretary, C.I.A. Personnel Director," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974 (death on Thursday night at Peacock Point, Locust Valley; Assembly 1922 to 1926; "From 1926 to 1932 he was Assistant Secretary of War for Air"; museum trustee and president; CIA July 1951 to April 1952; 1933 Africa trip with Martin and Osa Johnson; survivors; funeral). https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html
 [^46]: "National Affairs: Friends & Candidates," *Time*, August 15, 1932. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,744164,00.html
 [^47]: *Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1927*, vol. II, document 73, telegram from the Secretary of State to the Chargé in Haiti (Gross), Washington, March 26, 1927, with the editorial note identifying "F. Trubee Davison, Assistant Secretary of War." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1927v02/d73
 [^48]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), title page (Secretary of War 1940 to 1945).
 [^49]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Assistant Secretary of War for Aviation F. Trubee Davison, Colonel Charles Lindbergh, Harry Guggenheim, and Edward T. Warner, assistant secretary of the Navy for aviation in Washington, D.C.," Harris & Ewing, December 12, 1928, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
 [^50]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1941*, report of the Secretary, p. 38 (leave of absence, June 5, 1941; Administrative Committee), and the First Vice-President's statement "on behalf of President F. Trubee Davison, who is on active war service." https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/8899eea9-1f49-4312-b3dd-8a4f579400f4
 [^51]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "serving as a leader of civil defense in Nassau County, New York"; "in June of 1941 he became an Air Force colonel, retiring as a one-star general after serving as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel under the late General of the Air Force 'Hap' Arnold"; "a flier, a lawyer, an administrator, a politician, a combat veteran of two wars." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6
 [^52]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1922*, roster of trustees since 1869 ("Davison, Frederick Trubee 1923-"; "Davison, Henry P. 1916-1922"). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c9a7e200-0163-48f4-9d8c-9689e0992af6
 [^53]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1922*, "Memorials to Trustees Davison and Cuyler and Curator Allen," pp. 20 to 21. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c9a7e200-0163-48f4-9d8c-9689e0992af6
 [^54]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1933* (Sixty-fifth Annual Report), "Report of the President" (pp. 1 to 4), "Changes in the Board of Trustees" (pp. 53 to 54), expedition notes and Report of the Treasurer (Davison African Expedition Fund). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/03786359-9347-4dbf-a201-0a9319dccccd
 [^55]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1932*, president's final acknowledgments (pp. 36 to 37), "Changes in the Board of Trustees" (p. 112), and the reports on the Third International Congress of Eugenics held in the Museum, August 21 to 23, 1932. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/4c320241-c3ab-4722-b36b-e0e13566adab
 [^56]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1952*, Department of Anthropology (the Davison-Willis Expedition to Madagascar). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c72e95f0-6528-44fc-96a4-e940d102b1dd
 [^57]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1950* (published 1951), statement of the President (Alexander M. White) and list of officers and trustees, 1951 to 1952. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/9c2b388c-1708-473d-b885-2ca62dcc2890
 [^58]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "president of the American Museum of Natural History for almost 18 years, and had planned to retire in October." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6
 [^59]: Associated Press item, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2: "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air, will join the Central Intelligence Agency on July 16." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
 [^60]: Associated Press item, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2: "a principal assistant" to "Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, head of the agency"; "He will not replace any other assistant"; "probably would do personnel work." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
 [^61]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "has been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6
 [^62]: Memorandum from Allen W. Dulles to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)," September 10, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100020077-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100020077-6
 [^63]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, "MEMORANDUM FOR: Deputy Director of Central Intelligence," with the note "I will see this fellow myself," initialed "F.T.D.," on a Central Intelligence Agency Official Routing Slip, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
 [^64]: "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6
 [^65]: Memoranda of the Executive Secretary, Career Service Committee, "Career Service Working Groups," October 3, 1951, CIA reading room documents CIA-RDP80-01826R000400030018-0 and CIA-RDP80-01826R000400030022-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400030018-0 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400030022-5
 [^66]: "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," dated January 21, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7
 [^67]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, for Davison as the CIA's director of personnel in 1951. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
 [^68]: Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State (Edward W. Barrett) to Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, May 1951, "State Department Members for Working Group on Plans for Psychological Strategy Board," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003400010031-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003400010031-4
 [^69]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption of Trubee Davison recalling the muster at the fiftieth anniversary reunion of the First Yale Unit in 1966, "His wife, Dorothy Peabody Davison, stands behind him." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
 [^70]: Library of Congress Name Authority File, "Davison, Frederick Trubee, 1896-1974" (n2001120423), and American Museum of Natural History Archives Catalog, "Davison, Frederick Trubee, 1896-1974." https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2001120423.html ; https://data.library.amnh.org/archives/agents/people/241
 [^71]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Frederick Trubee Davison ("Trubee died in 1976."). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/George
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/George
@ -27,40 +27,40 @@ relations:
    with: "[[Gerald R. Ford]]"
    role: "Director of Central Intelligence"
    start: 1976-01-30
-    fn: 31
+    fn: 37
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
    role: "Director of Central Intelligence"
    start: 1976-01-30
    end: 1977-01-20
-    fn: 31
+    fn: 37
  - type: reported_to
    with: "[[Ronald Reagan]]"
    role: "Vice President"
    start: 1981-01-20
    end: 1989-01-20
-    fn: 113
+    fn: 119
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[United States]]"
    role: "President of the United States"
    start: 1989-01-20
    end: 1993-01-20
-    fn: 113
+    fn: 119
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[October Surprise]]"
    start: 1993-01-03
-    fn: 98
+    fn: 104
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    fn: 4
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[The Carlyle Group]]"
    role: "Senior adviser on Asia"
-    fn: 152
+    fn: 158
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[South Florida Drug Task Force]]"
    start: 1982-01-28
-    fn: 22
+    fn: 28
 ---
 George H.W. Bush served as the Vice President under President [[Ronald Reagan]] and later as the 41st President of the United States. He was present at a meeting of Reagan's high command following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]] in June 1981, where he agreed that some sanctions against [[Israel]] were essential.[^1] The same history of Israel's nuclear program includes the Vela incident of September 1979, the double flash recorded by an American Vela satellite over the South Atlantic.[^1]
@ -83,249 +83,255 @@ On October 20, 1942 at Washington, the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crow
 Bush moved to Odessa, Texas in 1948, worked for Dresser Industries from 1950, and that year formed an oil development company in Midland that merged with another company three years later to create [[Zapata Petroleum]]. In 1954 he became president of the subsidiary Zapata Off-Shore Company and moved the company and his family to Houston.[^2] WhoWhatWhy reports that Zapata Petroleum began in 1953 "through joint efforts with Thomas J. Devine, a CIA staffer who had resigned his agency position that same year." The article quotes a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975 that describes Devine as an "oil wild-catting associate of Mr. Bush."[^11] The same article quotes a 1968 memorandum that places Devine back in agency work under commercial cover from 1963.[^12] WhoWhatWhy also reports that the CIA documents were released in 1998 from a batch of records provided to the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]].[^12]
-The corporation that later carried the Zapata name filed with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] under the former conformed names Zapata Off Shore Co, dated from January 15, 1969, and Zapata Norness Inc, dated from March 14, 1972. Its fiscal 1994 annual report states that "Zapata Corporation is a Delaware corporation organized in 1954."[^13] Electronic filings on EDGAR begin on February 8, 1994, and the company's record under Central Index Key 109177 starts from that period.[^14]
+The CIA biographical sheet lists Bush as an oil field supply salesman for Dresser Industries in Midland, Texas, from 1948 to 1951, and records the formation of Bush-Overbey Oil Development, Inc., in 1951.[^13] The Miller Center biography dates his arrival in Midland to 1950, after an equipment-clerk job for an oil company in Odessa in 1948, and places the formation of the oil development company in 1950.[^2]
 Two 1988 accounts tie the Dresser job to Neil Mallon, head of Dresser Industries. [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Walter Pincus]] reported that Mallon gave Bush his first job out of Yale.[^14] [[Randall Rothenberg]] reported that Bucky Bush described Mallon as a family friend who "could charm the fangs off a snake," and who offered George a bottom-of-the-ladder job at Dresser Industries in Midland, Texas.[^15] [[Anthony L. Kimery]] wrote that Bush began his career as a salesman for IDECO, a Dresser subsidiary.[^16]
 In *All the Best*, Bush wrote that "I accepted the job from Neil Mallon and drove our 1947 Studebaker (a graduation gift from my parents) to Odessa, Texas," described Mallon as "Yale classmate of my Dad's" and "an intimate family friend," and wrote that the couple changed the name of their third son "from Henry to Neil" because "We wanted to name him for Neil Mallon, whose name was really Henry."[^17] In *Looking Forward* he called Mallon "a friend and a mentor second only to my father," and wrote that he became "a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits."[^18] On April 12, 1951 he wrote to "Mr. H.N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas, Texas": "Dear Neil, This will let you know that we are in business."[^17]
 The corporation that later carried the Zapata name filed with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] under the former conformed names Zapata Off Shore Co, dated from January 15, 1969, and Zapata Norness Inc, dated from March 14, 1972. Its fiscal 1994 annual report states that "Zapata Corporation is a Delaware corporation organized in 1954."[^19] Electronic filings on EDGAR begin on February 8, 1994, and the company's record under Central Index Key 109177 starts from that period.[^20]
 ### The 1963 Hoover Memorandum
-In 1997 the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] asked the CIA about a memorandum dated November 29, 1963 that carries the name of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]. The Review Board's letter of December 18, 1997 quotes the memorandum's statement that "the substance of the foregoing information [on the assassination of President Kennedy] was orally furnished to Mr. George Bush of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^15] The letter describes the document as "dated November 29,1963, prepared under the name of John Edgar Hoover."[^15]
+In 1997 the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] asked the CIA about a memorandum dated November 29, 1963 that carries the name of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]. The Review Board's letter of December 18, 1997 quotes the memorandum's statement that "the substance of the foregoing information [on the assassination of President Kennedy] was orally furnished to Mr. George Bush of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^21] The letter describes the document as "dated November 29,1963, prepared under the name of John Edgar Hoover."[^21]
-The routing of the memorandum is recorded in two conflicting ways. A Review Board staff memorandum of January 8, 1998 describes it as concerning Hoover's conversation with President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] about the assassination, and says the memorandum is located in Johnson O&C File 92.[^16] A CIA memorandum by Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, dated July 15, 1998, describes it as a memorandum from Hoover to the director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research at the State Department.[^17]
+The routing of the memorandum is recorded in two conflicting ways. A Review Board staff memorandum of January 8, 1998 describes it as concerning Hoover's conversation with President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] about the assassination, and says the memorandum is located in Johnson O&C File 92.[^22] A CIA memorandum by Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, dated July 15, 1998, describes it as a memorandum from Hoover to the director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research at the State Department.[^23]
-The Review Board's letter quotes the CIA as having confirmed that "the search query included George Herbert Walker Bush prior to 1970." The letter asks the agency to determine whether George Herbert Walker Bush is the person to whom the memorandum refers.[^15] A CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to Gunn, dated February 25, 1998, states that the search "determined the Agency has no record of any association with George Herbert Walker Bush during the 1963 time period."[^18]
+The Review Board's letter quotes the CIA as having confirmed that "the search query included George Herbert Walker Bush prior to 1970." The letter asks the agency to determine whether George Herbert Walker Bush is the person to whom the memorandum refers.[^21] A CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to Gunn, dated February 25, 1998, states that the search "determined the Agency has no record of any association with George Herbert Walker Bush during the 1963 time period."[^24]
-The Combs memorandum records that the only other "George Bush" serving in the CIA in 1963 was a junior analyst who has repeatedly denied being the "George Bush" referenced in the memorandum. It also cites an entry in the calendar of Director [[Allen Dulles]] for October 4, 1961 that names an Army major general George Bush, with "no indication if this General Bush could be the referenced George Bush."[^17]
+The Combs memorandum records that the only other "George Bush" serving in the CIA in 1963 was a junior analyst who has repeatedly denied being the "George Bush" referenced in the memorandum. It also cites an entry in the calendar of Director [[Allen Dulles]] for October 4, 1961 that names an Army major general George Bush, with "no indication if this General Bush could be the referenced George Bush."[^23]
-An undated Review Board draft request bearing Gunn's name refers to an affidavit of George William Bush dated September 21, 1988.[^19]
+An undated Review Board draft request bearing Gunn's name refers to an affidavit of George William Bush dated September 21, 1988.[^25]
-In 1988 Stephen Hart issued a statement answering a report by [[Joseph McBride]] that appeared in The Nation on July 16, 1988. WhoWhatWhy quotes the statement as concluding: "Must be another George Bush."[^20] McBride described the response as "rather detailed for a ritual non-denial."[^20]
+In 1988 Stephen Hart issued a statement answering a report by [[Joseph McBride]] that appeared in The Nation on July 16, 1988. WhoWhatWhy quotes the statement as concluding: "Must be another George Bush."[^26] McBride described the response as "rather detailed for a ritual non-denial."[^26]
 The CIA's 1998 answer, the Review Board staff's account of it, the 1988 statement and the 1988 affidavit all concern the same name. The records do not establish which George Bush the memorandum means.
 ### The South Florida Drug Task Force and the Medellín Cartel
-As Vice President, Bush oversaw anti-drug efforts as head of the South Florida Drug Task Force while the administration simultaneously protected Contra-connected drug traffickers. The contradiction between Bush's public anti-drug posture and the covert reality of the Contra supply chain became a recurring theme in the [[Dark Alliance]] narrative.[^21]
+As Vice President, Bush oversaw anti-drug efforts as head of the South Florida Drug Task Force while the administration simultaneously protected Contra-connected drug traffickers. The contradiction between Bush's public anti-drug posture and the covert reality of the Contra supply chain became a recurring theme in the [[Dark Alliance]] narrative.[^27]
-Reagan's statement of January 28, 1982 announced the federal anticrime task force for southern Florida: "To coordinate this effort, I am today announcing the establishment of a special task force, headed by Vice President George Bush, to analyze the problems and determine what steps we must take during the period of aggravated crime incidence."[^22] In a statement to a 1988 Senate subcommittee, Admiral [[Daniel Murphy]] said: "The President appointed Vice President Bush to direct the task force comprised of the Secretaries of State, Defense, Transportation, Treasury, Health and Human Service, and the Attorney General."[^23]
+Reagan's statement of January 28, 1982 announced the federal anticrime task force for southern Florida: "To coordinate this effort, I am today announcing the establishment of a special task force, headed by Vice President George Bush, to analyze the problems and determine what steps we must take during the period of aggravated crime incidence."[^28] In a statement to a 1988 Senate subcommittee, Admiral [[Daniel Murphy]] said: "The President appointed Vice President Bush to direct the task force comprised of the Secretaries of State, Defense, Transportation, Treasury, Health and Human Service, and the Attorney General."[^29]
-The [[Kerry Committee]] report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (1988), states: "These cables led to a 1982 meeting between Vice President Bush, Admiral Daniel Murphy and Bahamian Prime Minister [[Lynden Pindling]], at which the Norman's Cay problem was raised. The Vice President chastised the Prime Minister for what was taking place."[^24]
+The [[Kerry Committee]] report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (1988), states: "These cables led to a 1982 meeting between Vice President Bush, Admiral Daniel Murphy and Bahamian Prime Minister [[Lynden Pindling]], at which the Norman's Cay problem was raised. The Vice President chastised the Prime Minister for what was taking place."[^30]
-The [[Medellin Cartel|Medellín Cartel]] reportedly made a deal with Vice President Bush. Informant Allen Raul Rudd told federal officials that [[Pablo Escobar]] described "an agreement or relationship between Bush and the American government and members of the Medellín cartel which resulted in planes flying guns to the cartel in [[Colombia]]." Escobar claimed to have a picture of Bush posing with Medellín cartel leader [[Jorge Ochoa]] in front of suitcases full of money, held as blackmail to be released at "the appropriate time."[^21]
+The [[Medellin Cartel|Medellín Cartel]] reportedly made a deal with Vice President Bush. Informant Allen Raul Rudd told federal officials that [[Pablo Escobar]] described "an agreement or relationship between Bush and the American government and members of the Medellín cartel which resulted in planes flying guns to the cartel in [[Colombia]]." Escobar claimed to have a picture of Bush posing with Medellín cartel leader [[Jorge Ochoa]] in front of suitcases full of money, held as blackmail to be released at "the appropriate time."[^27]
 ### Contra Connections and the War on Drugs
-At the same time Reagan and Bush were publicly whipping the American public into a frenzy over street-corner crack dealers, [[Oliver North]] and other top administration officials were livid that Contra-connected drug trafficker General [[Jose Bueso Rosa]] had even been charged with a crime. North's computer messages about Bueso Rosa illustrated how skewed the Reagan administration's sense of justice had become regarding its "War on Drugs." [[Scott Weekly]], a figure connected to the CIA and the Hasenfus shootdown, claimed on tape that he reported to people who reported to Bush.[^25]
+At the same time Reagan and Bush were publicly whipping the American public into a frenzy over street-corner crack dealers, [[Oliver North]] and other top administration officials were livid that Contra-connected drug trafficker General [[Jose Bueso Rosa]] had even been charged with a crime. North's computer messages about Bueso Rosa illustrated how skewed the Reagan administration's sense of justice had become regarding its "War on Drugs." [[Scott Weekly]], a figure connected to the CIA and the Hasenfus shootdown, claimed on tape that he reported to people who reported to Bush.[^31]
 ### Political Career Before the CIA
-Bush became Republican Party chairman in Harris County, Texas, lost the 1964 Senate race to Ralph Yarborough, won the House seat for Houston's Seventh District in 1966 and was reelected in 1968. He lost the 1970 Senate race to [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. In December 1970 President [[Richard Nixon]] nominated him as ambassador to the [[United Nations]]; in 1973 Nixon moved him to the chairmanship of the [[Republican National Committee]], which he held through the Watergate period until Nixon's resignation in August 1974. President [[Gerald R. Ford]] then made him chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and in 1975 asked him to direct the CIA. After Ford lost in 1976, Bush offered to stay as director and [[Jimmy Carter]] declined.[^2] [[James C. Oberwetter]], the spokesman for [[Hunt Oil Company]] in a 1977 episode involving the FBI, had been press secretary to Congressman Bush.[^26]
+Bush became Republican Party chairman in Harris County, Texas, lost the 1964 Senate race to Ralph Yarborough, won the House seat for Houston's Seventh District in 1966 and was reelected in 1968. He lost the 1970 Senate race to [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. In December 1970 President [[Richard Nixon]] nominated him as ambassador to the [[United Nations]]; in 1973 Nixon moved him to the chairmanship of the [[Republican National Committee]], which he held through the Watergate period until Nixon's resignation in August 1974. President [[Gerald R. Ford]] then made him chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and in 1975 asked him to direct the CIA. After Ford lost in 1976, Bush offered to stay as director and [[Jimmy Carter]] declined.[^2] [[James C. Oberwetter]], the spokesman for [[Hunt Oil Company]] in a 1977 episode involving the FBI, had been press secretary to Congressman Bush.[^32]
 ### Out of Office, 1977 to 1981
-In January 1977, as chairman of the [[National Foreign Intelligence Board]], Bush wrote to Vice Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then vice director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], thanking him for a year of advice to the board.[^27] [[U.S. News & World Report]] stated on April 7, 1980 that Bush was a present or former member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; the magazine reported that he "resigned from the organization in 1978" and quoted him as saying that "to suggest that those that belong to the commission . . . are involved in a conspiracy is absurd."[^28] Bush announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on May 1, 1979.[^2] [[William H. Draper III]] was national cochairman of the finance committee for Bush's 1980 presidential campaign, according to the White House announcement of March 18, 1981 nominating Draper to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]].[^29] Bush ran on the Reagan ticket and won the vice presidency in the November 1980 election.[^2]
+In January 1977, as chairman of the [[National Foreign Intelligence Board]], Bush wrote to Vice Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then vice director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], thanking him for a year of advice to the board.[^33] [[U.S. News & World Report]] stated on April 7, 1980 that Bush was a present or former member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; the magazine reported that he "resigned from the organization in 1978" and quoted him as saying that "to suggest that those that belong to the commission . . . are involved in a conspiracy is absurd."[^34] Bush announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on May 1, 1979.[^2] [[William H. Draper III]] was national cochairman of the finance committee for Bush's 1980 presidential campaign, according to the White House announcement of March 18, 1981 nominating Draper to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]].[^35] Bush ran on the Reagan ticket and won the vice presidency in the November 1980 election.[^2]
 ### Director of Central Intelligence, 1976 to 1977
-On November 3, 1975 President Gerald R. Ford announced at a news conference that he intended to nominate Ambassador Bush, then the [[United States]] representative to the People's Republic of China, as [[Director of Central Intelligence]], succeeding [[William Colby]].[^30] Bush was sworn in as Director of Central Intelligence on January 30, 1976.[^31] As director of central intelligence in 1976 Bush was briefed on the CIA's remote-viewing research at [[Stanford Research Institute]] after the agency learned that Soviet visitors were "questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI," and left office before reacting.[^32]
+On November 3, 1975 President Gerald R. Ford announced at a news conference that he intended to nominate Ambassador Bush, then the [[United States]] representative to the People's Republic of China, as [[Director of Central Intelligence]], succeeding [[William Colby]].[^36] Bush was sworn in as Director of Central Intelligence on January 30, 1976.[^37] As director of central intelligence in 1976 Bush was briefed on the CIA's remote-viewing research at [[Stanford Research Institute]] after the agency learned that Soviet visitors were "questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI," and left office before reacting.[^38]
-The Senate Armed Services Committee reported the nomination through Senator [[John Tower]]. Hearings were held on December 15 and 16, 1975. Bush told the committee that "I do feel we need a covert capability," and pledged to "faithfully try to testify before the appropriate oversight committees of the U.S. Congress."[^33] The committee's report of December 18, 1975 recommends confirmation "subject to the nominee's commitment to respond to requests to appear and testify before any duly constituted committee."[^33] The committee approved him 12 to four. The full United States Senate followed in January with a 64 to 27 vote, after a two-hour debate, according to [[Studies in Intelligence]].[^34]
+The Senate Armed Services Committee reported the nomination through Senator [[John Tower]]. Hearings were held on December 15 and 16, 1975. Bush told the committee that "I do feel we need a covert capability," and pledged to "faithfully try to testify before the appropriate oversight committees of the U.S. Congress."[^39] The committee's report of December 18, 1975 recommends confirmation "subject to the nominee's commitment to respond to requests to appear and testify before any duly constituted committee."[^39] The committee approved him 12 to four. The full United States Senate followed in January with a 64 to 27 vote, after a two-hour debate, according to [[Studies in Intelligence]].[^40]
-In a memorandum to the recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, Bush called the estimate "the official appraisal of the Director of Central Intelligence." He wrote that "there is a negative aspect that is already clear and which concerns me deeply; namely, the selective leaks regarding the details of the process and, worse, the substantive conclusions developed by the 'Team B' panel that was concerned with Soviet strategic objectives." He added: "There is no truth to such allegations."[^35]
+In a memorandum to the recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, Bush called the estimate "the official appraisal of the Director of Central Intelligence." He wrote that "there is a negative aspect that is already clear and which concerns me deeply; namely, the selective leaks regarding the details of the process and, worse, the substantive conclusions developed by the 'Team B' panel that was concerned with Soviet strategic objectives." He added: "There is no truth to such allegations."[^41]
-The Team B report, "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View," describes the experiment as "undertaken by the DCI on behalf of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]." It names [[Richard Pipes]] as team leader and lists William Van Cleave, [[Daniel O. Graham]], Thomas Wolfe and John Vogt as members. An advisory panel included Foy Kohler, Paul Nitze, Seymour Weiss, Jasper Welch and Paul Wolfowitz. The report states that its views "do not represent either coordinated National Intelligence or the views of the Director of Central Intelligence."[^36]
+The Team B report, "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View," describes the experiment as "undertaken by the DCI on behalf of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]." It names [[Richard Pipes]] as team leader and lists William Van Cleave, [[Daniel O. Graham]], Thomas Wolfe and John Vogt as members. An advisory panel included Foy Kohler, Paul Nitze, Seymour Weiss, Jasper Welch and Paul Wolfowitz. The report states that its views "do not represent either coordinated National Intelligence or the views of the Director of Central Intelligence."[^42]
-William Beecher broke the Team B story in the [[Boston Globe]] on October 20, 1976, according to the editors' note in the Foreign Relations volume. A story by [[David Binder]] in the [[New York Times]] of December 26, 1976 reported the estimate's findings and drew in part on an interview with Bush.[^35] On January 19, 1977 Bush wrote to Cherne, chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, about Team B's recommendations.[^37]
+William Beecher broke the Team B story in the [[Boston Globe]] on October 20, 1976, according to the editors' note in the Foreign Relations volume. A story by [[David Binder]] in the [[New York Times]] of December 26, 1976 reported the estimate's findings and drew in part on an interview with Bush.[^41] On January 19, 1977 Bush wrote to Cherne, chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, about Team B's recommendations.[^43]
-On February 11, 1976 Bush announced new guidelines governing the agency's relations with the American press. The guideline states: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^38] The report of the [[Church Committee]], chaired by [[Frank Church]], also states that the CIA had maintained covert relationships with about 50 journalists, and that Bush "undertook as one of his first actions to recognize the 'special status afforded the American media under our Constitution.'"[^39]
+On February 11, 1976 Bush announced new guidelines governing the agency's relations with the American press. The guideline states: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^44] The report of the [[Church Committee]], chaired by [[Frank Church]], also states that the CIA had maintained covert relationships with about 50 journalists, and that Bush "undertook as one of his first actions to recognize the 'special status afforded the American media under our Constitution.'"[^45]
-On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that Bush, according to a CIA spokesman, "has urged executives of The New York Times and CBS news to support the agency's efforts to keep secret the names of journalists who have aided intelligence operations."[^40]
+On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that Bush, according to a CIA spokesman, "has urged executives of The New York Times and CBS news to support the agency's efforts to keep secret the names of journalists who have aided intelligence operations."[^46]
-In June 1976 the Washington Star reported that U.S. District Judge [[June Green]] ordered CIA Director Bush "not to destroy the files gathered by the CIA." Green also granted an appeal that the files be "protected" pending a civil action by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]]. The files were part of [[Operation CHAOS]] and had been gathered by the CIA at the request of Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, who feared extensive foreign influence on domestic unrest.[^41]
+In June 1976 the Washington Star reported that U.S. District Judge [[June Green]] ordered CIA Director Bush "not to destroy the files gathered by the CIA." Green also granted an appeal that the files be "protected" pending a civil action by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]]. The files were part of [[Operation CHAOS]] and had been gathered by the CIA at the request of Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, who feared extensive foreign influence on domestic unrest.[^47]
-The [[Letelier assassination]] in Washington in September 1976 brought Chile into the Director's correspondence. On September 29, 1976 Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] wrote to Bush thanking him for a briefing, and noted that [[Orlando Letelier]] "was recently discussed at a high-level policy meeting within the Chilean government."[^42] On October 9, 1976 [[U.S. Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] wrote to Bush that "the Central Intelligence Agency may be in a position to obtain information bearing on these violent activities."[^43] [[Brent Scowcroft]] endorsed the request on October 21, 1976.[^43]
+The [[Letelier assassination]] in Washington in September 1976 brought Chile into the Director's correspondence. On September 29, 1976 Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] wrote to Bush thanking him for a briefing, and noted that [[Orlando Letelier]] "was recently discussed at a high-level policy meeting within the Chilean government."[^48] On October 9, 1976 [[U.S. Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] wrote to Bush that "the Central Intelligence Agency may be in a position to obtain information bearing on these violent activities."[^49] [[Brent Scowcroft]] endorsed the request on October 21, 1976.[^49]
-A 1980 radio interview transcript in the CIA reading room quotes a speaker, identified only as "MAN," who refers to "our book" and says: "we've been able to establish that George Bush personally handled the information from Paraguay in this intervening week, and discussed it with [[Vernon Walters]], and together made the decision, first of all, to say, 'No, we have nothing to do with this mission.'"[^44] The transcript does not identify the speaker further.
+A 1980 radio interview transcript in the CIA reading room quotes a speaker, identified only as "MAN," who refers to "our book" and says: "we've been able to establish that George Bush personally handled the information from Paraguay in this intervening week, and discussed it with [[Vernon Walters]], and together made the decision, first of all, to say, 'No, we have nothing to do with this mission.'"[^50] The transcript does not identify the speaker further.
-The Paraguayan material concerned two Chileans traveling on Paraguayan passports under false names. A later Foreign Relations volume records that in July 1976 presidential adviser Conrado Pappalardo approached Ambassador [[George Landau|George W. Landau]] in Asunción about the two. Pappalardo said they would contact "then-U.S. Deputy Director of Central Intelligence General Vernon Walters."[^45] A memorandum by [[Eugene Propper|Propper]], quoted in the same volume, states that the CIA advised that Walters had retired from the agency on July 2, 1976.[^46]
+The Paraguayan material concerned two Chileans traveling on Paraguayan passports under false names. A later Foreign Relations volume records that in July 1976 presidential adviser Conrado Pappalardo approached Ambassador [[George Landau|George W. Landau]] in Asunción about the two. Pappalardo said they would contact "then-U.S. Deputy Director of Central Intelligence General Vernon Walters."[^51] A memorandum by [[Eugene Propper|Propper]], quoted in the same volume, states that the CIA advised that Walters had retired from the agency on July 2, 1976.[^52]
-On August 11, 1976 Bush wrote a memorandum headed "The Death of Roselli," concerning the murder of [[Johnny Roselli]]. In it he wrote, "I told him that I would like to see the FBI get into the Roselli case." He wrote that he was "most anxious to see the matter fully investigated so that the CIA would be officially exonerated."[^47]
+On August 11, 1976 Bush wrote a memorandum headed "The Death of Roselli," concerning the murder of [[Johnny Roselli]]. In it he wrote, "I told him that I would like to see the FBI get into the Roselli case." He wrote that he was "most anxious to see the matter fully investigated so that the CIA would be officially exonerated."[^53]
-The memorandum records that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked Attorney General Levi to bring the FBI into the case.[^47]
+The memorandum records that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked Attorney General Levi to bring the FBI into the case.[^53]
-On the Letelier investigation, Propper, Assistant Attorney General [[J. Stanley Pottinger]] and Bush met to decide how far the CIA could help with the Cuban exile side of the inquiry.[^48] Newspaper clippings that the defendants in *United States v. Sampol* filed to show prejudicial publicity described "a carefully worded agreement placing the Letelier case in a 'national security' status." Defense counsel for [[Guillermo Novo]] and others told the jury that "the CIA and not the Chilean government masterminded the Letelier assassination," and the appeal brief rested the theory on Michael Townley's CIA contacts and on a Fort Lauderdale firm, [[Audio Intelligence Devices]], where Townley spent the morning of September 21, 1976.[^49] The Washington Post reported on November 1, 1976 a belief at the CIA that Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, which Bush was said to have expressed to Secretary of State [[Henry A. Kissinger]] the week before.[^50] On November 5, 1976 Assistant Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]] asked the State Department to arrange interviews in Caracas of [[Orlando Bosch]], [[Luis Posada Carriles]] and two others held in connection with the [[Cubana Flight 455 bombing]], naming Propper and FBI special agents [[Carter Cornick]] and Raul Salinas as the investigators to be sent.[^51]
+On the Letelier investigation, Propper, Assistant Attorney General [[J. Stanley Pottinger]] and Bush met to decide how far the CIA could help with the Cuban exile side of the inquiry.[^54] Newspaper clippings that the defendants in *United States v. Sampol* filed to show prejudicial publicity described "a carefully worded agreement placing the Letelier case in a 'national security' status." Defense counsel for [[Guillermo Novo]] and others told the jury that "the CIA and not the Chilean government masterminded the Letelier assassination," and the appeal brief rested the theory on Michael Townley's CIA contacts and on a Fort Lauderdale firm, [[Audio Intelligence Devices]], where Townley spent the morning of September 21, 1976.[^55] The Washington Post reported on November 1, 1976 a belief at the CIA that Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, which Bush was said to have expressed to Secretary of State [[Henry A. Kissinger]] the week before.[^56] On November 5, 1976 Assistant Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]] asked the State Department to arrange interviews in Caracas of [[Orlando Bosch]], [[Luis Posada Carriles]] and two others held in connection with the [[Cubana Flight 455 bombing]], naming Propper and FBI special agents [[Carter Cornick]] and Raul Salinas as the investigators to be sent.[^57]
-When Bosch entered the United States on February 18, 1988, Acting Associate Attorney General [[Joe D. Whitley]] ordered him excluded on January 23, 1989, writing that "For 30 years Bosch has been resolute and unwavering in his advocacy of terrorist violence." In 1990, over the Justice Department's objection, the Bush White House released him.[^52] The Bush administration also agreed in 1990 to lift sanctions on Chile if the new civilian government prosecuted [[Manuel Contreras]] and [[Pedro Espinoza]] for the Letelier murder, in which [[Ronni Moffitt]] also died; the two served their terms at [[Punta Peuco]].[^53]
+When Bosch entered the United States on February 18, 1988, Acting Associate Attorney General [[Joe D. Whitley]] ordered him excluded on January 23, 1989, writing that "For 30 years Bosch has been resolute and unwavering in his advocacy of terrorist violence." In 1990, over the Justice Department's objection, the Bush White House released him.[^58] The Bush administration also agreed in 1990 to lift sanctions on Chile if the new civilian government prosecuted [[Manuel Contreras]] and [[Pedro Espinoza]] for the Letelier murder, in which [[Ronni Moffitt]] also died; the two served their terms at [[Punta Peuco]].[^59]
-The Foreign Relations volume on Panama prints a memorandum of conversation dated October 6, 1976 that is catalogued among the "DCI (Bush) Files on Noreiga." Its source note records "Three pages not declassified."[^54] The document concerns [[Manuel Noriega]], whose relations with the agency the volume documents.
+The Foreign Relations volume on Panama prints a memorandum of conversation dated October 6, 1976 that is catalogued among the "DCI (Bush) Files on Noreiga." Its source note records "Three pages not declassified."[^60] The document concerns [[Manuel Noriega]], whose relations with the agency the volume documents.
-On October 18, 1976 Bush wrote to Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] on the subject of leaks, in a letter that refers to "where these vicious leaks came from."[^55]
+On October 18, 1976 Bush wrote to Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] on the subject of leaks, in a letter that refers to "where these vicious leaks came from."[^61]
-[[Joseph Trento]] wrote in *Prelude to Terror* that in 1976, after the Church Committee hearings, [[Alexandre de Marenches]] of the French [[SDECE]] organized an informal consortium, the [[Safari Club]], in coordination with Bush. Trento lists its members as the SDECE, Saudi Arabia's General Intelligence Directorate under [[Kamal Adham]], Egypt's [[Mukhabarat]], Morocco's DST under Ahmed Dlimi, and the CIA, with the purpose of continuing anti-Soviet covert operations in Africa and the [[Middle East]] that congressional restrictions had made difficult for the agency; he places Egypt's service in the group as the supplier of Soviet-compatible weapons for operations in the Horn of Africa.[^56] De Marenches maintained personal relationships with American directors including Bush and [[William J. Casey]].[^57]
+[[Joseph Trento]] wrote in *Prelude to Terror* that in 1976, after the Church Committee hearings, [[Alexandre de Marenches]] of the French [[SDECE]] organized an informal consortium, the [[Safari Club]], in coordination with Bush. Trento lists its members as the SDECE, Saudi Arabia's General Intelligence Directorate under [[Kamal Adham]], Egypt's [[Mukhabarat]], Morocco's DST under Ahmed Dlimi, and the CIA, with the purpose of continuing anti-Soviet covert operations in Africa and the [[Middle East]] that congressional restrictions had made difficult for the agency; he places Egypt's service in the group as the supplier of Soviet-compatible weapons for operations in the Horn of Africa.[^62] De Marenches maintained personal relationships with American directors including Bush and [[William J. Casey]].[^63]
-In Angola the CIA's Operation IAFEATURE (1975 to 1976) supported [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the [[MPLA]], with [[Congo|Zaire]] as the logistics base; the Church Committee and later writers record William Colby and then Bush as the directors who managed it. The program was ended by the [[Clark Amendment]], section 404 of Public Law 94-329, enacted June 30, 1976.[^58]
+In Angola the CIA's Operation IAFEATURE (1975 to 1976) supported [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the [[MPLA]], with [[Congo|Zaire]] as the logistics base; the Church Committee and later writers record William Colby and then Bush as the directors who managed it. The program was ended by the [[Clark Amendment]], section 404 of Public Law 94-329, enacted June 30, 1976.[^64]
-[[William Barr|William P. Barr]] worked at the agency from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school, and as assistant legislative counsel under Director Bush in 1976 worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. Barr later joined the White House domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush, and in 1988 helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^59]
+[[William Barr|William P. Barr]] worked at the agency from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school, and as assistant legislative counsel under Director Bush in 1976 worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. Barr later joined the White House domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush, and in 1988 helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^65]
 ### Israel's Nuclear Program and Israeli Channels
-In March 1976 [[Carl E. Duckett]] openly discussed Israel's nuclear weapons at an informal seminar, stating that Israel was estimated to have ten to twenty nuclear weapons "available for use." Hersh wrote that the disclosure forced Bush, the newly installed director, to issue a public statement assuming "full responsibility," and that it led to Duckett's retirement. Duckett later acknowledged that rumors of his drinking were the stated reason for his departure but insisted that the real issue was Bush's unwillingness to promote him. Hersh adds that Duckett's 1974 estimate remained the official American estimate until the early 1980s.[^60]
+In March 1976 [[Carl E. Duckett]] openly discussed Israel's nuclear weapons at an informal seminar, stating that Israel was estimated to have ten to twenty nuclear weapons "available for use." Hersh wrote that the disclosure forced Bush, the newly installed director, to issue a public statement assuming "full responsibility," and that it led to Duckett's retirement. Duckett later acknowledged that rumors of his drinking were the stated reason for his departure but insisted that the real issue was Bush's unwillingness to promote him. Hersh adds that Duckett's 1974 estimate remained the official American estimate until the early 1980s.[^66]
-[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] wrote that he briefed [[Nachum Admoni]] in July 1986 on the Israeli intelligence network's arms sales to Iran for Vice President Bush.[^61] The Israeli arms dealer [[Al Schwimmer]], a special adviser to Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]] from September 1984 at a salary of one shekel a year, met President Reagan and Vice President Bush in that capacity.[^62] Ben-Menashe also wrote that Israeli intelligence believed [[Amiram Nir]]'s death in 1988 to have been a CIA operation intended to keep his testimony from embarrassing Peres, Reagan or Bush.[^61]
+[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] wrote that he briefed [[Nachum Admoni]] in July 1986 on the Israeli intelligence network's arms sales to Iran for Vice President Bush.[^67] The Israeli arms dealer [[Al Schwimmer]], a special adviser to Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]] from September 1984 at a salary of one shekel a year, met President Reagan and Vice President Bush in that capacity.[^68] Ben-Menashe also wrote that Israeli intelligence believed [[Amiram Nir]]'s death in 1988 to have been a CIA operation intended to keep his testimony from embarrassing Peres, Reagan or Bush.[^67]
-On January 20, 1991 President Bush telephoned Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] twice from Camp David, at 3 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. Washington time, to thank Israel for its "restraint" in not retaliating for the Iraqi Scud attacks. The spokesman [[Marlin Fitzwater]] quoted the president as telling Shamir: "I understand the anguish of your people and your Government." [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]] were sent to Israel, and American crews arrived to operate [[Patriot]] missile batteries.[^63] According to the counterintelligence history "Decade of the Spy," Bush denied clemency to [[Jonathan Pollard]] in January 1993.[^64]
+On January 20, 1991 President Bush telephoned Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] twice from Camp David, at 3 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. Washington time, to thank Israel for its "restraint" in not retaliating for the Iraqi Scud attacks. The spokesman [[Marlin Fitzwater]] quoted the president as telling Shamir: "I understand the anguish of your people and your Government." [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]] were sent to Israel, and American crews arrived to operate [[Patriot]] missile batteries.[^69] According to the counterintelligence history "Decade of the Spy," Bush denied clemency to [[Jonathan Pollard]] in January 1993.[^70]
 ### Stargate, Center Lane, and the Army
-The [[Stargate Project]] appears in the record through the agency's own accounts. [[Kenneth A. Kress]], writing in Studies in Intelligence for the winter of 1977, states that "During November of 1976, Director George Bush became aware that official Soviets were visiting and questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI about their work in parapsychology. Mr. Bush requested and received a briefing on CIA's investigations into parapsychology. Before there was any official reaction, he left the Agency."[^32]
+The [[Stargate Project]] appears in the record through the agency's own accounts. [[Kenneth A. Kress]], writing in Studies in Intelligence for the winter of 1977, states that "During November of 1976, Director George Bush became aware that official Soviets were visiting and questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI about their work in parapsychology. Mr. Bush requested and received a briefing on CIA's investigations into parapsychology. Before there was any official reaction, he left the Agency."[^38]
-Kress also writes that Director [[Stansfield Turner]] stated publicly that the CIA "has had operational interest in parapsychology."[^65]
+Kress also writes that Director [[Stansfield Turner]] stated publicly that the CIA "has had operational interest in parapsychology."[^71]
-As vice president, in 1983 (the chronology's date reads as March 31 or August 3), Bush "was briefed for thirty minutes concerning [[Center Lane|CENTER LANE]] related activities by Dr. [[Jack Vorona]], DIA," the Army's remote-viewing unit, with "Adm. Murphy, C/S," and "Mr. Gregg" present ([[Donald Gregg]]). The [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) chronology records that "the briefing was well received and the Vice President was interested and impressed."[^66] A memorandum for the record by Major Gerald Fox dated April 1, 1983 lists the three projects used on March 31, 1983 to brief the Vice President, among them Project 8034, described as a "[[KGB]] agent."[^67] Vorona of the DIA is the first-named member of the November 1978 oversight group of the [[Grill Flame]] committee and the first-listed attendee in February 1979.[^68]
+As vice president, in 1983 (the chronology's date reads as March 31 or August 3), Bush "was briefed for thirty minutes concerning [[Center Lane|CENTER LANE]] related activities by Dr. [[Jack Vorona]], DIA," the Army's remote-viewing unit, with "Adm. Murphy, C/S," and "Mr. Gregg" present ([[Donald Gregg]]). The [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) chronology records that "the briefing was well received and the Vice President was interested and impressed."[^72] A memorandum for the record by Major Gerald Fox dated April 1, 1983 lists the three projects used on March 31, 1983 to brief the Vice President, among them Project 8034, described as a "[[KGB]] agent."[^73] Vorona of the DIA is the first-named member of the November 1978 oversight group of the [[Grill Flame]] committee and the first-listed attendee in February 1979.[^74]
-According to an Air War College research report by Dolan M. McKelvy citing Ronald McRae's *Mind Wars* (1984), CIA director Bush in 1976 enthusiastically gave [[Edgar Mitchell]] "permission to organize high-level seminars at the CIA to discuss possible intelligence applications" of parapsychology; the report says that interest waned in 1977 when Stansfield Turner replaced Bush.[^69]
+According to an Air War College research report by Dolan M. McKelvy citing Ronald McRae's *Mind Wars* (1984), CIA director Bush in 1976 enthusiastically gave [[Edgar Mitchell]] "permission to organize high-level seminars at the CIA to discuss possible intelligence applications" of parapsychology; the report says that interest waned in 1977 when Stansfield Turner replaced Bush.[^75]
 ### The Vice President's Briefings and Travel
-On April 2, 1982 Casey sent Secretary of State [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]] a "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs" referring to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President Bush.[^70] In a letter to *Time* in January 1982, Assistant Secretary of State [[John H. Holdridge]] wrote that Bush had confirmed during a visit to Australia that there had been no CIA involvement in the [[Nugan Hand Bank]], and that Frank Church had said the Senate committee found no evidence implicating the agency. A CBS broadcast of September 22, 1982 quoted former bank executive [[Neil Evans]], who had immunity, as saying: "We were to become the paymasters for the CIA around the world."[^71] [[Michael Hand]] was the bank's co-founder.
+On April 2, 1982 Casey sent Secretary of State [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]] a "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs" referring to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President Bush.[^76] In a letter to *Time* in January 1982, Assistant Secretary of State [[John H. Holdridge]] wrote that Bush had confirmed during a visit to Australia that there had been no CIA involvement in the [[Nugan Hand Bank]], and that Frank Church had said the Senate committee found no evidence implicating the agency. A CBS broadcast of September 22, 1982 quoted former bank executive [[Neil Evans]], who had immunity, as saying: "We were to become the paymasters for the CIA around the world."[^77] [[Michael Hand]] was the bank's co-founder.
-On April 12, 1986 Vice President Bush flew to Marib in North Yemen and dedicated the refinery of the Alif field that Hunt Oil had found in 1984, the first oil discovered in the country. [[Ray Hunt]], head of the company, sat on the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board from 2001.[^72]
+On April 12, 1986 Vice President Bush flew to Marib in North Yemen and dedicated the refinery of the Alif field that Hunt Oil had found in 1984, the first oil discovered in the country. [[Ray Hunt]], head of the company, sat on the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board from 2001.[^78]
-On January 20, 1987 Bush said that an American "in terrorist hands is tortured and, in the case of William Buckley, killed," referring to the CIA's Beirut station chief [[William Buckley]].[^73] On August 17, 1988 he called the death of Pakistan's President [[Zia ul-Haq]] in a [[C-130]] explosion "a great tragedy."[^74] [[Celerino Castillo]] said that on or about January 14, 1986 he tried to alert Vice President Bush at a U.S. embassy party in Guatemala that "something funny" was going on at [[Ilopango Airbase]], and described what followed: "But he just shook my hand, smiled and walked away from me."[^75]
+On January 20, 1987 Bush said that an American "in terrorist hands is tortured and, in the case of William Buckley, killed," referring to the CIA's Beirut station chief [[William Buckley]].[^79] On August 17, 1988 he called the death of Pakistan's President [[Zia ul-Haq]] in a [[C-130]] explosion "a great tragedy."[^80] [[Celerino Castillo]] said that on or about January 14, 1986 he tried to alert Vice President Bush at a U.S. embassy party in Guatemala that "something funny" was going on at [[Ilopango Airbase]], and described what followed: "But he just shook my hand, smiled and walked away from me."[^81]
 ### Gregg, Rodriguez, and the Vice President's Office
-At a February 1988 hearing on the testimony of [[Danilo Blandon]], Senator [[John Kerry]] addressed a call to Castro: "while Vice President Bush denied that he made the call, and I do accept his word, it also was learned last night on McNeil-Lehrer that a former NSC staffer admitted that, indeed, there was prior notice given to Castro."[^76]
+At a February 1988 hearing on the testimony of [[Danilo Blandon]], Senator [[John Kerry]] addressed a call to Castro: "while Vice President Bush denied that he made the call, and I do accept his word, it also was learned last night on McNeil-Lehrer that a former NSC staffer admitted that, indeed, there was prior notice given to Castro."[^82]
-Blandon also described [[Felix Rodriguez]] as "the liaison for providing weapons to the Contras in El Salvador."[^77] Walsh's chapter 29 states that Gregg "arranged for Rodriguez to meet Vice President Bush on January 22, 1985. According to Gregg, the purpose of the meeting was to inform Bush that Rodriguez wanted to work in El Salvador against the guerrillas."[^78] The meeting took place in the Old Executive Office Building, where Rodriguez was "watching a television report on the Bush family."[^78]
+Blandon also described [[Felix Rodriguez]] as "the liaison for providing weapons to the Contras in El Salvador."[^83] Walsh's chapter 29 states that Gregg "arranged for Rodriguez to meet Vice President Bush on January 22, 1985. According to Gregg, the purpose of the meeting was to inform Bush that Rodriguez wanted to work in El Salvador against the guerrillas."[^84] The meeting took place in the Old Executive Office Building, where Rodriguez was "watching a television report on the Bush family."[^84]
-The 1988 hearing record gives the date of that meeting as February 22, a month later than Walsh's date. In the July 1988 hearings Rodriguez said that he had passed to the FBI and CIA, early in 1985, information from [[Ramon Milian Rodriguez]], whom he called a liar, and in later questioning by Kerry said he met Vice President Bush on February 22.[^79] Rodriguez also answered a question from Kerry: "No, sir. I didn't go there that often as people have publicized."[^79]
+The 1988 hearing record gives the date of that meeting as February 22, a month later than Walsh's date. In the July 1988 hearings Rodriguez said that he had passed to the FBI and CIA, early in 1985, information from [[Ramon Milian Rodriguez]], whom he called a liar, and in later questioning by Kerry said he met Vice President Bush on February 22.[^85] Rodriguez also answered a question from Kerry: "No, sir. I didn't go there that often as people have publicized."[^85]
-Part IX of Walsh's report states that Gregg "claimed that, notwithstanding the Administration's interest in the success of the contras, he never mentioned any information regarding contra resupply to Vice President Bush."[^80] The Kerry report says that before Murphy's 1987 trips to Panama he met with officials including "the Vice President's National Security Advisor, Donald Gregg."[^81]
+Part IX of Walsh's report states that Gregg "claimed that, notwithstanding the Administration's interest in the success of the contras, he never mentioned any information regarding contra resupply to Vice President Bush."[^86] The Kerry report says that before Murphy's 1987 trips to Panama he met with officials including "the Vice President's National Security Advisor, Donald Gregg."[^87]
 ### Iran-Contra and the Pardons
-The executive summary of the final report of the [[Lawrence Walsh|Independent Counsel]] states that the investigation "did not develop evidence that proved that Vice President Bush violated any criminal statute. Contrary to his public pronouncements, however, he was fully aware of the Iran arms sales."[^82] The summary adds that "Bush was regularly briefed, along with the President, on the Iran arms sales, and he participated in discussions to obtain third-country support for the contras." It states that the Independent Counsel "obtained no evidence that Bush was aware of the diversion."[^82] The same summary says that the pardon of [[Caspar Weinberger]] on December 24, 1992 "pre-empted a trial in which defense counsel indicated that they intended to call Bush as a witness."[^82]
+The executive summary of the final report of the [[Lawrence Walsh|Independent Counsel]] states that the investigation "did not develop evidence that proved that Vice President Bush violated any criminal statute. Contrary to his public pronouncements, however, he was fully aware of the Iran arms sales."[^88] The summary adds that "Bush was regularly briefed, along with the President, on the Iran arms sales, and he participated in discussions to obtain third-country support for the contras." It states that the Independent Counsel "obtained no evidence that Bush was aware of the diversion."[^88] The same summary says that the pardon of [[Caspar Weinberger]] on December 24, 1992 "pre-empted a trial in which defense counsel indicated that they intended to call Bush as a witness."[^88]
-Chapter 28 of the report, headed "George Bush," records that Bush told the FBI in December 1986, and was deposed by the Independent Counsel on January 11, 1988, that he had been regularly informed of events connected with the arms sales, including the 1985 Israeli missile shipments. Walsh writes that these statements "conflicted with his more extreme public assertions that he was 'out of the loop' regarding the operational details of the Iran initiative."[^83] Walsh also writes that "The criminal investigation of Bush was regrettably incomplete."[^83]
+Chapter 28 of the report, headed "George Bush," records that Bush told the FBI in December 1986, and was deposed by the Independent Counsel on January 11, 1988, that he had been regularly informed of events connected with the arms sales, including the 1985 Israeli missile shipments. Walsh writes that these statements "conflicted with his more extreme public assertions that he was 'out of the loop' regarding the operational details of the Iran initiative."[^89] Walsh also writes that "The criminal investigation of Bush was regrettably incomplete."[^89]
-In 1988 Bush told the [[Washington Post]], "The President and I cooperated fully with the various investigations, turned over thousands of documents and directed our staffs to do the same."[^84] In September 1992 he said, "I have nothing to explain."[^84]
+In 1988 Bush told the [[Washington Post]], "The President and I cooperated fully with the various investigations, turned over thousands of documents and directed our staffs to do the same."[^90] In September 1992 he said, "I have nothing to explain."[^90]
-Part IX of the report, on the White House investigations, states that the Independent Counsel "concluded that no criminal charges should be brought against President Reagan, Vice President Bush, Meese or Regan because the belated production of notes and other documents delayed the investigation beyond the point where it could be effective."[^85] The same part states that senior advisers including Vice President Bush "were informed in 1985 of presidential approval of the transactions." It also says that the Independent Counsel "found considerable evidence that the President and the Vice President knew about and, in some instances, directly participated in contra-funding efforts during this period."[^85]
+Part IX of the report, on the White House investigations, states that the Independent Counsel "concluded that no criminal charges should be brought against President Reagan, Vice President Bush, Meese or Regan because the belated production of notes and other documents delayed the investigation beyond the point where it could be effective."[^91] The same part states that senior advisers including Vice President Bush "were informed in 1985 of presidential approval of the transactions." It also says that the Independent Counsel "found considerable evidence that the President and the Vice President knew about and, in some instances, directly participated in contra-funding efforts during this period."[^91]
-The diary is the subject of a separate passage. Walsh writes that "[t]he personal diary of Vice President Bush was disclosed to Independent Counsel only in December 1992, despite early and repeated requests for such documents."[^86] On December 11, 1992 [[Chester Paul Beach]], associate counsel to President Bush, informed the Independent Counsel that a diary kept by Bush from his vice presidency had not been produced. The report describes it as consisting of "Bush's nightly dictation concerning the events of the day."[^86] The first entry, dated November 4, 1986, describes "the beginning of what I hope will be an accurate diary." An entry for November 5, 1986 reads: "I'm one of the few people that know fully the details."[^87]
+The diary is the subject of a separate passage. Walsh writes that "[t]he personal diary of Vice President Bush was disclosed to Independent Counsel only in December 1992, despite early and repeated requests for such documents."[^92] On December 11, 1992 [[Chester Paul Beach]], associate counsel to President Bush, informed the Independent Counsel that a diary kept by Bush from his vice presidency had not been produced. The report describes it as consisting of "Bush's nightly dictation concerning the events of the day."[^92] The first entry, dated November 4, 1986, describes "the beginning of what I hope will be an accurate diary." An entry for November 5, 1986 reads: "I'm one of the few people that know fully the details."[^93]
-The report records a document request that reached the vice president's office. C. Boyden Gray and John Schmitz told office heads that the request "covers all personal and official records of OVP staff members."[^88]
+The report records a document request that reached the vice president's office. C. Boyden Gray and John Schmitz told office heads that the request "covers all personal and official records of OVP staff members."[^94]
-After the pardons, Bush refused to be interviewed unless the interview was limited to his non-production of the diary and personal notes. The Independent Counsel declined those conditions. In late February 1993 Bush's counsel set out six professed obstacles to a deposition.[^84] The report states that a grand jury subpoena was not issued because the office did not believe there was an appropriate likelihood of a criminal prosecution.[^86]
+After the pardons, Bush refused to be interviewed unless the interview was limited to his non-production of the diary and personal notes. The Independent Counsel declined those conditions. In late February 1993 Bush's counsel set out six professed obstacles to a deposition.[^90] The report states that a grand jury subpoena was not issued because the office did not believe there was an appropriate likelihood of a criminal prosecution.[^92]
-On December 24, 1992 Bush issued Proclamation 6518, granting pardons to Caspar Weinberger, [[Robert McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], [[Dewey Clarridge]], [[Clair George]] and [[Alan Fiers]]. In the proclamation Bush wrote that "the common denominator of their motivation ... was patriotism." He described the prosecutions as "a profoundly troubling development in the political and legal climate of our country: the criminalization of policy differences. ... The proper target is the President, not his subordinates; the proper forum is the voting booth, not the courtroom."[^89]
+On December 24, 1992 Bush issued Proclamation 6518, granting pardons to Caspar Weinberger, [[Robert McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], [[Dewey Clarridge]], [[Clair George]] and [[Alan Fiers]]. In the proclamation Bush wrote that "the common denominator of their motivation ... was patriotism." He described the prosecutions as "a profoundly troubling development in the political and legal climate of our country: the criminalization of policy differences. ... The proper target is the President, not his subordinates; the proper forum is the voting booth, not the courtroom."[^95]
-Walsh responded that the pardon of Weinberger "undermines the principle that no man is above the law."[^90] The Fourth Interim Report of February 8, 1993 includes the phrase "prevent full disclosure of some new key fact to the American people," and states that the pardon "thwarted the public airing of new and disturbing facts about the actions of Weinberger and other senior Executive Branch officials."[^91]
+Walsh responded that the pardon of Weinberger "undermines the principle that no man is above the law."[^96] The Fourth Interim Report of February 8, 1993 includes the phrase "prevent full disclosure of some new key fact to the American people," and states that the pardon "thwarted the public airing of new and disturbing facts about the actions of Weinberger and other senior Executive Branch officials."[^97]
-The [[Tower Commission]] also examined the Vice President's contacts with Israeli channels. Its report records that "The Vice President was in Israel on July 29. While there, he met with Nir." The Vice President told the board that, before the meeting, he had been uneasy and tried to call [[John Poindexter]].[^92] Bush related that his discussion with Amiram Nir "was generally about counterterrorism. There was no discussion of specifics relating to arms going to the Iranians, e.g., the price of TOW missiles was never raised."[^92] The report also contains the phrase that the interests of the United States were "in the grip of the Israelis."[^92]
+The [[Tower Commission]] also examined the Vice President's contacts with Israeli channels. Its report records that "The Vice President was in Israel on July 29. While there, he met with Nir." The Vice President told the board that, before the meeting, he had been uneasy and tried to call [[John Poindexter]].[^98] Bush related that his discussion with Amiram Nir "was generally about counterterrorism. There was no discussion of specifics relating to arms going to the Iranians, e.g., the price of TOW missiles was never raised."[^98] The report also contains the phrase that the interests of the United States were "in the grip of the Israelis."[^98]
-At the National Security Planning Group meeting of June 25, 1984, the minutes record Casey saying: "We need the legal opinion which makes clear that the US has the authority to facilitate third country funding for the anti-Sandinistas." Vice President Bush asked: "How can anyone object to the US encouraging third parties to provide help to the anti-Sandinistas under the finding? The only problem that might come up is if the United States were to promise to give these third parties something in return so that some people could interpret this as some kind of an exchange." Robert McFarlane proposed "that there be no authority for anyone to seek third party support for the anti-Sandinistas until we have the information we need," and Reagan said: "If such a story gets out, we'll all be hanging by our thumbs in front of the White House until we find out who did it." The meeting took place under the [[Boland Amendment]].[^93]
+At the National Security Planning Group meeting of June 25, 1984, the minutes record Casey saying: "We need the legal opinion which makes clear that the US has the authority to facilitate third country funding for the anti-Sandinistas." Vice President Bush asked: "How can anyone object to the US encouraging third parties to provide help to the anti-Sandinistas under the finding? The only problem that might come up is if the United States were to promise to give these third parties something in return so that some people could interpret this as some kind of an exchange." Robert McFarlane proposed "that there be no authority for anyone to seek third party support for the anti-Sandinistas until we have the information we need," and Reagan said: "If such a story gets out, we'll all be hanging by our thumbs in front of the White House until we find out who did it." The meeting took place under the [[Boland Amendment]].[^99]
-The [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|Enterprise]] ran the Contra supply operation through the Ilopango Airbase in [[El Salvador]], where CIA Hangar No. 4 was turned over to its operations in 1985; Felix Rodriguez, who had connections to Gregg, then National Security Adviser to the Vice President, coordinated aircraft and logistics there.[^94]
+The [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|Enterprise]] ran the Contra supply operation through the Ilopango Airbase in [[El Salvador]], where CIA Hangar No. 4 was turned over to its operations in 1985; Felix Rodriguez, who had connections to Gregg, then National Security Adviser to the Vice President, coordinated aircraft and logistics there.[^100]
-In 1992 Bush asked former Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]] to assist in seeking the release of Bush's Iran-Contra deposition, and on December 30, 1992 the White House press secretary issued a statement on the investigation.[^95] Barr later said that at the end of the administration he advised Bush to pardon Weinberger "and about five others," and of the Iran-Contra pardons: "I certainly did not oppose any of them."[^96] [[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta BNL manager, was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after Bush ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]].[^97]
+In 1992 Bush asked former Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]] to assist in seeking the release of Bush's Iran-Contra deposition, and on December 30, 1992 the White House press secretary issued a statement on the investigation.[^101] Barr later said that at the end of the administration he advised Bush to pardon Weinberger "and about five others," and of the Iran-Contra pardons: "I certainly did not oppose any of them."[^102] [[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta BNL manager, was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after Bush ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]].[^103]
 ### The October Surprise
-The October Surprise allegation concerns whether the 1980 Reagan campaign delayed the release of the American hostages held in Iran until after the election. The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] issued its joint report on January 3, 1993 as Calendar No. 634 of the 102d Congress.[^98]
+The October Surprise allegation concerns whether the 1980 Reagan campaign delayed the release of the American hostages held in Iran until after the election. The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] issued its joint report on January 3, 1993 as Calendar No. 634 of the 102d Congress.[^104]
-In the task force's account of Ari Ben-Menashe's claims about the Paris meetings of October 1980, he remained in the foyer, and "[j]ust prior to the meeting Mehdi Karrubi arrived, followed shortly by George Bush and William Casey by way of an elevator reserved for this purpose."[^99] The report records that Ben-Menashe "had told reporters for [[Newsweek]] magazine that he was positive he had seen George Bush at the Paris meetings on both October 19 and October 20, 1980." The report also notes that Sukkot fell on September 25 in 1980.[^99]
+In the task force's account of Ari Ben-Menashe's claims about the Paris meetings of October 1980, he remained in the foyer, and "[j]ust prior to the meeting Mehdi Karrubi arrived, followed shortly by George Bush and William Casey by way of an elevator reserved for this purpose."[^105] The report records that Ben-Menashe "had told reporters for [[Newsweek]] magazine that he was positive he had seen George Bush at the Paris meetings on both October 19 and October 20, 1980." The report also notes that Sukkot fell on September 25 in 1980.[^105]
-The task force concludes that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, "like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication."[^99] On Ben-Menashe's account of a meeting at the L'Enfant Plaza hotel in Washington, which he tied to the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]], the task force wrote that "Ben-Menashe's account is demonstrably false from beginning to end."[^100] It states that the personnel records supplied by the Government of Israel, with Ben-Menashe's contemporaneous handwritten answers to the questions he had to answer for the External Relations Department when traveling abroad, showed that he did not travel outside Israel in October 1980, and that exit stamps on his civilian passport indicated the same.[^99]
+The task force concludes that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, "like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication."[^105] On Ben-Menashe's account of a meeting at the L'Enfant Plaza hotel in Washington, which he tied to the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]], the task force wrote that "Ben-Menashe's account is demonstrably false from beginning to end."[^106] It states that the personnel records supplied by the Government of Israel, with Ben-Menashe's contemporaneous handwritten answers to the questions he had to answer for the External Relations Department when traveling abroad, showed that he did not travel outside Israel in October 1980, and that exit stamps on his civilian passport indicated the same.[^105]
-On Bush's whereabouts the task force reports that Secret Service records place him in Washington on October 19 and campaigning on October 20, 1980. It states that "these records and testimony conclusively prove candidate George Bush's whereabouts in October, 1980," and that "The Task Force has determined that Bush did not travel to Paris during the period of time in question as has been alleged by many October Surprise witnesses."[^101] The report generalizes the point: "In almost all instances, the evidence clearly establishes the presence of major alleged participants in Paris meetings to be someplace else, doing something else."[^102]
+On Bush's whereabouts the task force reports that Secret Service records place him in Washington on October 19 and campaigning on October 20, 1980. It states that "these records and testimony conclusively prove candidate George Bush's whereabouts in October, 1980," and that "The Task Force has determined that Bush did not travel to Paris during the period of time in question as has been alleged by many October Surprise witnesses."[^107] The report generalizes the point: "In almost all instances, the evidence clearly establishes the presence of major alleged participants in Paris meetings to be someplace else, doing something else."[^108]
-[[Richard Brenneke]] testified that a pilot, Rupp, flew Bush, Casey and others to Paris. The task force records that at Brenneke's trial in Oregon in 1990 he retracted his earlier testimony that he had seen Bush and Allen at the meeting.[^103] The task force states that "Brenneke's testimony that he was in Paris is false." Brenneke's 1980 daily calendar "indicates that he was in the Pacific Northwest when he claimed to have been in Paris."[^104] The report also says that Brenneke "played a central role in falsely propagating the October Surprise allegations for financial and personal reasons."[^104]
+[[Richard Brenneke]] testified that a pilot, Rupp, flew Bush, Casey and others to Paris. The task force records that at Brenneke's trial in Oregon in 1990 he retracted his earlier testimony that he had seen Bush and Allen at the meeting.[^109] The task force states that "Brenneke's testimony that he was in Paris is false." Brenneke's 1980 daily calendar "indicates that he was in the Pacific Northwest when he claimed to have been in Paris."[^110] The report also says that Brenneke "played a central role in falsely propagating the October Surprise allegations for financial and personal reasons."[^110]
-A 1988 Senate subcommittee report summarizes Brenneke's claims that he had "personally discussed the operation with members of the Vice President's staff." The subcommittee concluded that although Brenneke produced thousands of pages of documents relating to proposed arms deals, "there is no evidence that any of them ever came to fruition." It also found that Brenneke "received completely fabricated information about arms deals from undercover agents of the Customs Service."[^105]
+A 1988 Senate subcommittee report summarizes Brenneke's claims that he had "personally discussed the operation with members of the Vice President's staff." The subcommittee concluded that although Brenneke produced thousands of pages of documents relating to proposed arms deals, "there is no evidence that any of them ever came to fruition." It also found that Brenneke "received completely fabricated information about arms deals from undercover agents of the Customs Service."[^111]
-The task force examined the calendar of William J. Casey. It records a July 30, 1980 entry for a 6:45 p.m. dinner with George Bush at the Alibi Club.[^106] The report's analysis of Casey's movements states that "The evidence strongly indicates that Casey departed the United States on July 27, arrived in London on July 28, and departed London for the United States on July 29."[^107] Loose calendar pages for July 26 and 27, October 21, October 29, November 3 through 11, and November 13 are listed as missing. The task force states that "[t]he dates July 26th and October 21st are of particular interest to the Task Force."[^108]
+The task force examined the calendar of William J. Casey. It records a July 30, 1980 entry for a 6:45 p.m. dinner with George Bush at the Alibi Club.[^112] The report's analysis of Casey's movements states that "The evidence strongly indicates that Casey departed the United States on July 27, arrived in London on July 28, and departed London for the United States on July 29."[^113] Loose calendar pages for July 26 and 27, October 21, October 29, November 3 through 11, and November 13 are listed as missing. The task force states that "[t]he dates July 26th and October 21st are of particular interest to the Task Force."[^114]
-[[Robert Parry]] reported in 2011 on a memorandum for the record that Beach wrote on November 4, 1991. The memorandum records that State Department legal adviser Edwin D. Williamson told Beach that the department held material that included "a cable from the Madrid embassy indicating that Bill Casey was in town, for purposes unknown."[^109] Parry writes that "there's no indication that the White House told investigators about Williamson's information," and that the Bush library withholds nearly a quarter of its roughly 4,800 pages.[^109]
+[[Robert Parry]] reported in 2011 on a memorandum for the record that Beach wrote on November 4, 1991. The memorandum records that State Department legal adviser Edwin D. Williamson told Beach that the department held material that included "a cable from the Madrid embassy indicating that Bill Casey was in town, for purposes unknown."[^115] Parry writes that "there's no indication that the White House told investigators about Williamson's information," and that the Bush library withholds nearly a quarter of its roughly 4,800 pages.[^115]
-The task force also records Reagan's statements. In a June 15, 1991 interview Reagan said, "I did some things actually the other way, to try and be of help in getting those hostages." In a sworn written answer dated October 23, 1992 he wrote that "I and Reagan/Bush campaign officials made it clear by our conduct and statements during the campaign that we were supportive of the Carter administration efforts to secure the release of American hostages held in Iran."[^110]
+The task force also records Reagan's statements. In a June 15, 1991 interview Reagan said, "I did some things actually the other way, to try and be of help in getting those hostages." In a sworn written answer dated October 23, 1992 he wrote that "I and Reagan/Bush campaign officials made it clear by our conduct and statements during the campaign that we were supportive of the Carter administration efforts to secure the release of American hostages held in Iran."[^116]
-Ben-Menashe's account of the Paris meeting names others besides Bush and Casey. He wrote that [[George Cave]], Robert McFarlane and Donald Gregg attended; that [[Simon Gabbay]] coordinated the October 1980 meeting between Israeli and Iranian delegations that included Bush, Casey and [[Mehdi Karrubi]], with the aim of eliminating direct contact between Israeli and Iranian embassy personnel; and that [[Uri Simchoni]] was part of the Israeli delegation.[^61] Cave also attended a meeting in [[Santiago]] in late 1986, according to Ben-Menashe, where American officials reaffirmed their intention to maintain arms channels to Iraq.[^61] [[Barbara Honegger]] published *October Surprise* (Tudor Publishing, 1989), one of the first extended accounts of the allegations; she alleged meetings in Madrid in July 1980 and in Paris in October 1980 involving Casey, Bush and European intermediaries including de Marenches.[^111]
+Ben-Menashe's account of the Paris meeting names others besides Bush and Casey. He wrote that [[George Cave]], Robert McFarlane and Donald Gregg attended; that [[Simon Gabbay]] coordinated the October 1980 meeting between Israeli and Iranian delegations that included Bush, Casey and [[Mehdi Karrubi]], with the aim of eliminating direct contact between Israeli and Iranian embassy personnel; and that [[Uri Simchoni]] was part of the Israeli delegation.[^67] Cave also attended a meeting in [[Santiago]] in late 1986, according to Ben-Menashe, where American officials reaffirmed their intention to maintain arms channels to Iraq.[^67] [[Barbara Honegger]] published *October Surprise* (Tudor Publishing, 1989), one of the first extended accounts of the allegations; she alleged meetings in Madrid in July 1980 and in Paris in October 1980 involving Casey, Bush and European intermediaries including de Marenches.[^117]
-[[Cheri Seymour]] wrote in *The Last Circle* that the attorney [[Paul Wilcher]] believed his client [[Gunther Karl Russbacher]] to be a political prisoner persecuted because he allegedly flew former President Bush to Paris to meet leading Iranians to make a deal to supply Iran with weapons in exchange for keeping the 52 American hostages until after the November election. On or about May 21, 1993 Wilcher hand-delivered a 100-page letter to Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] claiming that holdover Justice Department employees from the Reagan-Bush era were responsible for government cover-ups; he was interviewed by [[Carl Stern]], Reno's public relations officer, on or about June 11, and his body was found in his apartment on June 23, 1993. [[Sarah McClendon]], a White House correspondent and friend of Wilcher, wrote that Wilcher held the Russbacher belief.[^112] Seymour also wrote that [[Michael Riconosciuto]], a source of [[Danny Casolaro]]'s investigation of [[The Octopus]], claimed that he and an associate named Brian personally carried $40 million to Iranian officials for that purpose.[^112]
+[[Cheri Seymour]] wrote in *The Last Circle* that the attorney [[Paul Wilcher]] believed his client [[Gunther Karl Russbacher]] to be a political prisoner persecuted because he allegedly flew former President Bush to Paris to meet leading Iranians to make a deal to supply Iran with weapons in exchange for keeping the 52 American hostages until after the November election. On or about May 21, 1993 Wilcher hand-delivered a 100-page letter to Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] claiming that holdover Justice Department employees from the Reagan-Bush era were responsible for government cover-ups; he was interviewed by [[Carl Stern]], Reno's public relations officer, on or about June 11, and his body was found in his apartment on June 23, 1993. [[Sarah McClendon]], a White House correspondent and friend of Wilcher, wrote that Wilcher held the Russbacher belief.[^118] Seymour also wrote that [[Michael Riconosciuto]], a source of [[Danny Casolaro]]'s investigation of [[The Octopus]], claimed that he and an associate named Brian personally carried $40 million to Iranian officials for that purpose.[^118]
 ### The Presidency: Panama, Appointees and Executive Actions
-Bush was inaugurated as the 41st President on January 20, 1989.[^113] [[Dick Cheney]] recalled in the Miller Center oral history of the Bush presidency that "Panama was a great training experience for us as an administration. We had the opportunity to have an objective, have to use force, coordinate with the Congress, deal with the public, all of those things that come with using the force." The invasion of [[Panama]] in December 1989 removed Manuel Noriega; [[Colin Powell]], then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said in the same project: "Nobody even remembers the Panama war. You don't ever hear of it. But I viewed it as the template of how we should do things."[^114] Seymour wrote that the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] was contrasted with the Medellin Cartel, which Noriega chose to support, ultimately leading to his ousting by Bush; she wrote that the DEA's Centac 21 task force, which had targeted [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Jose Santacruz Londono]] in the 1978 indictments, was dismantled under the Reagan and Bush administrations, leaving disgruntled agents to suspect a CIA connection.[^112] Seymour added that Bush reportedly made secret visits to Damascus for hostage negotiations, and that after Desert Storm Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III]] encouraged [[Syria]] and Israel to recognize each other's Lebanese occupation zones under a 1990 accord that left Syria in control of the Bekaa Valley.[^112]
+Bush was inaugurated as the 41st President on January 20, 1989.[^119] [[Dick Cheney]] recalled in the Miller Center oral history of the Bush presidency that "Panama was a great training experience for us as an administration. We had the opportunity to have an objective, have to use force, coordinate with the Congress, deal with the public, all of those things that come with using the force." The invasion of [[Panama]] in December 1989 removed Manuel Noriega; [[Colin Powell]], then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said in the same project: "Nobody even remembers the Panama war. You don't ever hear of it. But I viewed it as the template of how we should do things."[^120] Seymour wrote that the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] was contrasted with the Medellin Cartel, which Noriega chose to support, ultimately leading to his ousting by Bush; she wrote that the DEA's Centac 21 task force, which had targeted [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Jose Santacruz Londono]] in the 1978 indictments, was dismantled under the Reagan and Bush administrations, leaving disgruntled agents to suspect a CIA connection.[^118] Seymour added that Bush reportedly made secret visits to Damascus for hostage negotiations, and that after Desert Storm Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III]] encouraged [[Syria]] and Israel to recognize each other's Lebanese occupation zones under a 1990 accord that left Syria in control of the Bekaa Valley.[^118]
-The Cox Committee counted twelve national-interest determinations for launches of commercial satellites on Chinese rockets between 1989 and early 1998, three by President Bush and nine by [[Bill Clinton]]; the last, of February 18, 1998, applied to the Loral-built [[Chinasat-8]] satellite, a company then headed by [[Bernard L. Schwartz]].[^115] [[National Security Directive 67]], signed by Bush on March 30, 1992, replaced the lettered programs of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] with three functional directorates, and the existence of the office was declassified on September 18, 1992.[^116] Bush's report to Congress of September 1991 under the [[Iraq Sanctions Act of 1990]] stated that "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." Gonzalez said that after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, [[SerVaas Inc.]] renegotiated a brass-plant contract with its Iraqi counterparts and sold it through a foreign holding company to escape the president's order freezing Iraqi assets.[^117] The prime minister of [[Jamaica]], [[Michael Manley]], sworn in again on February 13, 1989, said that he planned to travel to Washington to meet Bush, congressional leaders and officials of the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].[^118]
+The Cox Committee counted twelve national-interest determinations for launches of commercial satellites on Chinese rockets between 1989 and early 1998, three by President Bush and nine by [[Bill Clinton]]; the last, of February 18, 1998, applied to the Loral-built [[Chinasat-8]] satellite, a company then headed by [[Bernard L. Schwartz]].[^121] [[National Security Directive 67]], signed by Bush on March 30, 1992, replaced the lettered programs of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] with three functional directorates, and the existence of the office was declassified on September 18, 1992.[^122] Bush's report to Congress of September 1991 under the [[Iraq Sanctions Act of 1990]] stated that "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." Gonzalez said that after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, [[SerVaas Inc.]] renegotiated a brass-plant contract with its Iraqi counterparts and sold it through a foreign holding company to escape the president's order freezing Iraqi assets.[^123] The prime minister of [[Jamaica]], [[Michael Manley]], sworn in again on February 13, 1989, said that he planned to travel to Washington to meet Bush, congressional leaders and officials of the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].[^124]
-Richard Thornburgh continued as Attorney General under Bush through 1991, resigning in August 1991 to run for the Senate.[^119] [[Kenneth Starr]] was the 39th Solicitor General from 1989 to 1993 under Bush.[^120] [[Steve Forbes|Malcolm S. Forbes Jr.]], president of [[Forbes]] magazine, was renominated to the Board for International Broadcasting, which oversees [[Radio Free Europe]], by the Bush White House on January 4, 1990 and again on June 19, 1992, each time with designation as chairman.[^121] [[Jay Lefkowitz]] served under Bush as deputy executive secretary of the [[Domestic Policy Council]] and director of cabinet affairs.[^122] [[Loretta Preska]] was appointed a judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]] by Bush in 1992.[^123] Lawrence Eagleburger, president of [[Kissinger Associates]] from 1984 to 1989, was deputy secretary of state under Baker and secretary of state in the last weeks of the administration; Brent Scowcroft, vice chairman of the firm's Washington office, became national security adviser in January 1989.[^124]
+Richard Thornburgh continued as Attorney General under Bush through 1991, resigning in August 1991 to run for the Senate.[^125] [[Kenneth Starr]] was the 39th Solicitor General from 1989 to 1993 under Bush.[^126] [[Steve Forbes|Malcolm S. Forbes Jr.]], president of [[Forbes]] magazine, was renominated to the Board for International Broadcasting, which oversees [[Radio Free Europe]], by the Bush White House on January 4, 1990 and again on June 19, 1992, each time with designation as chairman.[^127] [[Jay Lefkowitz]] served under Bush as deputy executive secretary of the [[Domestic Policy Council]] and director of cabinet affairs.[^128] [[Loretta Preska]] was appointed a judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]] by Bush in 1992.[^129] Lawrence Eagleburger, president of [[Kissinger Associates]] from 1984 to 1989, was deputy secretary of state under Baker and secretary of state in the last weeks of the administration; Brent Scowcroft, vice chairman of the firm's Washington office, became national security adviser in January 1989.[^130]
 ### Iraq, Osirak, and the Teicher Declaration
-The Teicher declaration of January 31, 1995, on the [[Iran-Iraq War]], filed in the Florida prosecution of [[Carlos Cardoen]] and others, states in paragraph 7 that a secret 1986 message from Reagan to [[Saddam Hussein]], urging a stepped-up air war against Iran, was delivered by Vice President Bush to [[Hosni Mubarak]], who passed it to Saddam Hussein. The declaration also states that Teicher wrote Bush's talking points for the 1986 meeting with Mubarak.[^125] A corrective declaration filed in October 1996 addresses paragraphs 15 through 18.[^126]
+The Teicher declaration of January 31, 1995, on the [[Iran-Iraq War]], filed in the Florida prosecution of [[Carlos Cardoen]] and others, states in paragraph 7 that a secret 1986 message from Reagan to [[Saddam Hussein]], urging a stepped-up air war against Iran, was delivered by Vice President Bush to [[Hosni Mubarak]], who passed it to Saddam Hussein. The declaration also states that Teicher wrote Bush's talking points for the 1986 meeting with Mubarak.[^131] A corrective declaration filed in October 1996 addresses paragraphs 15 through 18.[^132]
 ### The BNL and Iraqgate Record
-The Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro extended credits to [[Iraq]] that the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] examined in February 1993. The committee reports that a National Security Council Deputies Committee meeting on May 29, 1990 was held "to resolve the issue of the second $500 million tranche," and that [[Robert M. Gates]] chaired it.[^127] Barr and Richard opposed going forward with the second tranche, citing the prosecutor's intent to indict Iraqi officials who were involved in "significant criminal violations." The meeting's conclusion was "that the Iraqi government simply be advised that the U.S. would not go forward with the second tranche until the investigation in Atlanta was completed."[^127] The indictment in Atlanta was returned on February 28, 1991.[^127]
+The Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro extended credits to [[Iraq]] that the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] examined in February 1993. The committee reports that a National Security Council Deputies Committee meeting on May 29, 1990 was held "to resolve the issue of the second $500 million tranche," and that [[Robert M. Gates]] chaired it.[^133] Barr and Richard opposed going forward with the second tranche, citing the prosecutor's intent to indict Iraqi officials who were involved in "significant criminal violations." The meeting's conclusion was "that the Iraqi government simply be advised that the U.S. would not go forward with the second tranche until the investigation in Atlanta was completed."[^133] The indictment in Atlanta was returned on February 28, 1991.[^133]
-On October 2, 1989 Bush signed [[National Security Directive 26]], classified SECRET. It states that the government "should propose economic and political incentives for Iraq to moderate its behavior and to increase our influence with Iraq," and that "any illegal use of chemical and/or biological weapons will lead to economic and political sanctions."[^128]
+On October 2, 1989 Bush signed [[National Security Directive 26]], classified SECRET. It states that the government "should propose economic and political incentives for Iraq to moderate its behavior and to increase our influence with Iraq," and that "any illegal use of chemical and/or biological weapons will lead to economic and political sanctions."[^134]
-The [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program]] ran alongside the BNL loans. On October 6, 1989 Secretary of State Baker assured [[Tariq Aziz]] that American concern over proliferation was worldwide and not directed at Iraq; the department then offered Iraq 500 million dollars in guarantees, with a second 500 million to follow "after successful conclusion of the BNL investigation," a condition Iraq rejected.[^129] Friedman wrote in *Spider's Web* on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the House Banking Committee under Gonzalez documented the Reagan administration's and the early Bush administration's consistent support for Iraq's weapons procurement networks, including knowledge of chemical weapons use.[^130]
+The [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program]] ran alongside the BNL loans. On October 6, 1989 Secretary of State Baker assured [[Tariq Aziz]] that American concern over proliferation was worldwide and not directed at Iraq; the department then offered Iraq 500 million dollars in guarantees, with a second 500 million to follow "after successful conclusion of the BNL investigation," a condition Iraq rejected.[^135] Friedman wrote in *Spider's Web* on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the House Banking Committee under Gonzalez documented the Reagan administration's and the early Bush administration's consistent support for Iraq's weapons procurement networks, including knowledge of chemical weapons use.[^136]
-In a 1992 statement in the House, Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] quoted the sentence "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." He added that "[s]everal Bush administration officials in a position to know the truth have testified before Congress about the United States role in enhancing Iraq's military capability."[^131] The White House's unclassified summary of September 1991 uses different language on the same question.[^132]
+In a 1992 statement in the House, Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] quoted the sentence "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." He added that "[s]everal Bush administration officials in a position to know the truth have testified before Congress about the United States role in enhancing Iraq's military capability."[^137] The White House's unclassified summary of September 1991 uses different language on the same question.[^138]
 ### BCCI and the Gulf Finance Network
-The Senate report on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, prepared by Senators John Kerry and [[Hank Brown]] and published in December 1992, describes a figure named Lake who "received $200,000 in payments from Abu Dhabi last fall in connection with this work." The report says he was performing, "as a volunteer, in an unpaid position," the job of "deputy manager to President Bush's re-election campaign."[^133] Kerry, then subcommittee chairman, said at a hearing on March 18, 1992: "I do not believe that Mr. Lake should be sitting in on White House campaign strategy meetings while he is also providing strategy to Sheikh Zayed on how to deal with problems arising out of his ownership of BCCI."[^133]
+The Senate report on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, prepared by Senators John Kerry and [[Hank Brown]] and published in December 1992, describes a figure named Lake who "received $200,000 in payments from Abu Dhabi last fall in connection with this work." The report says he was performing, "as a volunteer, in an unpaid position," the job of "deputy manager to President Bush's re-election campaign."[^139] Kerry, then subcommittee chairman, said at a hearing on March 18, 1992: "I do not believe that Mr. Lake should be sitting in on White House campaign strategy meetings while he is also providing strategy to Sheikh Zayed on how to deal with problems arising out of his ownership of BCCI."[^139]
-The report's chapter on [[Ed Rogers]] quotes Rogers's resignation letter, which states that "The ethics atmosphere at the Bush White House was to go the extra mile...."[^134] The report places [[Sam Bamieh]] in Bush's Team 100 fundraising program in 1988.[^135] It also records that [[Richard Helms]] wrote to Vice President Bush on behalf of [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani|Irvani]] on October 29, 1987.[^136]
+The report's chapter on [[Ed Rogers]] quotes Rogers's resignation letter, which states that "The ethics atmosphere at the Bush White House was to go the extra mile...."[^140] The report places [[Sam Bamieh]] in Bush's Team 100 fundraising program in 1988.[^141] It also records that [[Richard Helms]] wrote to Vice President Bush on behalf of [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani|Irvani]] on October 29, 1987.[^142]
-The Justice Department's response to Kerry's inquiry about its February 1990 letters states that "The first letter by Mr. Saphos is obviously worded poorly."[^137] A July 24, 1990 letter from Deputy Assistant Attorney General [[Bruce Navarro]] to Kerry also appears in the record.[^138] The report asks whether the Customs undercover investigation of BCCI "is the kind of investigation that President Bush and the Congress desire."[^139]
+The Justice Department's response to Kerry's inquiry about its February 1990 letters states that "The first letter by Mr. Saphos is obviously worded poorly."[^143] A July 24, 1990 letter from Deputy Assistant Attorney General [[Bruce Navarro]] to Kerry also appears in the record.[^144] The report asks whether the Customs undercover investigation of BCCI "is the kind of investigation that President Bush and the Congress desire."[^145]
 ### Stephens, Bath and the Gulf Financiers
-[[Jackson Stephens]] of [[Stephens Inc.]] gave to Reagan, Bush and Clinton, and in 1977 introduced the Bank of Credit and Commerce International to the American bank it would secretly acquire.[^140] [[Peter Truell]] and [[Larry Gurwin]] wrote in 1992 that Stephens backed Bush that year while employees of Stephens Inc. gave more money to the Clinton campaign than the employees of all but two other firms; they also wrote that [[Hillary Clinton]], then Hillary Rodham, did legal work in 1978 for Systematics Inc. when it was sued over the stock accumulation for [[Agha Hasan Abedi]].[^141] The firm gave 100,000 dollars to a dinner for President Bush in May 1991, and family members and employees gave more than 83,000 dollars to Clinton by the summer of 1992; [[Worthen Bank]], whose chairman [[Curt Bradbury]] had been a Stephens officer, extended the Clinton campaign a 3.5 million dollar line of credit.[^142]
+[[Jackson Stephens]] of [[Stephens Inc.]] gave to Reagan, Bush and Clinton, and in 1977 introduced the Bank of Credit and Commerce International to the American bank it would secretly acquire.[^146] [[Peter Truell]] and [[Larry Gurwin]] wrote in 1992 that Stephens backed Bush that year while employees of Stephens Inc. gave more money to the Clinton campaign than the employees of all but two other firms; they also wrote that [[Hillary Clinton]], then Hillary Rodham, did legal work in 1978 for Systematics Inc. when it was sued over the stock accumulation for [[Agha Hasan Abedi]].[^147] The firm gave 100,000 dollars to a dinner for President Bush in May 1991, and family members and employees gave more than 83,000 dollars to Clinton by the summer of 1992; [[Worthen Bank]], whose chairman [[Curt Bradbury]] had been a Stephens officer, extended the Clinton campaign a 3.5 million dollar line of credit.[^148]
-[[James R. Bath]] told *Time* in 1991 that his friendship with Bush dated from their service in the Guard and that he was only "slightly" acquainted with the then-President.[^143] [[Craig Unger]] wrote in *Salon* in 2004 that the second name on a Guard order, released earlier under the Freedom of Information Act to the researcher Marty Heldt, was Bath's, and that the White House redacted it when it released George W. Bush's military records in March 2004; Bath confirmed that he was the man named and said: "Geo did not use drugs."[^144] [[Lucy Komisar]] wrote in 2007 that in 1976, when Bush headed the CIA, the agency sold some planes of its proprietary airline [[Air America]] to Skyway, "a company owned by Bath and Bin Mahfouz"; she wrote that [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]]'s family bought 20 to 30 percent of BCCI for nearly one billion dollars, and that when [[Harken Energy]] got into financial trouble in 1987 Stephens helped it obtain 25 million dollars from [[Union Bank of Switzerland]] and a board seat went to the Harken shareholder [[Abdullah Taha Bakhsh]], "whose chief banker was BCCI shareholder Bin Mahfouz." Harken's proxy statement of April 25, 1994 listed Bakhsh with 6,935,364 shares, 11.66 percent of its common stock.[^145] *Time* described Bakhsh as the reclusive Saudi who bought an 11 percent stake in Harken, of which George W. Bush was a director.[^146]
+[[James R. Bath]] told *Time* in 1991 that his friendship with Bush dated from their service in the Guard and that he was only "slightly" acquainted with the then-President.[^149] [[Craig Unger]] wrote in *Salon* in 2004 that the second name on a Guard order, released earlier under the Freedom of Information Act to the researcher Marty Heldt, was Bath's, and that the White House redacted it when it released George W. Bush's military records in March 2004; Bath confirmed that he was the man named and said: "Geo did not use drugs."[^150] [[Lucy Komisar]] wrote in 2007 that in 1976, when Bush headed the CIA, the agency sold some planes of its proprietary airline [[Air America]] to Skyway, "a company owned by Bath and Bin Mahfouz"; she wrote that [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]]'s family bought 20 to 30 percent of BCCI for nearly one billion dollars, and that when [[Harken Energy]] got into financial trouble in 1987 Stephens helped it obtain 25 million dollars from [[Union Bank of Switzerland]] and a board seat went to the Harken shareholder [[Abdullah Taha Bakhsh]], "whose chief banker was BCCI shareholder Bin Mahfouz." Harken's proxy statement of April 25, 1994 listed Bakhsh with 6,935,364 shares, 11.66 percent of its common stock.[^151] *Time* described Bakhsh as the reclusive Saudi who bought an 11 percent stake in Harken, of which George W. Bush was a director.[^152]
 ### Hinckley
-John W. Hinckley Jr. shot President Reagan on March 30, 1981. The [[Houston Post]] reported that Neil Bush, a son of Vice President Bush, had been scheduled to have dinner the day after the shooting with [[Scott Hinckley]], the brother of the gunman. WhoWhatWhy reports that the story was picked up by the Associated Press and UPI.[^147]
+John W. Hinckley Jr. shot President Reagan on March 30, 1981. The [[Houston Post]] reported that Neil Bush, a son of Vice President Bush, had been scheduled to have dinner the day after the shooting with [[Scott Hinckley]], the brother of the gunman. WhoWhatWhy reports that the story was picked up by the Associated Press and UPI.[^153]
-At a press conference the day after the shooting, Neil Bush acknowledged that Scott Hinckley had also been at his house "a couple of months earlier, at his surprise birthday party." Neil Bush said, "I have no idea."[^147]
+At a press conference the day after the shooting, Neil Bush acknowledged that Scott Hinckley had also been at his house "a couple of months earlier, at his surprise birthday party." Neil Bush said, "I have no idea."[^153]
-The vice president's press secretary, [[Peter Teeley]], told a UPI reporter, as WhoWhatWhy quotes him: "I don't know a damn thing about it. All I know is what you're telling me." Teeley said that the vice president "made no mention of it whatsoever."[^147]
+The vice president's press secretary, [[Peter Teeley]], told a UPI reporter, as WhoWhatWhy quotes him: "I don't know a damn thing about it. All I know is what you're telling me." Teeley said that the vice president "made no mention of it whatsoever."[^153]
-The diary of [[Chase Untermyer]], a Bush aide, records that "Neil and Sharon do know Hinckley's brother (in Denver) and were planning to have dinner with them tomorrow night."[^147]
+The diary of [[Chase Untermyer]], a Bush aide, records that "Neil and Sharon do know Hinckley's brother (in Denver) and were planning to have dinner with them tomorrow night."[^153]
-WhoWhatWhy also reports, citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, that the Department of Energy told the Hinckley family's oil business that it might be penalized about $2 million.[^148]
+WhoWhatWhy also reports, citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, that the Department of Energy told the Hinckley family's oil business that it might be penalized about $2 million.[^154]
 ### Franklin Cover-Up Allegations
-[[John DeCamp]] wrote on the Franklin matter in Nebraska. An advertisement for his book, reproduced in a compilation of material gathered by [[Ted Gunderson]], states that the book "contains numerous references to President George Bush."[^149]
+[[John DeCamp]] wrote on the Franklin matter in Nebraska. An advertisement for his book, reproduced in a compilation of material gathered by [[Ted Gunderson]], states that the book "contains numerous references to President George Bush."[^155]
-The same compilation relays a 1989 report in the [[Washington Times]] by [[George Archibald]] that key Reagan and Bush administration officials were ensnared in a federal probe tied to an escort service and [[Craig Spence]].[^150]
+The same compilation relays a 1989 report in the [[Washington Times]] by [[George Archibald]] that key Reagan and Bush administration officials were ensnared in a federal probe tied to an escort service and [[Craig Spence]].[^156]
 ### Allegations in the Casolaro and Mind-Control Literature
-Seymour wrote that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police inquirer [[Sean McDade]] told her that Canadian officials might have bought the PROMIS software unlawfully from officials of the Reagan and Bush administrations, that the RCMP had traced banking transactions supporting this, and that a successful inquiry "could cause the entire U.S. Republican Party to be dismantled."[^112] In September 2001 Admiral Daniel Murphy, who had served as chief of staff to Vice President Bush during the first Reagan term when the PROMIS misappropriations began, told [[Bill Hamilton]] of [[INSLAW]] that he had a "hunch" that there was still another use of PROMIS that INSLAW had not yet discovered; Murphy died on September 21, 2001.[^112]
+Seymour wrote that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police inquirer [[Sean McDade]] told her that Canadian officials might have bought the PROMIS software unlawfully from officials of the Reagan and Bush administrations, that the RCMP had traced banking transactions supporting this, and that a successful inquiry "could cause the entire U.S. Republican Party to be dismantled."[^118] In September 2001 Admiral Daniel Murphy, who had served as chief of staff to Vice President Bush during the first Reagan term when the PROMIS misappropriations began, told [[Bill Hamilton]] of [[INSLAW]] that he had a "hunch" that there was still another use of PROMIS that INSLAW had not yet discovered; Murphy died on September 21, 2001.[^118]
-[[Project Monarch]] is described in a 1996 PROBE article by A.B.H. Alexander, which reports the claim of Cathy O'Brien that she delivered messages to foreign leaders including Mexican President [[Carlos Salinas]] on behalf of Vice President Bush, using keyword-triggered personality compartments.[^151]
+[[Project Monarch]] is described in a 1996 PROBE article by A.B.H. Alexander, which reports the claim of Cathy O'Brien that she delivered messages to foreign leaders including Mexican President [[Carlos Salinas]] on behalf of Vice President Bush, using keyword-triggered personality compartments.[^157]
 ### The Carlyle Group
-In March 2002 Tim Shorrock wrote in [[The Nation]] that "Bush is Carlyle's senior adviser on Asia and makes his money by giving speeches at Carlyle's investment conferences."[^152] The article quotes [[William Conway]] of [[The Carlyle Group]] describing "the cast of ex-Presidents and former officials, including George H.W. Bush, James Baker III and Frank Carlucci, on its payroll."[^152]
+In March 2002 Tim Shorrock wrote in [[The Nation]] that "Bush is Carlyle's senior adviser on Asia and makes his money by giving speeches at Carlyle's investment conferences."[^158] The article quotes [[William Conway]] of [[The Carlyle Group]] describing "the cast of ex-Presidents and former officials, including George H.W. Bush, James Baker III and Frank Carlucci, on its payroll."[^158]
 ### Appointees in the Epstein Record
-Lefkowitz, who served under Bush at the Domestic Policy Council, was later the principal defense negotiator of the September 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] between [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida; he retired from [[Kirkland & Ellis]] in March 2026, saying he would not have taken the Epstein matter "knowing what we all know now."[^153] Starr was a partner at Kirkland before and after his service as Solicitor General.[^153] Preska, whom Bush appointed in 1992, took over [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] after the death of Judge Robert W. Sweet in 2019 and ruled until 2026 on the release of its sealed discovery.[^154] Federal Election Commission records show a 1988 contribution to Bush by [[Philip Scaturro]], whose contributions otherwise went mostly to Democratic candidates.[^155]
+Lefkowitz, who served under Bush at the Domestic Policy Council, was later the principal defense negotiator of the September 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] between [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida; he retired from [[Kirkland & Ellis]] in March 2026, saying he would not have taken the Epstein matter "knowing what we all know now."[^159] Starr was a partner at Kirkland before and after his service as Solicitor General.[^159] Preska, whom Bush appointed in 1992, took over [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] after the death of Judge Robert W. Sweet in 2019 and ruled until 2026 on the release of its sealed discovery.[^160] Federal Election Commission records show a 1988 contribution to Bush by [[Philip Scaturro]], whose contributions otherwise went mostly to Democratic candidates.[^161]
 ### Unidentified Aerial Phenomena and the FBI Vault
-A letter to FBI Director [[William S. Sessions]], held in the Bureau's vault, is quoted by [[Larry Holzwarth]] in a HistoryCollection article. The letter states that "President Bush (George H. W. Bush), when asked about UFOs, told the person asking 'You don't know the half of it.'" The letter writer reminds the director that Bush "was formerly with the CIA." Because the letter calls Bush "President," it can date only from January 1989 onward.[^156]
+A letter to FBI Director [[William S. Sessions]], held in the Bureau's vault, is quoted by [[Larry Holzwarth]] in a HistoryCollection article. The letter states that "President Bush (George H. W. Bush), when asked about UFOs, told the person asking 'You don't know the half of it.'" The letter writer reminds the director that Bush "was formerly with the CIA." Because the letter calls Bush "President," it can date only from January 1989 onward.[^162]
-The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made contact with aliens at a secretive New Mexico air base in 1964. The account was published by OK! Magazine on November 24, 2025 and carried by AOL, and is tied to the documentary *The Age of Disclosure*. When Bush asked for more details, he was told that he did not have a need-to-know.[^157]
+The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made contact with aliens at a secretive New Mexico air base in 1964. The account was published by OK! Magazine on November 24, 2025 and carried by AOL, and is tied to the documentary *The Age of Disclosure*. When Bush asked for more details, he was told that he did not have a need-to-know.[^163]
 ### Footnotes
@ -341,148 +347,154 @@ The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made con
 [^10]: Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, Washington, October 20, 1942, *Federal Register*, November 7, 1942, pp. 9097-9098.
 [^11]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, quoting a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/
 [^12]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, citing a 1968 memorandum and the 1998 release of CIA documents. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/
-[^13]: Zapata Corporation, annual report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1994, filed December 29, 1994, accession 0000899243-94-000388, Item 1 and filer header (former conformed names), CIK 109177.
+[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Biographical Information on George H. W. Bush," undated sheet, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401590001-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401590001-9
-[^14]: SEC EDGAR filing history for CIK 109177 (Zapata Corporation and successor names); start of electronic filings February 8, 1994.
+[^14]: Bob Woodward and Walter Pincus, "Bush Opened Up To Secret Yale Society," Washington Post, dated August 7, 1988 in the CIA reading room record, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580058-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580058-8
-[^15]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to John Pereira, December 18, 1997, CIA release 104-10336-10008.
+[^15]: Randall Rothenberg, "In Search of George Bush," March 6, 1988, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580078-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580078-6
-[^16]: Assassination Records Review Board staff memorandum by Haron, January 8, 1998 (FBIMEM.002).
+[^16]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CovertAction Information Bulletin no. 41 (Summer 1992), CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
-[^17]: CIA memorandum from Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, July 15, 1998 (CIA-IR09).
+[^17]: George Bush, *All the Best, George Bush: My Life in Letters and Other Writings* (New York: Scribner, 1999), biographical note on Neil Mallon, the account of the move to Odessa, the letter of April 12, 1951, and the passage on naming the third son. https://archive.org/details/allbestgeorgebus0000bush
-[^18]: CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to T. Jeremy Gunn, February 25, 1998, within release 104-10336-10008.
+[^18]: George Bush with Victor Gold, *Looking Forward* (New York: Doubleday, 1987). https://archive.org/details/lookingforward00bush
-[^19]: Assassination Records Review Board draft request, "George Bush," undated, bearing Gunn's name.
+[^19]: Zapata Corporation, annual report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1994, filed December 29, 1994, accession 0000899243-94-000388, Item 1 and filer header (former conformed names), CIK 109177.
-[^20]: WhoWhatWhy, "Classic Who: GHW Bush and the JFK Assassination," October 24, 2017, reporting Stephen Hart's 1988 statement and Joseph McBride's report in *The Nation*, July 16, 1988. https://whowhatwhy.org/2017/10/24/classic-ghw-bush-jfk-assassination/
+[^20]: SEC EDGAR filing history for CIK 109177 (Zapata Corporation and successor names); start of electronic filings February 8, 1994.
-[^21]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 13, "The wrong kind of friends."
+[^21]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to John Pereira, December 18, 1997, CIA release 104-10336-10008.
-[^22]: Ronald Reagan, "Statement Announcing the Establishment of a Federal Anticrime Task Force for Southern Florida," January 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-announcing-the-establishment-federal-anticrime-task-force-for-southern-florida
+[^22]: Assassination Records Review Board staff memorandum by Haron, January 8, 1998 (FBIMEM.002).
-[^23]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), statement of Adm. Daniel J. Murphy, pp. 224-225. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152832_0009
+[^23]: CIA memorandum from Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, July 15, 1998 (CIA-IR09).
-[^24]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 19. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
+[^24]: CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to T. Jeremy Gunn, February 25, 1998, within release 104-10336-10008.
-[^25]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 20, "It is a sensitive matter."
+[^25]: Assassination Records Review Board draft request, "George Bush," undated, bearing Gunn's name.
-[^26]: FBI Headquarters file on H.L. Hunt, part 2 (FOIA release), Hunt Oil Company and Estate of H.L. Hunt press releases, March 4 and April 1, 1977, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hunt_H.L.-HQ-2 ; Marie Fagnant (Assassination Records Review Board staff), "Summary of Dallas Figures," memorandum, July 31, 1997; Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/
+[^26]: WhoWhatWhy, "Classic Who: GHW Bush and the JFK Assassination," October 24, 2017, reporting Stephen Hart's 1988 statement and Joseph McBride's report in *The Nation*, July 16, 1988. https://whowhatwhy.org/2017/10/24/classic-ghw-bush-jfk-assassination/
-[^27]: George Bush, Chairman, National Foreign Intelligence Board, letter to Vice Admiral Bobby R. Inman, January 1977 (DCI/IC 77-0402), CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8
+[^27]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 13, "The wrong kind of friends."
-[^28]: "We've Been Asked: What Is the Trilateral Commission?" *U.S. News & World Report*, April 7, 1980, p. 37, reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981).
+[^28]: Ronald Reagan, "Statement Announcing the Establishment of a Federal Anticrime Task Force for Southern Florida," January 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-announcing-the-establishment-federal-anticrime-task-force-for-southern-florida
-[^29]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, The American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
+[^29]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), statement of Adm. Daniel J. Murphy, pp. 224-225. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152832_0009
-[^30]: "The President's News Conference," November 3, 1975. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-60
+[^30]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 19. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
-[^31]: "Remarks at the Swearing In of George Bush as Director of Central Intelligence," January 30, 1976. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-george-bush-director-central-intelligence
+[^31]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 20, "It is a sensitive matter."
-[^32]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 15. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. Reprinted with the author's January 1999 postscript in *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 13, no. 1 (1999).
+[^32]: FBI Headquarters file on H.L. Hunt, part 2 (FOIA release), Hunt Oil Company and Estate of H.L. Hunt press releases, March 4 and April 1, 1977, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hunt_H.L.-HQ-2 ; Marie Fagnant (Assassination Records Review Board staff), "Summary of Dallas Figures," memorandum, July 31, 1997; Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/
-[^33]: Senate nomination record for George H. W. Bush as Director of Central Intelligence, hearings of December 15-16, 1975, and committee report of December 18, 1975. CIA reading room CIA-RDP91-00901R000100050001-3.
+[^33]: George Bush, Chairman, National Foreign Intelligence Board, letter to Vice Admiral Bobby R. Inman, January 1977 (DCI/IC 77-0402), CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8
-[^34]: Center for the Study of Intelligence, "Intelligence and Congress: The Nomination of George H. W. Bush as DCI," *Studies in Intelligence* 65, no. 4 (December 2021). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Article_Intel_Congress_Nomination_ofGHWBush_as_DCI_Studies_65_4_December2021.pdf
+[^34]: "We've Been Asked: What Is the Trilateral Commission?" *U.S. News & World Report*, April 7, 1980, p. 37, reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981).
-[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 170, memorandum from Director of Central Intelligence Bush to recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, with editorial note citing William Beecher, *Boston Globe*, October 20, 1976, and David Binder, *New York Times*, December 26, 1976.
+[^35]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, The American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
-[^36]: "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View, Report of Team B." CIA reading room CIA-RDP91M00696R001000110006-8.
+[^36]: "The President's News Conference," November 3, 1975. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-60
-[^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 174, Bush to Cherne, January 19, 1977.
+[^37]: "Remarks at the Swearing In of George Bush as Director of Central Intelligence," January 30, 1976. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-george-bush-director-central-intelligence
-[^38]: Church Committee, *Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities*, Book I, p. 455 (1976). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
+[^38]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 15. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. Reprinted with the author's January 1999 postscript in *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 13, no. 1 (1999).
-[^39]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, p. 193. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
+[^39]: Senate nomination record for George H. W. Bush as Director of Central Intelligence, hearings of December 15-16, 1975, and committee report of December 18, 1975. CIA reading room CIA-RDP91-00901R000100050001-3.
-[^40]: Norman Kempster, *Washington Star*, February 10, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3.
+[^40]: Center for the Study of Intelligence, "Intelligence and Congress: The Nomination of George H. W. Bush as DCI," *Studies in Intelligence* 65, no. 4 (December 2021). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Article_Intel_Congress_Nomination_ofGHWBush_as_DCI_Studies_65_4_December2021.pdf
-[^41]: "'Operation Chaos' Files Ordered Held," *Washington Star*, June 16, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP90-01208R000100170029-4.
+[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 170, memorandum from Director of Central Intelligence Bush to recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, with editorial note citing William Beecher, *Boston Globe*, October 20, 1976, and David Binder, *New York Times*, December 26, 1976.
-[^42]: Letter from Daniel K. Inouye to George Bush, September 29, 1976. CIA reading room 03303946.
+[^42]: "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View, Report of Team B." CIA reading room CIA-RDP91M00696R001000110006-8.
-[^43]: Letter from Edward H. Levi to George Bush, October 9, 1976, with Scowcroft's endorsement of October 21, 1976. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. E-11, pt. 2, doc. 250.
+[^43]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 174, Bush to Cherne, January 19, 1977.
-[^44]: CIA reading room document 05535911, 1980 radio interview transcript (speaker identified as "MAN").
+[^44]: Church Committee, *Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities*, Book I, p. 455 (1976). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
-[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 209.
+[^45]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, p. 193. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
-[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 217, memorandum quoted in the volume.
+[^46]: Norman Kempster, *Washington Star*, February 10, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3.
-[^47]: Memorandum by George Bush, "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. CIA reading room 00508811.
+[^47]: "'Operation Chaos' Files Ordered Held," *Washington Star*, June 16, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP90-01208R000100170029-4.
-[^48]: Timothy S. Robinson, "The Letelier Case," *The Washington Post*, May 21, 1978, p. A4, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050048-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050048-7.
+[^48]: Letter from Daniel K. Inouye to George Bush, September 29, 1976. CIA reading room 03303946.
-[^49]: Brief for Appellants, *United States v. Sampol*, Nos. 79-1541 and 79-1542 (D.C. Cir. 1979), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-appeal.pdf ; Petition of the United States for Rehearing and Suggestion for Rehearing En Banc, *United States v. Sampol* (D.C. Cir., October 29, 1980), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-rehearing.pdf.
+[^49]: Letter from Edward H. Levi to George Bush, October 9, 1976, with Scowcroft's endorsement of October 21, 1976. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. E-11, pt. 2, doc. 250.
-[^50]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post*, November 1, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100020097-6
+[^50]: CIA reading room document 05535911, 1980 radio interview transcript (speaker identified as "MAN").
-[^51]: Secretary of State to American Embassy Caracas, "Interrogation of Bosch," telegram 1976STATE277225, November 11, 1976, quoting Richard L. Thornburgh's letter of November 5, 1976, Department of State, released 2006; Zach Dorfman, "Codename: Chilbom," *The Atavist Magazine*, no. 59, June 21, 2016. https://magazine.atavist.com/2016/codename-chilbom
+[^51]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 209.
-[^52]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Associate Attorney General, *In the Matter of Orlando Bosch-Avila*, decision of Acting Associate Attorney General Joe D. Whitley in exclusion proceedings, January 23, 1989; National Security Archive, "Bombing of Cuban Jetliner 30 Years Later," Electronic Briefing Book 202, October 5, 2006.
+[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 217, memorandum quoted in the volume.
-[^53]: Peter Kornbluh, "A Modicum of Justice for Ronni Karpen Moffitt," *The Nation*, September 2026.
+[^53]: Memorandum by George Bush, "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. CIA reading room 00508811.
-[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXII, Panama, doc. 133, memorandum of conversation, October 6, 1976, source note.
+[^54]: Timothy S. Robinson, "The Letelier Case," *The Washington Post*, May 21, 1978, p. A4, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050048-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050048-7.
-[^55]: Letter from George Bush to Donald H. Rumsfeld, October 18, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP79-00498A000600090009-7.
+[^55]: Brief for Appellants, *United States v. Sampol*, Nos. 79-1541 and 79-1542 (D.C. Cir. 1979), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-appeal.pdf ; Petition of the United States for Rehearing and Suggestion for Rehearing En Banc, *United States v. Sampol* (D.C. Cir., October 29, 1980), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-rehearing.pdf.
-[^56]: Joseph Trento, *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network* (Carroll & Graf, 2005), pp. 52-108; Alexandre de Marenches and David Andelman, *The Fourth World War* (Random House, 1992); Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, 1976.
+[^56]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post*, November 1, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100020097-6
-[^57]: Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, *La Piscine: Les Services Secrets Français, 1944-1984* (Seuil, 1985); Alexandre de Marenches and Christine Ockrent, *Dans le Secret des Princes* (Stock, 1986).
+[^57]: Secretary of State to American Embassy Caracas, "Interrogation of Bosch," telegram 1976STATE277225, November 11, 1976, quoting Richard L. Thornburgh's letter of November 5, 1976, Department of State, released 2006; Zach Dorfman, "Codename: Chilbom," *The Atavist Magazine*, no. 59, June 21, 2016. https://magazine.atavist.com/2016/codename-chilbom
-[^58]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, 1975; Ludo De Witte, *The Assassination of Lumumba* (Verso, 2001); International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Public Law 94-329, 90 Stat. 729 (June 30, 1976), sec. 404.
+[^58]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Associate Attorney General, *In the Matter of Orlando Bosch-Avila*, decision of Acting Associate Attorney General Joe D. Whitley in exclusion proceedings, January 23, 1989; National Security Archive, "Bombing of Cuban Jetliner 30 Years Later," Electronic Briefing Book 202, October 5, 2006.
-[^59]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history
+[^59]: Peter Kornbluh, "A Modicum of Justice for Ronni Karpen Moffitt," *The Nation*, September 2026.
-[^60]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), ch. 18.
+[^60]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXII, Panama, doc. 133, memorandum of conversation, October 6, 1976, source note.
-[^61]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015).
+[^61]: Letter from George Bush to Donald H. Rumsfeld, October 18, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP79-00498A000600090009-7.
-[^62]: *The Tower Commission Report: The Full Text of the President's Special Review Board* (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books, 1987), pp. 24-25, 30-31; Tom Tugend, "Al Schwimmer, Israel Air Force pioneer, dies at 94," *Jewish Journal* (Los Angeles), June 12, 2011; JTA Staff, "Pardoned American served Israel in 1948," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 28, 2001.
+[^62]: Joseph Trento, *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network* (Carroll & Graf, 2005), pp. 52-108; Alexandre de Marenches and David Andelman, *The Fourth World War* (Random House, 1992); Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, 1976.
-[^63]: Maureen Dowd, "War in the Gulf: The President; Bush Urges Israeli Restraint in Phone Appeals to Shamir," *The New York Times*, January 20, 1991, p. 16. https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/20/world/war-gulf-president-bush-urges-israeli-restraint-phone-appeals-shamir.html
+[^63]: Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, *La Piscine: Les Services Secrets Français, 1944-1984* (Seuil, 1985); Alexandre de Marenches and Christine Ockrent, *Dans le Secret des Princes* (Stock, 1986).
-[^64]: "Decade of the Spy," undated counterintelligence history extract, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 407, Doc. 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/docs/EBB-PollardDoc14.pdf
+[^64]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, 1975; Ludo De Witte, *The Assassination of Lumumba* (Verso, 2001); International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Public Law 94-329, 90 Stat. 729 (June 30, 1976), sec. 404.
-[^65]: Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 16. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0.
+[^65]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history
-[^66]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "List of Events from September 1977 to January 1986," entry for 1983. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00788R001100020001-8.
+[^66]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), ch. 18.
-[^67]: Memorandum for the record, "Briefing," Major Gerald Fox, April 1, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700270002-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700270002-4
+[^67]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015).
-[^68]: Defense Intelligence Agency, S-1004/DT-1, "Minutes of the Meeting, DoD Grill Flame Committee," November 28, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130006-1; "Minutes of the Grill Flame Committee Meeting, 14 Feb 79," CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130002-5.
+[^68]: *The Tower Commission Report: The Full Text of the President's Special Review Board* (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books, 1987), pp. 24-25, 30-31; Tom Tugend, "Al Schwimmer, Israel Air Force pioneer, dies at 94," *Jewish Journal* (Los Angeles), June 12, 2011; JTA Staff, "Pardoned American served Israel in 1948," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 28, 2001.
-[^69]: Dolan M. McKelvy, *Psychic Warfare: Exploring the Mind Frontier*, Air War College research report, Air University, CIA-RDP96-00789R001001420001-3, citing Ronald M. McRae, *Mind Wars* (1984), p. 103. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r001001420001-3
+[^69]: Maureen Dowd, "War in the Gulf: The President; Bush Urges Israeli Restraint in Phone Appeals to Shamir," *The New York Times*, January 20, 1991, p. 16. https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/20/world/war-gulf-president-bush-urges-israeli-restraint-phone-appeals-shamir.html
-[^70]: William J. Casey to Alexander M. Haig, Jr., April 2, 1982, with "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs (April 2, 1982)," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R000701780017-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000701780017-6
+[^70]: "Decade of the Spy," undated counterintelligence history extract, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 407, Doc. 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/docs/EBB-PollardDoc14.pdf
-[^71]: John H. Holdridge, letter, "Australian Intrigue," *Time*, January 3, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820017-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820017-1 ; CBS, "The Nugan Hand Bank," Evening News transcript, September 22, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6
+[^71]: Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 16. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0.
-[^72]: "Vice President George Bush, completing a 10-day trip aimed...," United Press International, April 12, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/12/Vice-President-George-Bush-completing-a-10-day-trip-aimed/5692513666000/ ; "Top-secret cronies," *Salon*, November 17, 2005, https://www.salon.com/2005/11/17/pfiab/
+[^72]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "List of Events from September 1977 to January 1986," entry for 1983. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00788R001100020001-8.
-[^73]: Bill Gertz, "Vice President confirms Buckley was tortured and killed," *Washington Times*, January 21, 1987, CIA-RDP90-00965R000302310058-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302310058-3
+[^73]: Memorandum for the record, "Briefing," Major Gerald Fox, April 1, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700270002-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700270002-4
-[^74]: Denholm Barnetson, "President Mohammad Zia ul-Haq, U.S. Ambassador Arnold Raphel and...," United Press International, August 17, 1988. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/17/President-Mohammad-Zia-ul-Haq-US-Ambassador-Arnold-Raphel-and/3467587793600/
+[^74]: Defense Intelligence Agency, S-1004/DT-1, "Minutes of the Meeting, DoD Grill Flame Committee," November 28, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130006-1; "Minutes of the Grill Flame Committee Meeting, 14 Feb 79," CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130002-5.
-[^75]: Dennis Bernstein and Robert Knight (Pacific News Service), report published by *Salon*, October 8, 1996. https://www.salon.com/1996/10/08/news_555/
+[^75]: Dolan M. McKelvy, *Psychic Warfare: Exploring the Mind Frontier*, Air War College research report, Air University, CIA-RDP96-00789R001001420001-3, citing Ronald M. McRae, *Mind Wars* (1984), p. 103. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r001001420001-3
-[^76]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), Senator Kerry, pp. 265-266.
+[^76]: William J. Casey to Alexander M. Haig, Jr., April 2, 1982, with "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs (April 2, 1982)," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R000701780017-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000701780017-6
-[^77]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), testimony of Danilo Blandon, pp. 136-137.
+[^77]: John H. Holdridge, letter, "Australian Intrigue," *Time*, January 3, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820017-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820017-1 ; CBS, "The Nugan Hand Bank," Evening News transcript, September 22, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6
-[^78]: Lawrence E. Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29, citing Gregg grand jury testimony of October 9, 1987 and Rodriguez grand jury testimony of December 4, 1987. https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_29.htm
+[^78]: "Vice President George Bush, completing a 10-day trip aimed...," United Press International, April 12, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/12/Vice-President-George-Bush-completing-a-10-day-trip-aimed/5692513666000/ ; "Top-secret cronies," *Salon*, November 17, 2005, https://www.salon.com/2005/11/17/pfiab/
-[^79]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), Rodriguez testimony, p. 344.
+[^79]: Bill Gertz, "Vice President confirms Buckley was tortured and killed," *Washington Times*, January 21, 1987, CIA-RDP90-00965R000302310058-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302310058-3
-[^80]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, p. 443. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm
+[^80]: Denholm Barnetson, "President Mohammad Zia ul-Haq, U.S. Ambassador Arnold Raphel and...," United Press International, August 17, 1988. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/17/President-Mohammad-Zia-ul-Haq-US-Ambassador-Arnold-Raphel-and/3467587793600/
-[^81]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 96. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
+[^81]: Dennis Bernstein and Robert Knight (Pacific News Service), report published by *Salon*, October 8, 1996. https://www.salon.com/1996/10/08/news_555/
-[^82]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Executive Summary, p. xviii. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/execsum.htm
+[^82]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), Senator Kerry, pp. 265-266.
-[^83]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, "George Bush," pp. 473-474. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_28.htm
+[^83]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), testimony of Danilo Blandon, pp. 136-137.
-[^84]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 479 and note 67 (*Los Angeles Times*, September 11, 1992; *Washington Post*, 1988).
+[^84]: Lawrence E. Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29, citing Gregg grand jury testimony of October 9, 1987 and Rodriguez grand jury testimony of December 4, 1987. https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_29.htm
-[^85]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, "Investigations of the White House," pp. 443-444. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm
+[^85]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), Rodriguez testimony, p. 344.
-[^86]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, pp. 474-475, on the diary, the pardons and the grand jury.
+[^86]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, p. 443. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm
-[^87]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 480 and note 74 (diary entries of November 4 and 5, 1986).
+[^87]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 96. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
-[^88]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 478.
+[^88]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Executive Summary, p. xviii. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/execsum.htm
-[^89]: Proclamation 6518, Granting Pardons, December 24, 1992, 107 *Stat.* 2606-2607.
+[^89]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, "George Bush," pp. 473-474. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_28.htm
-[^90]: Brown University, Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, Iran-Contra materials, "The Pardons," quoting Walsh's response to the pardon of Caspar Weinberger. https://webhelper.brown.edu/cheit/
+[^90]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 479 and note 67 (*Los Angeles Times*, September 11, 1992; *Washington Post*, 1988).
-[^91]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. II, Fourth Interim Report to Congress, February 8, 1993, pp. 585-587.
+[^91]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, "Investigations of the White House," pp. 443-444. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm
-[^92]: *The Tower Commission Report*, February 26, 1987, pp. 383-384. https://archive.org/details/towercommission00unit
+[^92]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, pp. 474-475, on the diary, the pardons and the grand jury.
-[^93]: National Security Planning Group minutes, June 25, 1984, "Central America," National Security Archive, *The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On*, EBB 210, document 2 (IC 00463), pp. 12, 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/2-NSPG%20minutes%206-25-84%20(IC%2000463).pdf ; Iran-Contra report, ch. 26, pp. 403-404.
+[^93]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 480 and note 74 (diary entries of November 4 and 5, 1986).
-[^94]: Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29 (Gregg and Rodriguez); Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1989), p. 96.
+[^94]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 478.
-[^95]: George Bush, "Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on the Iran-Contra Investigation," December 30, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-press-secretary-fitzwater-the-iran-contra-investigation ; U.S. Department of Justice, "Griffin Boyette Bell," Attorneys General biographies.
+[^95]: Proclamation 6518, Granting Pardons, December 24, 1992, 107 *Stat.* 2606-2607.
-[^96]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project (remarks on Bua, Lacey, Civiletti, inherent authority, and the pardons). https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history
+[^96]: Brown University, Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, Iran-Contra materials, "The Pardons," quoting Walsh's response to the pardon of Caspar Weinberger. https://webhelper.brown.edu/cheit/
-[^97]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993), pp. 4-5, 10; Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345; "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," United Press International, December 9, 1993; *United States v. Drogoul*, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993).
+[^97]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. II, Fourth Interim Report to Congress, February 8, 1993, pp. 585-587.
-[^98]: *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*, 102d Cong., 2d sess., January 3, 1993, Calendar No. 634. https://archive.org/details/6199732-Joint-Report-of-the-October-Surprise-Task-Force
+[^98]: *The Tower Commission Report*, February 26, 1987, pp. 383-384. https://archive.org/details/towercommission00unit
-[^99]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 148.
+[^99]: National Security Planning Group minutes, June 25, 1984, "Central America," National Security Archive, *The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On*, EBB 210, document 2 (IC 00463), pp. 12, 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/2-NSPG%20minutes%206-25-84%20(IC%2000463).pdf ; Iran-Contra report, ch. 26, pp. 403-404.
-[^100]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 110.
+[^100]: Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29 (Gregg and Rodriguez); Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1989), p. 96.
-[^101]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 172-173.
+[^101]: George Bush, "Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on the Iran-Contra Investigation," December 30, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-press-secretary-fitzwater-the-iran-contra-investigation ; U.S. Department of Justice, "Griffin Boyette Bell," Attorneys General biographies.
-[^102]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 175.
+[^102]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project (remarks on Bua, Lacey, Civiletti, inherent authority, and the pardons). https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history
-[^103]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 149, citing the Rupp sentencing (D. Colo., September 23, 1988) and the Brenneke trial (D. Or., May 3, 1990).
+[^103]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993), pp. 4-5, 10; Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345; "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," United Press International, December 9, 1993; *United States v. Drogoul*, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993).
-[^104]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 150-151.
+[^104]: *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*, 102d Cong., 2d sess., January 3, 1993, Calendar No. 634. https://archive.org/details/6199732-Joint-Report-of-the-October-Surprise-Task-Force
-[^105]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), pp. 131-132. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
+[^105]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 148.
-[^106]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 90, Casey calendar.
+[^106]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 110.
-[^107]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 102.
+[^107]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 172-173.
-[^108]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 20-21, missing calendar pages.
+[^108]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 175.
-[^109]: Robert Parry, "October Surprise Evidence Surfaces," *Consortium News*, July 14, 2011. https://consortiumnews.com/2011/07/14/october-surprise-evidence-surfaces/
+[^109]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 149, citing the Rupp sentencing (D. Colo., September 23, 1988) and the Brenneke trial (D. Or., May 3, 1990).
-[^110]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 173-174, Reagan statements.
+[^110]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 150-151.
-[^111]: Barbara Honegger, *October Surprise* (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1989).
+[^111]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), pp. 131-132. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
-[^112]: Cheri Seymour, *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal* (TrineDay, 2010).
+[^112]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 90, Casey calendar.
-[^113]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Key Events." https://millercenter.org/president/bush/key-events
+[^113]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 102.
-[^114]: Miller Center, "Statecraft: The Bush 41 Team," "Proving ground: How the December 1989 invasion of Panama shaped the Bush 41 foreign policy team," quoting Richard Cheney and Colin Powell in the George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/statecraftmovie/proving-ground
+[^114]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 20-21, missing calendar pages.
-[^115]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (H. Rept. 105-851), vol. III, ch. 9, p. 50. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
+[^115]: Robert Parry, "October Surprise Evidence Surfaces," *Consortium News*, July 14, 2011. https://consortiumnews.com/2011/07/14/october-surprise-evidence-surfaces/
-[^116]: Bruce Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History* (Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, September 2011), pp. 20-21, 23-26.
+[^116]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 173-174, Reagan statements.
-[^117]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Brass Factory in Iraq," *Congressional Record*, House, September 25, 1992, p. H9502; Gonzalez floor statement of August 10, 1992.
+[^117]: Barbara Honegger, *October Surprise* (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1989).
-[^118]: Gayle Young, "Socialists Take the Helm in Jamaica. Manley hopes to strengthen US ties by aiding war on drugs," *The Christian Science Monitor*, February 14, 1989. https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0214/ojam.html
+[^118]: Cheri Seymour, *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal* (TrineDay, 2010).
-[^119]: "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, *Attorneys General of the United States*; Miller Center, "Richard Thornburgh."
+[^119]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Key Events." https://millercenter.org/president/bush/key-events
-[^120]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr," historical biography (updated September 18, 2023). https://www.justice.gov/osg/bio/kenneth-w-starr
+[^120]: Miller Center, "Statecraft: The Bush 41 Team," "Proving ground: How the December 1989 invasion of Panama shaped the Bush 41 foreign policy team," quoting Richard Cheney and Colin Powell in the George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/statecraftmovie/proving-ground
-[^121]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564 ; George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789
+[^121]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (H. Rept. 105-851), vol. III, ch. 9, p. 50. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
-[^122]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy, Human Rights in North Korea," biography, released May 25, 2006. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; The White House (George W. Bush archives), "Personnel Announcement," January 31, 2002.
+[^122]: Bruce Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History* (Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, September 2011), pp. 20-21, 23-26.
-[^123]: Federal Judicial Center, "Preska, Loretta A.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta
+[^123]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Brass Factory in Iraq," *Congressional Record*, House, September 25, 1992, p. H9502; Gonzalez floor statement of August 10, 1992.
-[^124]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm
+[^124]: Gayle Young, "Socialists Take the Helm in Jamaica. Manley hopes to strengthen US ties by aiding war on drugs," *The Christian Science Monitor*, February 14, 1989. https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0214/ojam.html
-[^125]: Declaration of Howard R. Teicher, *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.*, No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla., January 31, 1995), para. 7. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf
+[^125]: "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, *Attorneys General of the United States*; Miller Center, "Richard Thornburgh."
-[^126]: Corrective declaration of Howard R. Teicher, docket 679, *United States v. Cardoen* (October 31, 1996). Archive.org item utf-893cr-241-de-679.
+[^126]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr," historical biography (updated September 18, 2023). https://www.justice.gov/osg/bio/kenneth-w-starr
-[^127]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993). https://intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf
+[^127]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564 ; George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789
-[^128]: National Security Directive 26, "U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf," October 2, 1989, classified SECRET. George H. W. Bush Presidential Library copy.
+[^128]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy, Human Rights in North Korea," biography, released May 25, 2006. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; The White House (George W. Bush archives), "Personnel Announcement," January 31, 2002.
-[^129]: General Accounting Office, report on Iraq's participation in the Commodity Credit Corporation's GSM-102 and GSM-103 export credit guarantee programs, GAO/NSIAD-91-76, November 1990, appendix I; Henry B. Gonzalez, "Continuing Saga of Attempts to Thwart BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, House, May 18, 1992, pp. H3370-H3373; "Bush's embarrassing Lavoro scandal," *The Baltimore Sun*, April 28, 1992.
+[^129]: Federal Judicial Center, "Preska, Loretta A.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta
-[^130]: Alan Friedman, *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq* (Bantam Books, 1993).
+[^130]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm
-[^131]: Representative Henry B. Gonzalez, *Congressional Record*, 1992. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920925g.htm
+[^131]: Declaration of Howard R. Teicher, *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.*, No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla., January 31, 1995), para. 7. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf
-[^132]: White House, unclassified summary of Iraq sanctions and weapons exports, September 1991.
+[^132]: Corrective declaration of Howard R. Teicher, docket 679, *United States v. Cardoen* (October 31, 1996). Archive.org item utf-893cr-241-de-679.
-[^133]: Senate Foreign Relations Committee, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140 (December 1992), p. 461. https://archive.org/details/thebcciaffair_202003
+[^133]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993). https://intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf
-[^134]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 542, chapter on Ed Rogers.
+[^134]: National Security Directive 26, "U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf," October 2, 1989, classified SECRET. George H. W. Bush Presidential Library copy.
-[^135]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 538.
+[^135]: General Accounting Office, report on Iraq's participation in the Commodity Credit Corporation's GSM-102 and GSM-103 export credit guarantee programs, GAO/NSIAD-91-76, November 1990, appendix I; Henry B. Gonzalez, "Continuing Saga of Attempts to Thwart BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, House, May 18, 1992, pp. H3370-H3373; "Bush's embarrassing Lavoro scandal," *The Baltimore Sun*, April 28, 1992.
-[^136]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Helms letters to Vice President Bush, October 29, 1987.
+[^136]: Alan Friedman, *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq* (Bantam Books, 1993).
-[^137]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Justice Department response on the February 1990 letters by Mr. Saphos.
+[^137]: Representative Henry B. Gonzalez, *Congressional Record*, 1992. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920925g.htm
-[^138]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, letter of Deputy Assistant Attorney General Bruce Navarro to Senator Kerry, July 24, 1990.
+[^138]: White House, unclassified summary of Iraq sanctions and weapons exports, September 1991.
-[^139]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 508.
+[^139]: Senate Foreign Relations Committee, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140 (December 1992), p. 461. https://archive.org/details/thebcciaffair_202003
-[^140]: "Jackson Thomas Stephens (1923-2005)," *Encyclopedia of Arkansas*; *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger*, 523 F. Supp. 744 (D.D.C. 1981); 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. 1982).
+[^140]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 542, chapter on Ed Rogers.
-[^141]: Peter Truell and Larry Gurwin, *False Profits: The Inside Story of BCCI, the World's Most Corrupt Financial Empire* (Houghton Mifflin, 1992), ch. 18 and p. 428. https://archive.org/details/bypetertruellauthorlarrygurwinauthorfalseprofitsth
+[^141]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 538.
-[^142]: "Meet The Family That Bankrolled Clinton," *The Seattle Times*, January 31, 1993, https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=19930131&slug=1682819 ; House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829 (1998), vol. 2; Roger Morris, *Partners in Power* (Henry Holt, 1996); Truell and Gurwin, *False Profits*, pp. 41 and 428.
+[^142]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Helms letters to Vice President Bush, October 29, 1987.
-[^143]: Jonathan Beaty, "A Mysterious Mover of Money and Planes," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718843/a-mysterious-mover-of-money-and-planes/
+[^143]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Justice Department response on the February 1990 letters by Mr. Saphos.
-[^144]: Craig Unger, "Mystery man," *Salon*, April 28, 2004. https://www.salon.com/2004/04/28/james_bath/
+[^144]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, letter of Deputy Assistant Attorney General Bruce Navarro to Senator Kerry, July 24, 1990.
-[^145]: Lucy Komisar, "Questions Linger About Bushes and BCCI," Inter Press Service, April 4, 2007, https://www.ipsnews.net/2007/04/finance-questions-linger-about-bushes-and-bcci/ ; Harken Energy Corporation, proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 25, 1994, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000454.txt
+[^145]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 508.
-[^146]: Richard Behar, "Global Intrigue: The Wackiest Rig in Texas," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718865/global-intrigue-the-wackiest-rig-in-texas/
+[^146]: "Jackson Thomas Stephens (1923-2005)," *Encyclopedia of Arkansas*; *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger*, 523 F. Supp. 744 (D.D.C. 1981); 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. 1982).
-[^147]: WhoWhatWhy, "Bush Angle to Reagan Shooting Still Unresolved as Hinckley Walks," August 16, 2016, reporting the *Houston Post* story, Neil Bush's press conference, Peter Teeley's statement to UPI, and the Untermyer diary. https://whowhatwhy.org/2016/08/16/bush-angle-reagan-shooting-still-unresolved-hinckley-walks/
+[^147]: Peter Truell and Larry Gurwin, *False Profits: The Inside Story of BCCI, the World's Most Corrupt Financial Empire* (Houghton Mifflin, 1992), ch. 18 and p. 428. https://archive.org/details/bypetertruellauthorlarrygurwinauthorfalseprofitsth
-[^148]: WhoWhatWhy (2016), citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, on the Department of Energy notice to the Hinckley family business.
+[^148]: "Meet The Family That Bankrolled Clinton," *The Seattle Times*, January 31, 1993, https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=19930131&slug=1682819 ; House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829 (1998), vol. 2; Roger Morris, *Partners in Power* (Henry Holt, 1996); Truell and Gurwin, *False Profits*, pp. 41 and 428.
-[^149]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, advertisement for John DeCamp's book. https://archive.org/details/ted-gunderson-fbi-the-finders
+[^149]: Jonathan Beaty, "A Mysterious Mover of Money and Planes," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718843/a-mysterious-mover-of-money-and-planes/
-[^150]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, relaying a *Washington Times* report by George Archibald (1989).
+[^150]: Craig Unger, "Mystery man," *Salon*, April 28, 2004. https://www.salon.com/2004/04/28/james_bath/
-[^151]: A.B.H. Alexander, "Sex, Drugs, the CIA, MIND CONTROL and Your Children," *PROBE*, c. 1996.
+[^151]: Lucy Komisar, "Questions Linger About Bushes and BCCI," Inter Press Service, April 4, 2007, https://www.ipsnews.net/2007/04/finance-questions-linger-about-bushes-and-bcci/ ; Harken Energy Corporation, proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 25, 1994, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000454.txt
-[^152]: Tim Shorrock, "Crony Capitalism Goes Global," *The Nation*, March 14, 2002. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/crony-capitalism-goes-global/
+[^152]: Richard Behar, "Global Intrigue: The Wackiest Rig in Texas," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718865/global-intrigue-the-wackiest-rig-in-texas/
-[^153]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast*, March 2026; U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr"; U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284.
+[^153]: WhoWhatWhy, "Bush Angle to Reagan Shooting Still Unresolved as Hinckley Walks," August 16, 2016, reporting the *Houston Post* story, Neil Bush's press conference, Peter Teeley's statement to UPI, and the Untermyer diary. https://whowhatwhy.org/2016/08/16/bush-angle-reagan-shooting-still-unresolved-hinckley-walks/
-[^154]: *Brown v. Maxwell; Dershowitz v. Giuffre*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), Nos. 18-2868, 16-3945-cv(L) (July 3, 2019). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4636340/brown-v-maxwell-dershowitz-v-giuffre/
+[^154]: WhoWhatWhy (2016), citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, on the Department of Energy notice to the Hinckley family business.
-[^155]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A individual contributions, API query contributor_name "SCATURRO, PHILIP" (41 results). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=SCATURRO%2C%20PHILIP
+[^155]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, advertisement for John DeCamp's book. https://archive.org/details/ted-gunderson-fbi-the-finders
-[^156]: Larry Holzwarth, "FBI Files: Unexplained Phenomenon Files from the FBI's Vault," HistoryCollection, quoting an anonymous letter to FBI Director William S. Sessions. https://historycollection.com/unexplained-phenomenon-files-from-the-fbis-vault/6/
+[^156]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, relaying a *Washington Times* report by George Archibald (1989).
-[^157]: Allie Fasanella, "George H. W. Bush 'Knew' Humans Made Contact With Aliens in 1964," *OK! Magazine*, November 24, 2025, carried by AOL. https://www.aol.com/articles/george-h-w-bush-knew-161144400.html
+[^157]: A.B.H. Alexander, "Sex, Drugs, the CIA, MIND CONTROL and Your Children," *PROBE*, c. 1996.
 [^158]: Tim Shorrock, "Crony Capitalism Goes Global," *The Nation*, March 14, 2002. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/crony-capitalism-goes-global/
 [^159]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast*, March 2026; U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr"; U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284.
 [^160]: *Brown v. Maxwell; Dershowitz v. Giuffre*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), Nos. 18-2868, 16-3945-cv(L) (July 3, 2019). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4636340/brown-v-maxwell-dershowitz-v-giuffre/
 [^161]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A individual contributions, API query contributor_name "SCATURRO, PHILIP" (41 results). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=SCATURRO%2C%20PHILIP
 [^162]: Larry Holzwarth, "FBI Files: Unexplained Phenomenon Files from the FBI's Vault," HistoryCollection, quoting an anonymous letter to FBI Director William S. Sessions. https://historycollection.com/unexplained-phenomenon-files-from-the-fbis-vault/6/
 [^163]: Allie Fasanella, "George H. W. Bush 'Knew' Humans Made Contact With Aliens in 1964," *OK! Magazine*, November 24, 2025, carried by AOL. https://www.aol.com/articles/george-h-w-bush-knew-161144400.html
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jeffrey
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jeffrey
@ -30,8 +30,15 @@ relations:
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Dalton School]]"
    start: 1974
    end: 1976
    role: "mathematics and physics teacher"
    fn: 1
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Donald Barr]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1974
    role: "teacher of mathematics and physics; hire attributed to Barr by some accounts, left open by others"
    fn: 170
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Wexner Foundation]]"
    start: 1992
@ -198,7 +205,7 @@ relations:
    end: 2002
    fn: 61
 created: 2026-06-18
-updated: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-26
 ---
 Jeffrey Epstein (January 20, 1953 to August 10, 2019) was an American financier and convicted sex offender who, with his companion [[Ghislaine Maxwell]], ran a sex-trafficking operation that recruited and abused dozens of underage girls across his residences in [[Manhattan]], [[Palm Beach, Florida|Palm Beach]], [[New Mexico]], the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], and [[Paris]]. He built a social and financial network that encompassed technology billionaires ([[Peter Thiel]], [[Bill Gates]], [[Elon Musk]], [[Reid Hoffman]], [[Mark Zuckerberg]]), heads of state and politicians ([[Bill Clinton]], [[Ehud Barak]], [[Prince Andrew]], [[Donald Trump]]), diplomats and intelligence officials ([[William Burns]], [[Vitaly Churkin]]), financiers and executives ([[Leslie Wexner]], [[Leon Black]], [[Tom Pritzker]], [[Howard Lutnick]]), and prominent scientists ([[Martin Nowak]], [[Marvin Minsky]], [[George Church]], [[Stephen Hawking]]) brokered through the literary agent [[John Brockman]]. The source of his fortune was never satisfactorily explained, his long association with [[Robert Maxwell|Robert Maxwell's]] daughter raised documented intelligence questions, and his death in federal custody in 2019 was ruled a suicide over disputes that have not been resolved.[^1][^2][^3]
@ -207,8 +214,12 @@ Jeffrey Epstein (January 20, 1953 to August 10, 2019) was an American financier
 Epstein was born in [[Brooklyn]], New York, and raised in the Sea Gate and [[Coney Island]] area in a working-class Jewish family; his father worked for the [[New York City]] parks department. He attended Lafayette High School, then [[Cooper Union]] and the Courant Institute at [[New York University]], leaving both without a degree. In 1974 he was hired to teach mathematics and physics at the [[Dalton School]], the elite Upper East Side preparatory school, despite having no degree and no teaching credential. The headmaster during the period of his hiring was [[Donald Barr]], the novelist and educator who was the father of the future [[U.S. Attorney General]] [[William Barr]], whose [[Department of Justice]] would later oversee the federal case and the jail in which Epstein died. Accounts differ on whether Barr personally hired Epstein, since Barr resigned the headmastership in 1974.[^1][^4]
 Barr announced his resignation in February 1974, and the [[New York Times]] reported on February 20, 1974 that he would remain until June 7.[^168] [[Thomas Volscho]] reported in the [[Daily Beast]] on July 12, 2019 that the September 1974 issue of the Dalton student newspaper, *The Daltonian*, announced that Epstein had joined the mathematics department and would also teach physics, that Epstein later confirmed in a deposition that he taught there from 1974 to 1976, and that the school had lost four mathematics teachers before the 1974-75 year. [[Peter Branch]], interim headmaster from July 1, 1974, told Volscho that he did not recall hiring Epstein and was "relatively certain Barr or possibly the head of the Math Department hired Epstein because hiring decisions were typically made in the spring." Volscho added that the State Education Department reported no teaching license on file for Epstein, and that [[Edward Jay Epstein]] had claimed that investigators from [[Kroll]], hired by [[L Brands]], told him Epstein had faked his resume to get the Dalton job.[^169] The New York Times wrote on July 12, 2019 ([[Mike Baker]] and [[Amy Julia Harris]]) that the student newspaper reported in September 1974 that Epstein was starting as a math and physics teacher, and that "It is unclear whether Mr. Barr hired Mr. Epstein" after the February 1974 resignation announcement; it quoted Branch that Epstein "didn't come up to snuff" and was asked to leave.[^170] [[Marie Brenner]] wrote in *Vanity Fair* that Barr brought in "a group of gifted college dropouts, including one Jeffrey Epstein," and that William Barr "recently claimed he hadn't made the Dalton-Epstein connection until he read about it in the press."[^171] [[Calder McHugh]] wrote for [[Yahoo Finance]] on July 13, 2019 that Barr "hired Epstein to teach math and science," and placed Epstein at Dalton "in the early 1970s," with appearances in the yearbooks of 1975 and 1976.[^172] [[Wayne Madsen]] described Barr as "influential in hiring" Epstein.[^173]
 At Dalton, Epstein cultivated the parents of his students, and a connection there brought him to [[Bear Stearns]], the investment bank then led by [[Alan Greenberg]]. He joined in 1976, worked in the special products division advising wealthy clients on tax strategy, and rose to limited partner. The firm and Epstein gave varying accounts of the departure, which has been attributed to a Regulation D securities violation and to an internal inquiry. After leaving he ran a consulting company, [[International Assets Group]], out of his apartment in the Solo building on East 66th Street, and around 1988 he established [[J. Epstein & Co.]], which he said managed money exclusively for clients worth more than one billion dollars; in 2003 he said he had run it "for the last 15 years."[^1][^3][^5]
 The archive of the Dalton School holds a folder titled "Physics A, B, A-B, and Advanced Physics, Assignments, Epstein, 1975-1976" in its physics records.[^174] [[Snopes]] reported that Epstein began as a mathematics and physics teacher in September 1974, citing a New York Times review of the school's yearbooks, and that he was fired at the end of the 1975-76 school year; it quoted Branch telling the [[Miami Herald]] that Epstein "had not adequately grown as a new teacher to the standard of the school."[^175] In a 2009 deposition, as [[NPR]] reported in 2019, Epstein answered "No" when asked whether he had any "sexual contact" with female students he taught at Dalton, and invoked the Fifth, Sixth and 14th Amendments when asked whether he had dated a former Dalton student.[^176]
 Epstein resigned from Bear Stearns on March 12, 1981, the day after [[Seagram]] announced its tender offer for [[St. Joe Minerals]]. The [[Securities and Exchange Commission]], investigating insider trading in St. Joe and told that Epstein had information about trading at Bear Stearns, took his testimony on April 1, 1981. He said management had fined him 2,500 dollars over a possible "Reg D" violation, a loan of about 20,000 dollars to his friend Warren Eisenstein to buy stock, together with "carelessness" over expenses, and that rumors had tied his exit to "an illicit affair with a secretary." Bear Stearns paid his bonus of about 100,000 dollars. [[James Cayne]] said Epstein "left Bear Stearns of his own volition"; a former Bear executive told Fox Business in 2019 that he "left at our invitation ... it was very serious stuff"; [[Steven Hoffenberg]] claimed Epstein told him he had been caught executing "illegal operations." The SEC brought no insider-trading charges against anyone at Bear Stearns in the St. Joe matter.[^5][^6]
 Epstein stayed a major Bear Stearns customer. His company [[Financial Trust Company]] stated in a 2009 verified complaint that "since 1981, Epstein has conducted hundreds of millions of dollars in transactions with Bear Stearns for his own, as well as his clients', accounts," with the firm's senior management. From at least 2000 to 2007 he chaired [[Liquid Funding]] Ltd., a [[Bermuda]] company partly owned by Bear Stearns that held mortgage-backed securities, a directorship disclosed in the [[Paradise Papers]]. Fox Business reported that he had about 60 million dollars in the Bear Stearns High-Grade Structured Credit Strategies Enhanced Leverage Fund, which collapsed in June 2007. On August 6, 2007, according to the 2009 complaint, Cayne told Epstein to "hold tight" to Financial Trust's 120,000 Bear shares; Financial Trust sold the last 100,000 on March 17, 2008 at 3.41 dollars and sued Bear Stearns in the District Court of the Virgin Islands (Civil No. 2009/106).[^6][^7][^8]
@ -223,9 +234,9 @@ After his release Hoffenberg publicly claimed that Epstein had been a co-archite
 ### Leslie Wexner and the Source of Wealth
-Leslie Wexner, the founder of [[The Limited]], [[L Brands]], [[Victoria's Secret]], and [[Bath & Body Works]], met Epstein in the mid-1980s and made him his money manager and confidant. In 1991 Wexner granted Epstein sweeping power of attorney, authority to borrow money, sign checks, buy and sell property, and hire and fire on his behalf. Epstein joined the board of the [[Wexner Foundation]] in 1992, in the seat of Wexner's mother, Bella Wexner. Wexner transferred to Epstein the use of, and eventually title to, the seven-story townhouse at [[9 East 71st Street]] in Manhattan, one of the largest private residences in the city, under a 1998 purchase agreement secured by a 10 million dollar note; in December 2011 the Epstein-owned Nine East 71st Street Corporation transferred the house to Maple, Inc., another Epstein entity. Wexner also co-founded the [[Mega Group]], a club of wealthy Jewish businessmen and philanthropists, with the Seagram heir [[Charles Bronfman]].[^3][^5][^11]
+Leslie Wexner, the founder of [[The Limited]], L Brands, [[Victoria's Secret]], and [[Bath & Body Works]], met Epstein in the mid-1980s and made him his money manager and confidant. In 1991 Wexner granted Epstein sweeping power of attorney, authority to borrow money, sign checks, buy and sell property, and hire and fire on his behalf. Epstein joined the board of the [[Wexner Foundation]] in 1992, in the seat of Wexner's mother, Bella Wexner. Wexner transferred to Epstein the use of, and eventually title to, the seven-story townhouse at [[9 East 71st Street]] in Manhattan, one of the largest private residences in the city, under a 1998 purchase agreement secured by a 10 million dollar note; in December 2011 the Epstein-owned Nine East 71st Street Corporation transferred the house to Maple, Inc., another Epstein entity. Wexner also co-founded the [[Mega Group]], a club of wealthy Jewish businessmen and philanthropists, with the Seagram heir [[Charles Bronfman]].[^3][^5][^11]
-Wexner cut ties with Epstein around 2007, and in 2019 he stated publicly that Epstein had "misappropriated vast sums" from him and his family, an amount reported as more than 46 million dollars, which Wexner said he had recovered. The mechanics of how a single client's fortune translated into Epstein's own remained opaque. A December 2025 [[New York Times]] investigation concluded that Epstein built his apparent wealth through "scams, theft and lies" rather than financial acumen, that his billionaire status was exaggerated, and that the Wexner relationship was central to whatever fortune he actually held. A May 2003 [[JPMorgan Chase|JPMorgan]] due-diligence report stated that Epstein, "through the trading of his accounts and that of Leslie Wexner," generated "one of the largest annual revenue flows of private clients in the private bank."[^3][^12]
+Wexner cut ties with Epstein around 2007, and in 2019 he stated publicly that Epstein had "misappropriated vast sums" from him and his family, an amount reported as more than 46 million dollars, which Wexner said he had recovered. The mechanics of how a single client's fortune translated into Epstein's own remained opaque. A December 2025 New York Times investigation concluded that Epstein built his apparent wealth through "scams, theft and lies" rather than financial acumen, that his billionaire status was exaggerated, and that the Wexner relationship was central to whatever fortune he actually held. A May 2003 [[JPMorgan Chase|JPMorgan]] due-diligence report stated that Epstein, "through the trading of his accounts and that of Leslie Wexner," generated "one of the largest annual revenue flows of private clients in the private bank."[^3][^12]
 An August 15, 2019 FBI Criminal Investigative Division document, released in 2026, listed eight people as co-conspirators, among them Wexner, [[Jean-Luc Brunel]] and [[Lesley Groff]]; the Justice Department removed the redaction of Wexner's name in February 2026 after Representative [[Thomas Massie]] raised it. A representative for Wexner said prosecutors told his lawyers in 2019 that he was "neither a co-conspirator nor target in any respect." In Israel a March 1, 2026 criminal complaint asked police to investigate the Wexner Foundation's 2.3 million dollar payments to Ehud Barak, after a January 30, 2026 Justice Department release showed Epstein's lawyer [[Darren Indyke]] writing in December 2005 that he "was involved in the negotiation and execution" of Barak's contract.[^13][^14]
@ -289,7 +300,7 @@ The civil settlements that followed were written into the criminal agreement. Ep
 ### The Agreement in Court and in Review
-The deal's leniency became the subject of the [[Miami Herald]] series "Perversion of Justice" by the reporter [[Julie K. Brown]] in 2018, which revived the case. In February 2019 Judge Marra ruled that prosecutors had violated the [[Crime Victims' Rights Act]] by hiding the agreement from victims. The Justice Department then recused the Southern District of Florida from the litigation and assigned the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Northern District of Georgia to defend it. On April 15, 2021 the en banc [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit]] denied Courtney Wild's mandamus petition, holding that the Act gives victims no freestanding pre-charge remedy while declining to decide whether the rights attach before charges; the Supreme Court denied certiorari on February 22, 2022.[^22][^52][^53]
+The deal's leniency became the subject of the Miami Herald series "Perversion of Justice" by the reporter [[Julie K. Brown]] in 2018, which revived the case. In February 2019 Judge Marra ruled that prosecutors had violated the [[Crime Victims' Rights Act]] by hiding the agreement from victims. The Justice Department then recused the Southern District of Florida from the litigation and assigned the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Northern District of Georgia to defend it. On April 15, 2021 the en banc [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit]] denied Courtney Wild's mandamus petition, holding that the Act gives victims no freestanding pre-charge remedy while declining to decide whether the rights attach before charges; the Supreme Court denied certiorari on February 22, 2022.[^22][^52][^53]
 The Office of Professional Responsibility had declined in May 2011 to investigate a claim by Professor [[Paul Cassell]] that "improper influences" produced the agreement, citing its policy of not investigating matters that "could have been addressed in the course of litigation, unless a court has made a specific finding of misconduct." It opened a review on February 6, 2019 after a December 3, 2018 letter from Senator [[Ben Sasse]]. Acosta, who had become U.S. Secretary of Labor under Donald Trump, resigned in July 2019. The office's November 2020 report found that Acosta had not committed professional misconduct and "did not find evidence that his decision was based on corruption or other impermissible considerations, such as Epstein's wealth, status, or associations," but concluded that resolving the case through the agreement "constitutes poor judgment," that "the NPA was a flawed mechanism," and that the government's conduct "gave victims and the public the misimpression that the government had colluded with Epstein's counsel to keep the NPA secret from the victims." It found that the supervisors other than Acosta had "left the USAO, were transitioning to other jobs, or were absent at critical junctures."[^37][^54]
@ -612,3 +623,12 @@ The 2025 and 2026 releases produced resignations and removals without prosecutio
 [^165]: "Summers Resigns From OpenAI Board Amid Backlash Over Epstein Emails." *The Harvard Crimson,* November 19, 2025. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2025/11/19/summers-resigns-open-ai/ ; "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association." Associated Press via *Fortune,* December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
 [^166]: Chapman, Michelle. "Thomas Pritzker steps down from Hyatt board, saying he deeply regrets association with Epstein." Associated Press via *PBS NewsHour,* February 17, 2026. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/thomas-pritzker-steps-down-from-hyatt-board-saying-he-deeply-regrets-association-with-epstein
 [^167]: *CBS News,* February 2026, on Ruemmler's resignation as Goldman Sachs general counsel. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/kathryn-ruemmler-resigning-from-goldman-sachs-epstein-files/
 [^168]: Maeroff, Gene I. "Barr Quits Dalton School Post, Charging Trustees' Interference." *The New York Times,* February 20, 1974, p. 41. https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/20/archives/barr-quits-dalton-school-post-charging-trustees-interference.html
 [^169]: Volscho, Thomas. "Jeffrey Epstein Dodged Questions About Sex With His Dalton Prep School Students." *The Daily Beast,* July 12, 2019 (updated September 27, 2019). https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students
 [^170]: Baker, Mike, and Amy Julia Harris. "Jeffrey Epstein Taught at Dalton. His Behavior Was Noticed." *The New York Times,* July 12, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html
 [^171]: Brenner, Marie. "'I Had No Problem Being Politically Different': Young William Barr Among the Manhattan Liberals." *Vanity Fair,* October 7, 2019. https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2019/10/the-untold-tale-of-young-william-barr
 [^172]: McHugh, Calder. "Jeffrey Epstein's prep-school students remember their 'flamboyantly' dressed teacher." *Yahoo Finance,* July 13, 2019. https://finance.yahoo.com/news/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-school-math-teacher-yearbook-photos-125122535.html
 [^173]: Madsen, Wayne. "Daddy Dearest: the weirdness of Donald Barr, the father of Trump's mob lawyer Attorney General." *Wayne Madsen Report,* September 26, 2019. https://archive.org/details/Madsen190930
 [^174]: "Physics A, B, A-B, and Advanced Physics, Assignments, Epstein, 1975-1976," Box 047, The Dalton School Archives, Academic Affairs by Department: Science, Physics (2.4.9). https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/repositories/2/archival_objects/2640
 [^175]: Snopes. "Did Bill Barr's Father 'Mentor' Jeffrey Epstein and Write a 'Bizarre' Novel?" https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/bill-barr-jeffrey-epstein-book/
 [^176]: Schuknecht, Cat. "A Young Jeffrey Epstein Made An Impression On His High School Students." *NPR,* July 19, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/07/19/742725946/a-young-jeffrey-epstein-made-an-impression-on-his-high-school-students
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge
@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ McGeorge Bundy served as Special Assistant to the President for National Securit
 ### Yale, Skull and Bones, and the Council on Foreign Relations
-Bundy majored in mathematics at [[Yale University]] and returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^3] [[Ron Rosenbaum]]'s 1977 [[Esquire]] article on [[Skull and Bones]] names Bundy among the society's members, together with [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]], and places Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] in the CIA after their years in the society.[^4] The membership index that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces lists Bundy under the class of 1940 and his brother William P. Bundy under the class of 1939.[^5] Sutton writes that while McGeorge Bundy was in the White House, William P. Bundy "was in key positions relating to the Far East in Defense and State Departments," and that by acting jointly "the Bundy brothers could have controlled absolutely the flow of information relating to Vietnam from Intelligence, State and DOD." Sutton adds: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^6] The [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Bundy among the members who joined in 1946.[^7]
+Bundy majored in mathematics at [[Yale University]] and returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^3] [[Ron Rosenbaum]]'s 1977 [[Esquire]] article on [[Skull and Bones]] names Bundy among the society's members, together with [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]], and places Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] in the CIA after their years in the society.[^4] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," whether their Skull and Bones experience "was useful training for the clandestine trade," and asked McGeorge Bundy whether he "wrestled naked in a mud pile" as part of his initiation.[^4] The membership index that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces lists Bundy under the class of 1940 and his brother William P. Bundy under the class of 1939.[^5] Sutton writes that while McGeorge Bundy was in the White House, William P. Bundy "was in key positions relating to the Far East in Defense and State Departments," and that by acting jointly "the Bundy brothers could have controlled absolutely the flow of information relating to Vietnam from Intelligence, State and DOD." Sutton adds: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^6] The [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Bundy among the members who joined in 1946.[^7]
 ### On Active Service in Peace and War
@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ On September 23, 1966 Bundy wrote to Julius A. Stratton, then chairman of the bo
 ### William P. Bundy
-William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs in November 1965.[^46] He joined the Central Intelligence Agency's Office of National Estimates in 1951 as chief of staff and liaison to the National Security Council staff, and served on the board of directors of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1964 to 1972.[^47]
+William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs in November 1965.[^46] He joined the Central Intelligence Agency's Office of National Estimates in 1951 as chief of staff and liaison to the National Security Council staff, and served on the board of directors of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1964 to 1972.[^47] The Washington Post obituary of October 7, 2000 calls William the older brother of McGeorge Bundy and records that he was sometimes known as "the other Bundy."[^48] On June 3, 1964, after the Honolulu conference, McGeorge Bundy wrote on William Bundy's notes of the conference, "Hitting the North is required."[^49] On August 5, 1964, Rusk told William Bundy that McGeorge Bundy and George Ball were "going over the final touches" of the Tonkin Gulf resolution.[^50]
 ### Footnotes
@ -205,3 +205,6 @@ William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for
 [^45]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1966" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1966), International Affairs section, p. 34. https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1966-annual-report.pdf
 [^46]: Memorandum from Gordon Chase to Bundy, "World Disarmament Conference," November 20, 1965, footnote identifying "your brother William Bundy, Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs," *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 373, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d373
 [^47]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189
 [^48]: Bart Barnes, "William Bundy, Dies," The Washington Post, October 7, 2000, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2000/10/07/william-bundy-dies/1348f410-94d0-40cb-9ee9-d8fad6603457/
 [^49]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. I, doc. 193, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d193
 [^50]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. I, doc. 293, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d293
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Prescott
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Prescott
@ -50,20 +50,20 @@ relations:
    role: "one of seven directors according to the incorporation documents reported by the Guardian; registered holder of one share in Vesting Order No. 248"
    start: 1924-08-04
    end: 1942-10-20
-    fn: 24
+    fn: 25
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Pennsylvania Water and Power Company]]"
    role: "chairman of the board, early 1940s"
-    fn: 39
+    fn: 44
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Dresser Industries]]"
    role: "director"
-    fn: 37
+    fn: 38
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[CBS]]"
    role: "director, from 1932"
    start: 1932
-    fn: 38
+    fn: 43
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Brown Brothers Harriman]]"
    role: "partner"
@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ relations:
  - type: partner_of
    with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
    role: "partner at Brown Brothers Harriman"
-    fn: 38
+    fn: 43
  - type: partner_of
    with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
    role: "partner at Brown Brothers Harriman"
@ -83,16 +83,16 @@ relations:
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[United Service Organizations]]"
    role: "national campaign chairman"
-    fn: 42
+    fn: 47
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[National War Fund]]"
    role: "vice president and executive committee member; national campaign chairman"
-    fn: 43
+    fn: 48
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Planned Parenthood Federation of America]]"
    role: "treasurer of the 1947 national fund-raising campaign"
    start: 1947
-    fn: 53
+    fn: 58
  - type: spouse_of
    with: "[[Dorothy Walker Bush]]"
    start: 1921
@ -139,65 +139,67 @@ The Guardian also reported that the Harriman papers contain a wartime profile of
 ### Union Banking Corporation and Vesting Order No. 248
-A Treasury Department memorandum dated August 18, 1941, from E. G. May to [[John W. Pehle]], with the subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was "wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., of Rotterdam, The Netherlands," that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, [[Cornelius Lievense|Cornelis Lievense]], believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It records that in 1931 to 1933 the corporation made gold purchases of over eight million dollars, of which about three million dollars was shipped abroad and $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934, and that during the Munich crisis in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^22] The Guardian dates the same memorandum August 16, 1941.[^22]
+A Treasury Department memorandum dated August 18, 1941, from E. G. May to [[John W. Pehle]], with the subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was "wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., of Rotterdam, The Netherlands," that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, [[Cornelius Lievense|Cornelis Lievense]], believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It records that in 1931 to 1933 the corporation made gold purchases of over eight million dollars, of which about three million dollars was shipped abroad and $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934, and that during the Munich crisis in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^22] The Guardian dates the same memorandum August 16, 1941.[^22] On January 14, 1941, Knight Woolley, a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, wrote to the New York superintendent of banks, [[William R. White]], on behalf of "E. R. Harriman, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush and our manager, H. D. Pennington," who are named in the letter as the corporation's directors. The letter says that the directors, Bush among them, "feel they might be under some embarrassment because of their connection with the bank" if the United States entered the war, and asks the superintendent for "a frank expression" on what action they should take. White replied on May 13, 1941 that the department "would be gratified if these gentlemen could find it possible to remain on the board during this period of uncertainty."[^23]
-The Guardian reported that on July 30, 1942 the New York Herald-Tribune ran an article headed "Hitler's Angel Has $3m in US Bank," and that the Alien Property Custodian then opened an investigation.[^23] On October 20, 1942 the Custodian, [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]]. Part (a) vested all 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock of the corporation and lists the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares; Lievense with 4; and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] and Johann G. Groeninger with 1 share each. The order states that the shares "are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." Part (b) vested all indebtedness owing by the corporation to Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart and to the August Thyssen-Bank of [[Berlin]], including security rights in collateral.[^2]
+The Guardian reported that on July 30, 1942 the New York Herald-Tribune ran an article headed "Hitler's Angel Has $3m in US Bank," and that the Alien Property Custodian then opened an investigation.[^24] On October 20, 1942 the Custodian, [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]]. Part (a) vested all 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock of the corporation and lists the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares; Lievense with 4; and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] and Johann G. Groeninger with 1 share each. The order states that the shares "are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." Part (b) vested all indebtedness owing by the corporation to Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart and to the August Thyssen-Bank of [[Berlin]], including security rights in collateral.[^2]
-Aris and Campbell reported that the incorporation documents "list him as one of seven directors" and show that he owned one share worth $125.[^24] They reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation, naming the bank's directors including Bush and describing the shares as "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^25]
+Aris and Campbell reported that the incorporation documents "list him as one of seven directors" and show that he owned one share worth $125.[^25] They reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation, naming the bank's directors including Bush and describing the shares as "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^26]
-The Guardian quoted [[John Loftus]], a former federal prosecutor, who disputed that Bush held only a token share, citing sources "in the banking and intelligence communities" and suggesting that the Bush family, "through George Herbert Walker and Prescott," received $1.5 million from the involvement. The article added: "There is, however, no paper trail to this sum."[^26] The Guardian reported that the Bush family and the United States government deny the claims, and quoted a statement by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] that the "charges are untenable and politically motivated" and that Prescott Bush "was neither a Nazi nor a Nazi sympathiser."[^27]
+The Guardian quoted [[John Loftus]], a former federal prosecutor, who disputed that Bush held only a token share, citing sources "in the banking and intelligence communities" and suggesting that the Bush family, "through George Herbert Walker and Prescott," received $1.5 million from the involvement. The article added: "There is, however, no paper trail to this sum."[^27] The Guardian reported that the Bush family and the United States government deny the claims, and quoted a statement by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] that the "charges are untenable and politically motivated" and that Prescott Bush "was neither a Nazi nor a Nazi sympathiser."[^28]
 ### Holland-American, Seamless Steel and Silesian-American
-Vesting Order No. 259, executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register of December 19, 1942, vested all 500 shares of $100 par value stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation, registered in the name of Cornelis Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart.[^28] Vesting Order No. 261, executed the same day, vested all 500 shares of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], registered to E. Roland Harriman (491), C. Lievense (4), and one share each to H. D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger, all held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart.[^29] The Guardian described these two companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the Union Banking Corporation seizure.[^30]
+Vesting Order No. 259, executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register of December 19, 1942, vested all 500 shares of $100 par value stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation, registered in the name of Cornelis Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart.[^29] Vesting Order No. 261, executed the same day, vested all 500 shares of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], registered to E. Roland Harriman (491), C. Lievense (4), and one share each to H. D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger, all held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart.[^30] The Guardian described these two companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the Union Banking Corporation seizure.[^31]
-In Silesian American Corporation v. Clark, 332 U.S. 469, reargued November 12, 1947 and decided December 8, 1947, Justice [[Stanley Reed]] wrote for the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] that the Alien Property Custodian executed Vesting Order No. 370 on November 17, 1942, finding the property to belong to a national of Germany. The property was a block of common and a block of preferred stock in the Silesian American Corporation, a Delaware corporation, which before August 31, 1939 stood in the stock book in the name of [[Non Ferrum]], a Swiss corporation of Zurich, held, according to the Custodian's order, for [[Bergwerksgesellschaft Georg von Giesche's Erben]], a German corporation. The corporation had been a debtor under Chapter X of the Bankruptcy Act since July 30, 1941; its majority stockholder was the Silesian Holding Company, also a Delaware corporation; the Court affirmed the lower courts' order that the corporation issue new certificates to the Custodian.[^31] The Guardian wrote that "By November, the Silesian-American Company, another of Prescott Bush's ventures, had also been seized."[^32]
+In Silesian American Corporation v. Clark, 332 U.S. 469, reargued November 12, 1947 and decided December 8, 1947, Justice [[Stanley Reed]] wrote for the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] that the Alien Property Custodian executed Vesting Order No. 370 on November 17, 1942, finding the property to belong to a national of Germany. The property was a block of common and a block of preferred stock in the Silesian American Corporation, a Delaware corporation, which before August 31, 1939 stood in the stock book in the name of [[Non Ferrum]], a Swiss corporation of Zurich, held, according to the Custodian's order, for [[Bergwerksgesellschaft Georg von Giesche's Erben]], a German corporation. The corporation had been a debtor under Chapter X of the Bankruptcy Act since July 30, 1941; its majority stockholder was the Silesian Holding Company, also a Delaware corporation; the Court affirmed the lower courts' order that the corporation issue new certificates to the Custodian.[^32] The Guardian wrote that "By November, the Silesian-American Company, another of Prescott Bush's ventures, had also been seized."[^33]
-The Guardian reported that [[John Buchanan]], a Miami magazine journalist, published findings from the vesting files in the [[New Hampshire Gazette]] in 2003.[^33] The Gazette of November 7, 2003 carried an article headed "Bush: Nazi Dealings Continued Until 1951," which stated that after the seizures of late 1942 of five enterprises he managed for Thyssen, Bush "failed to divest himself of more than a dozen 'enemy national' relationships that continued until as late as 1951, newly-discovered U.S. government documents reveal." It named W. Averell Harriman and E. Roland Harriman as partners in the ventures and gave 1924 to 1951 as the span of transactions conducted by Brown Brothers Harriman.[^34]
+The Guardian reported that [[John Buchanan]], a Miami magazine journalist, published findings from the vesting files in the [[New Hampshire Gazette]] in 2003.[^34] The Gazette of November 7, 2003 carried an article headed "Bush: Nazi Dealings Continued Until 1951," which stated that after the seizures of late 1942 of five enterprises he managed for Thyssen, Bush "failed to divest himself of more than a dozen 'enemy national' relationships that continued until as late as 1951, newly-discovered U.S. government documents reveal." It named W. Averell Harriman and E. Roland Harriman as partners in the ventures and gave 1924 to 1951 as the span of transactions conducted by Brown Brothers Harriman.[^35]
 ### Consolidated Silesian Steel and John Foster Dulles
-Aris and Campbell wrote that the [[Consolidated Silesian Steel Company]] (CSSC), a Silesian steel and mining company, was linked to Bush in National Archives documents declassified in 2003. They quoted the writer [[Eva Schweitzer]]: "SAC held coal mines and definitely owned CSSC between 1934 and 1935, but when SAC was vested there was no trace of CSSC." The article cites a New York Times article of March 18, 1934 as stating that [[Friedrich Flick]] owned two-thirds of CSSC while "American interests" held the rest.[^35]
+Aris and Campbell wrote that the [[Consolidated Silesian Steel Company]] (CSSC), a Silesian steel and mining company, was linked to Bush in National Archives documents declassified in 2003. They quoted the writer [[Eva Schweitzer]]: "SAC held coal mines and definitely owned CSSC between 1934 and 1935, but when SAC was vested there was no trace of CSSC." The article cites a New York Times article of March 18, 1934 as stating that [[Friedrich Flick]] owned two-thirds of CSSC while "American interests" held the rest.[^36]
-The Guardian quoted a January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to W. Averell Harriman: "The Consolidated Silesian Steel Company situation has become increasingly complicated, and I have accordingly brought in Sullivan and Cromwell, in order to be sure that our interests are protected." It continues: "After studying the situation Foster Dulles is insisting that their man in Berlin get into the picture and obtain the information which the directors here should have. You will recall that Foster is a director and he is particularly anxious to be certain that there is no liability attaching to the American directors." The Guardian identified the reference as to [[John Foster Dulles]] of [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], and the letter as concerning the Polish government's drive to nationalize the plant.[^36]
+The Guardian quoted a January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to W. Averell Harriman: "The Consolidated Silesian Steel Company situation has become increasingly complicated, and I have accordingly brought in Sullivan and Cromwell, in order to be sure that our interests are protected." It continues: "After studying the situation Foster Dulles is insisting that their man in Berlin get into the picture and obtain the information which the directors here should have. You will recall that Foster is a director and he is particularly anxious to be certain that there is no liability attaching to the American directors." The Guardian identified the reference as to [[John Foster Dulles]] of [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], and the letter as concerning the Polish government's drive to nationalize the plant.[^37]
 ### Directorships: Dresser Industries, CBS and Pennsylvania Water and Power
-Wills wrote that Bush "ended up on the boards of many firms he underwrote, including CBS." Quoting Bush: "In 1929 we bought Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars, and we sold securities against that company and refinanced it, you see, so that we retained a substantial measure of control."[^37] Wills reports that Bush served on the board of [[Dresser Industries]] and made his Yale friend Neil Mallon its chief executive, and that when George H.W. Bush went from Yale to Texas in 1948 he was hired by Mallon to work for a Dresser subsidiary. Bush recalled: "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years."[^37]
+Wills wrote that Bush "ended up on the boards of many firms he underwrote, including CBS." Quoting Bush: "In 1929 we bought Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars, and we sold securities against that company and refinanced it, you see, so that we retained a substantial measure of control."[^38] Wills reports that Bush served on the board of [[Dresser Industries]] and made his Yale friend Neil Mallon its chief executive, and that when George H.W. Bush went from Yale to Texas in 1948 he was hired by Mallon to work for a Dresser subsidiary. Bush recalled: "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years."[^38]
-Wills places Bush's CBS board seat in 1932, when [[William S. Paley]] came to the firm with Herbert Swope to arrange the purchase of a half interest in the [[CBS]] company, owned by [[Paramount Pictures]], for five million dollars. Paley could raise half, and the Harriman firm raised the other two and a half million; Bush recalled that "Averell put me on it." Wills wrote that Bush "went onto the CBS board to watch what was being done with the investment."[^38]
+The Handbook of Texas entry on Dresser Industries states that Prescott Bush, then "a W. A. Harriman and Company executive," had been involved in the 1928 conversion of Dresser into a public company, and that "he served on the board of directors for twenty-two years."[^39] The company histories date the sale of the family business to W. A. Harriman and Company to 1928, and Bush's own recollection, quoted above, dates the purchase to 1929. Neil Mallon became president and chief executive in 1928, when the company was converted.[^40] The 1979 company history lists Mallon as president from 1929 to 1962.[^41] Bill Minutaglio wrote that Prescott Bush called Mallon "a very able fellow" and hand-selected him to head Dresser.[^42]
-The [[Hagley Museum and Library]] describes the [[Pennsylvania Water and Power Company]] as a company whose board Bush joined as chairman in the early 1940s: "Joining the company as Chairman of the Board in the early 1940s was Wall Street executive banker and later U.S. senator, Prescott S. Bush."[^39] In a 1942 letter to company president [[John Abbet Walls]], Bush wrote: "Mr. Buckner's death raises, of course, the question of replacement on the board, and I am not forgetting that we should also replace Mr. Gleason this spring."[^40] The company's presidential records are Hagley Accession 2627 and span 1905 to 1946.[^41]
+Wills places Bush's CBS board seat in 1932, when [[William S. Paley]] came to the firm with Herbert Swope to arrange the purchase of a half interest in the [[CBS]] company, owned by [[Paramount Pictures]], for five million dollars. Paley could raise half, and the Harriman firm raised the other two and a half million; Bush recalled that "Averell put me on it." Wills wrote that Bush "went onto the CBS board to watch what was being done with the investment."[^43]
 The [[Hagley Museum and Library]] describes the [[Pennsylvania Water and Power Company]] as a company whose board Bush joined as chairman in the early 1940s: "Joining the company as Chairman of the Board in the early 1940s was Wall Street executive banker and later U.S. senator, Prescott S. Bush."[^44] In a 1942 letter to company president [[John Abbet Walls]], Bush wrote: "Mr. Buckner's death raises, of course, the question of replacement on the board, and I am not forgetting that we should also replace Mr. Gleason this spring."[^45] The company's presidential records are Hagley Accession 2627 and span 1905 to 1946.[^46]
 ### The USO and the National War Fund
-Frank Coffey's official photographic history of the [[United Service Organizations]] states that under national campaign chairman [[Thomas E. Dewey]] the organization had raised over $16 million, and that in 1942 Dewey resigned. The book reproduces a USO appeal letter signed "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman," printed with [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] as honorary chairman.[^42]
+Frank Coffey's official photographic history of the [[United Service Organizations]] states that under national campaign chairman [[Thomas E. Dewey]] the organization had raised over $16 million, and that in 1942 Dewey resigned. The book reproduces a USO appeal letter signed "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman," printed with [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] as honorary chairman.[^47]
-The [[National War Fund]], the federation of war-relief and USO appeals that ran from 1943 to 1947, listed Bush among its vice presidents and on its executive committee. Its Speakers Handbook, issued as of August 13, 1945, names as president [[Winthrop W. Aldrich]] and as vice presidents Jean B. Adoue Jr. of Texas, Prescott S. Bush of New York, Robert M. Hanes of North Carolina, Francis P. Matthews of Nebraska, Walter Rothschild of New York, Edward L. Ryerson of Illinois, Robert G. Sproul of California and Henry M. Wriston of Rhode Island. Its executive committee includes Aldrich, Bush, [[Henry R. Luce]] and Rockefeller; its budget committee chairman was [[Gerard Swope]].[^43] The Fund's official history, by Harold J. Seymour, names Bush "National Campaign Chairman" and describes him as the sixth man picked in the formation of the leadership, "Averill Harriman's banking partner."[^44]
+The [[National War Fund]], the federation of war-relief and USO appeals that ran from 1943 to 1947, listed Bush among its vice presidents and on its executive committee. Its Speakers Handbook, issued as of August 13, 1945, names as president [[Winthrop W. Aldrich]] and as vice presidents Jean B. Adoue Jr. of Texas, Prescott S. Bush of New York, Robert M. Hanes of North Carolina, Francis P. Matthews of Nebraska, Walter Rothschild of New York, Edward L. Ryerson of Illinois, Robert G. Sproul of California and Henry M. Wriston of Rhode Island. Its executive committee includes Aldrich, Bush, [[Henry R. Luce]] and Rockefeller; its budget committee chairman was [[Gerard Swope]].[^48] The Fund's official history, by Harold J. Seymour, names Bush "National Campaign Chairman" and describes him as the sixth man picked in the formation of the leadership, "Averill Harriman's banking partner."[^49]
 ### Allen Dulles and the Central Intelligence Agency
-The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] reading-room collection holds correspondence between Bush and the Agency's directors from his first year in the Senate. [[Allen Dulles]] answered a letter of January 27, 1953 from Bush about the employment of a person Bush had recommended on February 3, 1953, addressing him "Dear Pres," and wrote on April 2, 1953 that a person Bush had asked about was not being considered for any appointment and that he did not know in what connection the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] might be inquiring into the person's background.[^45] An internal memorandum approved by Dulles in 1957 records that Bush, recently returned from a trip to Europe on which he gathered information on [[NATO]] and the defenses of Western Europe, was interested in the case of [[John Downey]], and recommends that the Agency debrief him on the trip and brief him on Downey together.[^46]
+The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] reading-room collection holds correspondence between Bush and the Agency's directors from his first year in the Senate. [[Allen Dulles]] answered a letter of January 27, 1953 from Bush about the employment of a person Bush had recommended on February 3, 1953, addressing him "Dear Pres," and wrote on April 2, 1953 that a person Bush had asked about was not being considered for any appointment and that he did not know in what connection the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] might be inquiring into the person's background.[^50] An internal memorandum approved by Dulles in 1957 records that Bush, recently returned from a trip to Europe on which he gathered information on [[NATO]] and the defenses of Western Europe, was interested in the case of [[John Downey]], and recommends that the Agency debrief him on the trip and brief him on Downey together.[^51]
-Dulles replied on September 8, 1959 to a letter in which Bush, a member of the Senate Committee on Armed Services, had forwarded a correspondent's letter about charges made against the Agency in the New York Mirror column of [[Lee Mortimer]]. Dulles wrote that an Agency representative had met Mortimer in August, that all individuals the Agency employed were investigated, and that Mortimer's statement about CIA accountability to Congress was not entirely accurate.[^47] Acting Director [[Charles P. Cabell]] wrote on June 21, 1960 that Dulles had left before seeing Bush's letter of June 3, and thanked him for sending a Hartford Courant editorial and an article by Donald McLachlan.[^48]
+Dulles replied on September 8, 1959 to a letter in which Bush, a member of the Senate Committee on Armed Services, had forwarded a correspondent's letter about charges made against the Agency in the New York Mirror column of [[Lee Mortimer]]. Dulles wrote that an Agency representative had met Mortimer in August, that all individuals the Agency employed were investigated, and that Mortimer's statement about CIA accountability to Congress was not entirely accurate.[^52] Acting Director [[Charles P. Cabell]] wrote on June 21, 1960 that Dulles had left before seeing Bush's letter of June 3, and thanked him for sending a Hartford Courant editorial and an article by Donald McLachlan.[^53]
-On October 18, 1960 Dulles wrote to Bush at Greenwich that he had noted a planned trip to Latin America and offered to brief him before his departure and to receive his observations on his return. Bush answered on October 25, 1960: "Tracy Barnes did call and I shall work out an engagement through him in order that I may get a briefing which, heaven knows, I need," adding "Dorothy and I speak of you many times. We appreciate so much our friendship with you and Clover."[^49] [[John A. McCone]], Dulles's successor, wrote Bush on November 8, 1961 that he had read the correspondence concerning Bogota, Colombia, enclosed in Bush's recent letter, and had forwarded it to the officials concerned with Colombia, and wrote again on January 8, 1962 about a person Bush had brought to his attention.[^50] A September 6, 1961 Senate extension of remarks by Bush is titled "Central Intelligence Agency: A Guardian of the National Security."[^51]
+On October 18, 1960 Dulles wrote to Bush at Greenwich that he had noted a planned trip to Latin America and offered to brief him before his departure and to receive his observations on his return. Bush answered on October 25, 1960: "Tracy Barnes did call and I shall work out an engagement through him in order that I may get a briefing which, heaven knows, I need," adding "Dorothy and I speak of you many times. We appreciate so much our friendship with you and Clover."[^54] [[John A. McCone]], Dulles's successor, wrote Bush on November 8, 1961 that he had read the correspondence concerning Bogota, Colombia, enclosed in Bush's recent letter, and had forwarded it to the officials concerned with Colombia, and wrote again on January 8, 1962 about a person Bush had brought to his attention.[^55] A September 6, 1961 Senate extension of remarks by Bush is titled "Central Intelligence Agency: A Guardian of the National Security."[^56]
-Wills wrote that Bush "was a strong backer of the CIA, of its covert operations, and of its director, Allen Dulles," and that his only criticism of the [[Bay of Pigs]] was that [[John F. Kennedy]] did not "go through with that enterprise" when it bogged down.[^52]
+Wills wrote that Bush "was a strong backer of the CIA, of its covert operations, and of its director, Allen Dulles," and that his only criticism of the [[Bay of Pigs]] was that [[John F. Kennedy]] did not "go through with that enterprise" when it bogged down.[^57]
 ### Planned Parenthood
-The [[Margaret Sanger Papers Project]] at [[New York University]] states that Bush "in 1947 served as the treasurer of Planned Parenthood's first nationwide fund-raising campaign" and shared the masthead of the [[Planned Parenthood Federation of America]] with [[Margaret Sanger]] at a time when contraception was illegal in Connecticut.[^53] The Project places columnist [[Drew Pearson]]'s disclosure of the ties, in a national television commentary just days before the election, in the 1950 Senate race, which Bush lost by about a thousand votes, and states that the family vehemently denied any association with the organization.[^54] George H.W. Bush wrote in a 1973 foreword: "Many political observers felt a sufficient number of voters were swayed by his alleged contacts with the birth controllers to cost him the election."[^55] Wills places Pearson's column late in the 1952 campaign, stating that Pearson wrote that Bush was a president of the Birth Control League, that Bush "supported Planned Parenthood" without being an officer of the League, and that Bush bought special broadcast time and distributed fliers after Mass asking Catholics to tune in.[^56]
+The [[Margaret Sanger Papers Project]] at [[New York University]] states that Bush "in 1947 served as the treasurer of Planned Parenthood's first nationwide fund-raising campaign" and shared the masthead of the [[Planned Parenthood Federation of America]] with [[Margaret Sanger]] at a time when contraception was illegal in Connecticut.[^58] The Project places columnist [[Drew Pearson]]'s disclosure of the ties, in a national television commentary just days before the election, in the 1950 Senate race, which Bush lost by about a thousand votes, and states that the family vehemently denied any association with the organization.[^59] George H.W. Bush wrote in a 1973 foreword: "Many political observers felt a sufficient number of voters were swayed by his alleged contacts with the birth controllers to cost him the election."[^60] Wills places Pearson's column late in the 1952 campaign, stating that Pearson wrote that Bush was a president of the Birth Control League, that Bush "supported Planned Parenthood" without being an officer of the League, and that Bush bought special broadcast time and distributed fliers after Mass asking Catholics to tune in.[^61]
 ### Senate, 1950 to 1963
-Wills wrote that Bush lost the 1950 special election for the seat vacated by Raymond Baldwin to [[William Benton]] by "a thousand votes," with 862,000 votes cast, after a primary against [[Vivian Kellems]]; that Bush had first deferred to Luce, who had expressed interest in the seat; and that in 1952 [[Clare Boothe Luce]] competed with Bush for the nomination to fill the vacancy created by the death of Senator [[James O'Brien McMahon]].[^57] The Biographical Directory records that Bush was elected on November 4, 1952 to fill that vacancy, was reelected in 1956, was not a candidate in 1962 and resumed banking and investment work.[^1] Wills wrote that Bush won the 1952 special election against [[Abraham Ribicoff]]; that Bush attacked Averell Harriman during the campaign, saying Harriman's "political thinking and judgment have been completely changed since he ceased active participation in our firm years ago to enter government"; and that Bush appeared on a platform with [[Joseph McCarthy]] in Connecticut that year.[^58]
+Wills wrote that Bush lost the 1950 special election for the seat vacated by Raymond Baldwin to [[William Benton]] by "a thousand votes," with 862,000 votes cast, after a primary against [[Vivian Kellems]]; that Bush had first deferred to Luce, who had expressed interest in the seat; and that in 1952 [[Clare Boothe Luce]] competed with Bush for the nomination to fill the vacancy created by the death of Senator [[James O'Brien McMahon]].[^62] The Biographical Directory records that Bush was elected on November 4, 1952 to fill that vacancy, was reelected in 1956, was not a candidate in 1962 and resumed banking and investment work.[^1] Wills wrote that Bush won the 1952 special election against [[Abraham Ribicoff]]; that Bush attacked Averell Harriman during the campaign, saying Harriman's "political thinking and judgment have been completely changed since he ceased active participation in our firm years ago to enter government"; and that Bush appeared on a platform with [[Joseph McCarthy]] in Connecticut that year.[^63]
-Wills reported that [[Sherman Adams]] arranged the first of many golf matches between Bush and President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], that Bush organized a dinner for the President at [[Burning Tree Club]], that Bush served on the Banking and Currency Committee, and that in 1960 he chaired the platform subcommittee on labor.[^59]
+Wills reported that [[Sherman Adams]] arranged the first of many golf matches between Bush and President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], that Bush organized a dinner for the President at [[Burning Tree Club]], that Bush served on the Banking and Currency Committee, and that in 1960 he chaired the platform subcommittee on labor.[^64]
-On December 2, 1954 the Senate adopted Senate Resolution 301, censuring Joseph McCarthy, by a vote of 67 to 22. Bush voted yea.[^60] Before the vote Bush spoke in support of a substitute motion, telling the Senate that "No question of free speech is involved. Free speech does not mean unrestrained," and referring to his statement of December 1.[^61] Wills wrote that Bush called Adams to suggest that Eisenhower invite Senator Arthur Watkins, who chaired the censure committee, to dinner at the White House.[^59]
+On December 2, 1954 the Senate adopted Senate Resolution 301, censuring Joseph McCarthy, by a vote of 67 to 22. Bush voted yea.[^65] Before the vote Bush spoke in support of a substitute motion, telling the Senate that "No question of free speech is involved. Free speech does not mean unrestrained," and referring to his statement of December 1.[^66] Wills wrote that Bush called Adams to suggest that Eisenhower invite Senator Arthur Watkins, who chaired the censure committee, to dinner at the White House.[^64]
-On May 29, 1956 the Senate agreed, 41 to 39, to an amendment offered by Senator [[William F. Knowland]] of [[California]] to the Senate's highway bill. Bush voted in the negative.[^62] On June 26, 1956 the Senate agreed to the conference report on the bill by 89 votes to 1, and Bush voted yea.[^63]
+On May 29, 1956 the Senate agreed, 41 to 39, to an amendment offered by Senator [[William F. Knowland]] of [[California]] to the Senate's highway bill. Bush voted in the negative.[^67] On June 26, 1956 the Senate agreed to the conference report on the bill by 89 votes to 1, and Bush voted yea.[^68]
 ### Footnotes
@ -223,44 +225,49 @@ On May 29, 1956 the Senate agreed, 41 to 39, to an amendment offered by Senator
 [^20]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Three sets of archives spell out Prescott Bush's involvement": the Harriman papers at the Library of Congress, vesting order number 248 at the National Archives, and the National Archives files on IG Farben. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
 [^21]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, on documents from the Harriman papers including a letter from Prescott Bush to the financial editor of the New York Journal American. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
 [^22]: Treasury Department memorandum, E. G. May to J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941 (date line typed and endorsed in Pehle's hand "Aug 18, 1941"), "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA: incorporation August 4, 1924; wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V.; Cornelis Lievense; Baron Heinrich Thyssen; gold purchases 1931-1933; $3,085,000 delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank June 15, 1934; fall 1938 safe deposit box with two million dollars in currency, later deposited with Brown Brothers Harriman. https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay. The Guardian's article of September 25, 2004 quotes the report as "of August 16 1941."
-[^23]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "The trouble started on July 30 1942 when the New York Herald-Tribune ran an article entitled 'Hitler's Angel Has $3m in US Bank.'" https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^23]: Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), reprint of the Woolley letter of January 14, 1941 and the White reply of May 13, 1941, pp. 214 to 217. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
-[^24]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^24]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "The trouble started on July 30 1942 when the New York Herald-Tribune ran an article entitled 'Hitler's Angel Has $3m in US Bank.'" https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^25]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, describing and quoting a memorandum from Homer Jones to the executive committee of the Alien Property Custodian from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^25]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^26]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, on John Loftus: his sources in "the banking and intelligence communities" and "the Bush family, through George Herbert Walker and Prescott, got $1.5m out of the involvement. There is, however, no paper trail to this sum." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^26]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, describing and quoting a memorandum from Homer Jones to the executive committee of the Alien Property Custodian from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^27]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "The US government and the Bush family deny all the claims against them"; the Anti-Defamation League statement of 2003 that "These charges are untenable and politically motivated ... Prescott Bush was neither a Nazi nor a Nazi sympathiser." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^27]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, on John Loftus: his sources in "the banking and intelligence communities" and "the Bush family, through George Herbert Walker and Prescott, got $1.5m out of the involvement. There is, however, no paper trail to this sum." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^28]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626-10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
+[^28]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "The US government and the Bush family deny all the claims against them"; the Anti-Defamation League statement of 2003 that "These charges are untenable and politically motivated ... Prescott Bush was neither a Nazi nor a Nazi sympathiser." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^29]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
+[^29]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626-10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
-[^30]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^30]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
-[^31]: *Silesian American Corporation v. Clark*, 332 U.S. 469, 68 S.Ct. 179 (reargued November 12, 1947; decided December 8, 1947), opinion of Justice Reed: Vesting Order No. 370 of November 17, 1942; Non Ferrum Gesellschaft, Zurich; Bergwerksgesellschaft Georg von Giesche's Erben; Chapter X debtor since July 30, 1941; Silesian Holding Company; "Judgment affirmed." https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/US/332/332.US.469.6.html
+[^31]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^32]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^32]: *Silesian American Corporation v. Clark*, 332 U.S. 469, 68 S.Ct. 179 (reargued November 12, 1947; decided December 8, 1947), opinion of Justice Reed: Vesting Order No. 370 of November 17, 1942; Non Ferrum Gesellschaft, Zurich; Bergwerksgesellschaft Georg von Giesche's Erben; Chapter X debtor since July 30, 1941; Silesian Holding Company; "Judgment affirmed." https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/US/332/332.US.469.6.html
-[^33]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: John Buchanan, "a Miami-based magazine journalist who started examining the files while working on a screenplay," published his findings in the *New Hampshire Gazette*. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^33]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^34]: "Bush: Nazi Dealings Continued Until 1951," *New Hampshire Gazette*, Vol. 248, No. 3, November 7, 2003, "Federal Documents," as reprinted at raoul-wallenberg.eu. https://www.raoul-wallenberg.eu/2003
+[^34]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: John Buchanan, "a Miami-based magazine journalist who started examining the files while working on a screenplay," published his findings in the *New Hampshire Gazette*. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^35]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: the CSSC passage, the Schweitzer quotation, and the reference to a *New York Times* article of March 18, 1934. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^35]: "Bush: Nazi Dealings Continued Until 1951," *New Hampshire Gazette*, Vol. 248, No. 3, November 7, 2003, "Federal Documents," as reprinted at raoul-wallenberg.eu. https://www.raoul-wallenberg.eu/2003
-[^36]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to Averill Harriman. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^36]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: the CSSC passage, the Schweitzer quotation, and the reference to a *New York Times* article of March 18, 1934. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^37]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992: "Prescott ended up on the boards of many firms he underwrote, including CBS"; the 1929 purchase of the Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars; Neil Mallon as chief executive; George H.W. Bush hired in 1948 by Mallon for a Dresser subsidiary. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
+[^37]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to Averill Harriman. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^38]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992, quoting Bush's oral history: "Averell put me on it"; "Prescott went onto the CBS board to watch what was being done with the investment." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
+[^38]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992: "Prescott ended up on the boards of many firms he underwrote, including CBS"; the 1929 purchase of the Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars; Neil Mallon as chief executive; George H.W. Bush hired in 1948 by Mallon for a Dresser subsidiary. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
-[^39]: Hagley Museum and Library, Pennsylvania Water & Power Company presidential records (Acc. 2627), historical introduction. https://hagley.org/node/968
+[^39]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," Handbook of Texas Online, Texas State Historical Association, section on the 1928 conversion and the directorship of Prescott Bush. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries
-[^40]: Hagley Museum and Library, Acc. 2627, 1942 letter from Prescott S. Bush to John Abbet Walls, as quoted in the Hagley account. https://hagley.org/node/968
+[^40]: Dresser Industries, Inc., entry in the International Directory of Company Histories (St. James Press), reproduced on Encyclopedia.com, section on the 1928 sale to W. A. Harriman and Company and Mallon's selection as president. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
-[^41]: Hagley Museum and Library, Acc. 2627, Pennsylvania Water & Power Company presidential records, 1905 to 1946. https://hagley.org/node/968
+[^41]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), list of presidents. https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
-[^42]: Frank Coffey, *Always Home: 50 Years of the USO* (Washington: Brassey's, 1991): under national campaign chairman Thomas Dewey the USO "had raised over $16 million"; "In 1942 Dewey resigned"; appeal letter signed "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman, United Service Organizations, Inc." with "Honorary Chairman John D. Rockefeller, Jr." https://archive.org/details/alwayshome50year00coff
+[^42]: Bill Minutaglio, *First Son: George W. Bush and the Bush Family Dynasty* (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2001). https://archive.org/details/firstsongeorgewb0000minu
-[^43]: National War Fund, *Speakers Handbook* (issued as of August 13, 1945), p. 38, "Officers of National War Fund": president Winthrop W. Aldrich; vice presidents including Prescott S. Bush, New York; executive committee including Aldrich, Bush, Henry R. Luce and John D. Rockefeller, Jr.; Gerard Swope, chairman, Budget Committee. https://archive.org/details/SpeakersHandbook001
+[^43]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992, quoting Bush's oral history: "Averell put me on it"; "Prescott went onto the CBS board to watch what was being done with the investment." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
-[^44]: Harold J. Seymour, *Design for Giving: The Story of the National War Fund, Inc., 1943-1947* (New York: Harper, 1947), on the selection of "Prescott S. Bush, Averill Harriman's banking partner" as "the sixth man" and "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman." https://archive.org/details/designforgivings0000haro
+[^44]: Hagley Museum and Library, Pennsylvania Water & Power Company presidential records (Acc. 2627), historical introduction. https://hagley.org/node/968
-[^45]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, February 3, 1953, replying to Bush's letter of January 27, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070003-9; Dulles to Bush, April 2, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070139-9. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070003-9 ; https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070139-9
+[^45]: Hagley Museum and Library, Acc. 2627, 1942 letter from Prescott S. Bush to John Abbet Walls, as quoted in the Hagley account. https://hagley.org/node/968
-[^46]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Senator Prescott Bush (R., Conn.)," signed by John S. Warner, Legislative Counsel, with Allen W. Dulles's approval, 1957, CIA-RDP80R01731R000200010068-9. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000200010068-9
+[^46]: Hagley Museum and Library, Acc. 2627, Pennsylvania Water & Power Company presidential records, 1905 to 1946. https://hagley.org/node/968
-[^47]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, September 8, 1959, on the New York Mirror column of Lee Mortimer, CIA-RDP80R01731R000100080046-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000100080046-7
+[^47]: Frank Coffey, *Always Home: 50 Years of the USO* (Washington: Brassey's, 1991): under national campaign chairman Thomas Dewey the USO "had raised over $16 million"; "In 1942 Dewey resigned"; appeal letter signed "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman, United Service Organizations, Inc." with "Honorary Chairman John D. Rockefeller, Jr." https://archive.org/details/alwayshome50year00coff
-[^48]: C. P. Cabell, Acting Director, to Prescott Bush, June 21, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R000900030010-1. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000900030010-1
+[^48]: National War Fund, *Speakers Handbook* (issued as of August 13, 1945), p. 38, "Officers of National War Fund": president Winthrop W. Aldrich; vice presidents including Prescott S. Bush, New York; executive committee including Aldrich, Bush, Henry R. Luce and John D. Rockefeller, Jr.; Gerard Swope, chairman, Budget Committee. https://archive.org/details/SpeakersHandbook001
-[^49]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, October 18, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040026-3; Prescott Bush to Allen Dulles, October 25, 1960, on United States Senate stationery, marked "Personal," CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040027-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040027-2
+[^49]: Harold J. Seymour, *Design for Giving: The Story of the National War Fund, Inc., 1943-1947* (New York: Harper, 1947), on the selection of "Prescott S. Bush, Averill Harriman's banking partner" as "the sixth man" and "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman." https://archive.org/details/designforgivings0000haro
-[^50]: John A. McCone to Prescott Bush, November 8, 1961 (Bogota, Colombia), CIA-RDP80B01676R000700190021-4; McCone to Bush, January 8, 1962, CIA-RDP80B01676R002800230007-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000700190021-4
+[^50]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, February 3, 1953, replying to Bush's letter of January 27, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070003-9; Dulles to Bush, April 2, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070139-9. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070003-9 ; https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070139-9
-[^51]: "Central Intelligence Agency: A Guardian of the National Security," extension of remarks of Hon. Prescott Bush of Connecticut in the Senate of the United States, Wednesday, September 6, 1961, CIA-RDP70-00058R000200120158-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP70-00058R000200120158-2
+[^51]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Senator Prescott Bush (R., Conn.)," signed by John S. Warner, Legislative Counsel, with Allen W. Dulles's approval, 1957, CIA-RDP80R01731R000200010068-9. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000200010068-9
-[^52]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
+[^52]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, September 8, 1959, on the New York Mirror column of Lee Mortimer, CIA-RDP80R01731R000100080046-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000100080046-7
-[^53]: New York University Sanger Papers Project, Newsletter No. 44 (Winter 2006/2007), "Bush Family Planning": Sanger "shared the Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA) masthead with the current president's grandfather ... Prescott S. Bush, who in 1947 served as the treasurer of Planned Parenthood's first nationwide fund-raising campaign." https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
+[^53]: C. P. Cabell, Acting Director, to Prescott Bush, June 21, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R000900030010-1. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000900030010-1
-[^54]: New York University Sanger Papers Project, Newsletter No. 44: Drew Pearson's broadcast "just days before the election"; "Bush lost by about a thousand votes in a state with a large Catholic population"; the family "vehemently denied that Prescott Bush had any association with the PPFA." https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
+[^54]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, October 18, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040026-3; Prescott Bush to Allen Dulles, October 25, 1960, on United States Senate stationery, marked "Personal," CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040027-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040027-2
-[^55]: George H. W. Bush, foreword to Phyllis Tilson Piotrow, *World Population Crisis: The United States Response* (1973), p. vii, as quoted in Newsletter No. 44. https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
+[^55]: John A. McCone to Prescott Bush, November 8, 1961 (Bogota, Colombia), CIA-RDP80B01676R000700190021-4; McCone to Bush, January 8, 1962, CIA-RDP80B01676R002800230007-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000700190021-4
-[^56]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: "Late in the campaign, Drew Pearson wrote a column saying that Bush was a president of the Birth Control League. Actually, though he supported Planned Parenthood, Bush was not an officer of the Birth Control League." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
+[^56]: "Central Intelligence Agency: A Guardian of the National Security," extension of remarks of Hon. Prescott Bush of Connecticut in the Senate of the United States, Wednesday, September 6, 1961, CIA-RDP70-00058R000200120158-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP70-00058R000200120158-2
-[^57]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992, quoting Bush: "I lost by a thousand votes to Bill Benton, when there were 862,000 votes cast"; Luce's interest in the seat; the 1952 contest with Clare Boothe Luce after McMahon's death. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
+[^57]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
-[^58]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: the Ribicoff race, Bush's speech on Harriman, and Bush's appearance with McCarthy. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
+[^58]: New York University Sanger Papers Project, Newsletter No. 44 (Winter 2006/2007), "Bush Family Planning": Sanger "shared the Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA) masthead with the current president's grandfather ... Prescott S. Bush, who in 1947 served as the treasurer of Planned Parenthood's first nationwide fund-raising campaign." https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
-[^59]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: Adams, golf, Burning Tree dinner, Watkins suggestion, Banking and Currency Committee, 1960 platform subcommittee. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
+[^59]: New York University Sanger Papers Project, Newsletter No. 44: Drew Pearson's broadcast "just days before the election"; "Bush lost by about a thousand votes in a state with a large Catholic population"; the family "vehemently denied that Prescott Bush had any association with the PPFA." https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
-[^60]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 100, 83rd Congress, 2d session, Senate proceedings of December 2, 1954, roll-call vote on Senate Resolution 301: yeas 67, nays 22, "Bush" among the yeas. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_august-19-december-2-1954_100
+[^60]: George H. W. Bush, foreword to Phyllis Tilson Piotrow, *World Population Crisis: The United States Response* (1973), p. vii, as quoted in Newsletter No. 44. https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
-[^61]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 100, December 1 and 2, 1954, remarks of Mr. Bush in support of the substitute motion: "No question of free speech is involved. Free speech does not mean unrestrained"; reference to his statement of December 1, "printed in the Congressional Record at page 16270." https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_august-19-december-2-1954_100
+[^61]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: "Late in the campaign, Drew Pearson wrote a column saying that Bush was a president of the Birth Control League. Actually, though he supported Planned Parenthood, Bush was not an officer of the Birth Control League." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
-[^62]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 102, 84th Congress, 2d session, May 29, 1956, vote "on agreeing to the amendment offered by the Senator from California [Mr. KNOWLAND]": yeas 41, nays 39, "Bush" among the nays. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-22-june-11-1956_102
+[^62]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992, quoting Bush: "I lost by a thousand votes to Bill Benton, when there were 862,000 votes cast"; Luce's interest in the seat; the 1952 contest with Clare Boothe Luce after McMahon's death. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
-[^63]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 102, 84th Congress, 2d session, June 26, 1956, vote "on agreeing to the conference report": yeas 89, nay 1 (Long), "Bush" among the yeas. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-12-29-1956_102
+[^63]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: the Ribicoff race, Bush's speech on Harriman, and Bush's appearance with McCarthy. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
 [^64]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: Adams, golf, Burning Tree dinner, Watkins suggestion, Banking and Currency Committee, 1960 platform subcommittee. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
 [^65]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 100, 83rd Congress, 2d session, Senate proceedings of December 2, 1954, roll-call vote on Senate Resolution 301: yeas 67, nays 22, "Bush" among the yeas. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_august-19-december-2-1954_100
 [^66]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 100, December 1 and 2, 1954, remarks of Mr. Bush in support of the substitute motion: "No question of free speech is involved. Free speech does not mean unrestrained"; reference to his statement of December 1, "printed in the Congressional Record at page 16270." https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_august-19-december-2-1954_100
 [^67]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 102, 84th Congress, 2d session, May 29, 1956, vote "on agreeing to the amendment offered by the Senator from California [Mr. KNOWLAND]": yeas 41, nays 39, "Bush" among the nays. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-22-june-11-1956_102
 [^68]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 102, 84th Congress, 2d session, June 26, 1956, vote "on agreeing to the conference report": yeas 89, nay 1 (Long), "Bush" among the yeas. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-12-29-1956_102
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/William
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/William
@ -51,11 +51,13 @@ relations:
    role: "son"
    fn: 6
 created: 2025-08-05
-updated: 2026-10-12
+updated: 2026-10-26
 ---
 William P. Barr worked at the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school at night. "During my tenure at CIA, 1973 to '77, the investigations of the agency started, and I moved to the legislative counsel's office," he recalled; as assistant legislative counsel under Director [[George H.W. Bush]] in 1976 he worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. He then clerked for Judge [[Malcolm Wilkey]] of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]], a former head of the Justice Department's Criminal Division, who telephoned Bush for a reference. After private practice and the Reagan transition he joined the [[White House]] domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush. In 1988 he helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^1]
 His father, [[Donald Barr]], had served briefly in the Research and Analysis Branch of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during the Second World War.[^9] Barr began seasonal employment at the CIA in June 1971, while pursuing a graduate degree at [[Columbia University]], and wrote in his 2022 memoir, *One Damn Thing After Another*: "I want a career in intelligence.... My strategy is to make myself an attractive candidate by becoming an expert on China."[^9]
 ### Justice Department, 1989-1993
 Gray, who wanted in the [[Office of Legal Counsel]] "someone in that position who believed in executive authority," asked Barr to take it in 1989; Barr was "the White House's choice," acceptable to Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]]. At the Office of Legal Counsel he took part in the planning of the legal basis for the invasion of [[Panama]] and the arrest of [[Manuel Noriega]] in December 1989. He became deputy attorney general in 1990 and acting attorney general in August 1991, during the seizure of the Talladega federal prison by Cuban detainees, and served as attorney general until January 1993.[^1]
@ -78,11 +80,11 @@ At the end of the administration Barr advised Bush to pardon [[Caspar Weinberger
 ### Attorney General, 2019
-Barr resigned from the board of [[Dominion Energy]] effective February 12, 2019, before his confirmation as attorney general.[^5] His department oversaw the federal prosecution of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] that year. His father, [[Donald Barr]], was headmaster of the [[Dalton School]] in New York during the period in which Epstein, a college dropout, was hired there to teach; accounts differ on whether Donald Barr personally hired him.[^6]
+Barr resigned from the board of [[Dominion Energy]] effective February 12, 2019, before his confirmation as attorney general.[^5] His department oversaw the federal prosecution of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] that year. His father, Donald Barr, was headmaster of the [[Dalton School]] in New York during the period in which Epstein, a college dropout, was hired there to teach; accounts differ on whether Donald Barr personally hired him.[^6] The [[New York Times]] wrote on July 12, 2019 that Donald Barr announced in February 1974 that he was resigning as headmaster but would stay until the end of the school year, and that "It is unclear whether Mr. Barr hired Mr. Epstein during that time."[^10] [[Peter Branch]], interim headmaster from July 1, 1974, told [[Thomas Volscho]] that he did not recall hiring Epstein and was "relatively certain Barr or possibly the head of the Math Department hired Epstein."[^11] [[Marie Brenner]] wrote in *Vanity Fair* that Barr "recently claimed he hadn't made the Dalton-Epstein connection until he read about it in the press."[^12] Interviewed by [[NPR]] in December 2019, Brenner said that Barr watched his father "being criticized quite publicly in The New York Times, in New York magazine, in the early 1970s" as he entered college.[^13]
 In a deposition before the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform on August 18, 2025, Barr was asked whether he had recused himself from the Justice Department's review of the Florida prosecution and plea agreement of Epstein. He answered, "No, I didn't recuse myself." He said that the Southern District of New York investigation was "the only thing that I was aware of going on when I was there," and that "I don't recall playing a role in the review of that." He said he had considered whether to recuse from the New York matter, and that the decision not to recuse was made on input from the department's ethics office, by his recollection. Asked about the 2019 Office of Professional Responsibility inquiry into the Florida plea deal, he said, "I wasn't hovering over that or involved in that."[^7]
-Asked about his father's role as headmaster of the Dalton School, Barr said, "It's not pertinent at all." Asked about [[Kirkland & Ellis]] representing Epstein in the non-prosecution negotiations, and about his former employment with the firm, he said, "I actually don't think I would've had to recuse myself from that. But I just was never involved in that."[^8]
+Asked whether his father's role as headmaster of the Dalton School had been a consideration in the Ethics Office analysis, Barr answered, "Actually, I don't even think... I don't know whether I was aware of that at that time. Obviously not. It's not pertinent at all." Asked about [[Kirkland & Ellis]] representing Epstein in the non-prosecution negotiations, and about his former employment with the firm, he said, "I actually don't think I would've had to recuse myself from that. But I just was never involved in that."[^8]
 ### Footnotes
@ -94,3 +96,8 @@ Asked about his father's role as headmaster of the Dalton School, Barr said, "It
 [^6]: "The 'Epstein-Barr' Problem of New York City's Dalton School." *Law and Crime,* July 13, 2019, which states that Epstein was hired "by the school's headmaster Donald Barr in the mid 1970's". https://web.archive.org/web/2019/https://lawandcrime.com/high-profile/the-epstein-barr-problem-of-new-york-citys-dalton-school/
 [^7]: Deposition of William P. Barr, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, August 18, 2025, pp. 47-48. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Barr-Transcript.pdf
 [^8]: Same transcript, pp. 51 and 92-93.
 [^9]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, review essay on William P. Barr, *One Damn Thing After Another: Memoirs of an Attorney General* (William Morrow, 2022), *Studies in Intelligence* 67, no. 1 (extracts, March 2023). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/4-Review-Essay-Barr-Memoir.pdf
 [^10]: Mike Baker and Amy Julia Harris, "Jeffrey Epstein Taught at Dalton. His Behavior Was Noticed," *The New York Times,* July 12, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html
 [^11]: Thomas Volscho, "Jeffrey Epstein Dodged Questions About Sex With His Dalton Prep School Students," *The Daily Beast,* July 12, 2019 (updated September 27, 2019). https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students
 [^12]: Marie Brenner, "'I Had No Problem Being Politically Different': Young William Barr Among the Manhattan Liberals," *Vanity Fair,* October 7, 2019. https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2019/10/the-untold-tale-of-young-william-barr
 [^13]: Rachel Martin, interview with Marie Brenner, "'Vanity Fair': Father-Son Dynamic May Explain Tenure Of AG Barr," *NPR,* December 10, 2019. https://www.kjzz.org/politics/2019-12-10/vanity-fair-father-son-dynamic-may-explain-tenure-of-ag-barr
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/William
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/William
@ -0,0 +1,303 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 title: William F. Buckley Jr.
 aliases:
  - William F. Buckley
  - William F. Buckley, Jr.
  - William Frank Buckley Jr.
  - William Frank Buckley, Jr.
  - WFB
 tags:
  - Person
  - Author
  - Journalist
  - NationalReview
  - FiringLine
  - SkullAndBones
  - Yale
  - CIA
  - MexicoCity
  - OfficeOfPolicyCoordination
  - EHowardHunt
  - Watergate
  - YoungAmericansForFreedom
  - SharonStatement
  - ConservativeMovement
  - BuckleyFamily
 category: "Authors & Journalists"
 summary: "Writer and editor who founded National Review in 1955, hosted Firing Line from 1966 to 1999, and by his own account served as a CIA agent in Mexico City from 1951 under E. Howard Hunt."
 born: 1925-11-24
 died: 2008-02-27
 location: "New York, New York"
 relations:
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    role: "member, Yale class of 1950"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
    start: 1951
    end: 1952
    role: "agent, Mexico City station"
    fn: 2
  - type: reported_to
    with: "[[Howard Hunt]]"
    start: 1951
    end: 1952
    role: "chief of the Office of Policy Coordination station in Mexico City, described by Buckley as his immediate boss"
    fn: 2
  - type: founded
    with: "[[National Review]]"
    start: 1955-11-19
    role: "founder, editor and publisher"
    fn: 41
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Young Americans for Freedom]]"
    start: 1960-09-11
    role: "host of the founding meeting at Sharon, Connecticut"
    fn: 49
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[1965 New York City mayoral election]]"
    start: 1965-06-24
    end: 1965-11-02
    role: "candidate of the Conservative Party of New York"
    fn: 50
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[United States Information Agency]]"
    start: 1969-05-28
    role: "member, United States Advisory Commission on Information"
    fn: 58
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[United Nations]]"
    start: 1973
    role: "public delegate to the General Assembly"
    fn: 61
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Catawba Corporation]]"
    role: "member of the board of directors"
    fn: 10
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Starr Broadcasting Group]]"
    role: "chairman of the board of directors; majority stockholder"
    fn: 42
  - type: investigated
    with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1969-06-02
    role: "special inquiries for presidential appointments, June 1969 and August 1973"
    fn: 43
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[James L. Buckley]]"
    role: "brother"
    fn: 63
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Priscilla Buckley]]"
    role: "sister"
    fn: 31
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[William F. Buckley Sr.]]"
    role: "father"
    fn: 25
  - type: spouse_of
    with: "[[Patricia Buckley]]"
    start: 1950-07-06
    role: "wife"
    fn: 25
 ---
 William Frank Buckley Jr. (November 24, 1925 to February 27, 2008) was an American writer, editor and television host. He founded [[National Review]] in 1955, hosted [[Firing Line]] from 1966 to 1999, and was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] at [[Yale University]].[^1] He served as an agent of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in [[Mexico City]] under [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] beginning in 1951, and wrote of that service in his own words in 2005.[^2] A CIA station chief of the same name, kidnapped in [[Beirut]] in 1984, has a separate page at [[William Buckley]].
 ### Family and the Mexican oil business
 William Frank Buckley Sr. (born July 11, 1881 in Washington, Texas) took a law degree at the University of Texas, worked as a Spanish translator at the Texas Land Office, and began practicing law in Mexico City on November 1, 1908. The FBI headquarters file on his son records that he set up his own office in 1909 and was joined within two or three years by his brothers, Claude H. Buckley and Edmund L. Buckley, under the firm name Buckley & Buckley. The firm opened an office at [[Tampico]] about 1911 and "represented a number of large oil companies." The father left the firm in 1913 or 1914 and entered the oil business. In about 1919 he sent an organization into Venezuela and formed the Pantepec Oil Company, of which he was president for many years; the file states that the company was financed in the 1920s by E. A. Pierce & Company, later Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Beane.[^3]
 A biography published by the [[University of Oklahoma Press]] in 2023, John A. Adams's *William F. Buckley Sr.: Witness to the Mexican Revolution, 1908-1922*, with a foreword by [[James L. Buckley]], describes him as having built the Pantepec Oil Company, "the most profitable small petroleum producer in Mexico," and as having "ultimately was expelled from the country."[^4] An item from a Mexico City newspaper of December 1921, reprinted in the FBI file, reports a statement by the father to a representative of the *Excelsior* at San Antonio, Texas: "After residing in Mexico during thirteen years and during which time I acquired property valued at several million dollars, I was ordered to leave the country on Wednesday, November 23rd." In the same statement he attributed his expulsion to his opposition to President Obregon's government and said he had sent memorials on conditions in Mexico to the State Department in Washington.[^5] A Bureau summary memorandum of the 1950s gives the expulsion as 1922 "by the Obregon Government allegedly for activities opposing the Obregon Government," and records that the Bureau held its own main file on the father.[^6]
 The oil interests passed to the next generation. A son, John William Buckley, a Yale graduate of 1942 and an Army intelligence officer in North Africa and France, was president of [[Catawba Oil Explorations Company]], which the FBI file describes as representing "various Venezuelan companies, a Canadian company, and an Ecuadorian company."[^7] A biographical directory entry reproduced in the same file lists him as president and director of "Can. So. Petroleum, Ltd." from 1954 and as president of United Canso Oil & Gas Ltd. and Pantepec International, Inc.[^8] A directory entry for James L. Buckley in the file lists him as vice president and director of Catawba Corp. from 1953 to 1970.[^9]
 A background check on William F. Buckley Jr., opened in June 1969 when the White House nominated him to a federal advisory body, records in a memorandum of June 12, 1969 that "The Catawba Corporation is apparently controlled by the Buckley family and Mr. Buckley is on the Board of Directors."[^10] In August 1973, when the Bureau updated the check for a second appointment, a Catawba Corporation officer in New York told agents that the appointee "continues to be a director" and that the president of the corporation was John Buckley, the appointee's brother.[^11]
 ### Yale and Skull and Bones
 Buckley attended St. John's Beaumont College in Old Windsor, England, in 1938 and 1939, the Millbrook School in New York from 1940 to 1943, and the University of Mexico in 1943.[^12] He was inducted into the United States Army on August 10, 1944, accepted a commission as second lieutenant on May 12, 1945, and was discharged on May 27, 1946; he resigned from the Officers' Reserve Corps on March 8, 1949.[^13] Yale records reviewed by the FBI in June 1969 show that he entered Yale in September 1946, received his B.A. on June 12, 1950, and was appointed assistant instructor of Spanish for 1947 through 1951 but resigned the appointment in November 1950.[^14]
 A memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "was the editor of the Daily News" the year before, meaning the [[Yale Daily News]], and that he had sponsored a forum at which Nichols spoke. Nichols called him in New Haven, arranged for him to call at the Bureau on October 25, and wrote that "An Agent in Mr. Jones office will take Buckley on a very special tour."[^15] A later summary records that Nichols had spoken at the 1949 forum on the Bureau's position, that Buckley acted as its chairman before an audience of about 500, and that Buckley and his wife were given "a very special tour of Bureau facilities" and met the Director on October 25, 1950.[^6] In April 1953 Buckley told Nichols that he was writing a book "to counteract the [[Alan Barth]] and Biddle books denouncing loyalty and security investigations."[^16]
 The membership of Skull and Bones is recorded in [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members by class year, which lists "Buckley, William Frank Jr." in the class of 1950 beside, among others, William Henry Draper III, Thomas Henry Guinzburg, Evan Griffith Galbraith, Sidney Lovett and William Hitchcock MacLeish. The same index lists "Buckley, James Lane" in the class of 1944, "Buckley, Fergus Reid" in 1952 and "Buckley, Christopher Taylor" in 1975, and a passage on communications names "William Buckley ('50) of National Review" among Bonesmen.[^1] In Sutton's list of members of The Order and the Council on Foreign Relations, Buckley appears as "Editor, National Review and The Order's house conservative." Sutton also wrote that "National Review published by William Buckley (The Order) runs a perpetual deficit. presumably made up by Buckley," and that "So far as we can trace, only William F. Buckley is a member of the Bilderbergers and The Order."[^17]
 [[Ron Rosenbaum]]'s article "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones" in *Esquire* of September 1977 places Buckley in the sequence of Bonesmen who entered the CIA. Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," whether their Skull and Bones experience was useful training for the clandestine trade. He wrote that [[William Sloane Coffin Jr.|William Sloane Coffin Jr.]] "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^18] "Bill Bundy" is [[William P. Bundy]]. The same passage asks [[McGeorge Bundy]] whether he "wrestled naked in a mud pile" as part of his initiation, and the article describes Blackford Oakes, the hero of Buckley's spy novel *Saving the Queen*, as "a true-blue Bonesman."[^18]
 [[Kris Millegan]]'s *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003) lists "Bill Buckley (S&B '50)" and "James Buckley (S&B '44)" among Bonesmen connected with the intelligence community, together with Coffin (S&B '49) and "Dino Pionzio (S&B '50), CIA Deputy Chief of Station during Allende overthrow," and writes that "Bush tapped Coffin, who tapped Buckley." Elsewhere the book says that Buckley "had a family oil business in Mexico" and "was a close ally to CIA covert operations manager E. Howard Hunt."[^19] The *Covert Action Information Bulletin* reported in 1990 that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in Mexico City in 1952, where Hunt was station chief.[^20]
 ### God and Man at Yale
 *God and Man at Yale: The Superstitions of "Academic Freedom"* was published by the Henry Regnery Company in 1951.[^21] A summary memorandum in the FBI file notes that the columnist George Sokolsky wrote "most favorably concerning Buckley and his book" in his column of October 15, 1951.[^6] In his 1974 memoir E. Howard Hunt wrote that he met Buckley through [[James Burnham]], a former professor of philosophy whom Hunt described as "a consultant to OPC on virtually every subject of interest to our organization." Through Burnham, Hunt wrote, he was to meet "a young Yale graduate, William F. Buckley, Jr., whose God and Man at Yale was stirring great controversy within the Eastern academic establishment." Hunt added that Burnham told him Buckley was looking for "the optimum way of working against the Stalinists" and that Buckley was trilingual in English, Spanish and French.[^22]
 Michael Isikoff, writing for SpyTalk in June 2025 about a new biography of Buckley by Sam Tanenhaus, placed the book's publication in the fall of 1951. He recorded that McGeorge Bundy, then a Harvard professor, reviewed it in *The Atlantic* as "A twisted, ignorant young man," and wrote that "At the time of the publication of his book, Buckley was secretly on the payroll of the CIA."[^23]
 ### Mexico City, 1951 to 1952
 Hunt wrote that he volunteered to open the [[Office of Policy Coordination]] station in Mexico City, beginning in the late summer of 1950, and that "First on my list was Bill Buckley, who readily agreed and set about working out details of his cover."[^22] The Office of Policy Coordination was the covert-action office within the CIA. Isikoff wrote that Buckley was "an undercover officer working out of the agency's Mexico City station," posing "as a businessman trying to break into the import-export trade under the alias 'Geoffrey T. Bolgiano.'"[^23]
 Hunt's memoir places Buckley among his first recruited agents in Mexico: "One by one, my outside agents were arriving in Mexico, Bill Buckley among the first, with his pregnant wife, Pat." Hunt wrote that he and Buckley frequently lunched "at what was then the only good French restaurant in Mexico City."[^24] Buckley's wife was Patricia Taylor, whom he married on July 6, 1950.[^25]
 Hunt assigned Buckley to help [[Eudocio Ravines]], a Chilean former Communist living under an alias in Mexico City, to finish *The Yenan Way* and translate it into English. "For several months this project occupied most of Buckley's time; and when the English translation had been accepted in New York by Scribner's, Buckley decided to leave Mexico and CIA." Hunt wrote that Buckley was "thinking either of purchasing the *American Mercury* magazine, which had been on the downgrade for several years, or founding a magazine of his own."[^26]
 A 1985 article in *The Spotlight*, a weekly newspaper, attributes to an anonymous source the claim that Buckley "inaugurated this era of CIA potboilers," and says that in "1952 or '53" [[Allen Dulles]] developed "a personal interest in a well-known Chilean defector, Eudocio Ravines," whom the CIA flew from Paris to a safehouse in Mexico City, where Buckley, "then working as a Clandestine Services operative," was assigned to revise a manuscript that [[Charles Scribner's Sons]] then published as *The Yenan Way*. The article names Hunt as the officer who supervised the project.[^27]
 Buckley's own accounts agree with Hunt on the sequence. In a *National Review* piece of November 1, 2005 he wrote: "When in 1951 I was inducted into the CIA as a deep cover agent, the procedures for disguising my affiliation and my work were unsmilingly comprehensive. It was three months before I was formally permitted to inform my wife what the real reason was for going to Mexico City to live. If, a year later, I had been apprehended, dosed with sodium pentothal, and forced to give out the names of everyone I knew in the CIA, I could have come up with exactly one name, that of my immediate boss (E. Howard Hunt, as it happened)." He added that "In my case, it was 15 years after reentry into the secular world before my secret career in Mexico was blown, harming no one except perhaps some who might have been put off by my deception," and recalled that in 1980 a former president of Mexico seated next to him at a ski-area restaurant asked what he had done when he lived in Mexico, and that he answered: "I tried to undermine your regime, Mr. President."[^2]
 In a *Paris Review* interview of summer 1996, asked how much of his novels was true, Buckley said: "I poach on history to the extent that I can. For instance, when I was in the CIA it was reported to me that the evidence was overwhelming that the destruction of Constantin Oumansky's airplane" was "an act of terrorism, executed by Stalin." Oumansky was the Soviet ambassador to Mexico.[^28] *Reader's Digest* reported in January 1986 that Blackford Oakes, the hero of *Saving the Queen*, "went to Yale and was later recruited by the CIA. So, indeed, was Buckley, who in 1951 served in Mexico under Howard Hunt." The article quotes Buckley: "My admiration for the mission of the CIA," he stressed, "was never confused with any evaluation of its overall effectiveness." It says that after leaving the Agency he wrote in *National Review* that "The attempted assassination of Sukarno has all the look of an 'operation' by the CIA: everyone got killed except the appointed victim."[^29] The same article records that at the fifteenth-anniversary party of *Firing Line* in 1981, when President [[Ronald Reagan]] telephoned with congratulations, Buckley told him: "By the way, I have Gordon Liddy and Howard Hunt here. Do you have any instructions?"[^29]
 The published biographical entries for Buckley that the FBI collected in 1969 list his early 1950s employment as "Sr. editor American Mercury, 1952" in one edition of a biographical directory and "Asso. editor Am. Mercury, 1952" in another.[^25] The Bureau's inquiry of June 1969 recorded that the Yale alumni office's records showed Buckley indicating, on May 22, 1952, employment with *The American Mercury* as associate editor. [[William Bradford Huie]], whom the Bureau described as a former owner and editor of the magazine, told an agent at Miami Beach that Buckley "was only associated with the magazine approximately 2 to 3 months" and could not recall his position or title.[^30] His sister [[Priscilla Buckley]] appears in a directory entry in the same file as "reports officer CIA, Washington, 1951-53."[^31]
 At the 1985 libel trial of [[Liberty Lobby]], the publisher of *The Spotlight*, against *National Review* and Buckley in federal court in Washington, Liberty Lobby's attorney [[Mark Lane]] accused Buckley in his closing argument of working with Hunt "to put Spotlight out of business." The *Washington Times* reported that "Hunt was Mr. Buckley's supervisor when he worked briefly for the CIA in Mexico City during the early 1950s, according to testimony in the present trial." The jury found on October 25, 1985 that Liberty Lobby had libeled *National Review* and awarded $1,001 in damages.[^32]
 ### Hunt, the children and the estate
 Hunt wrote in a footnote that he and his wife had asked Buckley "to become guardian of our children and executor of our estate in the event of our death." Buckley, Hunt wrote, was "already the children's godfather," and "Bill agreed."[^26] Hunt's wife died on December 8, 1972, when [[United Air Lines Flight 553]] crashed while approaching [[Chicago Midway International Airport|Midway Airport]] in Chicago.[^33]
 Hunt's earlier path crossed the family in Spain. Hunt wrote that when he arrived in Madrid in 1964, he and his family moved by prearrangement into the apartment owned by Buckley's brother [[Reid Buckley]], who was summering on Spain's northern coast.[^34]
 On January 17, 1973 Hunt flew to San Francisco, and the next morning he appeared at station KQED in the *Firing Line* taping, before students from Mills College. Hunt wrote that Buckley had telephoned to ask whether he could tape the segment, that Hunt replied that discussing Watergate would be against his interests, and that Buckley "had no intention of putting me in so difficult a position" and wanted instead to discuss the CIA and foreign policy with Mario Lazo.[^35] [[Alvin Felzenberg]] wrote that in the preface to Buckley's 1975 collection *Execution Eve and Other Contemporary Ballads* Buckley explained that he had written little on Watergate between December 1972 and April 1973 because he felt "greatly encumbered," unable to reveal details a friend had confided to him about the friend's part in several misdeeds on Nixon's behalf, and that he absented himself from *National Review* editorial meetings when Watergate was discussed. Felzenberg identified the friend as Hunt and wrote that Hunt telephoned Buckley ten days after his wife's death to say that she had named Buckley alternate executor of her estate.[^36]
 In August 1973 an FBI background check on Buckley, opened for a government appointment, recorded a statement by [[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]] that Buckley "is a good friend of E. Howard Hunt, connected with the Watergate break-in, and is the godfather of some of his children." Schlesinger told agents that he "would not recommend him for a government position," and described him as a loyal American citizen.[^37]
 Hunt wrote that after his conviction in the Watergate case, Maryland authorities removed him as executor of his wife's estate, and that his successor under the terms of her will was "William F. Buckley, Jr."[^38] The same footnote describes the effect: "Thus stripped of even the right to engage in litigation, I realized that I was on my way to becoming a nonperson, though still very much a taxpayer."[^38]
 After Hunt's Senate testimony, he wrote, the Senate "received several thousand telegrams and letters in the wake of my testimony and those were answered by a small committee William Buckley established in my behalf at his National Review offices." Hunt wrote that "Buckley solicited funds to pay for my legal defense and, when returns were disappointing, suggested my retaining his personal attorney, C. Dickerman Williams, at no cost to me."[^39] A Baltimore lawyer, William Snyder Jr., "who had been handling my wife's estate at Buckley's request," also assisted him.[^39]
 On his release, Hunt wrote, he traveled to New York with Snyder and they went to "Buckley's town house at noon," where Hunt found one of his sons "with Pat and Bill Buckley and Dick Williams." After lunch "we discussed my situation and decided that for the present I would make no public statements or appearances." Hunt added that he remembered "Buckley's jovial comment" that he had better not attend his appeal, "for every time I'd been in court I'd lost."[^40]
 ### National Review
 The first issue of *National Review* was dated November 19, 1955. Its opening statement by Buckley said that the magazine "stands athwart history, yelling Stop, at a time when no one is inclined to do so, or to have much patience with those who so urge it."[^41] A profile of Buckley in the CIA's files, from *Reader's Digest* of January 1986, states that $350,000 was raised to start the magazine, plus $100,000 from Buckley's family, and that the magazine had been running annual deficits of $450,000 to $550,000 in recent years.[^29]
 A 1969 interview summarized in the FBI file, with an unnamed interviewee, describes Buckley as "considered a financial wizard inasmuch as he succeeded in publishing the 'National Review' for many years in spite of the fact the magazine operated at a financial loss." The same interviewee said Buckley "has offset losses by soliciting contributions from friends and subscribers."[^42] The file records that [[Peter Starr]], president of Starr Broadcasting Group of [[Omaha, Nebraska]], who had known and worked for Buckley since 1954, told agents that the company had been founded "with Mr. Buckley's financial backing," and that Buckley was its majority stockholder and chairman of the board.[^42] The file also records that Buckley had been on the Bureau's Special Correspondents List until May 25, 1967, when he was removed "after writing a mock editorial of the New York Times" for *National Review*.[^43]
 In a letter to Nichols of July 30, 1957, summarized in a Bureau memorandum of December 5, 1957, Buckley advised that a Mexican colonel, Emiliano Izaguirre, had asked him to arrange an introduction to the Director because he had information to give. The memorandum records that Buckley referred the colonel to another office and that the person he referred him to "refused to see" him.[^44]
 A CIA file holds letters from [[Whittaker Chambers]] to Buckley. One, dated March 10, 1957 and addressed "Dear Bill," begins: "My silence has lasted too long." It recalls that "Mr. Allen Dulles said words to this effect: 'There seems no reason to suppose that the Russian mind is not the equal of the American mind,'" and continues: "Perhaps Bukharin's last words should hang in Mr. Dulles' office too, in the offices of both Mr. Dulleses." The CIA's copy bears a check mark beside the Dulles passage.[^45]
 A CIA file holds a 1966 clipping from the *New York Daily News* reporting that the [[Historic Research Foundation]], of which Buckley was a trustee, planned a $2,000 grant to study the [[Warren Commission]] report. The clipping states that the idea "originated with William F. Buckley Jr., editor of the National Review."[^46] In 1968 the *New York Times* reported that Buckley was starting a newsletter to expose "Communist intrigues" in American life. Buckley said the publication would become "the rallying point for the forces struggling to restore an ordered America."[^47]
 A 1971 CIA clipping from the *San Bernardino Sun-Telegram* describes a set of "secret Vietnam documents" that *National Review* published, with dispatches attributed to former Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]] and to the CIA. The article quotes Buckley as saying the purpose was to demonstrate that "the Pentagon and the CIA are not composed of incompetents."[^48]
 ### Young Americans for Freedom and the Sharon Statement
 [[Young Americans for Freedom]] was founded at a meeting at Buckley's home in Sharon, Connecticut. The organization's own history states that the [[Sharon Statement]] was adopted on September 11, 1960 "by a group of 100 young conservatives who convened at the home of William F. Buckley in Sharon, Connecticut," and that the meeting was held "with the purpose of creating Young Americans for Freedom."[^49] The statement opens: "In this time of moral and political crises, it is the responsibility of the youth of America to affirm certain eternal truths." Its first clause holds "That foremost among the transcendent values is the individual's use of his God-given free will, whence derives his right to be free from the restrictions of arbitrary force."[^49]
 The organization names Ronald Reagan as its honorary national chairman. The statement's tenth clause reads: "That the forces of international Communism are, at present, the greatest single threat to these liberties."[^49] The FBI file records that in April 1953 Buckley was president of the Intercollegiate Society of Individualists.[^6]
 ### The 1965 mayoral campaign
 Buckley ran for mayor of New York in 1965 as the candidate of the [[Conservative Party of New York]]. He announced his candidacy at the Overseas Press Club on June 24, 1965, after telling the party chairman, [[J. Daniel Mahoney]], on June 7 that he would accept the nomination.[^50] The *Ripon Forum* of November 1965 reports that polls had shown him "up to 18%" of the vote, that he polled "only 13.4%," that Buckley "drew more heavily from Beame than Lindsay," and that [[Samuel Lubell]] found Buckley voters listing their second choice as "7-5 Beame over Lindsay." It reports a Buckley worker at Conservative headquarters who, when a network announced [[John Lindsay]] as the winner over [[Abraham Beame]], concluded: "Oh, my God, Buckley has elected Lindsay."[^51] Lindsay won with 45.3 percent to Beame's 41.3 percent.[^50]
 Buckley's account of the campaign, *The Unmaking of a Mayor*, appeared in 1966.[^52] J. Daniel Mahoney was the attorney who argued *National Review*'s libel case against Liberty Lobby in 1985.[^53]
 ### Firing Line
 *Firing Line* ran from 1966 to 1999. The Hoover Institution holds the broadcast records for the program, 1966 to 1999, in 190 manuscript boxes and 222 oversize boxes, with an episode guide, transcripts and program research files.[^54] A *New York Times* report by Val Adams, filed in the CIA reading room, announced the series in early 1966: "Firing Line With William Buckley" was to be presented by WOR-TV on Saturdays from 10 to 11 P.M., with a different opponent each week, and with [[Theodore Sorensen]], the former special counsel to President Kennedy, considering an invitation to debate Buckley on the first program. The article describes Buckley as "the Conservative party's mayoralty candidate last year" and says R.K.O. General Productions would syndicate the series.[^55]
 On January 21, 1973, WETA in Washington broadcast a *Firing Line* segment on the CIA and Cuba with Hunt and the Havana lawyer Mario Lazo. Buckley introduced Hunt as having been "intimately involved as an official in the CIA in the Bay of Pigs." He then said: "The presiding judge and Mr. Hunt's own lawyer have forbidden him to speak about Watergate."[^56] Hunt had pleaded guilty in the Watergate case the previous Monday. Asked whether he had been arrested, Hunt said: "I was never arrested." Later in the segment he said: "I was never a fugitive." Asked whether the Watergate break-in could have been a CIA operation, Hunt answered: "perhaps I shouldn't have answered your earlier question as definitively as I did," and he cited the CIA's support of the National Student Association as a domestic operation.[^56]
 On September 29, 1974, *Firing Line* broadcast a segment on the CIA in Chile with [[Edward Korry]], the former ambassador to Chile. Buckley described the controversy over the role of the CIA in Chile during the [[Salvador Allende]] years and asked Korry whether he acknowledged the testimony of CIA Director [[William Colby]] to a congressional committee.[^57]
 ### Nixon administration appointments
 On May 28, 1969 President [[Richard Nixon]] announced his intention to nominate Buckley to the United States Advisory Commission on Information, the advisory body of the [[United States Information Agency]]; the nomination of June 13, 1969 was for a three-year term expiring January 27, 1972, in place of Sigurd S. Larmon.[^58] A syndicated column by Drew Pearson and [[Jack Anderson]] of May 1969, printed in the *Philadelphia Bulletin* and held in the CIA files, reported that Buckley would replace Larmon of Young and Rubicam on the commission.[^59] The FBI inquiry opened on June 2, 1969 at White House request, with instructions that no neighborhood investigation be conducted without Bureau approval; the Bureau's memorandum of June 12 states that persons interviewed "furnished favorable comments."[^43]
 The Nixon Library's finding aid for Buckley lists a photograph of June 9, 1970 of Nixon meeting Buckley, [[Frank Shakespeare]], director of the Information Agency, and [[Henry Kissinger]], and one of December 7, 1970 of Nixon with the commission, whose members included Frank Stanton of CBS, Hobart Lewis of *Reader's Digest*, [[James Michener]], John Shaheen of Shaheen Natural Resources, and Buckley.[^60] The same guide lists a National Security Council name file on Buckley covering May 1970 to August 1972, a letter from Buckley to [[Pat Buchanan]] of December 19, 1972 on a list of campaign contributors, and a memorandum from Buchanan to [[H. R. Haldeman]] of January 4, 1973 on a letter from Buckley, with handwritten notes added by Higby and [[John Dean]].[^60]
 Buckley was named a public delegate to the [[United Nations]] General Assembly in 1973.[^61] *Reader's Digest* reported in 1986 that Reagan had joked during the 1980 campaign about appointing Buckley an ambassador, and that Buckley was later sounded out about the post of ambassador to the United Nations and said no.[^29]
 ### The CIA reading room file
 The CIA's reading room holds a series of items on Buckley's public activities. They include a letter of April 10, 1978 from Buckley to Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] ("Dear Stan"), in which Buckley wrote that "the Hartford Courant's precis of what you said is not really distorted," that he was "very happy to hear from you about Tom Polgar," who "wrote me an indignant letter," and that he found [[Frank Snepp]]'s treatment of Polgar "not entirely unsympathetic." Buckley asked whether Turner had objections to his publishing Turner's letter in his editor's column in *National Review*. A letter of October 3, 1979 from Buckley to Turner accepts an invitation, says that he cannot attend on November 14, and asks that Turner's people find a date when he is free.[^62]
 ### James L. Buckley
 James L. Buckley, Buckley's brother, served in the United States Senate from January 1971 to January 1977, elected on the Conservative Party line in 1970.[^63] The CIA reading room holds letters from him to Turner in 1977 and to [[William Casey]] in 1982.[^64] Millegan lists him among Bonesmen connected with the intelligence community.[^19] The *Covert Action Information Bulletin* reported in 1990 that he was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982, and cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^20]
 ### H.L. Hunt
 Buckley's comment on [[H.L. Hunt]] appears on the Hunt page in the account of his will and estate. Texas Monthly reported in March 1975 that in a column published shortly after Hunt's death Buckley declared that Hunt had left "capitalism a bad name, not, goodness knows, by frenzies of extravagance, but by his eccentric understanding of public affairs, his yahoo bigotry and his appallingly bad manners."[^65]
 ### Skull and Bones and the 1992 campaign
 The [[George H.W. Bush]] Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F, on the society, describes its contents as "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father [[Prescott Bush]] were both members."[^66] The file contains "correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley, Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] regarding an article Buckley wrote for National Review." The article "responded to Pat Buchanan's characterization of Bush's foreign policy as 'Skull and Bones foreign policy' during the 1992 campaign."[^66]
 ### Last years
 Buckley died at his home in Stamford, Connecticut, on February 27, 2008, at the age of 82. His son Christopher told the *New York Times* that he had suffered from diabetes and emphysema and was found at his desk in the study of his home.[^67]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.; Draper, William Henry III; Galbraith, Evan Griffith; Guinzburg, Thomas Henry; Lovett, Sidney; MacLeish, William Hitchcock). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^2]: William F. Buckley Jr., "Who Did What?", *National Review*, November 1, 2005. https://www.nationalreview.com/2005/11/who-did-what-william-f-buckley-jr/
 [^3]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, family memorandum on William Frank Buckley Sr., dated March 27 (birth, University of Texas, Texas Land Office, practice in Mexico City from November 1, 1908, Buckley & Buckley, Tampico office, Pantepec Oil Company, E. A. Pierce & Company). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
 [^4]: John A. Adams, *William F. Buckley Sr.: Witness to the Mexican Revolution, 1908-1922* (University of Oklahoma Press, 2023), publisher's description, with foreword by James L. Buckley. https://www.oupress.com/9780806191829/william-f-buckley-sr
 [^5]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, summary of the December 1921 edition of a Mexico City daily reporting a statement made by William Frank Buckley Sr. to a representative of the *Excelsior* at San Antonio, Texas; the file gives the statement as reportedly made. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^6]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, summary memorandum of December 5, 1957 (Nichols and the 1949 Yale forum, about 500 attendees; visit of October 25, 1950; Sokolsky column of October 15, 1951; president of the Intercollegiate Society of Individualists as of April 1953; main file on Buckley Sr., expelled from Mexico in 1922). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
 [^7]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, entry for John William Buckley, president of Catawba Oil Explorations Company. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
 [^8]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, biographical directory entry "Buckley, John William, petroleum co. exec." (born June 22, 1920; Yale 1942). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^9]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, biographical directory entry for James Lane Buckley ("v.p dir. Catawba Corp., 1953-70"). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^10]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, memorandum W. V. Cleveland to Mr. Gale, June 12, 1969, subject William Frank Buckley, Jr., Special Inquiry, White House. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^11]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, teletype of August 1973 reporting an interview at the Catawba Corporation, New York ("appointee continues to be a director"; "the president of the corporation is John Buckley, brother of the appointee"). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^12]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, teletype of June 1969 reporting Yale alumni office records (St. John's Beaumont College 1938-39; Millbrook School 1940-43; University of Mexico 1943). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^13]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, report on military records, National Personnel Records Center, reviewed June 3, 1969. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^14]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, report of June 7, 1969 on Yale Alumni Office, Registrar's Office and Dean's Office records (entered September 1946; B.A. June 12, 1950; assistant instructor of Spanish, 1947 through 1951, resigned November 1950; defeated in 1968 election for the Yale Corporation board). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^15]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, with Buckley's letter of October 19, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
 [^16]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, summary memorandum (April 1953 contact with Nichols on a book "to counteract the Alan Barth and Biddle books"). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
 [^17]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), list of members of The Order and the Council on Foreign Relations; passage on the Order and the media ("The Order" is Sutton's term; the quoted phrases are his own); passage on the Bilderbergers. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^18]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977 (passages on Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley, McGeorge Bundy, Coffin and Blackford Oakes). https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
 [^19]: Kris Millegan, ed., *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (2003), list of Bonesmen connected with the intelligence community and the profile passage on Publisher William F. Buckley (S&B 1950); the Millegan statements are the editor's own.
 [^20]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington: The Murder of Orlando Letelier* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
 [^21]: William F. Buckley Jr., *God and Man at Yale: The Superstitions of "Academic Freedom"* (Henry Regnery Company, 1951). https://archive.org/details/godmanatyale0000will
 [^22]: E. Howard Hunt, *Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent* (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1974), pp. 68-69. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
 [^23]: Michael Isikoff, "William F. Buckley, Jr., CIA Spy," SpyTalk, June 9, 2025, on Sam Tanenhaus, *Buckley: The Life and the Revolution That Changed America* (Random House, 2025). https://www.spytalk.co/p/william-f-buckley-jr-cia-spy
 [^24]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 73. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
 [^25]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, biographical directory entries for "Buckley, William Frank, Jr." ("m. Patricia Taylor, July 6, 1950"; "Asso. editor Am. Mercury, 1952" in one edition and "Sr. editor American Mercury, 1952" in another). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^26]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 77-78 (text and footnote). https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
 [^27]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP91-00587R000100610009-7, *The Spotlight*, July 29, 1985, "Buckley Sets Precedent." The statements are those of the anonymous source quoted by the newspaper. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00587r000100610009-7
 [^28]: Sam Vaughan, "William F. Buckley Jr., The Art of Fiction No. 146," *The Paris Review*, no. 139 (Summer 1996). https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/1395/the-art-of-fiction-no-146-william-f-buckley-jr
 [^29]: Irwin Ross, profile of William F. Buckley Jr., *Reader's Digest*, January 1986, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP90-00965R000200920007-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000200920007-5
 [^30]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, teletype of June 1969 (Yale alumni office record of May 22, 1952; Huie described as former owner and editor) and Birmingham field office report on the interview of William Bradford Huie, whose synopsis states that he "verified BUCKLEY'S employment at American Mercury during Spring of 1952." https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^31]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, biographical directory entry "Buckley, Priscilla Langford, mag. exec." (daughter of William Frank and Aloise Steiner Buckley). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^32]: "National Review Wins $1,001 in Libel Suit Against Liberty Lobby," *The Washington Post*, October 26, 1985. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1985/10/26/national-review-wins-1001-in-libel-suit-against-liberty-lobby/aa0b6085-a6f8-4cc7-a571-d39892b18343/
 [^33]: National Transportation Safety Board, *Aircraft Accident Report: United Air Lines, Inc., Boeing 737, N9031U, Chicago-Midway Airport, Chicago, Illinois, December 8, 1972* (1973), catalog record at the Transportation Research Board. https://trid.trb.org/View/10614 ; Hunt, *Undercover* (1974). https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
 [^34]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 134-135. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
 [^35]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 291-292. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
 [^36]: Alvin S. Felzenberg, excerpt on Buckley and Hunt, "Watergate Burglar Howard Hunt Was William Buckley's Deep Throat," *The Daily Beast*, May 13, 2017. https://www.thedailybeast.com/watergate-burglar-howard-hunt-was-william-buckleys-deep-throat
 [^37]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, teletype from the New Haven office to the Director, August 15, 1973, reporting the interview of Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. (the teletype is in capitals; quoted here in lower case). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^38]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 293 (footnote). https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
 [^39]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 322-323. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
 [^40]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 327. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
 [^41]: William F. Buckley Jr., "Our Mission Statement," *National Review*, November 19, 1955, reproduced by the National Review Institute. https://nrinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Our-Mission-Statement.pdf
 [^42]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, special inquiry interview summaries, June 1969 (the interviewee's name is withheld; Peter H. Starr, president of Starr Broadcasting Group, Incorporated, Omaha, Nebraska). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^43]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, memoranda W. V. Cleveland to Mr. Gale of June 2, 1969 (Special Correspondents List until May 25, 1967; no neighborhood investigation) and June 12, 1969 (persons interviewed "furnished favorable comments"). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^44]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, summary memorandum of December 5, 1957 (letter of July 30, 1957 from Buckley to Nichols; Colonel Emiliano Izaguirre). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
 [^45]: Letter from Whittaker Chambers to William F. Buckley Jr., March 10, 1957, as printed in *National Review*, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100020108-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100020108-6
 [^46]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP73-00475R000202020001-1, *New York Daily News*, September 8, 1966, "Buckley Group Plans Warren Report Study." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000202020001-1
 [^47]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01314R000100310006-5, Henry Raymont, "Buckley Starting Newsletter to Expose Leftist Influence," *New York Times*, 1968. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100310006-5
 [^48]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80-01601R000300360081-4, *San Bernardino Sun-Telegram*, July 23, 1971, "The Misadventure of Buckley." https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80-01601R000300360081-4
 [^49]: Young America's Foundation, "The Sharon Statement: A Timeless Declaration of Conservative Principles," May 4, 2016 (text of the statement as published). https://yaf.org/news/the-sharon-statement/
 [^50]: Alvin S. Felzenberg, "'Demand a Recount!': William F. Buckley's Quixotic 1965 Run for NYC Mayor," *HistoryNet*, August 1, 2018. https://historynet.com/demand-a-recount-bill-buckleys-quixotic-1965-run-for-nyc-mayor/
 [^51]: *The Ripon Forum*, vol. 1, no. 7 (November 1965). https://riponsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/1965-11_Vol-1_No-7.pdf
 [^52]: William F. Buckley Jr., *The Unmaking of a Mayor* (1966). https://archive.org/details/unmakingofmayor0000will
 [^53]: George Archibald, "Jury begged not to let Buckley 'punish and destroy' Spotlight," *Washington Times*, October 25, 1985, p. 3-A, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP90-00845R000201140006-4. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00845R000201140006-4
 [^54]: Hoover Institution, *Firing Line (Television Program) Broadcast Records, 1966-1999*, finding aid (extent: 190 manuscript boxes and 222 oversize boxes). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt6m3nc88c/
 [^55]: Val Adams, "Buckley Signed for TV Debates," *New York Times*, early 1966 (the item calls Buckley "the Conservative party's mayoralty candidate last year"), CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01365R000300200003-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP88-01365R000300200003-2
 [^56]: *Firing Line*, WETA-TV, January 21, 1973, transcript, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP84-00499R000200010003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00499r000200010003-1
 [^57]: *Firing Line*, WETA-TV, September 29, 1974, transcript, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP09T00207R001000020024-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp09t00207r001000020024-7
 [^58]: Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Nixon Almanac, May 28, 1969 (5 Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc. 759, announcement of intention to nominate William F. Buckley, Jr., as a member of the United States Advisory Commission on Information) and June 13, 1969 (nomination for the term expiring January 27, 1972, vice Sigurd S. Larmon). https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/index.php/research/almanac/may-28-1969 ; https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/index.php/research/almanac/june-13-1969
 [^59]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000300460003-9, Drew Pearson and Jack Anderson, "Nixon Giving Buckley High Post in USIA," *Philadelphia Bulletin*, May 1969. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300460003-9
 [^60]: Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, "Resources for William F. Buckley" (finding aid: WHPO-3649, June 9, 1970; WHPO-5220, December 7, 1970; NSC name files, box 809; WHSF contested files, box 16, folder 15). https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/2023-08/william_f._buckley.pdf
 [^61]: "William F. Buckley, Jr.," *Encyclopaedia Britannica*. https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-F-Buckley-Jr
 [^62]: Letter from William F. Buckley Jr. to Stansfield Turner, April 10, 1978, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP05T00644R000501490003-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp05t00644r000501490003-3 ; letter from Buckley to Turner, October 3, 1979, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP83-00156R001000100004-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00156r001000100004-2
 [^63]: Voteview, biographical record of James Lane Buckley (Senate service January 1971 to January 1977; Conservative Party of New York, 1970 election). https://voteview.com/person/13100/james-lane-buckley ; Associated Press obituary of James L. Buckley, August 2023, describing him as the brother of William F. Buckley Jr. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/amp/politics/james-buckley-conservative-senator-and-brother-of-late-writer-william-f-buckley-dies-at-100
 [^64]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP05T00644R000501480007-0, letter from James L. Buckley to Stansfield Turner, October 10, 1977. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP05T00644R000501480007-0 ; CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP83M00914R001000060041-4, letter from James L. Buckley to William J. Casey, June 28, 1982. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r001000060041-4
 [^65]: Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/
 [^66]: George H.W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
 [^67]: *New York Times* obituary of William F. Buckley Jr., February 2008, as reprinted by the History News Network. https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/47800
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/William
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/William
@ -0,0 +1,260 @@
 ---
 aliases:
  - William P. Bundy
  - William Bundy
  - William Putnam Bundy
  - Bill Bundy
  - W. P. Bundy
 category: "Intelligence & Government"
 tags:
  - Person
  - CIA
  - OfficeOfNationalEstimates
  - AlgerHiss
  - JosephMcCarthy
  - BayOfPigs
  - CubanMissileCrisis
  - Vietnam
  - GulfOfTonkin
  - PentagonPapers
  - SkullAndBones
  - ForeignAffairs
  - CouncilOnForeignRelations
  - Bletchley
  - Ultra
  - DeanAcheson
 summary: "William P. Bundy, son-in-law of Dean Acheson, served in the CIA's Office of National Estimates and the Pentagon, then as Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs from 1964 to 1969."
 born: 1917-09-24
 died: 2000-10-06
 location: "Princeton, New Jersey"
 relations:
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]"
    role: "brother"
    fn: 2
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Harvey H. Bundy]]"
    role: "father"
    fn: 2
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Dean Acheson]]"
    role: "father-in-law"
    fn: 2
  - type: spouse_of
    with: "[[Mary Acheson]]"
    start: 1943
    fn: 1
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    start: 1939
    fn: 8
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Covington & Burling]]"
    start: 1947
    end: 1951
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
    start: 1951-06
    role: "Office of National Estimates; chief of staff and liaison to the National Security Council staff"
    fn: 11
  - type: investigated
    with: "[[Joseph McCarthy]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1953-07
    end: 1953-08
    role: "Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations chairman's inquiry into his $400 contribution to the defense of Alger Hiss"
    fn: 13
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[John F. Kennedy]]"
    start: 1961
    role: "Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
    start: 1961
    end: 1964
    role: "Deputy Assistant Secretary, then Assistant Secretary of Defense, for International Security Affairs"
    fn: 1
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Bay of Pigs]]"
    start: 1961-02
    end: 1961-03
    role: "attended the White House meetings of March 11, 15, 16 and 29, 1961 on the Trinidad and Zapata plans"
    fn: 19
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Cuban Missile Crisis]]"
    start: 1962-10
    role: "deliberations, per the Washington Post obituary and the Princeton finding aid"
    fn: 2
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]"
    start: 1964
    role: "Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Department of State]]"
    start: 1964
    end: 1969
    role: "Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (renamed East Asian and Pacific Affairs)"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Center for International Studies]]"
    start: 1969
    role: "senior research associate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology"
    fn: 2
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
    start: 1964
    end: 1972
    role: "board of directors"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
    start: 1972
    end: 1984
    role: "editor of Foreign Affairs"
    fn: 41
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 ---
 William Putnam Bundy (September 24, 1917 to October 6, 2000) was a staff officer of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], a Defense Department and State Department official, and editor of [[Foreign Affairs]].[^1] He was the son of [[Harvey H. Bundy]], the older brother of [[McGeorge Bundy]], and the son-in-law of [[Dean Acheson]].[^2]
 ### Family
 The [[Washington Post]] reported that Bundy was born in Washington, where his father was serving as counsel to the World War I Food Administration.[^2] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that Harvey Hollister Bundy was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1888, died in 1963, was initiated into [[Skull and Bones]] in 1909, and served as law clerk to Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] in 1914 and 1915, a clerkship Sutton noted [[Alger Hiss]] also held in 1929 and 1930.[^3] [[Henry L. Stimson]] appointed Harvey H. Bundy Assistant Secretary of State, and Stimson's memoir records the appointment as filling a gap left by the death of a senior officer with economic experience.[^4] Harvey H. Bundy was present by invitation at the meeting of the wartime [[Interim Committee]] on May 31, 1945, whose secretary recorded him among the attendees with Stimson and the committee's scientists.[^5]
 Sutton listed the elder Bundy's five children: Harvey Hollister Bundy Jr. (Yale 1938, which Sutton recorded as not initiated into Skull and Bones), William Putnam Bundy (initiated 1939), McGeorge Bundy (initiated 1940), Harriet Lowell Bundy, who married Gaspar d'Andelot Belin of [[Covington & Burling]], and Katharine Lawrence Bundy, who married Hugh Auchincloss Jr.[^6] The Post obituary calls William Bundy the older brother of McGeorge Bundy and records that he was sometimes known as "the other Bundy."[^2]
 In 1943 he married Mary Acheson, daughter of Dean Acheson.[^1] The couple had three children.[^2] Sutton described the connection as the "Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," wrote that Dean Acheson was a member of Scroll and Key at Yale, and that Acheson's son David was a member of Skull and Bones; Sutton also wrote that Acheson and Belin were former partners of Covington & Burling, the firm where Bundy worked from 1947 to 1951.[^7]
 ### Groton, Yale and Skull and Bones
 Bundy attended [[Groton School]] (completed 1935) and [[Yale University]] (Yale College, 1939), and he attended the [[Harvard University|Harvard Graduate School]] in 1940.[^1] The Post reported that he was a trustee of Yale for 20 years.[^2]
 Sutton's index of members by class year lists "William Putnam Bundy" in the class of 1939 of Skull and Bones, with the notation "CIA, Editor Foreign Affairs."[^8] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that a reader could ask Bill Bundy or [[William F. Buckley Jr.|William F. Buckley]], "both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," whether the society's experience was useful training for the clandestine trade; the same passage names McGeorge Bundy.[^9] The Covert Action Information Bulletin stated in 1990 that "William Bundy is a Bonesman from the class of 1939."[^10]
 ### Army service and Bletchley Park
 Bundy served in the United States Army from 1941 to 1946. During the war he commanded an [[Army Signal Corps]] unit that worked with the British at [[Bletchley Park]] on the [[Ultra]] operation, which broke high-level German Enigma ciphers. He received the Legion of Merit and was made a member of the Order of the British Empire.[^1] The Post quoted his later writing: "Although I have done many interesting things in my life and known many interesting people, my work at Bletchley Park was the most satisfying of my career."[^2] The Covert Action Information Bulletin wrote that his intelligence career began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during the war.[^10]
 After law school at [[Harvard Law School]], which he finished in 1947, he worked for four years at Covington & Burling in Washington.[^1]
 ### Office of National Estimates, from 1951
 A CIA letter to [[Joseph McCarthy]] dated July 22, 1953 states that Bundy joined the agency in June 1951 and was attached to the [[Office of National Estimates]], and that from June 1952 he served as assistant to the agency's adviser on the National Security Council's planning board.[^11] A report by [[Allen Drury]] of August 4, 1953 describes him as assistant to the adviser of the Office of National Estimates and as serving on the planning board of the [[National Security Council]].[^12] The Princeton finding aid records his post as chief of staff of the office and liaison to the National Security Council staff.[^1] The Post wrote that his work in the office included evaluating information gathered by field operatives, and quoted him: "I'm not the kind of fellow you can make a spook out of."[^2]
 The Covert Action Information Bulletin gave his CIA service as 1951 to 1961, and Sutton gave the same years, adding that Bundy's four years at Covington & Burling suggested to him that Bundy "probably had CIA dealings" in the 1947 to 1951 period.[^6][^10] In 1960 Bundy was staff director of the President's Commission on National Goals.[^1][^2] The Bulletin quoted a foreword by Bundy to a book on the counter-insurgency era in which he wrote that "the preservation of liberal values, for America and other nations, required the use of the full range of U.S. power, including if necessary, its more shady applications."[^10]
 ### The Hiss defense fund and the McCarthy letters, 1953
 In July 1953 McCarthy, as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to [[Allen Dulles]], director of the CIA, about Bundy's contribution to the defense of Alger Hiss. McCarthy's information was that Bundy had given $400 to the defense and had joined the [[United Public Workers of America]], which McCarthy identified as the Communist front organization to which Bundy belonged.[^11][^13]
 An FBI memorandum of July 10, 1953 recorded that Dulles told the Bureau's liaison agent, [[Sam Papich]], that he had taken the position that it would be prejudicial to the interests of the United States to permit CIA employees to testify before the McCarthy committee, that he had been in touch with the White House about that position and had its support, and that he wanted to know where McCarthy obtained his information. Papich answered that the Bureau was not supplying it.[^14]
 The agency's reply of July 22, 1953 confirmed the $400 contribution. It said that the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution were not in accord, in substantial respects, with the reasons given in the matter then under review, and that comment on those reasons would await a re-evaluation of his case under Executive Order 10450. The reply stated that the agency's files showed a field investigation of the three general allegations and a favorable determination by the CIA Loyalty Board and by the Loyalty Review Board of the [[Civil Service Commission]]. It also stated that Bundy had joined the union, attended one meeting and resigned, and that the record did not indicate membership in any other organization within the scope of McCarthy's third question.[^11] Drury reported that Dulles had told McCarthy that Bundy had joined the union in the summer of 1940 while working at the [[Library of Congress]], and that the exchange followed a conversation between the two on July 14.[^12]
 According to the Drury report, Bundy's explanation was that he had contributed to help his father-in-law, Dean Acheson, in clearing Hiss.[^12]
 McCarthy replied on July 27, 1953 that the confirmation of the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency," adding that a good part of that work "must involve the detection of activities of people such as Alger Hiss."[^15] He asked Dulles to explain Bundy's reasons more fully.[^15]
 Dulles replied on August 1. The Drury report quotes the reply: "After most careful consideration of your letter, I feel that the proper course to pursue is to follow the procedure described in the President's executive order," and Dulles declined to comment on certain phases of the matter pending the conclusion of those proceedings.[^12] McCarthy's letter of August 3 answered that Dulles's position was extremely revealing, and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers. He wrote that "the last man in the world who would try to protect and hide the facts" about an officer's "contributions to a convicted traitor" would be the head of the CIA.[^16] The Drury report of August 4 carried McCarthy's statement that the full matter would be submitted to his subcommittee and to the Senate when it returned.[^12]
 A syndicated column clipped into the FBI's liaison file described Bundy as "the CIA man under both Smith and Allen Dulles, who gave the $400 for the Hiss defense," a son-in-law of Acheson and "a member of the Acheson coterie," and reported that Senator [[Mike Monroney]] had defended the agency on the Senate floor against McCarthy's inquiry. A later Bureau memorandum noted that "the wide publicity given to the William Bundy matter" and Dulles's encounter with McCarthy had placed Dulles in "a most uncomfortable position."[^17] Sutton wrote that McCarthy "wanted to call William Bundy as a witness before the Committee and found the establishment strongly arrayed against this idea," and suggested that the establishment's reaction concerned more than McCarthy's treatment of witnesses.[^6]
 ### Defense Department, 1961 to 1964
 The Princeton finding aid records his appointment as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs in 1961 and his service as Assistant Secretary of Defense for the same office from 1963 to 1964. It describes him as a political appointee under [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] from 1961 to 1969.[^1] The Washington Post wrote that he was a lifelong Democrat who joined the Kennedy administration as deputy assistant secretary of defense.[^2]
 The Foreign Relations of the United States volume on Cuba lists him at the planning of the Bay of Pigs invasion. On February 7, 1961 he attended, for the Defense Department, a three-hour meeting in the office of Assistant Secretary of State [[Thomas C. Mann]], chaired by [[Adolf Berle]] of the State Department's Latin American Task Force, with [[Richard Bissell]], [[Tracy Barnes]] and Colonel J. C. King of the CIA, [[Richard Goodwin]] of the White House staff and Haydn Williams of Defense.[^18] The President's appointment book places William Bundy at the White House meetings of March 11 (Trinidad plan, with Allen Dulles, Bissell, [[Robert S. McNamara]], [[Dean Rusk]] and McGeorge Bundy), March 15 and 16 (the revised Zapata plan) and March 29, 1961, at which the tentative D-Day of April 5 was postponed.[^19][^20][^21][^22] The Princeton finding aid places the Bay of Pigs deliberations in the years of his State Department post; the operation took place in April 1961, when he held the Defense appointment. The Post obituary describes his participation in those deliberations, and in those on the Cuban Missile Crisis, as part of his service as deputy assistant secretary of defense.[^1][^2]
 In the summer of 1961, apparently at his instigation, an interagency group began meeting at lunch on Tuesdays. His record of the October 3, 1961 luncheon lists [[Walt Rostow]], [[U. Alexis Johnson]], George McGhee, Robert Amory, Bissell, Fowler, [[Paul Nitze]], General Parker and Bundy, and records a discussion of Vietnam.[^23] After the [[Maxwell Taylor]] mission to Vietnam, McNamara asked Bundy to draft a memorandum on whether the United States should make a "Berlin-type" commitment to Vietnam; the draft is dated November 5, 1961 and the editors of the Foreign Relations series state that Bundy recalled finishing it on a Sunday and sending it to the President only after extensive discussions with the Joint Chiefs and revisions to its last part.[^24] His drafts of a McNamara memorandum of November 8 (marked "Not used") and of a November 28 telegram to the Pacific commander are also printed.[^25]
 In September 1963 Bundy accompanied McNamara to [[Vietnam]]; on October 3 he appears as Deputy Assistant Secretary in the record of the meeting that prepared the report on that trip, and an October 3 draft of its annex on Vietnam named him as drafter.[^26] On November 20, 1963, after the Honolulu meeting, McGeorge Bundy sent him a draft of National Security Action Memorandum 273 for comment.[^27] When [[Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.]] sent [[W. Averell Harriman]] a paper on "neutralization" of North Vietnam in December 1963, William Bundy, reviewing his papers after leaving State, called it "a bizarre aberration" that was "never considered or taken seriously by anyone, so far as I know."[^28]
 ### Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 1964 to 1969
 Bundy held the post of Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs (then titled Far Eastern Affairs) from 1964 to 1969.[^1] On May 15, 1964 he wrote to Rusk that Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. was urging covert air strikes against North Vietnam and that the record of Lodge's earlier talk with Rusk in Saigon did not support Lodge's account of it; he called Lodge "fairly woolly."[^29] The [[Pentagon Papers]] chronology records that President Johnson designated him coordinating executive in National Security Action Memorandum 288 and that on May 23, 1964 he presented members of the Southeast Asia executive committee a 30-day scenario of graduated military and political pressure on North Vietnam.[^30] On June 3, 1964, after the Honolulu conference, Bundy sent Rusk his notes, which McNamara, Taylor and [[John McCone]] also received; McGeorge Bundy wrote on the source text, "Hitting the North is required," and Johnson met the two Bundys with Rusk, McNamara, Taylor and McCone that evening.[^31]
 The Pentagon Papers record that McGeorge Bundy's memorandum of June 15, 1964 announcing a meeting on a Congressional resolution on Southeast Asia enclosed a memorandum by W. P. Bundy dated June 12 on "Probable Developments and [the] Case for Congressional Resolution on Southeast Asia," together with a draft resolution.[^32] The chronology entry for that memorandum states that it "called for a Congressional Resolution right away to demonstrate U.S. resolve (especially to Souvanna and Khanh) and provide flexibility for executive action."[^33] A draft resolution on Southeast Asia prepared in the State Department is dated May 24, 1964; the editors describe it as among "working papers, no official standing" prepared for the executive committee meeting that day.[^34]
 On August 4, 1964, the day of a second reported attack in the [[Gulf of Tonkin]], Bundy was on vacation in Massachusetts. Rusk called him back to Washington.[^35] The National Security Council met that evening, and the summary of the meeting printed an attached "Draft Joint Resolution on Southeast Asia"; the editors state there is "no indication on the source text of the drafter."[^36] A Department of State telegram to the Embassy in Saigon sent at 6:35 p.m. that evening was drafted by [[Michael V. Forrestal]] and cleared by William Bundy.[^37] In a telephone call with Rusk on August 5, Bundy asked about the resolution; Rusk replied that McGeorge Bundy and [[George Ball]] were "going over the final touches," and asked him and [[John T. McNaughton]] to prepare a ten-minute statement for the next morning's House and Senate hearings.[^38] The Pentagon Papers chronology records that the President sent Congress a message requesting a joint resolution of support, and that "identical draft resolutions prepared by the executive branch" were introduced by Senator [[J. William Fulbright]] in the Senate and by Representative Morgan in the House.[^39]
 A University of Houston Digital History essay describes Bundy as "one of the chief architects of the Vietnam War and coauthor of the Tonkin Gulf Resolution."[^40] A 1972 press item likewise described him as having been "an architect of U.S. policy in Vietnam" at the State Department.[^41]
 In the NSC Principals' deliberations of late 1964, a working group paper of November 21, 1964, "Courses of Action in Southeast Asia," was drafted by William Bundy and McNaughton; the editors state that Bundy prepared a first draft on November 17 that was revised after the working group's meeting of November 19.[^42] The Pentagon Papers record that after the Principals' meeting of November 28 to 30 Bundy was charged with preparing a draft National Security Action Memorandum on a two-phase program, a thirty-day period of slightly increased pressure followed by air strikes against [[North Vietnam]], and that the Principals decided not to call his draft a memorandum.[^43]
 On January 6, 1965 Bundy sent Rusk notes prepared with Forrestal and Leonard Unger on the South Vietnamese situation: "Saigon morale in all quarters is now very shaky indeed," he wrote, and he attributed it to a widespread feeling that the United States was "not ready for stronger action and indeed is possibly looking for a way out."[^44] On February 15 and 18, 1965 he sent Rusk a memorandum of unresolved questions on a negotiating position and a draft "Sequence of Actions" reflecting a proposal discussed that morning at the White House with the President, McGeorge Bundy, Ball and Ambassador Llewellyn Thompson.[^45] After helping Ball prepare his June 28, 1965 paper urging withdrawal, Bundy disagreed with its conclusion and wrote a "Middle Way" course of action sent to the President on July 1; the editors cite his unpublished memoir for the account.[^46]
 The Foreign Relations volume on Indonesia, Malaysia-Singapore and the Philippines prints two memoranda addressed to Bundy by [[William Colby]], then Chief of the Far East Division of the CIA's Directorate of Operations: one of November 1, 1965 in the Philippines file and one of December 3, 1965 in the Indonesia file on State Department liaison.[^47] On November 5, 1965 Bundy sent Rusk an assessment of the Philippine election between [[Ferdinand Marcos]] and Diosdado Macapagal, drafted by the officer in charge of Philippine affairs.[^48]
 ### Newsweek, MIT and the Council on Foreign Relations, 1969 to 1972
 Bundy left government in May 1969 and taught at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]; the Post wrote that he joined the staff of the Center for International Studies there for three years.[^1][^2] From 1970 to 1972 he was a part-time columnist for [[Newsweek]], rotating with George Ball and [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]].[^1] He served on the board of directors of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] from 1964 to 1972 and was a trustee of the [[American Assembly]] from 1964 to 1984.[^1] By the end of 1971, the Post reported, he had concluded that all United States forces should be withdrawn from Vietnam, and he said that the Johnson administration had made "considerable mistakes" in informing the public.[^2]
 ### Foreign Affairs, 1972 to 1984
 A 1972 press item from the CIA reading room reports that Bundy would succeed [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] as editor of Foreign Affairs, a post Armstrong had held for 43 years, beginning in the fall of 1972. The item describes him as a former Assistant Secretary of State who was then a senior research associate at MIT; Bundy says in it that he has "been in this field since 1951" and planned a book on American involvement in Vietnam, written as history rather than as a personal reminiscence.[^41] The Princeton finding aid gives his editorship as 1972 to 1984. Bundy donated the journal correspondence series to the Mudd Library of Princeton University in 1994.[^1]
 From 1985 to 1987 he was a visiting professor at the [[Woodrow Wilson School]] of [[Princeton University]].[^1]
 ### A Tangled Web, 1998
 After 1987 Bundy devoted his time to a critical history of American foreign policy in the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] and [[Henry Kissinger|Kissinger]] period, including the later years of the [[Vietnam War]]. The book was published in 1998 as *A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency*.[^1][^49] The Post quoted a Book World review calling it "a sharply critical study of the Nixon-Kissinger foreign policy."[^2]
 ### Death
 Bundy died of heart ailments on October 6, 2000, at age 83, at his home in Princeton, New Jersey.[^1][^2] His papers are held at the Princeton University Library as the William P. Bundy Papers (MC189).[^1]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189
 [^2]: Bart Barnes, "William Bundy, Dies," *The Washington Post*, October 7, 2000, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2000/10/07/william-bundy-dies/1348f410-94d0-40cb-9ee9-d8fad6603457/
 [^3]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "Harvey Hollister Bundy," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^4]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), ch. VII, p. 193 (appointment of Harvey H. Bundy as Assistant Secretary, after the death of an officer named Cotton).
 [^5]: "Notes of the Interim Committee Meeting, Thursday, 31 May 1945," signed R. Gordon Arneson, Secretary, Records of the Army Corps of Engineers (RG 77), Manhattan Engineer District, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 12, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf
 [^6]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, sections "William P. Bundy" and the Bundy family (children of Harvey Hollister Bundy; Covington & Burling; the 1953 McCarthy passage), https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^7]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, index of members by class year, entry "1939 William Putnam Bundy CIA, Editor Foreign Affairs," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^9]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977.
 [^10]: "Skull & Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin* no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20-22 (passages on William Bundy, including the foreword to *The Counter-Insurgency Era*).
 [^11]: Letter from the Central Intelligence Agency to Joseph R. McCarthy, July 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080014-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080014-6
 [^12]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953 (including the text of Dulles to McCarthy, August 1, 1953), CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4
 [^13]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7
 [^14]: Federal Bureau of Investigation memorandum, "Information Concerning Allen W. Dulles," July 10, 1953, in FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31, https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison
 [^15]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7
 [^16]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9
 [^17]: FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31 (syndicated column on Senator Monroney's Senate speech, 1953, and Bureau memorandum on adverse publicity concerning the CIA, August 1953), https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison
 [^18]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, Cuba, January 1961-September 1962, doc. 38, Memorandum for the Record, "Meeting on Cuba," February 7, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d38
 [^19]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 59, editorial note on the White House meeting of March 11, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d59
 [^20]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 65, editorial note on the meeting of March 15, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d65
 [^21]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 66, editorial note on the meeting of March 16, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d66
 [^22]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 74, editorial note on the meeting of March 29, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d74
 [^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, Vietnam, 1961, doc. 144, Memorandum for the Record by the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Bundy), October 5, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d144
 [^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, doc. 214, Draft Memorandum From the Secretary of Defense to the President, November 5, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d214
 [^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, doc. 226 (draft of November 8, 1961) and doc. 289 (telegram of November 28, 1961), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d226
 [^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, Vietnam, August-December 1963, doc. 150 (September 26, 1963), doc. 172 (October 3, 1963) and doc. 175 (annex, October 4, 1963), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d175
 [^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 331, National Security Action Memorandum No. 273 and editorial note, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d331
 [^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 342, Lodge to Harriman, December 3, 1963, and footnote 4 quoting Bundy's papers, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d342
 [^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, Vietnam, 1964, doc. 158, Bundy to Rusk, May 15, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d158
 [^30]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), chronology entry for May 23, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac
 [^31]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 193, Bundy to Rusk, "Highlights of Honolulu Conference," June 3, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d193
 [^32]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, account of the June 15, 1964 meeting and its six enclosures, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac
 [^33]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology, p. 128, entry for June 12, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac
 [^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 169, Draft Congressional Resolution Prepared in the Department of State, May 24, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d169
 [^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 276, editorial note on the August 4, 1964 meeting, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d276
 [^36]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 278, "Summary Notes of the 538th Meeting of the National Security Council," August 4, 1964, with attached "Draft Joint Resolution on Southeast Asia," https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d278
 [^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 279, Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, August 4, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d279
 [^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 293, Memorandum of a Telephone Conversation Between the Secretary of State and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Bundy), August 5, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d293
 [^39]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology entries for August 5 to 11, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac
 [^40]: University of Houston Digital History, William Bundy biography in the Vietnam exploration, https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/vietnam/bundy2.cfm
 [^41]: "William Bundy to Head Foreign Affairs Journal," press item, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000100540012-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100540012-3
 [^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 418, Paper Prepared by the National Security Council Working Group, "Courses of Action in Southeast Asia," November 21, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d418
 [^43]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology, p. 136, and "Military Pressures Against North Vietnam, Feb. 1964-Jan. 1965," p. 245, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac
 [^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. II, Vietnam, January-June 1965, doc. 15, Bundy to Rusk, January 6, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v02/d15
 [^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. II, doc. 122 (Bundy to Rusk, February 15, 1965) and doc. 136 (draft paper, February 18, 1965), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v02/d136
 [^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. III, Vietnam, June-December 1965, doc. 41, Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Bundy), July 1, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v03/d41
 [^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXVI, Indonesia; Malaysia-Singapore; Philippines, doc. 316 (Colby to Bundy, November 1, 1965) and doc. 180 (Colby to Bundy, December 3, 1965), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d180
 [^48]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXVI, doc. 317, Bundy to Rusk, "Philippine National Elections," November 5, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d317
 [^49]: William P. Bundy, *A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency* (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), catalogue record, https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/ja/recordID/1000161811
--- a/PEOPLE/(H-M)/E.
+++ b/PEOPLE/(H-M)/E.
@ -0,0 +1,249 @@
 ---
 aliases:
  - E. Roland Harriman
  - Roland Harriman
  - Edward Roland Noel Harriman
  - Edward Roland Harriman
  - E. R. N. Harriman
  - Bunny Harriman
 category: "Business & Finance"
 tags:
  - Person
  - BrownBrothersHarriman
  - SkullAndBones
  - UnionBankingCorporation
  - UnionPacific
  - AmericanRedCross
  - ThyssenFamily
  - AlienPropertyCustodian
  - HarnessRacing
  - Banking
  - Harriman
 summary: "E. Roland Harriman, Averell Harriman's brother, chaired the Union Pacific from 1946 to 1969, led the American Red Cross from 1950 to 1973, and held 3,991 of the 4,000 Union Banking shares vested in 1942."
 born: 1895-12-24
 died: 1978-02-16
 location: "New York, New York"
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 relations:
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
    role: "Brother"
    fn: 1
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[E. H. Harriman]]"
    role: "Son"
    fn: 1
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    start: 1917
    role: "Member, Yale class of 1917"
    fn: 1
  - type: spouse_of
    with: "[[Gladys C. C. Fries]]"
    start: 1917
    role: "Wife"
    fn: 5
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[W. A. Harriman & Co.]]"
    start: 1920
    role: "Vice president, per Millegan and Sutton's 1932 directors table"
    fn: 9
  - type: partner_of
    with: "[[Brown Brothers Harriman]]"
    start: 1926
    role: "Partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. from October 30, 1926; partner of the merged firm from January 1, 1931"
    fn: 13
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Union Pacific Railroad]]"
    start: 1920
    role: "Director from 1920; listed in the annual reports for 1926 to 1930"
    fn: 15
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Union Pacific Railroad]]"
    start: 1946
    end: 1969
    role: "Chairman of the Board of Directors; honorary chairman from January 30, 1969 until his death"
    fn: 15
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Union Banking Corporation]]"
    start: 1932
    role: "Director in the 1932 table of Antony C. Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler"
    fn: 24
  - type: owned
    with: "[[Union Banking Corporation]]"
    start: 1942
    end: 1942
    role: "Registered holder of 3,991 of 4,000 shares in Vesting Order Number 248, October 20, 1942"
    fn: 28
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Newsweek]]"
    role: "Director, per Sutton (1976); no dates given"
    fn: 23
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[American Red Cross]]"
    start: 1950
    end: 1973
    role: "President from December 1, 1950; styled chairman by 1955; principal officer under the presidential appointment until his resignation effective March 31, 1973"
    fn: 41
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
    role: "Listed in the November 1951 table of corporations with officers who are members"
    fn: 43
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Hambletonian Society]]"
    start: 1970
    role: "Chairman of the board, per the Society's 1975 commemorative booklet"
    fn: 49
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Boys' Clubs of New York]]"
    start: 1962
    role: "Chairman of the board, per Creamer (1962) and Kouwenhoven (1968)"
    fn: 52
 ---
 E. Roland Harriman (Edward Roland Noel Harriman, December 24, 1895 to February 16, 1978) was the younger son of the railroad financier [[E. H. Harriman]] and the brother of [[W. Averell Harriman]]. He was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the [[Yale University]] class of 1917, organized the banking house of [[Harriman Brothers & Co.]] with his brother, became a partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]], and was the largest registered holder of [[Union Banking Corporation]] when the [[Alien Property Custodian]] vested the company in 1942. He was chairman of the board of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] from 1946 to 1969 and, by appointment of the President of the United States, the principal officer of the [[American Red Cross]] from December 1, 1950 to March 31, 1973.[^1]
 ### Childhood and Yale
 The Yale class history of 1917 gives his birth date as December 24, 1895, in New York City, and lists his schooling as the Bovee School, the Pine Lodge School in Lakewood, New Jersey, and [[Groton School]]. It records his father as E. H. Harriman, who died in 1909 at Arden, New York, and his mother as Mary Williamson (Averell) Harriman. The entry states that "There are two sons and three daughters in the family." Its list of Yale relatives names Averell Harriman of the class of 1913, described as a brother, and George Brown of the class of 1918. He rowed on the freshman and varsity crews, was a governor of the [[University Club]], and served on the Triennial Committee. The entry reads "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones." It states that he expected to enter the railroad business and gives Arden, New York, as his permanent address.[^1]
 [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that the elder Harriman "sent both his sons to Yale," and that "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order."[^2] The membership list in the 2003 compilation *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones*, edited by [[Kris Millegan]], places him among the senior society members of the class of 1917.[^3]
 Two early associations recur in the later record. [[John A. Kouwenhoven]] recorded that Roland Harriman and [[Robert A. Lovett]] met in 1903, when both were eight years old, and that the two boys became friends. He also recorded that in 1915 Harriman took a group of friends, among them [[Ellery Sedgwick James]], on the family yacht to San Francisco.[^4] He married Gladys Fries of New York City in 1917, the year he graduated from Yale.[^5]
 His mother, Mary Williamson Averell Harriman, established the [[Eugenics Record Office]] at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] in October 1910, according to a report in the [[New York Times]]; the report states that she provided funds for the office and its annual running expenses, that her contributions over eight years exceeded 500,000 dollars, and that [[John D. Rockefeller]] and others gave additional assistance.[^6] The Cold Spring Harbor image archive on the American eugenics movement lists the 1910 donation by the widow of E. H. Harriman as 10,000 dollars and holds the letter from [[Charles Davenport]] to Mrs. E. H. Harriman, and the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] accepted the office from her as a gift.[^7] Land given to New York State by his mother after his father's death forms the greater part of Harriman State Park.[^5]
 ### W. A. Harriman & Co. and Harriman Brothers & Co.
 The [[Time]] report of December 1930 stated that "In 1919 William Averell Harriman and his brother, Edward Roland Noel Harriman, formed W. A. Harriman & Co."[^8] Millegan wrote that Averell "hired his little brother Edward Roland 'Bunny' Harriman as a vice president" of the firm.[^9] Sutton's 1976 account gives a later date for the same firm: "In 1922 Roland and Averell formed W. A. Harriman & Company."[^10]
 [[Garry Wills]] wrote that the bank Harriman Brothers & Co. "was not founded until 1926," by which time the brothers were confident enough to place a classmate, [[Knight Woolley]], in its presidency.[^11]
 The banking house Roland Harriman and his brother organized, Harriman Brothers & Co., preceded the 1930 merger with Brown Brothers.[^12] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926, as Roland Harriman's date of partnership, describes him as co-founder with his brother of W. A. Harriman & Co., and gives January 1, 1931, as his date in the merged firm, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., where he is listed as resident in New York.[^13]
 The merger was announced in December 1930. The Time report counted sixteen partners in the new firm, eleven of them Yale graduates, and named Ellery Sedgwick James as a classmate of Roland Harriman, [[Prescott Bush]] and Knight Woolley.[^8] James had talked with Roland Harriman about "working under one roof" even before the stock market crash of 1929, and the merger had probably been "in the cards" since 1903.[^14]
 ### Union Pacific
 The Union Pacific's annual report for 1968 states that his service began in 1920, when he was elected a director of the company.[^15] The annual reports for 1926 to 1930 list E. Roland Harriman of Arden, New York, among the directors, with his brother W. A. Harriman and, as chairman of the board, Judge [[Robert Scott Lovett]].[^16] Robert Lovett was elected a director in 1926, at a time when "Both Averell and Roland Harriman were directors of the road."[^17] The Library of Congress chronology for the papers of Averell Harriman gives his chairmanship of the board of the Union Pacific as 1932 to 1946.[^18]
 The company's report for 1968 states that Roland Harriman had been chairman of the board of directors of the railroad since 1946.[^15] On November 2, 1950, [[Harry S. Truman]] described him at a news conference as a partner in Brown Brothers Harriman "and chairman of the board of directors of the Union Pacific Railroad."[^19] The reports for 1951, 1955, 1959, 1960 and 1965 print his name at the head of the directors as chairman, with Robert A. Lovett as chairman of the executive committee in the report for 1955.[^20] He was primarily responsible, the 1968 report states, for the formation of the Union Pacific Railroad Foundation in 1955.[^15]
 On January 30, 1969, the company announced a new holding company, Union Pacific Corporation. [[Frank E. Barnett]], chief executive officer of the railroad since January 1, 1967, was elected chairman of the board and chief executive; Harriman became honorary chairman, remaining a director, a member of the executive committee and chairman of the trustees of the Foundation.[^15] The reports of the holding company list him as honorary chairman and as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. through 1975.[^21] The report for 1978 records that he served as chairman from 1946 to 1969 and as honorary chairman until his death on February 16, 1978, and that his service spanned nearly sixty years.[^22]
 Sutton wrote in 1976 that "Still later Roland became chairman of the board of Union Pacific Railroad," and he also named Roland Harriman a director of [[Newsweek]] and of the [[Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York]], a member of the board of governors of the American Red Cross, and a member of the [[American Museum of Natural History]].[^23]
 ### Union Banking Corporation
 Sutton's 1976 table of the directors of the Union Banking Corporation for 1932 lists "E. Roland HARRIMAN" as "Vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., New York," and states in the text that he was a director of the company. Sutton described the corporation as "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation" and as controlled by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which he called a Thyssen front bank in Holland.[^24] Sutton called [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], listed in the same table, Roland Harriman's "fellow-director" at the company.[^25] His 1983 book lists eight directors for 1932 in its section "The Union Banking Connection."[^26]
 A Treasury Department memorandum from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], dated August 18, 1941, with reference 9-151, reports that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank." It records that the corporation was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, that gold purchases of more than eight million dollars were made in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934, and that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^27]
 On October 20, 1942, the Alien Property Custodian, [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order Number 248 under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]]. The order vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock. It names the registered owners and their holdings: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991 shares; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; [[Harold D. Pennington]], 1; [[Ray Morris]], 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; H. J. Kouwenhoven, 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., of Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The order was filed November 6, 1942, under F.R. Doc. 42-11568, and published in the [[Federal Register]] of November 7, 1942, at pages 9097 and 9098.[^28] Four of the seven registered holders are listed in the Brown Brothers Harriman partner table.[^13]
 The vesting order for [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], executed October 28, 1942, and published in the Federal Register of December 19, 1942, lists Roland Harriman as the registered holder of 491 of its 500 shares. Lievense holds 4, and Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Groeninger one share each.[^29] The [[Guardian]] reported in 2004 that the incorporation documents of the Union Banking Corporation list [[George H. W. Bush]]'s father, Prescott Bush, as one of seven directors.[^30]
 ### World War II
 During [[World War II]], Roland Harriman was manager of the North Atlantic Area of the American Red Cross, and the firm's partners devoted much of their time to war work. Prescott Bush became national campaign chairman of the combined wartime fund drives in 1942.[^31] After the war he became a member of the Red Cross board of governors, then its vice chairman, and in 1947 chaired the committee on reorganization of the society.[^19]
 ### Red Cross, 1950 to 1973
 On November 2, 1950, Truman announced at a White House news conference that Harriman would succeed General [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]] as president of the American Red Cross on December 1, 1950. Marshall had held the post since September 22, 1949, and had continued in it after his appointment as [[United States Secretary of Defense]]. Truman described Harriman as a brother of Averell Harriman, then Special Assistant to the President.[^19] The post was held by presidential appointment under the congressional charter of the society. Kouwenhoven wrote that Harriman was reappointed by Presidents [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson]].[^32]
 Truman addressed him as president of the society in letters of April 1951, on the 1951 fund campaign, and July 1951, on the flood disaster in Kansas, Missouri and Oklahoma.[^33] On January 9, 1953, Harriman wrote to President-elect Eisenhower that, under the by-laws and by tradition, the President of the United States becomes honorary chairman of the Red Cross; Eisenhower accepted on January 24, 1953, in a letter addressed to Harriman as president.[^34] At the society's convention of June 24, 1953, Eisenhower told the audience that Harriman had come to his office to say that his term was up, and had been told, "As long as I am there, as far as I am concerned, he will be here."[^35]
 By August 1955 the title had changed. Eisenhower referred to a telegram from "E. Roland Harriman, Chairman of the Red Cross" during the hurricane and flood disaster in the northeastern states, and the following day to Harriman as the Chairman, who would make the allocations to the stricken areas.[^36] A Red Cross news release of early 1956, preserved in a [[Central Intelligence Agency]] file, announces an additional appeal of eight million dollars after "the worst disaster year in American history," relayed by Harriman as chairman after a meeting of the executive committee of the board of governors, on a report from [[Ellsworth Bunker]] as president.[^37] On November 29, 1956 Eisenhower released a telegram from Harriman as chairman supporting the emergency appeal for Hungarian relief, and at the national convention of May 20, 1957 the President's opening words addressed Harriman as chairman and General [[Alfred M. Gruenther]] as president.[^38]
 The society's annual report for the year ended June 30, 1959, lists Harriman as chairman and corporate officer, with Gruenther as president and General [[Lucius D. Clay]] among the vice chairmen. The members of the board of governors appointed by the President of the United States were Harriman, [[Loy W. Henderson]], Deputy Under Secretary of State; Julian B. Baird, Under Secretary of the Treasury; [[Thomas S. Gates Jr.]], Deputy Secretary of Defense; Charles C. Finucane, Assistant Secretary of Defense; and Dr. Frank Brown Berry, Assistant Secretary of Defense. The elected members included a physicist from Los Alamos, New Mexico, and the Secretary of the Treasury was honorary treasurer. A copy of the report sits in a CIA file with a letter of February 19, 1960 from [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]] to Gruenther.[^39]
 On May 13, 1971, [[Richard Nixon]] wrote to "Chairman, American National Red Cross" Harriman reappointing him as governor of the corporation for a term of three years from June 12, 1971, and designating him to act as the principal officer of the corporation with such title and functions as the by-laws prescribe. At the convention the following week Nixon noted that Harriman was about to serve his eighth term as chairman.[^40] On February 19, 1973, the White House announced that [[Frank Stanton]] would be appointed to succeed Harriman as principal officer and member of the board of governors, effective April 1, 1973; the announcement states that Harriman resigned effective March 31, 1973, and that he had held the two positions since December 1, 1950.[^41] The society's 1977 annual report lists Stanton as chairman of the Board of Governors and [[Jimmy Carter]] as honorary chairman.[^42]
 ### Council on Foreign Relations
 A November 1951 table of corporations with officers who were members of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], held in a CIA Reading Room document, lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance. The same document lists him among the individual contributors to the Council's 25th Anniversary Fund for 1946 to 1950, with the notation "over 5 years."[^43]
 ### Harness racing
 Robert Creamer's Sports Illustrated profile of July 9, 1962, "Harriman of Goshen," describes him as chairman of the Union Pacific, an active partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, head of the American Red Cross for more than a decade, chairman of the Boys' Clubs of New York, and the owner of the Arden Homestead in the Ramapo hills.[^44] He began driving trotting horses as a boy and drove in the Saturday matinee races at Goshen, New York by the age of fifteen or sixteen. He recalled that his father bought the site of Good Time Park because he wanted land to straighten a curve in the Erie Railroad, and decided to keep the track; the Historic Track in the village he described as bought earlier.[^44] The history of Goshen published in 1960 states that E. H. Harriman leased the Historic Track in 1894, that the Orange County Driving Park Association, its owner, remained under controlling interest of the Harriman family, that Roland Harriman had been the mainstay of the track and of the sport for nearly forty years, and that in 1926 William H. Cane purchased the Good Time course from the Harriman brothers.[^45]
 According to Creamer, Harriman invited some twenty leading breeders and owners to dinner at his home in New York in the 1920s, after the publication of the breeding register and year book had lapsed in 1923, and told them that trotting was "going to hell in a hack." The group formed the Trotting Horse Club of America. Harriman went to Chicago and bought the Register and the Year Book, which he gave to the club. The Hambletonian Society, separate from the club but similar in membership, established the Hambletonian Stake.[^44] The Society's 1975 commemorative booklet reproduces a wire sent by Harriman to racing leaders around the country inviting them to a gathering of "committee of fifty best friends of trotting" at Indianapolis on November 11 to 13, "to discuss these matters for the good of our sport," and states that the current United States Trotting Association sprang from it.[^46] Creamer quotes him on the decade of effort to unify the three rival associations, and quotes the veteran trotting man Lawrence Sheppard that "Harriman was responsible for the formation of the Trotting Club, and he played a leading role in the establishment of the U.S. Trotting Association."[^44] A history of the sport published in 1970 records that the presidency of the association was offered to Harriman and that he declined.[^47]
 Harriman and his nephew, Major [[Elbridge T. Gerry]], owned the colt Titan Hanover, driven by Harry Pownall, which won the Hambletonian Stake at Good Time Park on August 8, 1945, in a field of nineteen; the racing commission barred wagering on the colt.[^48] Creamer lists Star's Pride, owned jointly with Lawrence B. Sheppard, and Horican as other Harriman trotters, names his wife as the first woman to drive a harness horse a mile in better than two minutes, and gives Harriman and Gerry as partners in the Arden Homestead Stable and the Orange County Driving Park Association.[^44] The booklet of 1975 lists E. Roland Harriman as chairman of the board of the Hambletonian Society, and a history of the sport of 1970 lists him in the same office.[^49] He presented the Hambletonian trophy to the winning owner in the races the booklet reports, including the last Hambletonian held at Goshen, in 1956.[^50]
 ### Other offices
 Creamer wrote that Harriman built the Bear Mountain Bridge, the first major bridge to span the Hudson River and the longest suspension bridge in the world when it opened in 1924, as a private venture under state charter that reverted to state control in 1940.[^44] A history of the Harriman trails records Roland Harriman as president of the bridge company, which opened the bridge on Thanksgiving Day 1924.[^51]
 E. H. Harriman founded the first of the Boys' Clubs in a basement on Tompkins Square in New York. After his death his sons continued to support and direct the clubs' work, and Roland Harriman was chairman of the board of the clubs in 1962 and, as Kouwenhoven wrote in 1968, was then chairman.[^52]
 ### Politics
 Wills wrote that Roland Harriman balanced his brother's close ties to Franklin D. Roosevelt by donating heavily to the Republicans.[^53] In 1946 Prescott Bush asked his permission to seek a seat in the House of Representatives. Wills wrote that Roland Harriman said a House race was beneath a Brown Brothers Harriman partner and that it might be different for the Senate.[^53] Prescott Bush served as a United States senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1962.[^54] Creamer quoted him on his brother: "He and I are on opposite sides of the fence politically, but it's never caused the slightest difficulty between us," adding, "Ave is my favorite Democrat."[^44]
 ### Philanthropy, memoir and death
 The Gladys and Roland Harriman Foundation gave one million dollars to the Society of the New York Hospital to establish a professorship in geriatrics, an endowment that the hospital's annual report attributes to Mrs. E. Roland Harriman and "the late Mr. Harriman."[^55] His memoir, *I Reminisce*, was published by Doubleday in 1975 and runs to 280 pages.[^56]
 The Library of Congress finding aid for the papers of Averell Harriman gives Roland Harriman's dates as 1895 to 1978. It lists a family folder labeled "Harriman, E. Roland (brother) and Gladys, 1906-1972," a correspondence file labeled "Harriman, E. Roland, 1925-1934," and a folder of condolences "on his death, 1978."[^57] A finding aid for the Brown Brothers Harriman records at [[New York University]] indexes him under the same dates.[^58]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entry for Edward Roland Noel Harriman, "Bunny," pp. 105 to 106 in the class history's biographical section. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassofOOmurr
 [^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), section "The Harriman Family," and index of members by class year, class of 1917. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^3]: Kris Millegan, ed., *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), membership list "Senior Society, Class of 1917." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^4]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 16 to 17. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
 [^5]: Robert Creamer, "Harriman of Goshen," *Sports Illustrated*, July 9, 1962, pp. 32 to 37, passages on his marriage in 1917 and on Harriman State Park. https://archive.org/details/Sports-Illustrated-1962-07-09
 [^6]: "Harriman philanthropy to have a board of scientific directors," *The New York Times*, as transcribed by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory DNA Learning Center: the office "was established at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., in October, 1910, by Mrs. E. H. Harriman"; her contributions over an eight-year period "amounted to more than $500,000"; "additional assistance of John D. Rockefeller and others." https://dnalc.cshl.edu/view/10495-%2DHarriman-philanthropy-to-have-a-board-of-scientific-directors-The-New-York-Times.html
 [^7]: Image Archive on the American Eugenics Movement, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, theme "Eugenics Record Office (ERO)," including the 1910 donation of 10,000 dollars by the widow of E. H. Harriman, a Davenport letter to Mrs. E. H. Harriman, and "Transfer of ERO," *Eugenical News* vol. 3. https://www.eugenicsarchive.org/html/eugenics/static/themes/20.html
 [^8]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," *Time*, December 22, 1930. https://time.com/archive/6746405/business-brown-harriman/
 [^9]: Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), p. 39, chapter on the business ties of the 1920s.
 [^10]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), pp. 106 to 107.
 [^11]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992, account of the Harriman firms and Bush's partnership. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
 [^12]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 9 to 10, account of the 1930 merger.
 [^13]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), partner table, pp. 231 to 235.
 [^14]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, account of the 1930 merger and of James's talk with Harriman before the 1929 crash.
 [^15]: Union Pacific Railroad Company, *Annual Report* for 1968, "Chairman Harriman" and "Top Management Changes." https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
 [^16]: Union Pacific Railroad Company, annual reports for 1926 through 1930, lists of directors (December 31 of each year). https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
 [^17]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, account of Robert A. Lovett's 1926 election as a Union Pacific director.
 [^18]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *W. Averell Harriman Papers: A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress* (revised 2016), biographical note, entries for 1932 to 1946. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms003012
 [^19]: Harry S. Truman, The President's News Conference, November 2, 1950, item 1, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-574
 [^20]: Union Pacific Railroad Company, annual reports for 1951, 1955, 1959, 1960 and 1965, lists of directors and officers. https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
 [^21]: Union Pacific Corporation, annual reports for 1969, 1972, 1973, 1974 and 1975, lists of directors. https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
 [^22]: Union Pacific Corporation, *Annual Report 1978*, notice of the death of E. Roland Harriman. https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
 [^23]: Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), pp. 106 to 107.
 [^24]: Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 103 (Table 7-1 and text on the 1932 directors and the joint Thyssen-Harriman operation).
 [^25]: Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 107.
 [^26]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section "The Union Banking Connection," with the table of the eight directors in 1932.
 [^27]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103). Copy in an archive.org collection of Bush-related documents. https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay
 [^28]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
 [^29]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
 [^30]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the incorporation documents. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
 [^31]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203 (war work of the partners).
 [^32]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203 (post-war public service of the partners; index entry "American Red Cross work of, 203").
 [^33]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to the President of the Red Cross on the Progress of the Fund Campaign, April 5, 1951 (released April 6), and Letter to the President, American National Red Cross, on the Flood Disaster Areas in the Middle West, July 19, 1951, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-the-president-the-red-cross-the-progress-the-fund-campaign and https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-the-president-american-national-red-cross-the-flood-disaster-areas-the-middle-west
 [^34]: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Letter to the President of the American National Red Cross Accepting the Position of Honorary Chairman, released January 29, 1953, dated January 24, 1953, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-the-president-the-american-national-red-cross-accepting-the-position-honorary
 [^35]: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Remarks at the American Red Cross Convention, June 24, 1953, with the editors' note that "Mr. Harriman" was E. Roland Harriman, President of the American National Red Cross. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-american-red-cross-convention
 [^36]: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Remarks on the Hurricane-Flood Disaster in the Northeastern States, August 22, 1955, and Remarks Following a Meeting With the Governors of Flood-Stricken States at Bradley Field, Hartford, Connecticut, August 23, 1955. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-hurricane-flood-disaster-the-northeastern-states and https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-following-meeting-with-the-governors-flood-stricken-states-bradley-field-hartford
 [^37]: American National Red Cross News Service, "'Worst Disaster Year' Forces Raise in Red Cross Fund Quotas," 1956, CIA-RDP78-04718A002200010023-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a002200010023-3
 [^38]: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Statement in Support of Red Cross Disaster Appeal for Relief in Hungary, November 29, 1956, and Remarks at the Opening of the National Convention of the American Red Cross, May 20, 1957, with the editors' note identifying Harriman and Gruenther as Chairman and President. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-president-support-red-cross-disaster-appeal-for-relief-hungary-and-hungarian and https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-opening-the-national-convention-the-american-red-cross
 [^39]: *The American National Red Cross Annual Report for the year ended June 30, 1959*, lists of the Board of Governors and corporate officers, with letter from Allen W. Dulles of February 19, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R003600060072-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003600060072-0
 [^40]: Richard Nixon, Letter Reappointing E. Roland Harriman as Chairman of the American National Red Cross (dated May 13, 1971, released May 15), and Remarks at the Annual Convention of the American National Red Cross, May 19, 1971, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-reappointing-e-roland-harriman-chairman-the-american-national-red-cross and https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-annual-convention-the-american-national-red-cross
 [^41]: "Announcement of Appointment of Frank Stanton as Principal Officer and a Member of the Board of Governors of the Red Cross," February 19, 1973, *Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents*, vol. 9, no. 8 (February 26, 1973). https://archive.org/details/sim_weekly-compilation-of-presidential-documents_1973-02-26_9_8
 [^42]: *The American National Red Cross, 1977 Annual Report*, list of the Board of Governors and officers. https://archive.org/details/americannational0000amer
 [^43]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, 8 pages, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
 [^44]: Robert Creamer, "Harriman of Goshen," *Sports Illustrated*, July 9, 1962, pp. 32 to 37. https://archive.org/details/Sports-Illustrated-1962-07-09
 [^45]: Elizabeth Sharts, *Land o' Goshen, Then and Now* (Goshen, N.Y.: The Bookmill, 1960), chapter on the Historic Track. https://archive.org/details/landogoshenthenn00shar_0
 [^46]: Fred Huff, *The Hambletonian, 1926-1975* (Hayes Fair Acres, Inc., 1975), the Hambletonian Society's 50th anniversary booklet, text on the 1930s. https://archive.org/details/hambiltonian
 [^47]: Philip A. Pines, *The Complete Book of Harness Racing* (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1970), entry on the United States Trotting Association and its first presidency. https://archive.org/details/completebookofha00pine
 [^48]: Tom Gahagan, "Titan Hanover Wins the Hambletonian," reprinted in Huff, *The Hambletonian, 1926-1975* (1975), with photographs of the owner and the cup. https://archive.org/details/hambiltonian
 [^49]: Huff, *The Hambletonian, 1926-1975* (1975), list of officers; Pines, *The Complete Book of Harness Racing* (1970), list of Hambletonian Society officers. https://archive.org/details/hambiltonian
 [^50]: Huff, *The Hambletonian, 1926-1975* (1975), photograph captions of the 1956 Hambletonian at Goshen and of the trophy presentation to Gibson White. https://archive.org/details/hambiltonian
 [^51]: William J. Myles, *Harriman Trails: A Guide and History* (New York-New Jersey Trail Conference, 2010 edition), passage on the Bear Mountain Bridge. https://archive.org/details/harrimantrailsgu0000myle_c5b2
 [^52]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 139 (passage on the Boys' Clubs founded by E. H. Harriman; index entry "Boys' Clubs, 139"); Creamer, "Harriman of Goshen" (1962).
 [^53]: Wills, "Father Knows Best" (1992), account of Roland Harriman's political giving and of the 1946 House seat. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
 [^54]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203 (passage on the partners' public service after 1945).
 [^55]: *Annual Report*, The Society of the New York Hospital, report year following Harriman's death, notice of the Irving Sherwood Wright Professorship in Geriatrics. https://archive.org/details/annualreportsoci1976newy
 [^56]: E. Roland Harriman, *I Reminisce* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975), 280 pages, Open Library record. https://openlibrary.org/works/OL7090329W
 [^57]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *W. Averell Harriman Papers* finding aid (2016), name index entry "Harriman, E. Roland (Edward Roland), 1895-1978," family series Box 2 ("Harriman, E. Roland (brother) and Gladys, 1906-1972"), general correspondence Box 28 ("Harriman, E. Roland, 1925-1934"), and Box 7 ("Harriman, E. Roland, condolences on his death, 1978"). https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms003012
 [^58]: New York University Special Collections, *Guide to the Brown Brothers Harriman Records, 1696-1973, 1995*, MS 78, name index entry "Harriman, E. Roland (Edward Roland), 1895-1978."
--- a/PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry
+++ b/PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry
@ -0,0 +1,232 @@
 ---
 aliases:
  - Henry R. Luce
  - Henry Robinson Luce
 category: "Authors & Journalists"
 tags:
  - Person
  - TimeInc
  - Life
  - Fortune
  - SkullAndBones
  - YaleUniversity
  - AmericanCentury
  - CIAMedia
  - CDJackson
  - ChinaLobby
  - UnitedChinaRelief
  - NationalWarFund
  - Zapruder
  - LSD
  - ClareBoothe
  - CenturyGroup
 summary: "Henry Robinson Luce, Yale class of 1920 and co-founder of Time Inc., whose 1941 essay on the American Century ran in Life, and whose associates appear in CIA, psychological warfare, Zapruder film and LSD records."
 born: 1898-04-03
 died: 1967-02-28
 location: "New York, New York"
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 relations:
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Time Inc.]]"
    start: 1923
    role: "co-founded with Briton Hadden as Time Incorporated"
    fn: 1
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Life (magazine)|Life]]"
    start: 1936
    fn: 1
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]"
    start: 1930
    fn: 1
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Time Inc.]]"
    start: 1929
    end: 1964
    role: "sole head of the company after the death of Briton Hadden; retired 1964"
    fn: 1
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    start: 1919
    role: "elected to the society in the Yale tap day of May 15, 1919 (class of 1920)"
    fn: 3
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Century Group]]"
    start: 1940
    role: "member who advocated aid to Great Britain, including the transfer of old destroyers"
    fn: 7
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[National War Fund]]"
    start: 1945
    role: "executive committee, officers list as of August 13, 1945"
    fn: 24
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]]"
    start: 1956
    role: "conversation with Henry Kissinger about the project, per the Luce papers"
    fn: 25
  - type: spouse_of
    with: "[[Clare Boothe Luce]]"
    start: 1935
    fn: 1
  - type: informant_for
    with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
    role: "briefed Allen Dulles after foreign trips, according to Bernstein's account of CIA officials"
    fn: 30
 ---
 Henry Robinson Luce (April 3, 1898 to February 28, 1967) was an American magazine publisher who co-founded [[Time Inc.]] with [[Briton Hadden]] in 1923 and ran the company until his retirement in 1964. He was born in [[Tengchow]], [[China]], to Presbyterian missionaries, graduated from [[Yale University]] in 1920, and was elected to [[Skull and Bones]] in the tap day of May 15, 1919.[^1][^2][^3] [[Life (magazine)|Life]] printed his 1941 essay "The American Century," and his associates and wife appear in the record of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], the psychological warfare apparatus of the Eisenhower administration, the Zapruder film and the LSD experiments of the 1950s and 1960s.
 ### Childhood in China, Hotchkiss and Yale
 Luce was born at Tengchow (now Penglai) to the Reverend Dr. Henry Winters Luce and Elizabeth Middleton Luce. He spent the first fourteen years of his life in China apart from a visit to the United States in 1906 and 1907, attended the Chefoo School, a British-run preparatory school in northern China, studied briefly at St. Albans School in England in 1912, and entered the [[Hotchkiss School]] in Lakeville, Connecticut, the following year.[^1]
 He entered Yale in 1916 and served as managing editor of the [[Yale Daily News]]. A member of the Yale ROTC Field Artillery Unit, he left college to train army recruits at the end of the First World War, was discharged as a second lieutenant at the end of 1918, returned to New Haven and graduated in 1920. Hadden, a classmate from Hotchkiss and Yale, was in the same class.[^1] After graduation Luce spent a year studying history at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], and in 1921 took work as a reporter with the [[Chicago Daily News]] and then the [[Baltimore News]].[^1]
 ### Skull and Bones
 The Harvard Crimson printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15, 1919, reporting the men elected to the senior societies at Yale in that year's tap day. The Skull and Bones list read: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, Harry P. Davison, Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls.[^3] The name index to [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 study of the society lists the class of 1920 with "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^2]
 Sutton's section on communications states that "There has been a significant penetration into communications," and gives as its first example "Henry Luce of Time-Life is in The Order."[^4] In 1977 [[Ron Rosenbaum]] named Luce among the society's members in an article in [[Esquire]]. Rosenbaum wrote of Bones reunions: "Where else can you hear Archibald MacLeish take on Henry Luce in a soul-versus-capital debate with no holds barred?"[^5]
 ### Time Incorporated and the Luce magazines
 Luce left his job at the Baltimore News in 1922 to concentrate on a news magazine with Hadden. Together they formed Time Incorporated, and the first issue of [[Time]] appeared in New York in 1923.[^1] Luce married Lila Hotz on December 22, 1923; the couple had two sons, and the marriage ended in divorce in 1935.[^1] Hadden died in 1929, after which Luce became the sole head of the company.[^1] The company started [[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] in 1930, the [[The March of Time]] radio series in 1931 and Life in 1936. In 1935 Luce married [[Clare Boothe Luce|Clare Boothe Brokaw]], a playwright and former managing editor of [[Vanity Fair]]; the Library of Congress chronology of her papers gives the date as November 23, 1935.[^1][^6] Sports Illustrated followed in 1954.[^1]
 ### The Century Group, Willkie and the Council for Democracy
 In the early years of the Second World War Luce belonged to the Century Group, which advocated assistance to Great Britain; his papers include materials on the group's effort to persuade the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] administration to provide Britain with old United States destroyers.[^1][^7] He was one of the driving forces behind the 1940 Republican presidential candidacy of [[Wendell Willkie]], and Clare Boothe Luce campaigned for Willkie in New York and Connecticut.[^1][^6]
 The Luce papers hold a file on the [[Council for Democracy]] for 1940 to 1942, including a draft "Statement of Faith for Coordinating Council for Democracy" with Luce's handwritten response.[^8] [[C. D. Jackson]], then a Time Inc. executive, was president of the council in 1940, and his papers include a folder of correspondence with Luce on the role of "Harry Luce" in it and another listing criticism of the council as a "Luce front" organization.[^9]
 ### The American Century
 Life printed "The American Century" under Luce's name across pages 61 to 65 of its February 17, 1941 issue.[^10] The essay argued that the twentieth century was "America's first century as a dominant power in the world," and that the world of that century "must be to a significant degree an American Century."[^10] Luce called on the United States to "undertake now to be the Good Samaritan of the entire world," and urged that American trade be planned on large terms. "We think of Asia as being worth only a few hundred millions a year to us," he wrote, and he continued that Asia would be worth "four, five, ten billions of dollars a year" to the country if Americans thought on those terms.[^10]
 The program had four parts. The essay described America as "the principal guarantor of the freedom of the seas" and as "the dynamic leader of world trade." It pictured the country sending out "technical and artistic skills" in the form of "Engineers, scientists, doctors, movie men, makers of entertainment, developers of airlines, builders of roads, teachers, educators." The last section named America as "the powerhouse of the ideals of Freedom and Justice."[^10]
 The essay addressed the war in Europe and the isolationist position in the United States, and it closed on Roosevelt. Luce wrote that "Our only chance now to make it work is in terms of a vital international economy and in terms of an international moral order," and that Roosevelt "must succeed where [[Woodrow Wilson]] failed."[^10]
 ### China, the China Lobby and United China Relief
 The biographical note of Luce's papers records that through the 1950s and 1960s he was continuously involved in charities related to the Presbyterian Church, Yale and China, and that he "led a concerted campaign to provide aid to China under the aegis of the United China Relief."[^1] [[United China Relief]] was founded in New York in February 1941 in an attempt to consolidate several smaller agencies already aiding China. A Colorado College thesis by Sam Schoenecker wrote that Luce loaned prominent journalists from Time Inc. to the organization, and that the prominence of Time Inc. employees in its marketing raised questions about Luce's control over its picture of China.[^11][^12] The same thesis describes Luce as one of the influential figures associated with the [[China Lobby]].[^11]
 The folder list of the papers records the relationship at the level of the files. A United China Relief folder for 1939 to 1950 and 1956 notes that the organization later changed its name to "United Service to China," and includes a memorandum from Douglas Auchincloss to Luce describing a meeting with [[Pearl S. Buck]] and correspondence from Buck, [[Herbert Hoover]], [[Cordell Hull]] and [[Joseph P. Kennedy]].[^13] Another folder holds the English translation of [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s greeting to supporters of China through United China Relief on the thirty-third national day of the Republic of China, the reports "Five Years of United China Relief," minutes of the Committee on American Activities of the United Service to China, and the "Appeal to Americans: Stand By Our Chinese Friends Now!"[^14] A further folder includes "Russell Birdwell's Preliminary Plan for The Free China Movement."[^15]
 Madame Chiang's 1943 tour of the United States is documented in two folders. One includes the press release of the Citizens Committee to Welcome Mme. Chiang Kai-shek, the speech she gave at Madison Square Garden, programs from her appearances in San Francisco, Chicago and Los Angeles, and a draft memorandum by United China Relief executives, "Items for Consultation with Madame Chiang Kai-shek." The other holds a letter marked "secret" announcing that she had left for the United States and a letter from Luce to her describing his impressions of China after a 1945 trip.[^16][^17] A folder on the China Institute in America includes a memorandum from Charles L. Stillman on his impressions of Taiwan and a transcript of an NBC interview with Chiang Kai-shek, and Luce delivered the speech at the dedication of China House on August 27, 1944.[^18][^19] A further folder includes correspondence from the Committee of One Million Against the Admission of Communist China to the United Nations, a "Formosa Report" from Kip Finch, and a draft of "The Luce Scholarship Foundation for Yenching University."[^20]
 Luce's trip files show visits to China in 1941, with a handwritten report titled "China: To the Mountains," in 1945, with invitations in Chinese from [[T. V. Soong]] and Chiang Kai-shek, cables, a diary, and an outline of Nationalist and Communist strength in Shantung, and in 1946. Further files cover trips to Formosa and Hong Kong and to Indochina in 1952 and 1953, and travel to Taiwan and Vietnam in 1964.[^21][^22][^23] The files for Luce's correspondence with Jackson from 1945 list a "Chungking Diary, Oct.1945, by Luce" among its topics.[^9]
 The papers of C. D. Jackson at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] include a folder titled "China-America Council," described as covering the "Time Inc. relationship with council," and a general-file entry for "Time coverage of events in Asia and China, 1937."[^9]
 ### National War Fund
 The [[National War Fund]] issued a speakers handbook dated as of August 13, 1945. Its officers list names [[Winthrop W. Aldrich]] as president and [[Prescott Bush]] as a vice president for New York. The executive committee lists "Henry R. Luce" with Aldrich, Bush and [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]], and [[Gerard Swope]], listed as chairman of the budget committee, appears on the same committee.[^24]
 ### Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project
 The Luce papers at the [[New-York Historical Society]] include a file on the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] Special Studies Project, dated 1956 to 1963 with a 1974 addition. The file contains a memo regarding a conversation between Luce and [[Henry A. Kissinger]] about the project, and correspondence from Kissinger and [[Nelson Rockefeller|Nelson A. Rockefeller]].[^25] Luce is listed on the roster of Panel II, "International Security: The Military Aspect," alongside [[Laurance Rockefeller]].[^26]
 ### C. D. Jackson and the psychological warfare apparatus
 Jackson was appointed assistant to the president of Time Inc. in 1931 and a vice president in 1940. He was managing director of Time-Life International in 1945 and publisher of Fortune in 1949, and became publisher of Life in 1960; his papers at the Eisenhower Library describe him as one of Luce's vice presidents who supervised the company's overseas activities in the late 1940s.[^9] The papers include his correspondence with Luce and with [[John K. Jessup]].[^9]
 The finding aid for Jackson's papers sets a condition on any use: "Permission of Time Incorporated is required to cite or quote materials originated by any individual in his capacity as an official of Time Incorporated."[^9] Jackson served in psychological warfare with the [[Office of War Information]] during the Second World War, as deputy chief of the Psychological Warfare Branch at Allied Force Headquarters in 1943 and deputy chief of the Psychological Warfare Division at SHAEF in 1944 and 1945. His Luce correspondence for 1943 and 1944 lists OWI and PWB personnel and operations among its subjects.[^9] He was president of the [[Free Europe Committee]], which directed [[Radio Free Europe]], from 1951 to 1952, and the finding aid describes him as an active participant in Radio Free Europe from its founding in 1949 until his death in 1964. He then became special assistant to President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] for international affairs in 1953 and 1954. The finding aid states that he "took the lead in preparing" the Atoms for Peace speech delivered at the United Nations on December 8, 1953.[^9]
 The Eisenhower Library's records for Jackson, 1953 and 1954, state that "As Special Assistant to the President, Jackson worked closely with the Psychological Strategy Board and the Operations Coordinating Board, and served as an official member of the latter." The same finding aid records that the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was authorized by President Truman in June 1951, and that the Jackson Committee recommended abolishing it in favor of the Operations Coordinating Board, a change completed in September 1953.[^27]
 The correspondence series of the Jackson papers carries the Luces through the Eisenhower years. The folder for Luce in 1951 and 1952 lists "Vietnam, Bao Dai, Ho Chi Minh," and "qualifications for CDJ's job." The folder for Henry and Clare in 1953 lists "Trieste issue; Italy-U.S. relations." The third 1954 folder lists "Indochina-role of DDE, W.B. Smith, Dulles, and French; Adm. Radford; A. Dulles; Dienbienphu." The 1955 folders list Formosa, Quemoy and Matsu, and the 1956 folder lists "Free Europe Comm.; RFE," Suez and "CIA." Jackson's own log for 1954 lists "CIA plans" and "Prince Bernhard-Bilderberg Conf." beside Luce and [[Walter Bedell Smith]].[^9]
 Jackson was one of eleven members of the [[Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel]], which met at [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]] from June 5 to 10, 1955 under the chairmanship of [[Walt Rostow]].[^28]
 ### Covert relationships with the CIA
 The minutes of the CIA Deputies' Meeting of July 21, 1952 record [[Frank Wisner]] noting that the agency was prepared to talk to Luce's representative whenever he came to Washington, and that it had enough material on hand to allow Time or Life to publish an exclusive story on the Duclos affair beyond the information already made public. Asked by Director Walter Bedell Smith about authenticity, Wisner said the agency was 90 percent positive about the information.[^29]
 In "The CIA and the Media," a cover story in [[Rolling Stone]] on October 20, 1977, [[Carl Bernstein]] listed the executives who "lent their cooperation to the Agency." They included [[William S. Paley]] of the [[Columbia Broadcasting System]], "Henry Luce of Time Inc.," [[Arthur Hays Sulzberger]] of the [[New York Times]], [[Barry Bingham Sr.]] of the [[Louisville Courier-Journal]] and [[James Copley]] of the Copley News Service.[^30] Bernstein wrote that [[Allen Dulles]] "often interceded with his good friend, the late Henry Luce," who "readily allowed certain members of his staff to work for the Agency and agreed to provide jobs and credentials for other CIA operatives who lacked journalistic experience." He wrote that Luce "made it a regular practice to brief Dulles or other high Agency officials" after his trips abroad, and that in the 1950s and early 1960s Time's foreign correspondents attended CIA "briefing" dinners similar to those the agency held for CBS.[^30] Bernstein also wrote, citing CIA and Senate sources, that agency files contain written agreements with former foreign correspondents and stringers for Time and Newsweek.[^30]
 Bernstein described C. D. Jackson as "Luce's personal emissary to the CIA." He wrote that Jackson "approved specific arrangements for providing CIA employees with Time-Life cover," and that some of these arrangements were made with the knowledge of "Luce's wife, Clare Boothe." He also wrote that Jackson, while a Time executive, coauthored a CIA-sponsored study recommending reorganization of the American intelligence services in the early 1950s. [[Hedley Donovan]], who took over editorial direction of all Time Inc. publications in 1959, denied any knowledge of such arrangements. "I was never approached and I'd be amazed if Luce approved such arrangements," Donovan said. "Luce had a very scrupulous regard for the difference between journalism and government."[^30]
 The [[Church Committee]] took up the subject in Book I of its 1976 final report. Chapter X.B, "Covert Relationships With the United States Media," records that the CIA maintained covert relationships with "about 50 American journalists or employees of U.S. media organizations" until February 1976, as part of a network of several hundred foreign individuals who provided intelligence and at times attempted to influence foreign opinion through covert propaganda.[^31] The report notes that [[George H. W. Bush]], the new director, pledged that "CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^31] In the covert action chapter the committee quotes the February 11, 1976 announcement (it begins "Effective immediately"), records that "More than a dozen United States news organizations and commercial publishing houses formerly provided cover for CIA agents abroad," that "A few of these organizations were unaware that they provided this cover," and states that the use of American journalists and media organizations for clandestine operations "is a threat to the integrity of the press."[^32]
 ### The Zapruder film
 After the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Abraham Zapruder]] took his film to a Dallas processing plant, had three copies made, gave two to representatives of the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]], and sold the original and one copy to Life for a reported $150,000, according to a memorandum by [[Sheryl Walter]] of the [[Assassination Records Review Board]].[^33] A 1998 account by Jim DiEugenio in the journal Probe, which draws on an interview with [[Richard Stolley]], who was then working for Time-Life, states that Stolley got the print rights for $50,000, and that two days later, after viewing the film in New York, the company bought all rights for $150,000.[^34]
 Zapruder told the [[Warren Commission]] that he had received $25,000 and that he had given it to the family of [[J. D. Tippit]]. The review board memorandum records that this sum "apparently was the first of six payments for the film and its copy."[^33] At the commission's request a representative of Life brought the original to the commission's offices and screened it several times, because "the original had considerably more detail and more there to study than any of the copies, since in the photographic process each time you copy you lose some detail."[^33]
 DiEugenio wrote that "Reportedly, C. D. Jackson of Time-Life, who was close to Allen Dulles, was so upset by what the film depicted he decided to restrict what that company would show through its mass market magazines." He wrote that Life never showed the film in anything like its entirety, that the company sued [[Josiah Thompson]], whom it had allowed to see the film, over stills in his book Six Seconds in Dallas, and that in 1969 [[Jim Garrison]] subpoenaed the film from Time-Life for the trial of [[Clay Shaw]] in New Orleans.[^34]
 The Walter memorandum dates Time-Life's notice to the National Archives that it was considering a donation of its rights to 1974. A review board letter of April 21, 1995 to [[Harry M. Johnston III]], general counsel of [[Time Warner]], gives the notice from [[Lawrence Layburne]], then a vice president of Time Inc., as 1975.[^33][^35] Time Inc. donated a first and a second generation copy to the government and sold the copyright in the original to the Zapruders for "$1 and other valuable consideration."[^35] The original was placed with the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] at the Zapruders' request for storage, and no deed of gift for the original was executed.[^33] In 1993 Henry Zapruder asked for possession of the film, and the archive declined to give it to him.[^33]
 A review board letter of May 1, 1995 to [[E. Gabriel Perle]], a former general counsel of Time Inc., reported that from the company's files "it appears that the Zapruders do have legal title to the original film as well as ownership of the copyright," and that Time Inc. had been constrained by terms in the original contract.[^36] The Walter memorandum records a reported $40,000 that the Zapruders had collected from [[Oliver Stone]] for use of the film in [[JFK (film)|JFK]].[^33] On August 3, 1999 the Justice Department announced that an arbitration panel had awarded the heirs of Abraham Zapruder $16 million for the film.[^37]
 ### LSD and the Luce magazines
 The first Time article on LSD, "Dream Stuff," ran in 1954 and reported on the drug as an adjunct to psychotherapy. In May 1957 Life published R. Gordon Wasson's account of a mushroom ceremony in Mexico in its Great Adventure series, a seventeen-page spread with color photographs. [[Martin A. Lee]] and [[Bruce Shlain]] wrote in their 1985 book [[Acid Dreams]] that Wasson was then a vice president of [[J. P. Morgan and Company]].[^38][^39]
 Lee and Shlain wrote that Luce "turned on a half-dozen times in the late 1950s and early 1960s under the supervision of Dr. Sidney Cohen," a Los Angeles psychiatrist attached to UCLA and the Veterans Hospital, and that Cohen also gave the drug to Clare Boothe Luce. Their notes cite W. A. Swanberg's biography Luce and His Empire (p. 463) and Wilfred Sheed's Clare Boothe Luce (p. 125) for the count.[^38] Jack Shafer wrote in Slate that [[Alan Brinkley]]'s biography of Luce limits the discussion to about three pages and says Henry took the drug once or perhaps twice, against Clare's multiple trips.[^39]
 The Library of Congress finding aid for the Clare Boothe Luce papers states that she "experimented with LSD under the tutelage of Gerald Heard and Sidney Cohen," and lists a subject file "LSD (drug)" holding clippings for 1961 to 1963 and 1983. Her correspondents include [[Gerald Heard]] and Cohen.[^6] The authors of Acid Dreams quote her remarks on the [[Dick Cavett]] program of April 9, 1982: "Oh, sure, we all took acid. It was a creative group, my husband and I and Huxley and Isherwood." The book gives her comment on the drug's use by others, "We wouldn't want everyone doing too much of a good thing," from [[Abbie Hoffman]]'s memoir Soon to Be a Major Motion Picture, p. 73.[^38]
 [[Stephen Siff]] wrote that both Luces reviewed the 1963 Life article "The Chemical Mind-Changers" before publication, and that Time covered LSD earlier and more often than other magazines.[^39] According to Shafer's summary of Siff's reconstruction from Clare Boothe Luce's papers, Luce's first trip was taken at Clare's urging with Cohen observing in Phoenix, and a trip of Clare's on March 11, 1959 was interrupted by a telephone call from [[Richard Nixon]], which she declined.[^39] Brinkley's biography, as Shafer summarizes it, reports her later statement that LSD "saved our marriage."[^39] [[Andrew Heiskell]], a former Life publisher, recalled in a Columbia University oral history that Luce announced at a New York banquet that he and Clare "were taking LSD!"[^39]
 ### Clare Boothe Luce, Congress and the Italian embassy
 Clare Boothe Luce served two terms in the House of Representatives, from 1943 to 1947, after joining the Republican Party in 1940.[^6] The Library of Congress chronology of her papers lists her as ambassador to Italy for 1953 to 1956, and the Office of the Historian records her as a non-career appointee from Connecticut, appointed ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to Italy on March 2, 1953, presenting her credentials on May 4, 1953 and leaving the post on December 27, 1956.[^6][^40] The biographical note of Henry Luce's papers states that after her appointment he opened an office in Rome and divided his time between Italy and the United States from 1953 to 1956.[^1] The embassy papers in her collection include records "relating to missions, investigations, and projects undertaken by the embassy" and papers on the Trieste crisis.[^6]
 Eisenhower nominated her ambassador to Brazil in 1959; the Senate confirmed the nomination and she withdrew before taking office after her remarks about Senator [[Wayne Morse]] during the confirmation hearings.[^6][^40] The Jackson papers list a folder on the "attack on C. Luce and mission to Brazil in 1959."[^9] The Library of Congress chronology records her as a member of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]] for 1973 to 1977 and 1980 to 1986, and the series of her papers for the board runs from 1974 to 1987, with classified material in the 1981 to 1987 folders.[^6]
 [[Jennet Conant]] documents that [[Roald Dahl]] was assigned during the war to cultivate Clare Boothe Luce for political intelligence. Dahl later described the assignment as the worst of the war, reportedly saying that she "talked too much both before and after."[^41]
 ### Death and papers
 Luce died in Phoenix, Arizona on February 28, 1967. His papers include files on memorial services at the Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church and at Time Inc. in New York, and on memorial services held at Tung Hai University in Taiwan.[^1][^42]
 The Luce papers at the New-York Historical Society were divided after his death. Records classed as business became part of the Time Inc. archives, and records classed as personal became part of the Henry R. Luce papers. Some of his files were given to the [[Library of Congress]], with copies of the more prominent records kept in his papers.[^1] The Clare Boothe Luce papers at the Library of Congress (MSS30759, 1862 to 1997) include Henry Luce's correspondence with Clare, general and "V.I.P." correspondence, scrapbooks, speeches, "Time-Life memoranda," a will and writings.[^6]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, biographical note and series description. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones* (1983), name index, class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^3]: "Tap Day Results!," special dispatch from New Haven, May 15, 1919, *The Harvard Crimson*, May 16, 1919. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1919/5/16/tap-day-results-pnew-haven-conn/
 [^4]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section on communications.
 [^5]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
 [^6]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *Clare Boothe Luce Papers: A Finding Aid* (MSS30759; prepared by Nan Thompson Ernst, revised 2016), chronology, scope and content note, and container list (President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, 1974-1987; Subject File, "LSD (drug)"). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003044.pdf
 [^7]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 26, Folder 7 (Century Group, destroyers for Great Britain). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^8]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 147, Folder 3, "Council for Democracy, 1940-1942." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^9]: Eisenhower Library, C. D. Jackson Papers, A72-26 (processed July 1973), biographical sketch, scope and content note, special restriction note, chronology, and folder list including "China-America Council," "Do-Misc.," the "Council for Democracy" folders, the "Luce, Henry R." correspondence folders for 1943 to 1956, "Luce, Clare," and "Log-1954." https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/jackson-cd-papers.pdf
 [^10]: Henry R. Luce, "The American Century," *Life*, February 17, 1941, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 61-65. https://archive.org/details/Life-1941-02-17-Vol-10-No-7
 [^11]: Sam Schoenecker, "Justifying Hegemony: Henry Luce, United China Relief, and the Orientalist Framework for Global Intervention," Colorado College thesis. https://digitalcc.coloradocollege.edu/record/8568
 [^12]: Schoenecker, "Justifying Hegemony," on the loan of Time Inc. journalists to United China Relief and on the prominence of Time Inc. employees in its marketing.
 [^13]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 3, Folders 7-8, "China - United China Relief, 1939-1950, 1956." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^14]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 146, Folder 3 (United China Relief / United Service to China). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^15]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 110, Folder 2 (Russell Birdwell, Free China Movement). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^16]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 114, Folder 1, "Chiang Kai-shek, Madame - Tour of the U.S in 1943, 1942-1943." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^17]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 113, Folder 5, "Chiang Kai-shek (Mr. and Mrs.) - Miscellaneous, 1942-1966." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^18]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 146, Folder 6 (China Institute in America). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^19]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 3, Folder 5, "China Institute and China House, 1944-1972." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^20]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 147, Folder 2 (Committee of One Million; Yenching University). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^21]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 17, Folder 4, "Trips - China, 1941," and Box 18, Folders 5-6, "Trips - China, 1945." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^22]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, "Trips - China, 1946," and Box 21, Folder 4, "Trips - Far East - Formosa (Taiwan) and Hong Kong, 1952." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^23]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, "Trips - Far East - Indochina (Vietnam), 1952" and the 1964 Far East trip files. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^24]: National War Fund, *Speakers Handbook* (issued as of August 13, 1945), p. 38, "Officers of National War Fund." https://archive.org/details/SpeakersHandbook001
 [^25]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 13, Folder 1, "Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project, 1956-1963, 1974." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^26]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project, Panel II, "International Security: The Military Aspect," roster in the 1961 volume, as cited on the Laurance Rockefeller page.
 [^27]: Eisenhower Library, "Jackson, C.D.: Records, 1953-54," introduction to the PSB-OCB series. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/jackson-cd-records.pdf
 [^28]: Eisenhower Presidential Library, Richard M. Bissell Jr. Papers, Walt and Eugene Rostow Series, Boxes 1-3 (as cited on the Time page). https://eisenhower.archives.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/bissell-richard-m-jr-papers/walt-and-eugene-rostow-series.pdf
 [^29]: Central Intelligence Agency, Deputies' Meeting minutes, Monday, July 21, 1952, p. 1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/1952-07-21.pdf
 [^30]: Carl Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977. Reprint PDF on archive.org. https://ia600409.us.archive.org/23/items/carl-bernstein-cia-and-the-media/Carl%20Bernstein%20CIA%20and%20the%20Media.pdf
 [^31]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rep. No. 94-755 (1976), Chapter X.B, "Covert Relationships with the United States Media," pp. 191-192. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
 [^32]: Church Committee, *Final Report, Book I* (1976), covert action chapter, "The Covert Use of U.S. Journalists and Media Institutions," pp. 454-455. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
 [^33]: Assassination Records Review Board, Sheryl Walter, memorandum, "Zapruder film update," April 6, 1995, ARRB file ZP45MT. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/ZP45MT.WPD.pdf
 [^34]: Jim DiEugenio, history of the film's ownership, *Probe* vol. 5, no. 6 (September-October 1998), reproduced as "The Zapruder Film Comes to Home Video," kennedysandking.com, October 15, 1998, citing Richard Stolley's interview on *Burden of Proof*, July 18, 1998. https://www.kennedysandking.com/john-f-kennedy-articles/333
 [^35]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to Harry M. Johnston III, general counsel, Time Warner Inc., April 21, 1995, ARRB file TMLF421. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/TMLF421.WPD.pdf
 [^36]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to E. Gabriel Perle, May 1, 1995, ARRB file ZPTHXGP. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/ZPTHXGP.WPD.pdf
 [^37]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, press release on the Zapruder film arbitration, August 3, 1999. https://www.justice.gov/archive/opa/pr/1999/August/339civ.htm
 [^38]: Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlain, *Acid Dreams: The CIA, LSD, and the Sixties Rebellion* (New York: Grove Press, 1985), ch. 3, "Under the Mushroom, Over the Rainbow," and chapter notes (Swanberg, *Luce and His Empire*, p. 463; Sheed, *Clare Boothe Luce*, p. 125; Cavett, April 9, 1982; Hoffman, *Soon to Be a Major Motion Picture*, p. 73). https://archive.org/details/LeeShlainAcidDreamsTheCompleteSocialHistoryOfLSDGrove1985
 [^39]: Jack Shafer, "The Time and Life Acid Trip," *Slate*, June 2010, summarizing Stephen Siff, "Henry Luce's Strange Trip: Coverage of LSD in Time and Life, 1954-68," *Journalism History* (2008), Alan Brinkley, *The Publisher: Henry Luce and His American Century* (2010), and Andrew Heiskell's Columbia University oral history. https://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/press_box/2010/06/the_time_and_life_acid_trip.html
 [^40]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Ann Clare Boothe Luce," Chiefs of Mission record. https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/luce-ann-clare-boothe
 [^41]: Jennet Conant, *The Irregulars: Roald Dahl and the British Spy Ring in Wartime Washington* (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008), as cited on the Time page.
 [^42]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 5, Folder 6, "Death of HRL - Memorial Services." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
--- a/PEOPLE/(H-M)/Howard
+++ b/PEOPLE/(H-M)/Howard
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-05-15
-updated: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-26
 title: Howard Hunt
 aliases:
  - E. Howard Hunt
@ -25,12 +25,19 @@ born: 1918-10-09
 died: 2007-01-23
 location: "Washington, D.C."
 relations:
  - type: reported_to
    with: "[[William F. Buckley Jr.]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1951
    end: 1952
    role: "Buckley worked under Hunt as an OPC agent in Mexico City, by Buckley's own account"
    fn: 7
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Office of Technical Service]]"
    start: 1971-07
    end: 1971-08
    role: "the Technical Services Division supplied alias documents, disguise materials, a tape recorder and a Tessina camera; assistance stopped August 27, 1971"
-    fn: 7
+    fn: 13
 ---
 Everette Howard Hunt Jr. (October 9, 1918 - January 23, 2007) was a [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] officer and prolific spy novelist who participated in two of the most significant CIA covert operations of the Cold War era - the 1954 [[Guatemala]]n coup ([[Operation PBSUCCESS]]) and the 1961 [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion - before his involvement in the [[Watergate]] burglary of June 1972 made him one of the most publicly known CIA officers in American history.[^1]
@ -65,19 +72,27 @@ Hunt retired on April 30, 1970, and went to work for the [[Robert R. Mullen Comp
 In March 1972, at the direction of [[Charles Colson]], he flew to [[Denver]] in a wig and with alias documents supplied by the agency to question the [[ITT Corporation|ITT]] lobbyist [[Dita Beard]] in her hospital room. The House subcommittee that examined the agency's part in Watergate listed the visit among the misuses of its assistance. On July 26, 1973, the Watergate special prosecutor's office asked the agency whether it knew of "any intelligence or undercover activities performed by Howard Hunt and/or [[G. Gordon Liddy|Gordon Liddy]] for ITT," of arrangements between ITT and the Mullen firm, or of any employment of the ITT publicist [[Hal Hendrix]]. The released reply addresses only the Mullen firm and an ITT office in [[Coral Gables, Florida|Coral Gables]].[^6]
 ### Mexico City station, 1950 to 1952
 Hunt wrote that he volunteered to open the [[Office of Policy Coordination]] station in [[Mexico City]] in the late summer of 1950.[^7] Hunt wrote that he met [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] through [[James Burnham]], and that the first name on his list of recruits was Buckley, the Yale graduate whose *God and Man at Yale* was then stirring controversy: "First on my list was Bill Buckley, who readily agreed and set about working out details of his cover."[^8] Hunt assigned Buckley to help [[Eudocio Ravines]] complete *The Yenan Way* and translate it into English. When Scribner's accepted the translation, Buckley "decided to leave Mexico and CIA."[^9] Buckley wrote in *National Review* in 2005 that he was inducted into the CIA in 1951 as a deep cover agent and that the only name he could have given up was that of "my immediate boss (E. Howard Hunt, as it happened)."[^10]
 Hunt wrote that he and his wife had asked Buckley to become guardian of their children and executor of their estate, and that Buckley, "already the children's godfather," agreed.[^11] When Hunt visited [[Madrid]] he stayed in the apartment of Buckley's brother [[Reid Buckley]].[^12]
 ### Watergate
 By 1971, Hunt had been nominally retired from the CIA and was working as a consultant to the White House under Charles Colson, a senior aide to President [[Richard Nixon]]. Nixon's "plumbers" unit - tasked with plugging information leaks and conducting political intelligence operations - recruited Hunt for various activities, including the burglary of [[Daniel Ellsberg]]'s psychiatrist's office in September 1971.
-In July and August 1971, while working for the White House, Hunt went to the CIA's technical services for help with an operation. On July 22, 1971 he met the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, General [[Robert E. Cushman Jr.]], who directed the technical service to help him. On July 23 he received alias documents in the name "Edward Joseph Warren," a wig, glasses and a speech alteration device. He then obtained a tape recorder in a typewriter case and a Tessina camera disguised in a tobacco pouch. The technical officers became concerned at the escalation of his requests, and on August 27, 1971 Cushman told [[John Ehrlichman]] that further assistance could not be given. The camera was returned that day as unsuitable. The Technical Services Division had no further association with Hunt after August 1971.[^7] The staff report appended to Senator [[Howard Baker]]'s views in the Senate Watergate Committee's final report states that a TSD memorandum of August 27, 1971 showed Hunt's request for a New York telephone answering service about to be implemented, that the CIA kept a file on Hunt's activities entitled "Mr. Edward" outside its normal filing system, and that testimony indicated film the TSD developed for Hunt and Liddy was of Lewis Fielding's office.[^8]
+In July and August 1971, while working for the White House, Hunt went to the CIA's technical services for help with an operation. On July 22, 1971 he met the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, General [[Robert E. Cushman Jr.]], who directed the technical service to help him. On July 23 he received alias documents in the name "Edward Joseph Warren," a wig, glasses and a speech alteration device. He then obtained a tape recorder in a typewriter case and a Tessina camera disguised in a tobacco pouch. The technical officers became concerned at the escalation of his requests, and on August 27, 1971 Cushman told [[John Ehrlichman]] that further assistance could not be given. The camera was returned that day as unsuitable. The Technical Services Division had no further association with Hunt after August 1971.[^13] The staff report appended to Senator [[Howard Baker]]'s views in the Senate Watergate Committee's final report states that a TSD memorandum of August 27, 1971 showed Hunt's request for a New York telephone answering service about to be implemented, that the CIA kept a file on Hunt's activities entitled "Mr. Edward" outside its normal filing system, and that testimony indicated film the TSD developed for Hunt and Liddy was of Lewis Fielding's office.[^14]
 On the night of June 17, 1972, Hunt organized and directed the team that broke into the [[Democratic National Committee]] headquarters at the [[Watergate complex]] in Washington - the burglary that produced five arrests, triggered the Senate investigation and Special Prosecutor investigation, and ultimately led to Nixon's resignation in August 1974.
-Hunt was convicted of conspiracy, burglary, and wiretapping and sentenced to 35 years, subsequently reduced. He served approximately 33 months in federal prison. His wife Dorothy died in a plane crash in December 1972, with some researchers suggesting the crash was not accidental; the official ruling was that it was an accident.[^9]
+Hunt was convicted of conspiracy, burglary, and wiretapping and sentenced to 35 years, subsequently reduced. He served approximately 33 months in federal prison. His wife Dorothy died in a plane crash in December 1972, with some researchers suggesting the crash was not accidental; the official ruling was that it was an accident.[^15]
-The [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]] reported to the inspector general on May 22, 1975, for the [[Church Committee]], that in November 1963 Hunt "was assigned to DDP/CA Staff, Office of the Chief, Headquarters; however, apparently Mr. Hunt had collateral duties with DDP/Domestic Operations Division/Facilities Branch," from November 1961 to February 1965, and that "neither Mr. Hunt nor Mr. McCord were in charge of Mexican operations at the time of the Kennedy assassination."[^10]
+After Hunt's conviction, Maryland authorities removed him as executor of his wife's estate, and his successor under the terms of her will was Buckley.[^16] Hunt wrote that he taped a *Firing Line* program with Buckley at KQED in San Francisco on January 18, 1973, with students from Mills College in the audience, and that the Buckley-run committee at *National Review* answered the telegrams and letters that followed his Senate testimony and solicited funds for his legal defense, and that Buckley suggested he retain Buckley's attorney C. Dickerman Williams at no cost.[^17] Hunt also recorded dining with Pat and Bill Buckley and Williams.[^18] In August 1973 an FBI background check on Buckley recorded that [[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]] understood "Buckley is a good friend of E. Howard Hunt, connected with the Watergate break-in, and is the godfather of some of his children."[^19]
-Helms's secretary [[Elizabeth Dunlevy]] testified in 1974 that Hunt "had always been grateful to her for arranging a loan in connection with the terrible financial strain involving his daughter"; the agency's observer noted that Helms had placed the call that produced a loan of about 12,000 dollars.[^11]
+The [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]] reported to the inspector general on May 22, 1975, for the [[Church Committee]], that in November 1963 Hunt "was assigned to DDP/CA Staff, Office of the Chief, Headquarters; however, apparently Mr. Hunt had collateral duties with DDP/Domestic Operations Division/Facilities Branch," from November 1961 to February 1965, and that "neither Mr. Hunt nor Mr. McCord were in charge of Mexican operations at the time of the Kennedy assassination."[^20]
 Helms's secretary [[Elizabeth Dunlevy]] testified in 1974 that Hunt "had always been grateful to her for arranging a loan in connection with the terrible financial strain involving his daughter"; the agency's observer noted that Helms had placed the call that produced a loan of about 12,000 dollars.[^21]
 ### Kennedy Assassination Statements
@ -95,8 +110,18 @@ Hunt died of pneumonia on January 23, 2007, in [[Miami, Florida|Miami]].[^1]
 [^4]: West, Ashley. "Unknowing Ray Horsch, Episode 1: Youth," *The Rialto Report,* Podcast 171, September 13, 2026, audio at 18:34 to 22:49; Central Intelligence Agency, "Wackenhut Corporation, SF# 493 364," memorandum for the record, July 28, 1975, JFK Assassination Records Collection, record 104-10130-10454.
 [^5]: "E. Howard Hunt: Utilization by Central Cover Staff," 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00660613; Gahagen, Robert D., "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, C00297384; "Letter of Recommendation Written by Mr. Helms," July 20, 1973, C00609297.
 [^6]: House Committee on Armed Services, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters,* 93rd Cong., 1973; Ruth, Henry S., Jr., letter to John S. Warner, July 26, 1973, C01482382; "Inquiry Regarding Possible ITT Association with CIA and Robert R. Mullen and Company," August 7, 1973, C01367838.
-[^7]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters*, 93rd Cong., statement of Dr. James R. Schlesinger, May 11, 1973, pp. 1-3 (the Hunt narrative is on pp. 2-3), and testimony of General Robert E. Cushman, Jr. The hearing index also lists Hunt's testimony at p. 471. https://archive.org/details/InquiryIntoTheAllegedInvolvementOfCIAInTheWatergateAndEllsbergMatters
+[^7]: E. Howard Hunt, *Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent* (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1974), p. 69. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
-[^8]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), "Appendix to Views of Senator Baker," pp. 1135-1141, and p. 119. https://archive.org/details/WatergateErvinCommitteeReport
+[^8]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 69-70.
-[^9]: Summers, Anthony. *The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon.* Viking, 2000. Hougan, Jim. *Secret Agenda: Watergate, Deep Throat, and the CIA.* Random House, 1984.
+[^9]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 77.
-[^10]: Kane, Charles W., Director of Security. Memorandum for the Inspector General, "Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Operations, Request," May 22, 1975, JFK record 104-10106-10619.
+[^10]: William F. Buckley Jr., "Who Did What?", *National Review*, November 1, 2005. https://www.nationalreview.com/2005/11/who-did-what-william-f-buckley-jr/
-[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, memorandum for the record, "Select Committee Testimony of 6 February 1974," OLC 74-0197, February 6, 1974. CIA Reading Room, document 01474420.
+[^11]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 77-78 (text and footnote).
 [^12]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 134-135.
 [^13]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters*, 93rd Cong., statement of Dr. James R. Schlesinger, May 11, 1973, pp. 1-3 (the Hunt narrative is on pp. 2-3), and testimony of General Robert E. Cushman, Jr. The hearing index also lists Hunt's testimony at p. 471. https://archive.org/details/InquiryIntoTheAllegedInvolvementOfCIAInTheWatergateAndEllsbergMatters
 [^14]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), "Appendix to Views of Senator Baker," pp. 1135-1141, and p. 119. https://archive.org/details/WatergateErvinCommitteeReport
 [^15]: Summers, Anthony. *The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon.* Viking, 2000. Hougan, Jim. *Secret Agenda: Watergate, Deep Throat, and the CIA.* Random House, 1984.
 [^16]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 293 (footnote).
 [^17]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 322-323.
 [^18]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 327; the *Firing Line* taping at KQED, pp. 291-292.
 [^19]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, teletype from the New Haven office, August 15, 1973. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
 [^20]: Kane, Charles W., Director of Security. Memorandum for the Inspector General, "Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Operations, Request," May 22, 1975, JFK record 104-10106-10619.
 [^21]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, memorandum for the record, "Select Committee Testimony of 6 February 1974," OLC 74-0197, February 6, 1974. CIA Reading Room, document 01474420.
--- a/PEOPLE/(H-M)/Joseph
+++ b/PEOPLE/(H-M)/Joseph
@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ born: 1908-11-14
 died: 1957-05-02
 location: "Grand Chute, Wisconsin"
 created: 2025-08-05
-updated: 2026-10-14
+updated: 2026-10-26
 relations:
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]]"
@ -38,13 +38,13 @@ relations:
    role: "subcommittee chairman until stepping aside; Welch exchange of June 9, 1954"
    start: 1954
    end: 1954
-    fn: 35
+    fn: 37
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[Select Committee to Study Censure Charges]]"
    role: "subject of the committee's inquiry under S. Res. 301; censure recommended on two categories"
    start: 1954
    end: 1954
-    fn: 37
+    fn: 39
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[Tydings Committee]]"
    role: "subject of the subcommittee's inquiry into his Wheeling charges"
@ -84,29 +84,31 @@ Testimony in the closed sessions also reached the [[Federal Bureau of Investigat
 In July 1953 McCarthy wrote to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] about [[William P. Bundy]], then an agency employee. McCarthy's information was that Bundy had contributed $400 to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]] and had been a member of the [[United Public Workers of America]].[^28] On July 27, 1953 McCarthy, as chairman of the subcommittee, wrote to [[Allen Dulles]] that the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency," given the agency's work in detecting people such as Hiss.[^29]
-The CIA reply, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, stated that Bundy had disclosed the $400 contribution on his March 1951 application for employment, and that the reasons he gave for it were not in accord, in certain respects, with those in McCarthy's letter. It recorded that Bundy had joined the union in the summer of 1940 while working at the [[Library of Congress]], attended one meeting and resigned after two months. It said the three allegations had been the subject of a complete field investigation, a personal interview and favorable determinations by the [[CIA Loyalty Board|CIA Loyalty Board]] and the [[Loyalty Review Board]] of the [[Civil Service Commission]]. Bundy had been attached to the agency's Office of Estimates since joining in 1951.[^28]
+The CIA reply, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, stated that Bundy had disclosed the $400 contribution on his March 1951 application for employment, and that the reasons he gave for it were not in accord, in certain respects, with those in McCarthy's letter. It recorded that Bundy had joined the union in the summer of 1940 while working at the [[Library of Congress]], attended one meeting and resigned after two months. It said the three allegations had been the subject of a complete field investigation, a personal interview and favorable determinations by the [[CIA Loyalty Board|CIA Loyalty Board]] and the [[Loyalty Review Board]] of the [[Civil Service Commission]]. Bundy had been attached to the agency's Office of Estimates since joining in 1951. The reply deferred further comment on the reasons Bundy gave until the re-evaluation of his case under Executive Order 10450 was complete, and said that the record did not indicate that he had belonged to any other organization within the scope of McCarthy's third question.[^28]
-[[Allen Drury]] reported on August 4, 1953 that in the exchange of letters Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation for the contribution.[^30] McCarthy's reply of August 3 argued that Bundy's contacts with and contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment, and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^31]
+[[Allen Drury]] reported on August 4, 1953 that in the exchange of letters Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation for the contribution.[^30] Dulles replied on August 1, 1953; the reply, as quoted in the newspaper report of August 4, read: "After most careful consideration of your letter, I feel that the proper course to pursue is to follow the procedure described in the President's executive order," and Dulles declined to comment on certain phases of the matter pending the conclusion of those proceedings.[^30] McCarthy's reply of August 3 argued that Bundy's contacts with and contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment, and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^31] The letter called Dulles's insistence that Congress was not entitled to that information "extremely revealing," wrote that the head of the CIA would be "the last man in the world" to protect and hide the facts about an officer's "contributions to a convicted traitor," and said that the full matter would be submitted to his subcommittee and to the Senate when it returned.[^31]
-The dispute widened to the printing of CIA material. On August 11, 1953 the CIA's [[Office of Legislative Counsel]] recorded that Cohn had telephoned about testimony that CIA classified material had been printed in the main [[Government Printing Office]] plant.[^32] On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." He said the agency's legislative counsel, [[Walter Fforzheimer]], had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, and he asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^33]
+An FBI memorandum of July 10, 1953 recorded that Dulles told the Bureau's liaison agent he would not permit CIA employees to testify before the McCarthy committee, that the White House supported the position, and that he wanted to know where McCarthy obtained his information.[^32] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that McCarthy "wanted to call William Bundy as a witness before the Committee and found the establishment strongly arrayed against this idea."[^33]
 The dispute widened to the printing of CIA material. On August 11, 1953 the CIA's [[Office of Legislative Counsel]] recorded that Cohn had telephoned about testimony that CIA classified material had been printed in the main [[Government Printing Office]] plant.[^34] On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." He said the agency's legislative counsel, [[Walter Fforzheimer]], had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, and he asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^35]
 ### The Marshall speech, 1951
-On June 14, 1951 McCarthy addressed the Senate on the career of General [[George C. Marshall]], then Secretary of Defense and formerly Secretary of State. The printed speech has sections headed "The Gospel of Fear," "They Planned It That Way," "Infamy So Black" and "Review of Marshall's Activities." It states: "How can we account for our present situation unless we believe that men high in this Government are concerting to deliver us to disaster? This must be the product of a great conspiracy, a conspiracy on a scale so immense as to dwarf any previous such venture in the history of man." It names [[Dean Acheson]] as one of those who "must be high on the roster" of the conspiracy.[^34]
+On June 14, 1951 McCarthy addressed the Senate on the career of General [[George C. Marshall]], then Secretary of Defense and formerly Secretary of State. The printed speech has sections headed "The Gospel of Fear," "They Planned It That Way," "Infamy So Black" and "Review of Marshall's Activities." It states: "How can we account for our present situation unless we believe that men high in this Government are concerting to deliver us to disaster? This must be the product of a great conspiracy, a conspiracy on a scale so immense as to dwarf any previous such venture in the history of man." It names [[Dean Acheson]] as one of those who "must be high on the roster" of the conspiracy.[^36]
 ### The Army-McCarthy hearings, 1954
-The Army alleged that McCarthy had sought special treatment for one of his former staff members. The subcommittee's investigation of the Army became the [[Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges|Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges]] involving [[Robert T. Stevens]], [[John G. Adams]], [[H. Struve Hensel]], McCarthy, Cohn and Carr. The [[Army-McCarthy hearings]] ran from March 16 to June 17, 1954 and were broadcast on national television. McCarthy temporarily stepped down as chairman and as a member, [[Karl Mundt]] presided as acting chairman, and [[Henry Dworshak]] was seated in McCarthy's place. The Senate report on the hearings was dated August 31, 1954.[^35]
+The Army alleged that McCarthy had sought special treatment for one of his former staff members. The subcommittee's investigation of the Army became the [[Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges|Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges]] involving [[Robert T. Stevens]], [[John G. Adams]], [[H. Struve Hensel]], McCarthy, Cohn and Carr. The [[Army-McCarthy hearings]] ran from March 16 to June 17, 1954 and were broadcast on national television. McCarthy temporarily stepped down as chairman and as a member, [[Karl Mundt]] presided as acting chairman, and [[Henry Dworshak]] was seated in McCarthy's place. The Senate report on the hearings was dated August 31, 1954.[^37]
-On June 9, 1954 (Part 59 of the hearings) Army special counsel [[Joseph Welch]] told McCarthy, after McCarthy raised the [[National Lawyers Guild]] membership of a young lawyer from Welch's firm: "Let us not assassinate this lad further, Senator. You have done enough. Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? Have you left no sense of decency?" The remark was addressed to McCarthy. Immediately before it Welch had told Cohn "I meant to do you no personal injury, and if I did, I beg your pardon," and McCarthy answered that Welch had been "baiting Mr. Cohn here for hours."[^36]
+On June 9, 1954 (Part 59 of the hearings) Army special counsel [[Joseph Welch]] told McCarthy, after McCarthy raised the [[National Lawyers Guild]] membership of a young lawyer from Welch's firm: "Let us not assassinate this lad further, Senator. You have done enough. Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? Have you left no sense of decency?" The remark was addressed to McCarthy. Immediately before it Welch had told Cohn "I meant to do you no personal injury, and if I did, I beg your pardon," and McCarthy answered that Welch had been "baiting Mr. Cohn here for hours."[^38]
 ### Censure, 1954
-The Senate created the [[Select Committee to Study Censure Charges]] under [[Senate Resolution 301|S. Res. 301]], chaired by [[Arthur V. Watkins]] of [[Utah]], with [[Edwin C. Johnson]] as vice chairman and members including [[John C. Stennis]], [[Frank Carlson]], [[Francis Case]] and [[Sam J. Ervin Jr.]].[^37] The committee's report divided the charges into five categories. It recommended censure on the category of contempt of the Senate or a senatorial committee and on the category concerning the treatment of [[Ralph W. Zwicker]], a brigadier general of the Army. It recommended against censure on the other three categories.[^37]
+The Senate created the [[Select Committee to Study Censure Charges]] under [[Senate Resolution 301|S. Res. 301]], chaired by [[Arthur V. Watkins]] of [[Utah]], with [[Edwin C. Johnson]] as vice chairman and members including [[John C. Stennis]], [[Frank Carlson]], [[Francis Case]] and [[Sam J. Ervin Jr.]].[^39] The committee's report divided the charges into five categories. It recommended censure on the category of contempt of the Senate or a senatorial committee and on the category concerning the treatment of [[Ralph W. Zwicker]], a brigadier general of the Army. It recommended against censure on the other three categories.[^39]
-The contempt category arose from McCarthy's dealings with the subcommittee on privileges and elections of the [[Senate Committee on Rules and Administration]], which had acted on a resolution introduced in 1951 by [[William Benton]] and on the 1950 Maryland senatorial election. The Senate had voted 60 to 0 in [[Senate Resolution 300]] to affirm that subcommittee's jurisdiction and the integrity of its members.[^38] On the category concerning classified information, the committee found that McCarthy had offered, in the course of his defense before the subcommittee, to make public a document bearing the markings of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Personal and Confidential via Liaison," concerning possible espionage at a defense installation. It found that the 2¼-page document had been taken in part from a 15-page interdepartmental memorandum from the FBI to the Army dated January 15, 1951, marked confidential, and that McCarthy knew in May 1953, when he acquired it, that it had been extracted in part from a document containing security information.[^39] The committee wrote that McCarthy "committed grave error" in offering to make public a classified document, but that "[t]hese mitigating circumstances are such that we do not recommend censure on the specifications included in category III."[^40]
+The contempt category arose from McCarthy's dealings with the subcommittee on privileges and elections of the [[Senate Committee on Rules and Administration]], which had acted on a resolution introduced in 1951 by [[William Benton]] and on the 1950 Maryland senatorial election. The Senate had voted 60 to 0 in [[Senate Resolution 300]] to affirm that subcommittee's jurisdiction and the integrity of its members.[^40] On the category concerning classified information, the committee found that McCarthy had offered, in the course of his defense before the subcommittee, to make public a document bearing the markings of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Personal and Confidential via Liaison," concerning possible espionage at a defense installation. It found that the 2¼-page document had been taken in part from a 15-page interdepartmental memorandum from the FBI to the Army dated January 15, 1951, marked confidential, and that McCarthy knew in May 1953, when he acquired it, that it had been extracted in part from a document containing security information.[^41] The committee wrote that McCarthy "committed grave error" in offering to make public a classified document, but that "[t]hese mitigating circumstances are such that we do not recommend censure on the specifications included in category III."[^42]
-On the Zwicker category the committee concluded that "the conduct of Senator McCarthy toward General Zwicker was reprehensible, and that for this conduct he should be censured by the Senate."[^41] The Senate condemned McCarthy by a vote of 67 to 22 on December 2, 1954, for abuse and noncooperation with the subcommittee on privileges and elections.[^42]
+On the Zwicker category the committee concluded that "the conduct of Senator McCarthy toward General Zwicker was reprehensible, and that for this conduct he should be censured by the Senate."[^43] The Senate condemned McCarthy by a vote of 67 to 22 on December 2, 1954, for abuse and noncooperation with the subcommittee on privileges and elections.[^44]
 ### Footnotes
@ -141,14 +143,16 @@ On the Zwicker category the committee concluded that "the conduct of Senator McC
 [^29]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7
 [^30]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4
 [^31]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9
-[^32]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry for Tuesday, August 11, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00682R000200090091-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00682r000200090091-4
+[^32]: Federal Bureau of Investigation memorandum, "Information Concerning Allen W. Dulles," July 10, 1953, FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31, https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison
-[^33]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2
+[^33]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "William P. Bundy," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^34]: Congressional Record, vol. 97, pt. 5, June 14, 1951, Senate proceedings, remarks of Senator McCarthy on General Marshall, passage "Infamy So Black" at p. 6602. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-28-june-27-1951_97
+[^34]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry for Tuesday, August 11, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00682R000200090091-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00682r000200090091-4
-[^35]: U.S. Senate, "McCarthy and Army-McCarthy Hearings," describing the Army allegation, the Special Senate Investigation, the hearing dates of March 16 to June 17, 1954, the broadcast, Mundt as acting chairman, Dworshak's seating and the August 31, 1954 report. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/investigations/mccarthy-and-army-mccarthy-hearings.htm
+[^35]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2
-[^36]: Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges Involving Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens, John G. Adams, H. Struve Hensel and Senator Joe McCarthy, Roy M. Cohn, and Francis P. Carr, Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on Investigations, 83d Cong., 2d sess., Part 59 (June 9, 1954), pp. 2428 to 2429. https://archive.org/details/specialsenateinv59unit
+[^36]: Congressional Record, vol. 97, pt. 5, June 14, 1951, Senate proceedings, remarks of Senator McCarthy on General Marshall, passage "Infamy So Black" at p. 6602. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-28-june-27-1951_97
-[^37]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, Report on Resolution to Censure, S. Rept. 83-2508, 83d Cong., 2d sess. (1954), roster and recommendations pursuant to S. Res. 301. Copy in CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00965R000500040014-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
+[^37]: U.S. Senate, "McCarthy and Army-McCarthy Hearings," describing the Army allegation, the Special Senate Investigation, the hearing dates of March 16 to June 17, 1954, the broadcast, Mundt as acting chairman, Dworshak's seating and the August 31, 1954 report. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/investigations/mccarthy-and-army-mccarthy-hearings.htm
-[^38]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category I, Part A and Part B (findings on Senate Resolution 187, introduced by Senator Benton on August 6, 1951, and Senate Resolution 300, adopted 60 to 0). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
+[^38]: Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges Involving Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens, John G. Adams, H. Struve Hensel and Senator Joe McCarthy, Roy M. Cohn, and Francis P. Carr, Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on Investigations, 83d Cong., 2d sess., Part 59 (June 9, 1954), pp. 2428 to 2429. https://archive.org/details/specialsenateinv59unit
-[^39]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, Report on Resolution to Censure, Category III, Parts B and C (document with FBI markings; 15-page FBI memorandum of January 15, 1951), pp. 42 to 44. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
+[^39]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, Report on Resolution to Censure, S. Rept. 83-2508, 83d Cong., 2d sess. (1954), roster and recommendations pursuant to S. Res. 301. Copy in CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00965R000500040014-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
-[^40]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category III and its conclusions, pp. 44 to 45 ("grave error" on p. 44, "[t]hese mitigating circumstances" on p. 45). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
+[^40]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category I, Part A and Part B (findings on Senate Resolution 187, introduced by Senator Benton on August 6, 1951, and Senate Resolution 300, adopted 60 to 0). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
-[^41]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category V, Conclusions, p. 61, concerning Brigadier General Ralph W. Zwicker. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
+[^41]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, Report on Resolution to Censure, Category III, Parts B and C (document with FBI markings; 15-page FBI memorandum of January 15, 1951), pp. 42 to 44. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
-[^42]: U.S. Senate, "Senate Censure Table," entry for Joseph R. McCarthy (R-WI), December 2, 1954, condemned 67 to 22, with the stated charge of abuse and noncooperation with the Subcommittee on Privileges and Elections. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/censure.htm
+[^42]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category III and its conclusions, pp. 44 to 45 ("grave error" on p. 44, "[t]hese mitigating circumstances" on p. 45). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
 [^43]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category V, Conclusions, p. 61, concerning Brigadier General Ralph W. Zwicker. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
 [^44]: U.S. Senate, "Senate Censure Table," entry for Joseph R. McCarthy (R-WI), December 2, 1954, condemned 67 to 22, with the stated charge of abuse and noncooperation with the Subcommittee on Privileges and Elections. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/censure.htm
--- a/PEOPLE/(H-M)/Neil
+++ b/PEOPLE/(H-M)/Neil
@ -0,0 +1,175 @@
 ---
 aliases:
  - Neil Mallon
  - H. Neil Mallon
  - Henry Neil Mallon
  - Henry N. Mallon
  - H. N. Mallon
 category: "Business & Finance"
 tags:
  - Person
  - DresserIndustries
  - SkullAndBones
  - DallasCouncilOnWorldAffairs
  - ForeignPolicyAssociation
  - GeorgeHWBush
  - PrescottBush
  - AllenDulles
  - CentralIntelligenceAgency
  - Cincinnati
  - YaleUniversity
  - Dallas
 summary: "Yale 1917 Skull and Bones member who ran Dresser Industries from 1928 to 1962, founded the Dallas Council on World Affairs in 1951, and hired George H.W. Bush in 1948."
 born: 1895-01-11
 died: 1983
 location: "Dallas, Texas"
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 relations:
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    role: "member, Yale class of 1917"
    fn: 1
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Dresser Industries]]"
    role: "president and chief executive officer, later chairman of the board"
    start: 1928
    end: 1962
    fn: 2
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Continental Can Company]]"
    role: "general manager, Chicago operations"
    fn: 11
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Dallas Council on World Affairs]]"
    start: 1951
    fn: 3
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Foreign Policy Association]]"
    role: "director at large, class of 1950"
    start: 1949
    fn: 21
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[General Minerals Corporation]]"
    role: "director of the Dallas uranium exploration company"
    start: 1955
    fn: 23
 ---
 Henry Neil Mallon (born January 11, 1895, in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]) was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the [[Yale University]] class of 1917 who served as president and chief executive of [[Dresser Industries]] from 1928 until his retirement in 1962.[^1][^2] He founded the [[Dallas Council on World Affairs]] in 1951,[^3] corresponded with [[Allen Dulles]] in the 1950s,[^4] and hired [[George H.W. Bush]] for a Dresser subsidiary after Bush left Yale in 1948.[^5]
 ### Yale and the Class of 1917
 Mallon was the son of [[Guy Ward Mallon]], a Yale graduate of 1885 who was senior partner in the Cincinnati law firm of [[Mallon & Vordenberg]]. His mother was Hannah Neil of [[Columbus, Ohio]], before her marriage.[^1] He prepared at the [[Hughes High School]] in Cincinnati and at the [[Taft School]] in [[Watertown, Connecticut]]. At Yale he played on the class baseball team and the varsity basketball team, was chosen an all-collegiate guard by the [[Intercollegiate Basketball League]], and served as a vice president of the [[Yale University Young Men's Christian Association]].[^1] Throughout his college course he roomed with [[Clive C. Day]]. The class history lists his Yale relatives as an uncle, [[Neil Bernard Mallon]] of the class of 1896, and a brother, [[John Howard Mallon]] of 1919.[^1] Isaac Collier Gifford, a member of the same class, lists "Neil Mallon, '17" among his Yale relatives in the same history.[^6]
 The class history states of him: "He is a member of [[Psi Upsilon]] and Skull and Bones." It also says that Mallon "expects to enter business with the [[Superior Portland Cement Company]]," and gives his permanent address as Cincinnati.[^1] The same history names [[E. Roland Harriman]] as a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones and lists his brother [[W. Averell Harriman]], of the class of 1913, among his Yale relatives. It gives the same membership to [[Knight Woolley]].[^7] It gives [[Prescott Bush]] the words "He belongs to the [[Whiffenpoofs]], Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^8] The index of members by class year in [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 study of the society lists "Mallon, Henry Neil" under the class of 1917.[^9] The corporate history of Dresser published in 1979 records that Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon had been fellow members of the society.[^10]
 ### Army Service and the Fort Sill Account
 The company history of Dresser Industries says that Mallon "had seen the war's end as a major" before he took a job in [[Chicago|Chicago, Illinois]] with the [[Continental Can Company]], where he rose to general manager.[^11] A 1989 biography of Bush states that Mallon, at 23, had been the army's youngest major.[^12] [[Kris Millegan]] wrote that Bush and Mallon were both commissioned in the Field Artillery after graduation, and he gives Mallon's assignment as "Captain Henry Mallon 323d Regiment Field Artillery."[^13]
 The [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] reported in 2006 that a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] names [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery James]], Henry Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917, among the men who were at [[Fort Sill]] in early 1918 and who unearthed a skull there.[^14] The same article reports a letter of June 7, 1918, from [[Winter Mead]] to [[F. Trubee Davison]], which [[Marc Wortman]] found in the Davison papers at [[Sterling Memorial Library]]. The printed text reads "exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner," and the magazine ties [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] to the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918.[^15]
 ### Continental Can and the 1928 Purchase of Dresser
 A 1928 directory of directors lists Mallon at a Cincinnati address.[^16] In 1928 the Dresser family sold the business to [[W. A. Harriman & Company]], an investment-banking firm that intended to make the company a public company with separate ownership and management. The number of shares rose from 5,000 to 300,000. Of these, 100,000 were designated Class A and offered at $48 each, and the remainder were Class B, held back until 1931. The aging [[Fred Miller]], who had run the business, stayed on as chairman of the board in a consultative capacity, and Mallon became president at the age of thirty-three.[^11] The Handbook of Texas entry on the company by [[Darwin Payne]] gives the same sequence. It states that Mallon "was selected as president and chief executive officer" and held that position until his retirement in 1962. It also says that Prescott Bush "had been a W. A. Harriman and Company executive who had been involved in the conversion of Dresser to a public company, and he served on the board of directors for twenty-two years."[^2]
 Payne's 1979 history of the company lists the presidents of Dresser Industries with Fred A. Miller as president from 1911 to 1929 and Mallon from 1929 to 1962, and it describes the principals of the Harriman firm, among them E. Roland Harriman, as sons of the railroad magnate [[E. H. Harriman]].[^17] The same history says that Mallon had never been to [[Bradford, Pennsylvania]], the site of the Dresser Manufacturing plant, before the purchase.[^17] [[Garry Wills]] quoted Prescott Bush's recollection that dates the purchase to 1929: "In 1929 we bought Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars, and we sold securities against that company and refinanced it, you see, so that we retained a substantial measure of control."[^18] The company histories give 1928 and Bush's recollection gives 1929.
 Dresser's own annual report for the fiscal year 1993 gives a different corporate lineage. The company "was incorporated under the laws of Delaware in 1956 as a successor to a Pennsylvania corporation organized in 1938 by the consolidation of S. R. Dresser Manufacturing Company and Clark Bros. Company," and both predecessors were "carrying on businesses founded in 1880."[^19]
 ### Dresser Under Mallon, 1928 to 1962
 The company history reports a gross profit of $1.29 million for 1929, despite the October 1929 stock market crash. It describes the threat to Dresser's couplings business from welding, which led to a program of acquisitions.[^2][^11] A [[Toronto]] plant opened in 1931 as a subsidiary, the Dresser Manufacturing Company, Ltd., after Canada limited imports. Profit for 1932 was $11,621. In 1933 Dresser bought the common stock of the Bryant Heater Company for $65,000, and in 1937 it acquired the Clark Brothers Company of [[Olean, New York]], a maker of gas engines and compressors, which merged with Dresser in 1938.[^11] The merger is the 1938 consolidation recorded in the later annual report.[^19] Between 1930 and the entry of the United States into the war, Dresser also acquired makers of valves, heaters and pumps.[^2]
 During the Second World War the company supplied pipeline components to military posts, engines for freighters, and aircraft parts including landing gear, wing flaps and bomb doors. One of its most urgent assignments was at the secret [[Manhattan Project]]. Sales for 1944 were just under $55 million.[^11] The company's [[Pacific Pumps]] subsidiary of Huntington Park, California, supplied more than six hundred pumps to [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee]].[^17] The company's name changed to Dresser Industries in October 1944, and operations moved to [[Cleveland, Ohio]] five months later; the new Cleveland offices opened on March 19, 1945.[^11][^17]
 [[International Derrick and Equipment Company]] (IDECO), a maker of derricks and drilling rigs, was acquired by Dresser in 1944.[^17] In November 1945 the company acquired [[Security Engineering]] of [[Whittier, California]], a maker of drilling bits.[^11][^17] In November 1949 it bought the [[Magnet Cove Barium Corporation]] of [[Houston|Houston, Texas]], for $2.8 million. The company history says that Magnet Cove was later known as Magcobar.[^11] The same history credits the executive vice president [[John O'Connor]] with persuading the [[Soviet Union]] to build a $6 million natural gas liquefaction plant outside [[Moscow]]. The plant was slated for completion in 1949, fell victim to a [[United States Department of Commerce]] trade ban early in 1948, and was unfinished until 1954.[^11]
 The headquarters moved to [[Dallas, Texas]] in 1950, which the company history describes as moving the company to "the epicenter of the U.S. oil business."[^2][^11] A July 1955 issue of the magazine of the [[Dallas Chamber of Commerce]] counted nine affiliated Dresser companies: Ideco and the Security Engineering Division in Dallas, and Clark, Dresser-Ideco, Dresser Manufacturing, Lane-Wells, Magcobar, Pacific and Roots-Connersville elsewhere. The same issue reports that Security Engineering was moving its executive offices from Whittier to Dallas, and that Clark Brothers had built a 5,500 kilowatt gas turbine power plant, mounted on a railroad car, under a Navy contract.[^20] Mallon announced his retirement in early 1962, after his sixty-seventh birthday, effective March 19;[^2][^17] [[John Lawrence]] succeeded as head of the company and served until 1970.[^17]
 ### Foreign Policy Association, Uranium and Dallas Civic Posts
 A proxy for the annual meeting of the [[Foreign Policy Association]] on December 10, 1949, printed in its Foreign Policy Bulletin, lists "H. Neil Mallon" as a director at large in the class of 1950 and describes him as president of Dresser Industries, Cleveland, Ohio.[^21] [[Dan Smoot]] later wrote that Mallon was "a former official of the Foreign Policy Association."[^22]
 The July 1955 issue of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce magazine reports the formation of the General Minerals Corporation, headed by S. Y. Guthrie, to engage in exploration, development and processing of uranium, which absorbed the Dallas firm Research, Inc., a company that had done development work for the [[Atomic Energy Commission]]. The directors named are Guthrie, H. Neil Mallon, [[Everett DeGolyer]], Thomas A. Knight, Malcolm E. Wilson Sr., [[A. H. Meadows]], and Gordon Simpson, all of Dallas, with Kenneth M. Willson of Carmel, California, and P. H. Freeney of Pierre, South Dakota.[^23] The same issue pictures Mallon with [[Joe C. Thompson]] and [[Angus G. Wynne Jr.]] on the Chamber's Aviation Committee, whose chairman before 1954 was [[Stanley Marcus]]; the committee's 1952 studies led to a January 1953 bond issue of $10.5 million for [[Dallas Love Field]].[^24]
 Smoot's book *The Invisible Government* quotes a November 11, 1958 report in the Dallas Morning News that a steering group "composed of Dallas and Southwestern business, industrial and educational leaders" had laid the groundwork, in a weekend meeting at [[Southern Methodist University]], for a Dallas Committee for Economic Development and a research center at the university, and that the group included [[George C. McGhee]] and Neil Mallon. Smoot added that Dresser Industries was among the corporations listed as contributors to the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] in its 1960-61 fiscal year, in a list that also includes [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] and the Continental Can Company.[^22][^25]
 ### The Dallas Council on World Affairs
 The World Affairs Council of Dallas/Fort Worth says on its history page that the council was founded in 1951, when Dresser Industries' chairman and president Henry Neil Mallon "saw the need for a local institution to encourage citizen understanding, engagement, and involvement in international affairs." He gathered a select group from the corporate and civic communities to form the Dallas Council on World Affairs. The page lists seventeen founders, among them [[J. Woodall Rodgers]], [[Brooks Keller]], [[John A. Steel]], [[Charles P. Storey]], [[Tom E. Braniff]], [[J. C. Karcher]] and Stanley Marcus. The council's top award is named the H. Neil Mallon Award.[^3] A 2011 resolution of the Texas House of Representatives recites that the council, "Founded in 1951," presents its annual H. Neil Mallon Award.[^26]
 A [[Dallas News]] editorial of October 27, 1953, held in the CIA reading room as a clipping, refers to the council's meeting the previous week, which had drawn interest in what the head of the Central Intelligence Agency might say. The editorial credits "H. N. Mallon, Mr. Costin, and others" with the council's start: "Under the aegis of H. N. Mallon, Mr. Costin, and others, the Dallas Council on World Affairs has proved itself in the short span of only two years to be an extremely valuable adjunct to the educational life of the community."[^27] [[Glen Costin]] is named in the same editorial as the council's executive director.
 On February 27, 1954, Dulles wrote to Vice President [[Richard Nixon|Richard M. Nixon]] about the council. A Texas correspondent had sent Dulles a copy of his own February 24, 1954 letter to Nixon on the council, and Dulles described the council as "an excellent forum of persons who take a deep interest in our foreign relations." Dulles wrote of "Neil Mallon, whom I have known for several years," and of his "real accomplishment in organizing the Council and keeping it a live and vigorous organization." The distribution block of the letter shows a copy sent to Mallon.[^4]
 On February 5, 1958, the council's executive director, Roger Kennedy, wrote to Dulles at the Central Intelligence Agency, thanking him for seeing Kennedy in Washington and for "such well-upholstered transportation to my next appointment," and saying the council would be grateful to hear him in Dallas in April or May "on the record and for an audience of substantial size." Dulles's reply to Kennedy, dated February 13, 1958 (drafted February 7), declined the invitation at that time.[^28] The council's letterhead, printed on the Kennedy letter, lists "H. N. Mallon" among its members, marked as a member of the executive committee. It also lists [[Earle Cabell]], Judge [[Sarah T. Hughes]], [[Karl Hoblitzelle]], George C. McGhee, [[Trammell Crow]], Stanley Marcus and A. H. Meadows. The officers printed on it are [[W. W. Overton Jr.]], chairman of the board, and Charles E. Beard, president.[^28]
 The Handbook of Texas entry on Earle Cabell, mayor of Dallas from 1961 and later a congressman, names the Dallas Council on World Affairs among the civic organizations he had served as president or director, and names his brothers as Ben and [[Charles P. Cabell|Charles]]. The entry on Charles Pearre Cabell, born in Dallas in 1903, states that he was deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1953 until his retirement as a four-star general.[^29][^30] Earle Cabell greeted President [[John F. Kennedy]] at Love Field on November 22, 1963 and rode in the motorcade.[^29]
 ### Central Intelligence Agency Contacts
 [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends" appeared in the CovertAction Information Bulletin, number 41 (Summer 1992). Kimery wrote that Mallon "was a friend to numerous ranking Cold War era intelligence officials, including Allen Dulles," and that "Mallon steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^31] Kimery wrote that Dresser "had routinely served as a CIA cover," and gave as his basis for that statement interviews in 1990 and 1991 with two former Operations Directorate field officers, one of whom claimed to have worked for Dresser as his cover. His note for the sentence on Mallon's recruiting cites a March 25, 1953 letter from Prescott Bush to the president's national security adviser.[^31] For the wider point about Yale's ties to the agency, Kimery cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of the Yale recruiting connection and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^32]
 Kimery also wrote that Mallon introduced the Russian-born petroleum geologist [[George de Mohrenschildt]] to Bush at about the time Mallon gave Bush responsibility for dealings with East-bloc oil officials, and that a Yugoslav oil official who came to the United States in 1948 to talk to Dresser went directly to Bush in Midland.[^31]
 Millegan wrote that on April 10, 1953, Mallon sent a letter to Dulles about a proposed meeting at the [[Carlton Hotel]], at which Mallon, Prescott Bush and Dulles discussed the use of drilling rigs in the [[Caribbean]]. Millegan wrote that Dresser Industries had "often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^33]
 The [[Washington Post]] profile by [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Walter Pincus]], dated August 7, 1988 in the CIA reading room copy, names Mallon, head of Dresser Industries, as the man who gave Bush his first job out of Yale, and as a member of the society in the Bush family tradition.[^34]
 ### George H.W. Bush at Dresser, 1948 to 1951
 In the volume of his letters published as All the Best, George Bush describes Mallon in a biographical note as a "Yale classmate of my Dad's" and "an intimate family friend," and writes: "I accepted the job from Neil Mallon and drove our 1947 Studebaker (a graduation gift from my parents) to Odessa, Texas."[^35] In Looking Forward (1987, written with Victor Gold), Bush described Mallon as "a friend and a mentor second only to my father." Bush wrote that he became "a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits," that Dresser headquarters later sent word transferring him to Midland, and that when he traveled to Dresser headquarters in Dallas to give Mallon news of his decision to leave, "at age twenty-six, I didn't just respect Neil, I was awed by him."[^36]
 A 1989 biography states that in 1948 Mallon offered to take on Bush as the company's only trainee that year and arranged a trainee's spot in Ideco.[^12] A 2007 biography quotes Mallon as having told Bush: "What you need to do is head out to Texas."[^37] A CIA biographical sheet on Bush lists him as an "Oil field supply salesman, Dresser Industries, [[Midland, Texas]], 1948-51," and records that he formed [[Bush-Overbey Oil Development]], Inc., in 1951.[^5] In a 1988 profile preserved in the same CIA file, [[Randall Rothenberg]] reported that "A family friend, Neil Mallon, a man who 'could charm the fangs off a snake,' according to [[Bucky Bush]], offered George a bottom-of-the-ladder job in Midland, Tex., at Dresser Industries, his large oil company."[^38]
 Bush's letters in All the Best include one to "Mr. H.N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas, Texas," dated April 12, 1951, which begins "Dear Neil, This will let you know that we are in business," and a letter in which Bush wrote that he had decided to remain with Dresser Industries and had "a great feeling of loyalty to Dresser and to Mr. Mallon." Bush also recalled that leaving was difficult "especially because of my great respect for Neil Mallon," and that Mallon was "supportive and even encouraged" him to start out on his own.[^35]
 Bush wrote of the birth of the couple's third son in All the Best that the baby's name was changed "from Henry to Neil" and that "We wanted to name him for Neil Mallon, whose name was really Henry."[^35] The son, [[Neil Bush]], was born in Midland on January 22, 1955.[^39]
 Wills wrote that Prescott Bush, while serving on the Dresser board, "made his old Yale friend, Neil Mallon, the chief executive," and quoted Prescott Bush: "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years."[^18] Wills also wrote that when George H.W. Bush went from Yale to Texas in 1948, he was hired by Mallon to work for a Dresser subsidiary.[^18] [[Bill Minutaglio]] wrote that Prescott Bush called Mallon "a very able fellow" and hand-selected him to head Dresser, and that Mallon "really was almost a member of the Bush-Walker family."[^40] [[Richard Ben Cramer]] wrote that Mallon had been "unofficial godfather" to the Bush children.[^41]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entry for Henry Neil Mallon, pp. 231 to 232: birth on January 11, 1895 in Cincinnati, parentage, Hughes High School and Taft School, athletics, Dwight Hall work, "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones," roommates, Yale relatives, "Mallon expects to enter business with the Superior Portland Cement Company," and the Cincinnati permanent address. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
 [^2]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*, Texas State Historical Association. Sections on the 1928 conversion by W. A. Harriman and Company, Mallon's selection as president and chief executive officer and his retirement in 1962, the directorship of Prescott Bush, the welding threat and acquisition program, the acquisitions between 1930 and the entry of the United States into the war, and the 1950 move of headquarters to Dallas. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries
 [^3]: World Affairs Council of Dallas/Fort Worth, history page, stating that the council was founded in 1951 when Dresser Industries' chairman and president Henry Neil Mallon saw the need for a local institution, listing the seventeen founders, and naming the H. Neil Mallon Award. https://support.dfwworld.org/oldsite/who-we-are/our-history
 [^4]: Allen W. Dulles, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to the Honorable Richard M. Nixon, Vice-President of the United States, February 27, 1954, with distribution "cc - Neil Mallon." CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R000900110025-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000900110025-8
 [^5]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Biographical Information on George H. W. Bush," undated sheet, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401590001-9, listing "Oil field supply salesman, Dresser Industries, Midland, Texas, 1948-51" and Bush-Overbey Oil Development, Inc., formed 1951, Midland, Texas. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401590001-9
 [^6]: Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen*, vol. 1 (1917), entry for Isaac Collier Gifford, listing Albert Hoysradt '77, Guy Mallon '85 and Neil Mallon '17 as Yale relatives. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
 [^7]: Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen*, vol. 1 (1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman (member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones; relatives include William Averell Harriman, '13, a brother) and Knight Woolley ("He belongs to Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones"). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
 [^8]: Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen*, vol. 1 (1917), entry for Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106, "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones." https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
 [^9]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1917, entry "Mallon, Henry Neil." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^10]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), chapter "New Command in a Troubled Era," on the Harriman firm's purchase and the Skull and Bones membership shared by Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon. https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
 [^11]: Dresser Industries, Inc., entry in the *International Directory of Company Histories* (St. James Press), reproduced on Encyclopedia.com. Sections on the 1928 sale to W. A. Harriman and Company, the share structure and the Class B shares held until 1931, Fred Miller's consultative chairmanship, Mallon's Continental Can Company career as general manager in Chicago, his age of thirty-three in 1928, his service as a major at the war's end, the 1929 gross profit of $1.29 million, the Toronto subsidiary of 1931, the 1932 profit of $11,621, the 1933 Bryant Heater purchase for $65,000, the 1937 acquisition and 1938 merger of Clark Brothers, wartime production including the Manhattan Project assignment and 1944 sales, the October 1944 name change, the move to Cleveland, the acquisition of Security Engineering in 1945, the Soviet gas liquefaction plant arranged by John O'Connor, the acquisition of Magnet Cove Barium Corporation of Houston in November 1949 for $2.8 million (later Magcobar), and the 1950 move of headquarters to Dallas. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
 [^12]: Fitzhugh Green, *George Bush: An Intimate Portrait* (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1989), passages on Mallon as "the army's youngest major" at 23, on his 1948 offer to take Bush on as the company's only trainee that year, and on the trainee's spot arranged in Ideco (International Derrick and Equipment Company). https://archive.org/details/georgebushintima00gree
 [^13]: Kris Millegan, ed., *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), section "Skull & Bones: What Did You Do in the Secret War, Daddy?" and the passage on the commissions of Prescott Bush and Henry Mallon in the Field Artillery, with the line "Captain Henry Mallon 323d Regiment Field Artillery." The text of the book reprints material that first appeared online in July 1996. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^14]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?", *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006, reporting the centennial history by F. O. Matthiessen '23 and its statement that Ellery James '17, Henry Neil Mallon '17 and Prescott Bush '17 were at Fort Sill in early 1918 and among the six Bonesmen who unearthed the skull. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
 [^15]: Lassila and Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?", *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006, on the letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to F. Trubee Davison '18, found by Marc Wortman in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, and on the yearbook entry for Charles C. Haffner Jr. The printed text of the letter reads "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner." https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
 [^16]: *Poor's Register of Directors* (1928), Ohio, Cincinnati listings, entry "Mallon, Henry Neil," with a Norwood Station address in Cincinnati. https://archive.org/details/poorsregisterofd00poor
 [^17]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979): the list of presidents (Miller 1911 to 1929; Mallon 1929 to 1962; Lawrence 1962 to 1970); the Harriman principals; Mallon never having been to Bradford; the opening of the Cleveland offices on March 19, 1945; the caption stating Ideco "was acquired by Dresser in 1944"; Security Engineering Company of Whittier, California, joining Dresser on November 1, 1945; Pacific Pumps' pumps for Oak Ridge; and Mallon's retirement announcement effective March 19 in early 1962 after his sixty-seventh birthday. https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
 [^18]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992: Prescott Bush's recollection of buying Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania in 1929 for four million dollars; Prescott Bush serving on the Dresser board and making Neil Mallon chief executive; Prescott Bush's statement "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years"; and George H.W. Bush's hiring by Mallon in 1948. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
 [^19]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1993, filed January 28, 1994, Item 1, Business. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/0000950131-94-000055.txt
 [^20]: *Dallas* (magazine of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce), vol. 34, no. 7 (July 1955): the passage on the nine affiliated Dresser Industries companies; "Security Engineering Moves to Dallas"; and "New Mobile Power Plant." https://archive.org/details/sim_dallas_1955-07_34_7
 [^21]: Foreign Policy Association, proxy for the annual meeting of December 10, 1949, in *Foreign Policy Bulletin*, vol. 29, no. 7 (November 25, 1949): nominees for director, class of 1950, "H. Neil Mallon," director at large, and the brief "Who's Who" entry "H. NEIL MALLON, President, Dresser Industries, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio." https://archive.org/details/sim_foreign-policy-bulletin_1949-11-25_29_7
 [^22]: Dan Smoot, *The Invisible Government* (Americanist Library edition), p. 58: Smoot's text on Neil Mallon as "then Chairman of the Board of Dresser Industries and a former official of the Foreign Policy Association," founder of the Dallas Council on World Affairs in 1951. https://archive.org/details/b-001-014-093_202207
 [^23]: *Dallas* (magazine of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce), vol. 34, no. 7 (July 1955): report on the General Minerals Corporation, headed by S. Y. Guthrie, absorbing Research, Inc., and listing its directors including H. Neil Mallon, Everett DeGolyer and Al H. Meadows. https://archive.org/details/sim_dallas_1955-07_34_7
 [^24]: *Dallas* (magazine of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce), vol. 34, no. 7 (July 1955): the Chamber's Aviation Committee, photograph captioned with H. Neil Mallon, Joe C. Thompson and Angus Wynne Jr., the chairmanship of Stanley Marcus succeeded in 1954 by Wynne, the 1952 studies, and the January 1953 bond issue of $10,500,000 for Love Field. https://archive.org/details/sim_dallas_1955-07_34_7
 [^25]: Smoot, *The Invisible Government*, chapter 1, list of firms contributing to the Council on Foreign Relations in fiscal year 1960-61 ("Corporation Service"), including Brown Brothers, Harriman and Co., Continental Can Company and Dresser Industries, Inc.; and the Dallas Morning News report of November 11, 1958, as quoted at p. 58, on the steering group at Southern Methodist University that included George McGhee and Neil Mallon. https://archive.org/details/b-001-014-093_202207
 [^26]: Texas House of Representatives, House Resolution No. 2088, 82nd Legislature (2011), on the World Affairs Council of Dallas/Fort Worth's presentation of the H. Neil Mallon Award on September 22, 2011, reciting "Founded in 1951." https://capitol.texas.gov/tlodocs/82R/billtext/pdf/HR02088F.pdf
 [^27]: "World Affairs Council," editorial, *Dallas News*, October 27, 1953, CIA reading room clipping, document CIA-RDP70-00058R000100080037-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp70-00058r000100080037-2
 [^28]: Roger Kennedy, Executive Director, Dallas Council on World Affairs, letter of February 5, 1958 to Allen Dulles, Central Intelligence Agency, with the council's letterhead listing its officers and members (executive committee members marked with an asterisk), and Dulles's reply to Kennedy drafted February 7 and dated February 13, 1958. CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003800110043-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800110043-4
 [^29]: Michael V. Hazel, "Cabell, Earle," *Handbook of Texas Online*, Texas State Historical Association: son of Ben E. and Sadie (Pearre) Cabell; brothers Ben and Charles; president or director of civic organizations including the Dallas Council on World Affairs; mayor of Dallas from 1961; at Love Field and in the motorcade on November 22, 1963. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-earle
 [^30]: "Cabell, Charles Pearre," *Handbook of Texas Online*, Texas State Historical Association: son of Ben E. and Sadie E. (Pearre) Cabell; born in Dallas on October 11, 1903; deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1953 until his retirement in 1963. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-charles-pearre
 [^31]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," *CovertAction Information Bulletin*, no. 41 (Summer 1992): passages on Henry Neil Mallon as chairman of Dresser Industries and the IDECO job; the sentence on Mallon's recruiting and cover employment, with its note citing a March 25, 1953 letter from Prescott Bush to the president's national security adviser; the description of IDECO as a Dresser subsidiary that "had routinely served as a CIA cover," with note 8 citing interviews in 1990 and 1991 with two former Operations Directorate field officers; and the passage on George de Mohrenschildt and the Yugoslav oil official of 1948. CIA reading room copy, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
 [^32]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939 to 1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), chapter 1 and p. 35, as quoted in Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA," CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0: Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
 [^33]: Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), section "What Did You Do in the Secret War, Daddy?", on a letter from Mallon to Allen Dulles dated April 10, 1953, a proposed meeting at the Carlton Hotel with Prescott Bush, the discussion of drilling rigs in the Caribbean, and the phrase "often provided cover employment to CIA operatives." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^34]: Bob Woodward and Walter Pincus, "Bush Opened Up To Secret Yale Society: Turning Points in a Life Built on Alliances," *Washington Post*, dated August 7, 1988 in the CIA reading room record, CIA reading room copy, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580058-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580058-8
 [^35]: George Bush, *All the Best, George Bush: My Life in Letters and Other Writings* (New York: Scribner, 1999), biographical note on Neil Mallon; Bush's account of accepting the job from Mallon and driving to Odessa; the letter of April 12, 1951 to H. N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas; the letter stating his decision to remain with Dresser and his loyalty to Mr. Mallon; his account of leaving Dresser; the chronology entry for Neil Mallon Bush; and the passage on naming the third son for Neil Mallon. https://archive.org/details/allbestgeorgebus0000bush
 [^36]: George Bush with Victor Gold, *Looking Forward* (New York: Doubleday, 1987): "Neil Mallon was a friend and a mentor second only to my father"; "I became a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits"; "Dresser headquarters sent word transferring me to Midland"; and the trip to Dresser headquarters in Dallas "to break the news to Neil. At age twenty-six, I didn't just respect Neil, I was awed by him." https://archive.org/details/lookingforward00bush
 [^37]: Diana Childress, *George H.W. Bush* (Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2007), chapter "Learning the Oil Business": Mallon, "a close family friend," saying "What you need to do is head out to Texas and those oil fields." https://archive.org/details/georgehwbush0000chil
 [^38]: Randall Rothenberg, "In Search of George Bush," dated March 6, 1988, newspaper clipping in the CIA file, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580078-6, quoting Bucky Bush on Neil Mallon's offer of a job in Midland, Texas. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580078-6
 [^39]: Arleen McGrath Heiss, *Barbara Bush* (New York: Chelsea House, 1992), text and chronology: "Neil Mallon Bush was born January 22, 1955," in Midland. https://archive.org/details/barbarabush00heis
 [^40]: Bill Minutaglio, *First Son: George W. Bush and the Bush Family Dynasty* (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2001): Prescott Bush's description of Mallon as "a very able fellow," his selection of Mallon to head Dresser, and the statement that Mallon "really was almost a member of the Bush-Walker family." https://archive.org/details/firstsongeorgewb0000minu
 [^41]: Richard Ben Cramer, *Being Poppy: A Portrait of George Herbert Walker Bush* (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013): Mallon as Bush's father's "great friend (and fellow Bonesman)" and "unofficial godfather" to the Bush children. https://archive.org/details/beingpoppyportra0000cram
--- a/PEOPLE/(H-M)/Robert
+++ b/PEOPLE/(H-M)/Robert
@ -0,0 +1,276 @@
 ---
 aliases:
  - Robert Lovett
  - Robert Abercrombie Lovett
 category: "Intelligence & Government"
 tags:
  - Person
  - RobertLovett
  - BrownBrothersHarriman
  - SkullAndBones
  - FirstYaleUnit
  - UnionPacific
  - DefenseSecretary
  - MarshallPlan
  - NSC68
  - CovertAction
  - NationalSecurityAgency
  - CubanMissileCrisis
 summary: "Brown Brothers Harriman partner who served as Secretary of Defense from 1951 to 1953, sat on the board that reviewed CIA covert action in 1956, and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963."
 born: 1895-09-14
 died: 1986-05-07
 location: "Locust Valley, New York"
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 relations:
  - type: partner_of
    with: "[[Brown Brothers Harriman]]"
    role: "partner from January 1, 1926; left for Washington December 16, 1940; rejoined the partnership June 1, 1946 to May 15, 1947, April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950, and from March 1, 1953 (partner table)"
    start: 1926
    end: 1940
    fn: 9
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    role: "member, class of 1918 (per Sutton's membership index)"
    start: 1914
    end: 1918
    fn: 5
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Department of War]]"
    role: "Assistant Secretary of War for Air"
    start: 1941
    end: 1945
    fn: 1
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Department of State]]"
    role: "Under Secretary of State"
    start: 1947-07-01
    end: 1949-01-20
    fn: 21
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
    role: "Deputy Secretary of Defense"
    start: 1950-10-04
    end: 1951-09-17
    fn: 1
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
    role: "Secretary of Defense"
    start: 1951-09-17
    end: 1953-01-20
    fn: 1
  - type: reported_to
    with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]"
    role: "air assistant to the Secretary of War"
    start: 1940-11
    end: 1941-12
    fn: 12
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Union Pacific Railroad]]"
    role: "director and member of the executive committee"
    start: 1926
    fn: 8
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Union Pacific Railroad]]"
    role: "chairman of the executive committee"
    start: 1953-05-28
    fn: 3
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Rockefeller Foundation]]"
    role: "trustee; chairman of the finance committee, April 1954 to April 1955"
    start: 1954
    end: 1955
    fn: 48
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery]]"
    role: "first public witness, February 23, 1960 (open and executive sessions)"
    start: 1960-02-23
    fn: 40
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee]]"
    role: "member (Teapot Committee)"
    start: 1953-06-16
    end: 1954-02-08
    fn: 21
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]"
    role: "member, President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities"
    start: 1956-01-13
    fn: 21
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Cuban Missile Crisis]]"
    role: "listed among others present at the National Security Council meeting of October 21, 1962; attended a planning meeting on October 24, 1962"
    start: 1962-10-21
    end: 1962-10-24
    fn: 46
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Robert Scott Lovett]]"
    role: "son"
    fn: 10
  - type: spouse_of
    with: "[[Adele Quartley Brown]]"
    role: "married 1919"
    start: 1919
    fn: 8
 ---
 Robert Abercrombie Lovett (September 14, 1895 to May 7, 1986) was a partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] who served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1941 to 1945, Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, and Secretary of Defense from 1951 to 1953.[^1] He was a Yale student who became a naval pilot in 1916 and was among the men that [[F. Trubee Davison]] recruited into the group that became the [[First Yale Unit]].[^2] Lovett sat on the Truman and Eisenhower intelligence advisory bodies, was a trustee of the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], was the first public witness before the Senate Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery in 1960, and appears in the records of the Kennedy transition and the Cuban missile crisis.
 ### Yale and the First Yale Unit
 Lovett was born in [[Huntsville, Texas]].[^1] He was in his junior year at [[Yale University]] when the First World War began. He left school, enlisted in the [[United States Navy]], and became a pilot in 1916. The Defense Department biography says he flew briefly with the [[British Naval Air Service]] on patrol and in combat missions and received a Navy Cross for setting up the first naval bombardment squadron. His Yale bachelor's degree was conferred in absentia in 1918.[^1] The biography printed in the Senate subcommittee record of 1960 gives his schooling as the Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, from 1909 to 1914, Yale from 1914 to 1917 ("entered service First World War 3/24/17"), Harvard Law School from 1919 to 1920 and a Harvard business administration course in 1920 and 1921, and his naval rank as Lieutenant Commander, U.S. Naval Reserve, from 1917 to 1919.[^3]
 The First Yale Unit grew out of a group of students that Davison assembled in 1916. The Yale University news service's history of the unit lists Lovett, class of 1918, among the men Davison recruited into the coastal patrol unit, along with [[Allan Ames]], [[John Farwell]], [[Artemus Gates]], [[Earl Gould]], [[Albert Sturtevant]] and [[John Vorys]].[^2] A photograph captioned in the same article places Lovett among the members of the Aerial Coastal Patrol at Port Washington, Long Island, in 1916.[^2] In a 1971 oral history with the [[Harry S. Truman Library]], Lovett described Vorys as a Yale classmate and club mate and said the two had been "in the same flying unit abroad."[^4]
 Antony C. Sutton's membership index places Robert Abercrombie Lovett in the class of 1918 of [[Skull and Bones]].[^5] The 1960 subcommittee biography records that Lovett entered naval service on March 24, 1917.[^3] Kris Millegan wrote in 2003 that Lovett, whom he called "Harriman's childhood friend," had been "tapped into Skull & Bones by Prescott Bush's cell of '17," and he attributed the account to the biography [[George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography]].[^6] [[Prescott Bush]] and [[E. Roland Harriman]] were members of the class of 1917, and that class's published history records each of them as a member of the society.[^7]
 ### Brown Brothers Harriman and Union Pacific
 Lovett married [[Adele Quartley Brown]], daughter of the senior partner [[James Brown]], in 1919.[^8] The firm's history by [[John A. Kouwenhoven]] records that he joined [[Brown Brothers & Co.]] in 1921, was granted a power of attorney in January 1925, and was admitted to partnership on January 1, 1926.[^8] The Defense Department biography places his 1921 start at the [[National Bank of Commerce]] in New York, where he was a clerk, and dates his full partnership to 1926.[^1] The biography printed in the 1960 subcommittee record gives the sequence as clerk at the National Bank of Commerce from 1921 to 1923, clerk at Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1923, and partner in 1926.[^3] The partner table in the firm's history records his departure for Washington on December 16, 1940, and his rejoining the partnership for the periods June 1, 1946 to May 15, 1947, April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950, and from March 1, 1953.[^9] The 1960 subcommittee biography gives the same resignation and readmission dates (resigned December 16, 1940; readmitted June 1, 1946; resigned May 15, 1947; readmitted April 1, 1949; resigned October 1950; readmitted March 1953) and records that he became chairman of the executive committee of the Union Pacific on May 28, 1953.[^3]
 In 1926 Lovett was also elected a director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] and a member of its executive committee.[^8] The firm's history records that he and E. Roland Harriman met as eight-year-old boys in 1903.[^8] His father, [[Robert Scott Lovett]], was described in a 1930 article in Time as the "longtime personal attorney and close friend of the late Edward Henry Harriman and now chairman of his Union Pacific."[^10] The 1955 annual report of the railroad lists Lovett among its directors and names him chairman of the executive committee as of January 1, 1956.[^11]
 ### Assistant Secretary of War for Air
 Lovett's first government post was with [[Henry L. Stimson]], the Secretary of War. Stimson's memoir records that Lovett "arrived in November, 1940, to be Stimson's air assistant."[^12] The memoir describes him as "a naval pilot of distinguished skill in World War I" and says that "Lovett possessed incisive judgment and a pertinent wit."[^12] Stimson wrote that Lovett "served Stimson in all matters affecting the Air Forces as Patterson served in procurement and supply."[^12] The firm's history gives a different sequence, dating a call to Washington in June 1940 as special assistant to the Secretary of War, while the partner table dates the post from December 1940 to April 1941.[^9]
 In the memoir's account of the Department's division of labor, aircraft "was Lovett's field," and Stimson "confined his labors mainly to the vigorous support of the Air Forces' theory of strategic bombing."[^13] After seeing a new radar set in action, Stimson put Lovett to work to make sure that radar production was at its maximum speed.[^14] Stimson wrote the citation for the Distinguished Service Medal awarded to Patterson, [[John J. McCloy]], Lovett and Bundy.[^15] The firm's history quotes the citation calling Lovett "the eyes, ears, and hands of the Secretary of War in respect to the growth of that enormous American air power."[^8]
 Millegan wrote that on October 22, 1945, Secretary of War [[Robert P. Patterson]] created a committee chaired by Lovett to advise the government on the postwar organization of American intelligence, and that Lovett pressed for "a virtual resumption of the wartime Office of Strategic Services."[^6]
 ### Under Secretary of State
 In his 1971 oral history, Lovett described being called by [[Harry S. Truman]] to become Under Secretary of State under [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]]. Truman told him, "I've got to get a new Secretary of State and I've signed up General Marshall on the condition which he made that you'd come down and be his Under Secretary."[^16] Lovett answered that he had to check with his partners and that "the New York State Bank Department has to approve."[^16] He said the State Department then had, "really, two Under Secretaries," and that Marshall's instructions made him responsible for economic matters.[^17]
 Lovett recalled the bipartisan period in which "we had Greek-Turkish aid, we had the Berlin airlift, we had the Marshall plan, and we had the NATO organization."[^18] He credited the President's leadership and, "very largely," Senator [[Arthur H. Vandenberg]]'s chairmanship of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, "with whom I was always completely frank."[^19] An April 1948 telegram from the ambassador in London, [[Lewis W. Douglas]], marked for Lovett's eyes only, refers to Lovett's conversations with Vandenberg. The editors of the [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] volume note a Lovett memorandum of conversation of April 11, 1948 that opens with a reference to European union, and no other record of substantive discussion of the subject between Lovett and Vandenberg before the reported meeting.[^20]
 The State Department's list of officials gives Lovett's service as Under Secretary of State from July 1, 1947 to January 20, 1949.[^21] The Defense Department biography describes Lovett and Marshall as running the State Department as Secretary and Under Secretary "from January 1947 to January 1949."[^1]
 ### Deputy Secretary and Secretary of Defense
 Marshall became Secretary of Defense in September 1950 and insisted that Lovett be appointed as his deputy. Lovett became the second Deputy Secretary of Defense on October 4, 1950.[^1] The Defense Department biography says that Lovett was the first Deputy Secretary to debate with the services over materiel and to testify before the House and Senate appropriations committees on budgetary issues.[^1] When Marshall stepped down in September 1951, Lovett succeeded him, serving from September 17, 1951 to January 20, 1953. He was the first of five Deputy Secretaries in history to become Secretary.[^1]
 The Senate Committee on Armed Services reported the nomination, and on September 14, 1951 the Senate took it up. [[William Langer]] of North Dakota objected to considering it and then asked whether the nominee was "Dr. Robert Morss Lovett, who was formerly Governor of the Virgin Islands." The majority leader, Ernest McFarland, answered that the nominee had been Deputy Secretary of Defense, and Senator [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] added that Robert A. Lovett "was born in Huntsville, Tex." [[Everett Dirksen]] said that "we have had a very considerable experience with Robert Morss Lovett in the past, when he was investigated by the Appropriations Committee of the House of Representatives." Langer withdrew his objection, and the nomination was confirmed without objection.[^22]
 The Department's role in the national security review that produced NSC 68 is recorded in the volume of the Foreign Relations of the United States covering 1950. At a State-Defense Policy Review Group meeting on March 16, 1950, Lovett, listed as a consultant, spent the morning studying the group's working drafts. His overall comment was that the paper was "very good" and its logic sound, and he suggested that its conclusions be written in what he called "Hemingway sentences."[^23] The final text of the report is dated April 7, 1950.[^23] A memorandum of March 22, 1950 by [[Paul Nitze]] lists Lovett among the persons the working group consulted.[^24] On October 10, 1950, Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] recorded that he had discussed with Lovett "work which he is doing on NSC 68/1."[^25]
 ### The Korean War Build-Up
 Lovett told the Jackson subcommittee in 1960 that when he returned to the Department in the autumn of 1950, "the Korean war having broken out," the first full budget the three military departments submitted asked for "something over $100 billion," that the screening reduced it to about $62 or $63 billion, and that Congress provided "something over $60 billion for fiscal 1952," from a level "in that order of magnitude" of $14 billion.[^26] On December 28, 1951 Truman met in the Cabinet Room with the Secretaries of State, the Treasury and Defense, the military chiefs, the Director for Mutual Security, the Director of Defense Mobilization and the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, and directed Lovett to work with the Budget Director to stretch out the defense build-up "because of material and fiscal considerations." Lovett's letter to Truman of January 4, 1952 proposed new obligational authority for fiscal 1953 of $49,002,758,000 (Army $14.3 billion, Navy $13,314,155,000, Air Force $20,922,338,000, Office of the Secretary of Defense $466,265,000) and an expenditure limit of $86.5 billion for the eighteen months from January 1, 1952 to June 30, 1953.[^27]
 At the 122nd meeting of the National Security Council on September 3, 1952, which took up the status report NSC 135 and the reappraisal NSC 135/1, Acheson said that he was "scared to death to have so many copies of so vital a document around." The minutes record that Lovett "strongly supported the anxieties of the Secretary of State," said his security people "were very worried about certain portions of the report," and wanted all copies turned back to the Executive Secretary. The Council directed that all outstanding copies of NSC 135 be recalled.[^28] Lovett's letter of resignation is dated November 25, 1952. Truman accepted it on January 8, 1953, effective January 20, 1953, and wrote of Lovett's "vision and deep understanding of international as well as domestic affairs."[^29]
 ### The Office of Policy Coordination
 A memorandum of March 30, 1950 from [[George F. Kennan]] records that [[National Security Council]] directive NSC 10/2 of June 1948 established an Office of Special Projects, later the [[Office of Policy Coordination]], in the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to plan and conduct covert operations. Kennan's designation as the State Department's representative for that purpose was made known to the National Security Council "by a letter signed August 13, 1948 by Mr. Lovett."[^30] A State Department memorandum of October 15, 1952 states that "it was the concept of General Marshall, Mr. Forrestal, Mr. Lovett and Mr. Kennan, when OPC was set up in the spring of 1948," that political warfare activities of covert means "was of primary interest to the Department of State." The same memorandum says the operation was placed, "faute de mieux, within the framework of the CIA."[^31]
 ### Psychological Strategy Board and Communications Intelligence
 The first meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]], held on July 2, 1951, was attended by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], Lovett as Deputy Secretary of Defense, [[Gordon Gray]], [[Allen Dulles]] and Edward Barrett for the Under Secretary of State.[^32]
 On October 24, 1952 President Truman addressed a memorandum on communications intelligence to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett.[^33] The volume's editorial note records that in October 1952 the President and the National Security Council adopted most of the recommendations of the [[Brownell Committee]], issued a revised version of NSCID No. 9 on October 24, 1952, and created the [[National Security Agency]] in place of the Armed Forces Security Agency. The Secretary of Defense became executive agent for communications intelligence for the government as a whole, subordinate to a special committee of the National Security Council consisting of himself and the Secretary of State. The Brownell Committee report is held at the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] (RG 457, SRH-123), and a declassified version appears in [[George A. Brownell]]'s account of the agency's origins.[^34]
 ### Teapot Committee and the 1956 Board
 The State Department's list of persons records that Lovett served as a member of the [[Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee]], known as the Teapot Committee, from June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954, and as a member of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board|President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities]] from January 13, 1956.[^21]
 A December 22, 1955 memorandum from the Secretary of State's special assistant for intelligence and research, Armstrong, to Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] listed the expected members of the new board as General John E. Hull, Admiral Richard Connolly, General James Doolittle, James Killian, David Bruce, Benjamin Fairless and Morris Hadley. Lovett is not on that list.[^35] The board was established by Executive Order 10656 of February 6, 1956.[^36]
 ### The Bruce-Lovett Report
 According to Grose, two elder statesmen, [[David K. E. Bruce|David Bruce]] and Lovett, "prepared a report for President Dwight Eisenhower in the fall of 1956" that criticized the CIA's "kingmaking" in the Third World.[^37] The Center for the Study of Intelligence newsletter of Spring 1995 says that Bruce and Lovett "had been charter members" of the board, and reports that the CIA History Staff checked the board's CIA files and the Eisenhower Library and found "no reference to such a report."[^38]
 Schlesinger quoted the report and wrote that it found that "no one, other than those in the CIA immediately concerned with their day to day operation, has any detailed knowledge of what is going on." In his account, a "horde of CIA representatives" was exerting "significant, almost unilateral influences" on the formulation of foreign policy, and the report asked whether anyone in an authoritative position was weighing "the long-range wisdom of activities which have entailed our virtual abandonment of the international 'golden rule.'"[^39] Schlesinger wrote that in December 1956 the full board passed on to Eisenhower its concern about "the extremely informal and somewhat exclusive methods" used for clandestine projects, and that in January 1961 the board said, "We have been unable to conclude that, on balance, all of the covert action programs undertaken by CIA up to this time have been worth the risk or the great expenditure of manpower, money and other resources involved."[^39]
 Schlesinger also wrote that when [[Richard Bissell]] and others briefed the board on the Cuban project in late 1960, "its members, Lovett particularly, registered dismay."[^39] Lovett told the Taylor board of inquiry on the Bay of Pigs in 1961, as Grose reported, that Bruce "was very much disturbed" and that "instead of completing the report in thirty days we took two months or more."[^37]
 ### The Jackson Subcommittee, 1960
 On February 23, 1960 Lovett was the first public witness in the hearings of the Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery of the Senate Committee on Government Operations, chaired by [[Henry M. Jackson]]. Jackson introduced him as "Mr. National Security" and said: "I believe at the present time he is serving in an advisory capacity in connection with our intelligence organization." The witness was listed as a partner of Brown Brothers, Harriman & Co. and chairman of the executive committee of the Union Pacific Railroad Company.[^40]
 Lovett's prepared statement said that his comments rested "for the most part on notes made some 8 years ago" in connection with "a report submitted in November 1952." He described the "foulup factor" in the "clashes of group needs" built into the executive departments, and warned that the doctrine of "concurrences," unless policed, could "blanket the whole executive branch with an embalmed atmosphere." For the Department of Defense he listed conditions that included that the military professionals "should be contributors to and not makers of national political policies," that committees had become "positive menaces to the prompt and orderly conduct of business," and that "the only thing more dangerous than an external enemy is a group of home-grown military sycophants." He tied turnover of civilian executives to the "conflict of interest" laws and to the pension rights of men who left business, and defended "split papers" from the Joint Chiefs of Staff. For the State Department he said the Secretary's workload was "already at the dangerous level," answered "an emphatic 'yes'" to lightening the Secretary's negotiating duties, and proposed a new Cabinet-rank "Minister of Foreign Affairs" under the Secretary.[^41]
 In questioning, Lovett said he was "personally confident" that whatever was needed for security could be done without "materially downgrading the position of this country," and told Jackson that Soviet statements in the material field had "a high order of reliability."[^26] Responding to Senator [[Mike Mansfield]] on the conflict-of-interest laws, he said they needed to be "modernized" and cited General Motors, with 283,090,000 shares outstanding, and Standard Oil Company (New Jersey), with more than 214 million, to illustrate what "substantial" meant. He told Senator [[Karl Mundt]] that on an inspection trip to Germany he had been given the information collected from the questioning of leading German industrialists and war production leaders, that "one of these was Dr. Albert Speer," and that Speer's opinion, as Lovett related it, was that the German economy collapsed in part because under a dictatorship a department head who "got the nod from Hitler" went ahead "as a little dictator" with no performance audit.[^26]
 Senator Prescott Bush, a guest of the subcommittee as a member of the Armed Services Committee, told Lovett that "since your leaving the Government in 1953, in January, you have been connected in an advisory capacity with our Central Intelligence Agency from time to time," and asked for comment. Jackson answered that the subject belonged in executive session, because the agreement he had reached with the President put matters touching the National Security Council there, and invited a general remark. Lovett said: "I have observed the operation through the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities now for, I think it is, 3 years, and in my opinion its improvement over the time when I formerly knew it more intimately has been remarkable. I would consider it today a very reliable, high-grade arm of Government."[^26]
 The executive session opened at 12:05 p.m., with Charles A. Haskins, a senior staff member of the National Security Council, among those present. Lovett described the Council as designed to serve as "a kind of 'Court of Domestic and Foreign Relations' before which, with the President presiding, both Departments could present their views," doubted that it could operate "in a mass atmosphere," and said that [[James Forrestal]] "was one of the leading spirits" in that design and in the hope of "staff continuity." He said that he had taken part in "the discussions which preceded" the National Security Act, that a President "in his own protection must insist on being informed and not merely protected by his aides," and that George C. Marshall "simply would not tolerate" the opposite. Jackson closed by stating that the transcript "will be treated as confidential at this time."[^42]
 Press accounts of the testimony, among them a column by [[Walter Lippmann]] on March 1 and a Senate speech by [[J. William Fulbright]], were read as describing [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]. Mundt wrote to Lovett on March 30, 1960 asking what he had meant by "the President." Lovett replied on April 4 that the expression meant "a President," or "any President," that he had given the same answer by telephone to Gordon Gray, the President's special assistant, that the paragraphs on the National Security Council "were excised from my public statement and were given in executive session in accordance, I am informed, with the terms of an understanding reached at the request of the White House," and that "I know of no way to keep them from trying it on for size." [[Jacob Javits]] placed the exchange, with a column by [[Arthur Krock]], in the Congressional Record on May 17, 1960.[^43]
 ### The Kennedy Transition
 President-elect [[John F. Kennedy]] first offered the post of Secretary of Defense to Lovett. The Defense Department biography of [[Robert S. McNamara]] states that "When Lovett declined, Kennedy chose Robert S. McNamara on Lovett's recommendation."[^44]
 Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett wrote in *Thy Will Be Done* that Lovett, then a trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation, declined State, Defense and Treasury in December 1960 and recommended [[Dean Rusk]], then the Foundation's president, for Secretary of State.[^45]
 ### The Cuban Missile Crisis
 The minutes of the 506th meeting of the National Security Council, held in the Oval Room on October 21, 1962, list among those present "Others: Mr. Robert Lovett."[^46] On October 24, 1962, a memorandum by [[Walt Whitman Rostow]], chairman of the planning subcommittee of the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, records that "Representatives of State and Defense, the Attorney General, and Mr. Lovett, met to consider the course of action to be followed" with respect to Soviet vessels that had altered course and those still proceeding toward Cuba. The memorandum recommends that the vessels that had altered course be intercepted, trailed and photographed without interference, and that the vessels still bound for Cuba be stopped and searched in accordance with the Presidential proclamation.[^47]
 ### Later Life, Foundation and Honors
 The Rockefeller Foundation's trustee list for April 1954 to April 1955 includes Lovett and Dean Rusk. Lovett also served on the foundation's executive committee and was chairman of its finance committee.[^48] The Defense Department biography says that after 1953 Lovett "participated on several presidential commissions and continued to work for Brown Brothers Harriman."[^1]
 James Forrestal, the former Secretary of Defense, was at Lovett's house at [[Hobe Sound, Florida]] in the days before his committal to the naval hospital in April 1949. Captain [[George N. Raines]], Forrestal's attending psychiatrist, testified to the board that inquired into Forrestal's death that he attended a meeting at Lovett's house on March 31, 1949 with Lovett and Artemus Gates.[^49]
 The Congressional Research Service tally of the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] lists Lovett among the 1963 recipients.[^50] The tally cites the remarks of Lyndon B. Johnson at the presentation of the Medal of Freedom awards on December 6, 1963, in the Public Papers of the Presidents.[^50] Lovett died in [[Locust Valley, New York]] on May 7, 1986.[^1]
 ### Papers
 The Harry S. Truman Library holds a Lovett collection of five scrapbooks of newspaper clippings and photographs from his service as Assistant Secretary of War for Air, dated 1940 to 1943. The library notes that the collection contains no information on his career after 1949.[^51] Yale University's Manuscripts and Archives catalogues a Robert Abercrombie Lovett Papers collection, MS 1617, covering 1919 to 1986, which it describes as correspondence, speeches, photographs and memorabilia from periods outside government service.[^52]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Robert A. Lovett, biography, Historical Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense, Deputy Secretaries of Defense series (archived copy, November 23, 2023). https://history.defense.gov/DOD-History/Deputy-Secretaries-of-Defense/Article-View/Article/585251/robert-a-lovett/ (archived copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2023/https://history.defense.gov/DOD-History/Deputy-Secretaries-of-Defense/Article-View/Article/585251/robert-a-lovett/)
 [^2]: "Defending Allied Skies: Yale's Pioneering Pilots Form First Naval Aviation Unit," Yale News, August 17, 2014, including the photograph caption of the Aerial Coastal Patrol at Port Washington, Long Island, 1916. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
 [^3]: *Organizing for National Security* (1960), Exhibit IV, "Biographies," entry for Robert Abercrombie Lovett, p. 233.
 [^4]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript p. 3 (Vorys, Eaton and the flying unit abroad). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra
 [^5]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), membership index by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^6]: Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), the roster section, which includes the Lovett entry, the account of the Lovett Committee of October 22, 1945, and the November 14, 1945 appearance before the Secretaries of State, War and Navy, and which cites the biography *George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography* for the membership.
 [^7]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. I (Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Prescott Sheldon Bush ("He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones"). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
 [^8]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Doubleday, 1968), pp. 17 to 18 (marriage in 1919, 1921 entry, power of attorney, 1903 meeting with E. Roland Harriman, election as director of the Union Pacific in 1926), and pp. 202 to 203 (Distinguished Service Medal citation). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
 [^9]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), "Partners of Brown Brothers & Co. and Brown Brothers Harriman & Co." table, pp. 231 to 235, entry for Robert Abercrombie Lovett, and the notes on his Washington service.
 [^10]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," *Time*, December 22, 1930, on the partners of the firm, including the description of Robert A. Lovett as "longtime personal attorney and close friend of the late Edward Henry Harriman and now chairman of his Union Pacific." https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html
 [^11]: Union Pacific Railroad, 1955 Annual Report, list of directors and "Executive Committee (January 1, 1956)." https://uphs.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/1955_Annual-Report_OCR.pdf
 [^12]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (Harper & Brothers, 1948), p. 338 (Lovett's arrival in November 1940 as air assistant, his character, and his work with Patterson). Full text: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235
 [^13]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 463 (the division of responsibilities among the Secretary's assistants, with aircraft as "Lovett's field").
 [^14]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 509 (radar production and the instruction to Lovett).
 [^15]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 659 (Stimson's authorship of the Distinguished Service Medal citations for Patterson, McCloy, Lovett and Bundy). The memoir's text does not specify which Bundy.
 [^16]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript pp. 4 to 7, including the account of the call from the President and the New York State Bank Department approval. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra
 [^17]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript p. 10 (the two Under Secretaries and the economic responsibilities given by General Marshall).
 [^18]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript p. 1 (the bipartisan period and the Marshall Plan and NATO).
 [^19]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript p. 2 (Vandenberg and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee).
 [^20]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948*, volume III, Western Europe, document 72, telegram from the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Douglas) to the Secretary of State, April 16, 1948, with the editors' note 3. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1948v03/d72
 [^21]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, list of persons, entry for Lovett, Robert A. (Assistant Secretary of War for Air until December 1945; Under Secretary of State from July 1, 1947 to January 20, 1949; Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1951; Secretary of Defense from 1951 to 1953; member of the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee, June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954; member of the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities from January 13, 1956). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons
 [^22]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 97, Senate, September 14, 1951, pp. 11366 and 11372 (nomination of Robert A. Lovett to be Secretary of Defense; colloquy of Senators McFarland, Langer, Johnson of Texas and Dirksen; confirmation). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_september-13-october-02-1951_97
 [^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950*, volume I, National Security Affairs; Foreign Economic Policy, document 70, record of the meeting of the State-Defense Policy Review Group, March 16, 1950 (Lovett as consultant; his comments on the draft; "Hemingway sentences"; the editors' note that the final text is NSC 68 of April 7, 1950). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v01/d70
 [^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950*, volume I, document 72, memorandum by the Director of the Policy Planning Staff (Nitze) to the Secretary of State, March 22, 1950 (the numbered list of persons consulted, including Robert A. Lovett). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v01/d72
 [^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950*, volume I, document 130, memorandum of conversation by the Secretary of State, October 10, 1950 ("work which he is doing on NSC 68/1"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v01/d130
 [^26]: *Organizing for National Security* (1960), questioning of Lovett, February 23, 1960, pp. 20 to 38 (budget, p. 21; Germany and Speer, p. 27; conflict-of-interest laws, pp. 32 to 33; Senator Bush and the Central Intelligence Agency, pp. 36 to 37).
 [^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, National Security Affairs*, volume II, part 1, document 2, the Secretary of Defense (Lovett) to the President, January 4, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v02p1/d2
 [^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, National Security Affairs*, volume II, part 1, document 21, memorandum of discussion at the 122nd meeting of the National Security Council, September 3, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v02p1/d21
 [^29]: Harry S. Truman, "Letter Accepting Resignation of Robert A. Lovett as Secretary of Defense," January 9, 1953 (dated January 8), with the editorial note on Lovett's service and his resignation letter of November 25, 1952, Truman Library public papers. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/371/letter-accepting-resignation-robert-lovett-secretary-defense
 [^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 4, memorandum from the Counselor of the Department of State (Kennan) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), March 30, 1950 (NSC 10/2; letter of August 13, 1948). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d4
 [^31]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 129, memorandum from Robert P. Joyce of the Policy Planning Staff to the Under Secretary of State (Bruce), October 15, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d129
 [^32]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 78, minutes of the meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board, July 2, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d78
 [^33]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 132, memorandum from President Truman to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett, October 24, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d132
 [^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, editorial note on the reorganization of communications intelligence in October 1952 (the revised NSCID No. 9 appears as Document 257), and the note on the Brownell Committee report (National Archives, RG 457, SRH-123); George A. Brownell, *The Origins and Development of the National Security Agency* (Aegean Park Press, 1981). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d257
 [^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 247, memorandum from the Secretary of State's Special Assistant for Intelligence and Research (Armstrong) to Secretary of State Dulles, December 22, 1955. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d247
 [^36]: Executive Order 10656, February 6, 1956, establishing the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, printed in the *Federal Register* on February 8, 1956 (21 Fed. Reg. 859).
 [^37]: Peter Grose, *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles* (Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 444 to 448, as excerpted at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm.
 [^38]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence Newsletter, no. 3 (Spring 1995), "The Elusive 'Bruce-Lovett Report.'" https://web.archive.org/web/2005/https://www.cia.gov/csi/bulletin/csi3.htm
 [^39]: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., *Robert Kennedy and His Times* (Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 455 to 458, as excerpted at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm. The quotations are Schlesinger's account of the report and of the board's statements.
 [^40]: *Organizing for National Security: Hearings before the Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery of the Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 86th Congress, Second Session*, Part 1 (Government Printing Office, 1960), February 23, 1960, Jackson's introduction of the witness, pp. 11 to 12. https://archive.org/details/HearingsOnOrganizingForNationalSecurity1960
 [^41]: *Organizing for National Security* (1960), statement of Robert A. Lovett, February 23, 1960, pp. 12 to 20.
 [^42]: *Organizing for National Security* (1960), executive session testimony of Robert A. Lovett, February 23, 1960, pp. 41 to 45.
 [^43]: *Congressional Record*, Appendix, May 17, 1960, extension of remarks of Senator Jacob K. Javits, "Statement of Hon. Robert Lovett to National Policy Machinery Subcommittee," with the letters of Senator Karl E. Mundt (March 30, 1960) and Lovett (April 4, 1960) and Arthur Krock, "How To Make a Shoe Fit Any Foot," *New York Times*, April 14, 1960. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000300090057-7
 [^44]: Robert S. McNamara, biography, Historical Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense (archived copy, 2024). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/https://history.defense.gov/Multimedia/Biographies/Article-View/Article/571271/robert-s-mcnamara/
 [^45]: Gerard Colby with Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil* (HarperCollins, 1995), chapters 12, 18 and 23.
 [^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, volume XI, Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath, document 38, minutes of the 506th meeting of the National Security Council, October 21, 1962, with the list of participants. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d38
 [^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, volume XI, document 57, memorandum from Walt W. Rostow, chairman of the Planning Subcommittee of the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, to President Kennedy, October 24, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d57
 [^48]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1954, "Trustees," "Executive Committee" and "Finance Committee" lists for April 1954 to April 1955. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1954-1.pdf
 [^49]: Willcutts Report on Forrestal's Death, Forrestal Papers, Box 94, Folder 11, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University, testimony of Captain George N. Raines. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/MC051_c04531
 [^50]: Congressional Research Service, *Presidential Medal of Freedom*, report R47639 (2025), table of recipients (Robert Abercrombie Lovett, 1963) and note 11 (remarks at the presentation of the Medal of Freedom awards, December 6, 1963, *Public Papers of the Presidents: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963-1964*, Book I, pp. 29 to 34). https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/2025-01-14_R47639_940fe50c831c8809a4866e8c9449fa9b9a89e460.html
 [^51]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Lovett, Robert A. Papers," personal papers collection description (dates 1940 to 1943). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/personal-papers/robert-lovett-papers
 [^52]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Robert Abercrombie Lovett Papers, MS 1617 (1919 to 1986), as listed in the Social Networks and Archival Context record "Robert Abercrombie Lovett papers, 1919-1986." https://snaccooperative.org/vocab_administrator/resources/6351500
--- a/PEOPLE/(H-M)/W.
+++ b/PEOPLE/(H-M)/W.
@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ relations:
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
    role: "Brother"
-    fn: 10
+    fn: 12
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[W. A. Harriman & Co.]]"
    start: 1920
@ -80,31 +80,31 @@ relations:
    start: 1946
    end: 1948
    role: "Ambassador to the United Kingdom, then Secretary of Commerce; later Special Representative in Europe"
-    fn: 43
+    fn: 45
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Harry S. Truman]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1951-10-11
    role: "Director for Mutual Security, nominated"
-    fn: 47
+    fn: 49
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
    start: 1952
    end: 1953
    role: "Director"
-    fn: 49
+    fn: 51
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[New York]]"
    start: 1955
    end: 1958
    role: "Governor of New York"
-    fn: 51
+    fn: 53
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[John F. Kennedy]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1962-09-21
    role: "Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, later Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs"
-    fn: 54
+    fn: 56
  - type: spouse_of
    with: "[[Pamela Harriman]]"
    start: 1971
@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ W. Averell Harriman (1891 to 1986) was a son of the railroad financier [[E. H. H
 ### Family and Yale
-Harriman was born in New York on November 15, 1891, attended [[Groton School]] and received his B.A. from Yale in 1913.[^1][^2] His mother, [[Mary Averell Harriman]], was the civic activist whose letters to him run into the 1930s in his papers, and the [[Library of Congress]] records his membership of the [[Palisades Interstate Park Commission]] from 1915 to 1954.[^3][^1] The [[Eugenics Record Office]] at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] was established in October 1910 by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, who according to a report of the [[New York Times]] provided funds for the office and its annual running expenses, her contributions over eight years amounting to more than 500,000 dollars; the report adds the "additional assistance of John D. Rockefeller and others." The Cold Spring Harbor image archive lists the donation as 10,000 dollars in 1910 and holds [[Charles Davenport]]'s letter to Mrs. E. H. Harriman about the first training class, and the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] accepted the office from her as a gift.[^4][^5]
+Harriman was born in New York on November 15, 1891, attended [[Groton School]] and received his B.A. from Yale in 1913.[^1][^2] His mother, [[Mary Averell Harriman]], was the civic activist whose letters to him run into the 1930s in his papers, and the [[Library of Congress]] records his membership of the [[Palisades Interstate Park Commission]] from 1915 to 1954.[^1][^3] The [[Eugenics Record Office]] at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] was established in October 1910 by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, who according to a report of the [[New York Times]] provided funds for the office and its annual running expenses, her contributions over eight years amounting to more than 500,000 dollars; the report adds the "additional assistance of John D. Rockefeller and others." The Cold Spring Harbor image archive lists the donation as 10,000 dollars in 1910 and holds [[Charles Davenport]]'s letter to Mrs. E. H. Harriman about the first training class, and the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] accepted the office from her as a gift.[^4][^5]
 [[Antony C. Sutton]] places Harriman among the initiates of Skull and Bones in 1913 and writes that "Like other initiates Harriman has carefully expunged membership from the public record."[^6] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] listed him among the members of the society in an article in [[Esquire]] in September 1977, together with [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and [[Potter Stewart]].[^7] [[Jacques Leslie]] wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that Harriman was among the members named by students of his era.[^8]
@ -123,83 +123,83 @@ Sutton writes that E. H. Harriman bought into the Union Pacific after the crash
 ### Union Pacific and Illinois Central
-The Library of Congress chronology lists Harriman as vice president of the Union Pacific from 1915 to 1917, director of the [[Illinois Central Railroad]] from 1915 to 1946, chairman of the Illinois Central executive committee from 1931 to 1942, and chairman of the board of the Union Pacific from 1932 to 1946.[^1] A report of December 1930 describes Judge Lovett as the "now chairman" of E. H. Harriman's Union Pacific.[^10] Sutton's chronology adds that in 1917 Harriman became a director of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]], and states that the Harriman family's holding of about one third of Guaranty stock was put into a [[J. P. Morgan and Company]] voting trust in 1912, when Mrs. Edward Harriman sold 8,000 of the 20,000 outstanding shares to Morgan.[^11][^12] The finding aid states that Harriman "took charge of the Union Pacific Railroad" in the early 1930s and was credited with reviving the line during the worst years of the Depression.[^3]
+The Library of Congress chronology lists Harriman as vice president of the Union Pacific from 1915 to 1917, director of the [[Illinois Central Railroad]] from 1915 to 1946, chairman of the Illinois Central executive committee from 1931 to 1942, and chairman of the board of the Union Pacific from 1932 to 1946.[^1] His brother E. Roland Harriman succeeded him as chairman of the board of the Union Pacific in 1946 and held the post until January 30, 1969, according to the company's annual report for 1968; the same report states that Roland Harriman was elected a director in 1920.[^10] On November 2, 1950, [[Harry S. Truman]] announced at a news conference that Roland Harriman, "a brother of Averell Harriman, Special Assistant to me," would become president of the [[American Red Cross]] on December 1, 1950.[^11] A report of December 1930 describes Judge Lovett as the "now chairman" of E. H. Harriman's Union Pacific.[^12] Sutton's chronology adds that in 1917 Harriman became a director of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]], and states that the Harriman family's holding of about one third of Guaranty stock was put into a [[J. P. Morgan and Company]] voting trust in 1912, when Mrs. Edward Harriman sold 8,000 of the 20,000 outstanding shares to Morgan.[^13][^14] The finding aid states that Harriman "took charge of the Union Pacific Railroad" in the early 1930s and was credited with reviving the line during the worst years of the Depression.[^3]
 ### Shipping and the Hamburg-American Line
-The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of the [[Merchant Shipbuilding Corporation]] from 1917 to 1925.[^1] On August 16, 1920 the chairman of the [[United States Shipping Board]], [[William S. Benson]], announced co-operative working agreements between the American Ship and Commerce Corporation of New York and the [[Hamburg-American Line]] of Germany, to run for 20 years. Each party was to supply equal tonnage to services between the United States and Germany, each was to act as the other's agent in its home country, and the American corporation was to supply passenger ships not exceeding 40,000 gross tons within a year. Benson said: "There is no German money in the American end of the business nor is there any agreement for German investment in any American companies."[^13] A report of 1930 states that in 1920 Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea, formed an alliance with Hamburg-American Line," and was "Thwarted in the fulfillment of this."[^10]
+The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of the [[Merchant Shipbuilding Corporation]] from 1917 to 1925.[^1] On August 16, 1920 the chairman of the [[United States Shipping Board]], [[William S. Benson]], announced co-operative working agreements between the American Ship and Commerce Corporation of New York and the [[Hamburg-American Line]] of Germany, to run for 20 years. Each party was to supply equal tonnage to services between the United States and Germany, each was to act as the other's agent in its home country, and the American corporation was to supply passenger ships not exceeding 40,000 gross tons within a year. Benson said: "There is no German money in the American end of the business nor is there any agreement for German investment in any American companies."[^15] A report of 1930 states that in 1920 Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea, formed an alliance with Hamburg-American Line," and was "Thwarted in the fulfillment of this."[^12]
-The Harriman papers contain incoming and outgoing cable files with the Hamburg-American Line for 1920 to 1926 and with [[Wilhelm Cuno]] for 1920 to 1931, a file on the sale of the United American Lines steamers to the Hamburg-American Line in 1926, and a Hamburg-American Line subject file for 1933 to 1937.[^14]
+The Harriman papers contain incoming and outgoing cable files with the Hamburg-American Line for 1920 to 1926 and with [[Wilhelm Cuno]] for 1920 to 1931, a file on the sale of the United American Lines steamers to the Hamburg-American Line in 1926, and a Hamburg-American Line subject file for 1933 to 1937.[^16]
 ### W. A. Harriman and Company
-The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of W. A. Harriman and Company from 1920 to 1931; a report of December 1930 states that he and his brother formed the firm in 1919. The same report says the firm "was one of the first to enter Europe after the War, made many a loan in Germany," was active in Polish financing, financed Silesian zinc mines with the [[Anaconda Copper Mining Company|Anaconda]] group, and in 1929 backed the Aviation Corporation together with [[Lehman Brothers]].[^1][^10] Sutton's chronology lists 1920 as the year the firm was established with Roland Harriman as vice president.[^11]
+The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of W. A. Harriman and Company from 1920 to 1931; a report of December 1930 states that he and his brother formed the firm in 1919. The same report says the firm "was one of the first to enter Europe after the War, made many a loan in Germany," was active in Polish financing, financed Silesian zinc mines with the [[Anaconda Copper Mining Company|Anaconda]] group, and in 1929 backed the Aviation Corporation together with [[Lehman Brothers]].[^1][^12] Sutton's chronology lists 1920 as the year the firm was established with Roland Harriman as vice president.[^13]
 ### The Georgian manganese concession
-The Soviet government concluded a concession contract with the American company "Harriman ('The Georgian Manganese' Stock Company)" dated June 12, 1925, relating to property nationalized by the Georgian Soviet decrees; the Soviet side cited it in 1936 as an example of a concession made by the Union government for property nationalized by a constituent republic.[^15] The Hoover Institution holds an agreement of 1925 between the Tchitouri Manganese Exporting Society (Tchemo) and W. A. Harriman and Company, and the Harriman papers list a Tchemo agreement and a syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925, an assignment from W. A. Harriman and Company of July 18, 1925, property of voting trustees of August 10, 1925, and an ore-shipment contract of November 1925.[^16][^17] Sutton gives the date of the concession agreement as July 12, 1925, states that four million dollars was spent on mechanizing the mines and on a loading elevator at [[Poti]], and writes that the chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company was Matthew C. Brush, whom he calls the Order's "front man." Sutton's chronology dates the formation of the company to 1923.[^18][^11]
+The Soviet government concluded a concession contract with the American company "Harriman ('The Georgian Manganese' Stock Company)" dated June 12, 1925, relating to property nationalized by the Georgian Soviet decrees; the Soviet side cited it in 1936 as an example of a concession made by the Union government for property nationalized by a constituent republic.[^17] The Hoover Institution holds an agreement of 1925 between the Tchitouri Manganese Exporting Society (Tchemo) and W. A. Harriman and Company, and the Harriman papers list a Tchemo agreement and a syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925, an assignment from W. A. Harriman and Company of July 18, 1925, property of voting trustees of August 10, 1925, and an ore-shipment contract of November 1925.[^18][^19] Sutton gives the date of the concession agreement as July 12, 1925, states that four million dollars was spent on mechanizing the mines and on a loading elevator at [[Poti]], and writes that the chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company was Matthew C. Brush, whom he calls the Order's "front man." Sutton's chronology dates the formation of the company to 1923.[^13][^20]
-A report of March 1926 ranked the manganese rights obtained by the Harriman interests second among the concessions granted to foreigners, after the Volga timber concessions given to the former German chancellor [[Joseph Wirth]]. A report of July 1927 states that the Soviets had reconfirmed the concession and that the British had been using their offices to thwart it.[^19][^20] The Library of Congress lists a trip to the USSR in 1926 and the investment as running 1925 to 1928; its files include Harriman's correspondence while in the USSR for 1926 and 1927, his resignation in 1928, a termination agreement of August 21 to 28, 1928, and Soviet notes from 1928 to 1943.[^1][^17] The Soviet Bureau of Foreign Concessions announced in July 1928 the "amicable termination" of the 22-year concession after three years, with the 3,500,000 dollars spent by the concessionaires to be treated as a loan repaid by the Soviet government.[^21] Sutton wrote that the Soviets expropriated the concessions of the 1920s, including Harriman's, usually without reimbursement, and that Harriman took three million dollars in Soviet bonds as compensation. Sutton quotes a statement of Harriman to [[John B. Stetson Jr.]] of the State Department: "Mr. Harriman said that they expect to drop about three million dollars which they would charge off to experience."[^22]
+A report of March 1926 ranked the manganese rights obtained by the Harriman interests second among the concessions granted to foreigners, after the Volga timber concessions given to the former German chancellor [[Joseph Wirth]]. A report of July 1927 states that the Soviets had reconfirmed the concession and that the British had been using their offices to thwart it.[^21][^22] The Library of Congress lists a trip to the USSR in 1926 and the investment as running 1925 to 1928; its files include Harriman's correspondence while in the USSR for 1926 and 1927, his resignation in 1928, a termination agreement of August 21 to 28, 1928, and Soviet notes from 1928 to 1943.[^1][^19] The Soviet Bureau of Foreign Concessions announced in July 1928 the "amicable termination" of the 22-year concession after three years, with the 3,500,000 dollars spent by the concessionaires to be treated as a loan repaid by the Soviet government.[^23] Sutton wrote that the Soviets expropriated the concessions of the 1920s, including Harriman's, usually without reimbursement, and that Harriman took three million dollars in Soviet bonds as compensation. Sutton quotes a statement of Harriman to [[John B. Stetson Jr.]] of the State Department: "Mr. Harriman said that they expect to drop about three million dollars which they would charge off to experience."[^24]
-A second Soviet-related business, the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, is documented in the Harriman papers for 1921 to 1952, including its consolidation with the Georgia Manganese Company in 1927 and an agreement with the Soviet government in 1928. A folder in the same files is titled "Reynders, John V. W. re J. Henry Schroder Banking Corp. acquisition of Thyssen stock, 1940."[^23] The Georgian National Archives hold a photograph of Harriman in Poti dated about 1920 to 1921, and the description attached to the image states that "Harriman's company held the concession for the Chiatura manganese mines during this period."[^24] Sutton writes that Harriman participated in [[Ruskombank]], the first Soviet commercial bank, whose first vice president for foreign operations was Max May of Guaranty Trust Company.[^25]
+A second Soviet-related business, the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, is documented in the Harriman papers for 1921 to 1952, including its consolidation with the Georgia Manganese Company in 1927 and an agreement with the Soviet government in 1928. A folder in the same files is titled "Reynders, John V. W. re J. Henry Schroder Banking Corp. acquisition of Thyssen stock, 1940."[^25] The Georgian National Archives hold a photograph of Harriman in Poti dated about 1920 to 1921, and the description attached to the image states that "Harriman's company held the concession for the Chiatura manganese mines during this period."[^26] Sutton writes that Harriman participated in [[Ruskombank]], the first Soviet commercial bank, whose first vice president for foreign operations was Max May of Guaranty Trust Company.[^27]
 ### Brown Brothers Harriman
-On December 22, 1930 the merger of Brown Brothers and Company and the Harriman firms was reported as completed "last week"; the report counts 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman and Company, eleven of them Yale graduates, and notes that partner [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] was a classmate of the Harriman partners Edward Roland Noel Harriman, [[Prescott Bush]] and [[Knight Woolley]], and that Robert A. Lovett was the son of Judge Lovett.[^10] The firm's own history states that the merger was first discussed among six partners in November 1930, that twelve of 17 partners had graduated from Yale, and that in 1931 an emergency infusion of 10 million dollars from Averell and Roland Harriman averted collapse after Germany declared a standstill on debt payments to foreign creditors.[^26] A finding aid for the firm's records gives 1931 as the year Brown Brothers merged with the Harriman interests.[^27] The printed circular announcing the union, dated January 2, 1931, states that "effective January 1, 1931" the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., Harriman Brothers & Co. and W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. were united in Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^28] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date Averell and Roland Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank (organized on St. Patrick's Day 1927 under the name W. A. Harriman & Co. and renamed Harriman Brothers & Co.), and January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946 as his term as general partner of the merged firm, with limited partner status afterward.[^28] The firm's history records that he chaired the Department of Commerce Business Advisory Council from 1937 to 1939 and served with the N.R.A., the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the [[Office of Production Management]] before going to Great Britain for lend-lease.[^28] [[Zachary Karabell]] wrote that the merger was announced on December 12, 1930, and that Harriman "was flush with the millions provided by his father's fortune" but "his business was struggling as well."[^29] The Library of Congress lists Harriman as a partner from 1931 to 1946, and holds a cable file of Brown Brothers Harriman for 1931.[^1][^14] The report describes Brown Brothers as formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, with an associate house, Brown, Shipley and Company, in which Montagu Norman had been a partner before becoming head of the Bank of England. Sutton's chronology gives 1933 for the merger and lists the Brown Brothers Harriman partners who were members of the society, including Averell Harriman (class of 1913) and Roland Harriman (class of 1917).[^11]
+On December 22, 1930 the merger of Brown Brothers and Company and the Harriman firms was reported as completed "last week"; the report counts 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman and Company, eleven of them Yale graduates, and notes that partner [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] was a classmate of the Harriman partners Edward Roland Noel Harriman, [[Prescott Bush]] and [[Knight Woolley]], and that Robert A. Lovett was the son of Judge Lovett.[^12] The firm's own history states that the merger was first discussed among six partners in November 1930, that twelve of 17 partners had graduated from Yale, and that in 1931 an emergency infusion of 10 million dollars from Averell and Roland Harriman averted collapse after Germany declared a standstill on debt payments to foreign creditors.[^28] A finding aid for the firm's records gives 1931 as the year Brown Brothers merged with the Harriman interests.[^29] The printed circular announcing the union, dated January 2, 1931, states that "effective January 1, 1931" the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., Harriman Brothers & Co. and W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. were united in Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^30] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date Averell and Roland Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank (organized on St. Patrick's Day 1927 under the name W. A. Harriman & Co. and renamed Harriman Brothers & Co.), and January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946 as his term as general partner of the merged firm, with limited partner status afterward.[^30] The firm's history records that he chaired the Department of Commerce Business Advisory Council from 1937 to 1939 and served with the N.R.A., the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the [[Office of Production Management]] before going to Great Britain for lend-lease.[^30] [[Zachary Karabell]] wrote that the merger was announced on December 12, 1930, and that Harriman "was flush with the millions provided by his father's fortune" but "his business was struggling as well."[^31] The Library of Congress lists Harriman as a partner from 1931 to 1946, and holds a cable file of Brown Brothers Harriman for 1931.[^1][^16] The report describes Brown Brothers as formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, with an associate house, Brown, Shipley and Company, in which Montagu Norman had been a partner before becoming head of the Bank of England. Sutton's chronology gives 1933 for the merger and lists the Brown Brothers Harriman partners who were members of the society, including Averell Harriman (class of 1913) and Roland Harriman (class of 1917).[^13]
 ### Union Banking Corporation
-A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, Cornelis Lievense, believed Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]] might own a substantial interest. It records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which 3,085,000 dollars was delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank on June 15, 1934, and states that "In the fall of 1938, during the Munich crisis, Union Banking Corporation held two million dollars in currency in a safe deposit box in New York, but this sum was subsequently deposited in the company's account with Brown Brothers, Harriman."[^30]
+A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, Cornelis Lievense, believed Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]] might own a substantial interest. It records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which 3,085,000 dollars was delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank on June 15, 1934, and states that "In the fall of 1938, during the Munich crisis, Union Banking Corporation held two million dollars in currency in a safe deposit box in New York, but this sum was subsequently deposited in the company's account with Brown Brothers, Harriman."[^32]
-On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, vesting the 4,000 shares of Union Banking Corporation, published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, [[Cornelius Lievense]] with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which it describes as owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]]. W. Averell Harriman is not among the registered owners.[^31] Sutton writes that "the Harrimans had a financial interest in" the corporation, that Roland was a director, and that Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E. S. James and Knight Woolley were "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) prime financial backers of Hitler"; he lists eight directors in 1932: E. Roland Harriman, H. J. Kouwenhoven, Knight Woolley, Cornelius Lievense, Ellery Sedgwick James, Johann Groninger, J. L. Guinter and Prescott Sheldon Bush.[^32] A [[Council on Foreign Relations]] table of November 1951 lists Brown Brothers Harriman officers who were members as E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^33]
+On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, vesting the 4,000 shares of Union Banking Corporation, published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, [[Cornelius Lievense]] with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which it describes as owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]]. W. Averell Harriman is not among the registered owners.[^33] Sutton writes that "the Harrimans had a financial interest in" the corporation, that Roland was a director, and that Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E. S. James and Knight Woolley were "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) prime financial backers of Hitler"; he lists eight directors in 1932: E. Roland Harriman, H. J. Kouwenhoven, Knight Woolley, Cornelius Lievense, Ellery Sedgwick James, Johann Groninger, J. L. Guinter and Prescott Sheldon Bush.[^34] A [[Council on Foreign Relations]] table of November 1951 lists Brown Brothers Harriman officers who were members as E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^35]
 ### Today, Newsweek and the Business Advisory Council
-The Library of Congress lists Harriman as co-founder with [[Vincent Astor]] of the weekly Today in 1933, merged with [[Newsweek]] in 1937, and as chairman of the [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939; he held the position of Administrator and special assistant at the [[National Recovery Administration]] in 1934 and 1935 and founded the Sun Valley ski resort in Idaho in 1935 and 1936.[^1] On September 11, 1933 Astor and Harriman announced a weekly, Today, to be edited by [[Raymond Moley]].[^34] On March 17, 1961 [[Philip Graham]] sent [[Alfred Friendly]] to Rome to secure a pledge from Harriman, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell his 13 percent holding in Newsweek to the [[Washington Post]].[^35]
+The Library of Congress lists Harriman as co-founder with [[Vincent Astor]] of the weekly Today in 1933, merged with [[Newsweek]] in 1937, and as chairman of the [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939; he held the position of Administrator and special assistant at the [[National Recovery Administration]] in 1934 and 1935 and founded the Sun Valley ski resort in Idaho in 1935 and 1936.[^1] On September 11, 1933 Astor and Harriman announced a weekly, Today, to be edited by [[Raymond Moley]].[^36] On March 17, 1961 [[Philip Graham]] sent [[Alfred Friendly]] to Rome to secure a pledge from Harriman, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell his 13 percent holding in Newsweek to the [[Washington Post]].[^37]
 ### Lend-Lease and the Moscow embassy
-Harriman became [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s special representative to Great Britain with the rank of ambassador in March 1941, serving until September 1943, and chaired the President's special mission to the USSR.[^1][^3] On August 6, 1941 the Secretary of State sent [[Winant]], the ambassador in the United Kingdom, a telegram marked "Personal from Harriman" relaying a conversation with [[Brendan Bracken]], the British Minister of Information, about American belief that Britain was using Lend-Lease materials to foster and retain its commercial exports.[^36]
+Harriman became [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s special representative to Great Britain with the rank of ambassador in March 1941, serving until September 1943, and chaired the President's special mission to the USSR.[^1][^3] On August 6, 1941 the Secretary of State sent [[Winant]], the ambassador in the United Kingdom, a telegram marked "Personal from Harriman" relaying a conversation with [[Brendan Bracken]], the British Minister of Information, about American belief that Britain was using Lend-Lease materials to foster and retain its commercial exports.[^38]
-He was ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1946.[^1] A telegram of February 10, 1944 from Moscow reports a conversation with [[Anastas Mikoyan]] about the Persian route and the decorations proposed for the American officers who supervised it.[^37] On February 13, 1944 he wrote to [[Harry Hopkins]] that he did not intend to object to a supplementary agreement to the Third Protocol and that the Department had indicated legal difficulties in arranging a reconstruction credit under the [[Johnson Act]].[^38] Sutton quotes a report of June 30, 1944 from Harriman in Moscow to the State Department in which Stalin is said to have stated that about two-thirds of all the large industrial enterprises in the Soviet Union had been built with United States help or technical assistance.[^39] On February 10, 1944 the Acting Secretary of State had sent Harriman the replies approved by the President to three questions asked by the Polish government.[^40]
+He was ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1946.[^1] A telegram of February 10, 1944 from Moscow reports a conversation with [[Anastas Mikoyan]] about the Persian route and the decorations proposed for the American officers who supervised it.[^39] On February 13, 1944 he wrote to [[Harry Hopkins]] that he did not intend to object to a supplementary agreement to the Third Protocol and that the Department had indicated legal difficulties in arranging a reconstruction credit under the [[Johnson Act]].[^40] Sutton quotes a report of June 30, 1944 from Harriman in Moscow to the State Department in which Stalin is said to have stated that about two-thirds of all the large industrial enterprises in the Soviet Union had been built with United States help or technical assistance.[^41] On February 10, 1944 the Acting Secretary of State had sent Harriman the replies approved by the President to three questions asked by the Polish government.[^42]
-Sutton reproduces an account of a dinner party in 1971 at which, he writes, the journalist [[Edward Weintal]] told Harriman: "You told Roosevelt that you were convinced that the Soviets did not want to introduce a Communist government into Poland." Sutton states that Weintal cited a State Department telegram of February 12, 1944 from Harriman to Roosevelt, that Harriman shouted "If you print anything like that in your book, I'll break your jaw," and that a Washington Post reporter noted the details in a column by [[Maxine Cheshire]] of March 17, 1971.[^41]
+Sutton reproduces an account of a dinner party in 1971 at which, he writes, the journalist [[Edward Weintal]] told Harriman: "You told Roosevelt that you were convinced that the Soviets did not want to introduce a Communist government into Poland." Sutton states that Weintal cited a State Department telegram of February 12, 1944 from Harriman to Roosevelt, that Harriman shouted "If you print anything like that in your book, I'll break your jaw," and that a Washington Post reporter noted the details in a column by [[Maxine Cheshire]] of March 17, 1971.[^43]
 ### Ambassador to the United Kingdom and Secretary of Commerce
-The State Department records that Harriman resigned as ambassador to the Soviet Union in February 1946 and assumed his duties as ambassador in the United Kingdom in April 1946.[^42] On April 22, 1948 President Truman accepted his resignation as United States Secretary of Commerce, effective that day, so that he could take up the administration of the European Recovery Program.[^43] The Library of Congress lists the commerce post as 1946 to 1948, and states that Truman named him ambassador to the Court of St. James's before recalling him to Washington to become secretary of commerce.[^1][^3] [[Harry Kern]] and the historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern and Harriman, as Secretary of Commerce, helped to turn American occupation policy in Japan away from democratic reform.[^44]
+The State Department records that Harriman resigned as ambassador to the Soviet Union in February 1946 and assumed his duties as ambassador in the United Kingdom in April 1946.[^44] On April 22, 1948 President Truman accepted his resignation as United States Secretary of Commerce, effective that day, so that he could take up the administration of the European Recovery Program.[^45] The Library of Congress lists the commerce post as 1946 to 1948, and states that Truman named him ambassador to the Court of St. James's before recalling him to Washington to become secretary of commerce.[^1][^3] [[Harry Kern]] and the historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern and Harriman, as Secretary of Commerce, helped to turn American occupation policy in Japan away from democratic reform.[^46]
 ### The Marshall Plan
-In May 1948 Truman sent Harriman to Paris as Special Representative in Europe to carry out the European Recovery Program, and he returned to the United States in mid-1950 to become the president's special assistant.[^3] [[Lincoln Gordon]] worked under Harriman on the Marshall Plan mission in London. [[Vernon Walters]] served as Harriman's aide at Marshall Plan headquarters in Paris.[^45] [[Robert R. Mullen]] recalled that he and [[E. Howard Hunt]] both worked for the Marshall Plan in Paris from 1948 to 1950, when [[Dorothy Hunt]] was employed by Harriman.[^46] The Library of Congress files for the period also record his mediation in the British-Iranian oil crisis of 1951 and the Korean War controversy over the dismissal of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].[^3]
+In May 1948 Truman sent Harriman to Paris as Special Representative in Europe to carry out the European Recovery Program, and he returned to the United States in mid-1950 to become the president's special assistant.[^3] [[Lincoln Gordon]] worked under Harriman on the Marshall Plan mission in London. [[Vernon Walters]] served as Harriman's aide at Marshall Plan headquarters in Paris.[^47] [[Robert R. Mullen]] recalled that he and [[E. Howard Hunt]] both worked for the Marshall Plan in Paris from 1948 to 1950, when [[Dorothy Hunt]] was employed by Harriman.[^48] The Library of Congress files for the period also record his mediation in the British-Iranian oil crisis of 1951 and the Korean War controversy over the dismissal of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].[^3]
 ### Mutual Security and the Council on Foreign Relations
-The volume of Foreign Relations of the United States for 1951 records that the [[International Security Affairs Committee]] was to be abolished and that Harriman had been nominated as Director for Mutual Security on October 11, 1951; the Library of Congress lists him as director of the [[Mutual Security Agency]] from 1951 to 1953 and chairman of the North Atlantic Commission on Defense Plans in 1951 and 1952.[^47][^1] On December 12, 1950 [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement of a Council study group on aid to Europe, noting in the covering letter that [[Allen Dulles]] had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^48] The Council's officers for 1952 to 1953 included Harriman among the directors, and he is listed among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more.[^49][^50]
+The volume of Foreign Relations of the United States for 1951 records that the [[International Security Affairs Committee]] was to be abolished and that Harriman had been nominated as Director for Mutual Security on October 11, 1951; the Library of Congress lists him as director of the [[Mutual Security Agency]] from 1951 to 1953 and chairman of the North Atlantic Commission on Defense Plans in 1951 and 1952.[^1][^49] On December 12, 1950 [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement of a Council study group on aid to Europe, noting in the covering letter that [[Allen Dulles]] had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^50] The Council's officers for 1952 to 1953 included Harriman among the directors, and he is listed among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more.[^51][^52]
 ### Governor of New York
-Harriman was governor of New York from 1955 to 1958; the Library of Congress lists the term as 1955 to 1959 and notes that the papers of the governorship are held at Syracuse University.[^51][^1] [[Mary Lasker]] recalled in her Columbia oral history that Harriman asked for suggestions for a commissioner of mental hygiene soon after the election, and that [[Lester Markel]] of the New York Times telephoned to ask whether she knew [[Paul Hoch]], then in charge of research at the institute; Hoch's appointment was announced in July 1955.[^52] The Columbia oral history of [[Grayson Kirk]], held by the Eisenhower Library, covers Harriman's donation of the Arden House estate to [[Columbia University]].[^53]
+Harriman was governor of New York from 1955 to 1958; the Library of Congress lists the term as 1955 to 1959 and notes that the papers of the governorship are held at Syracuse University.[^1][^53] [[Mary Lasker]] recalled in her Columbia oral history that Harriman asked for suggestions for a commissioner of mental hygiene soon after the election, and that [[Lester Markel]] of the New York Times telephoned to ask whether she knew [[Paul Hoch]], then in charge of research at the institute; Hoch's appointment was announced in July 1955.[^54] The Columbia oral history of [[Grayson Kirk]], held by the Eisenhower Library, covers Harriman's donation of the Arden House estate to [[Columbia University]].[^55]
 ### Kennedy administration and Vietnam
-By September 1962 Harriman was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, and by August 1963 Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs.[^54][^55] On August 24, 1963 the State Department sent telegram 243 to [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] in Saigon, stating that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands" and instructing the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." The telegram was signed by [[George Ball]].[^56] A memorandum for the record by [[Victor Krulak]] of the same day records the account of [[Michael Forrestal]] that "Hilsman and Governor Harriman" had converted a proposed course of action into an instruction to Lodge, that it had been sent to the President for approval, and that it was not something on which Defense clearance was desired.[^57] [[Maxwell Taylor]] said in 1981 that the telegram had been drafted by Harriman, [[Roger Hilsman]] and Forrestal and dispatched "without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or the CIA," and called it an "end run" in his memoirs; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^58]
+By September 1962 Harriman was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, and by August 1963 Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs.[^56][^57] On August 24, 1963 the State Department sent telegram 243 to [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] in Saigon, stating that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands" and instructing the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." The telegram was signed by [[George Ball]].[^58] A memorandum for the record by [[Victor Krulak]] of the same day records the account of [[Michael Forrestal]] that "Hilsman and Governor Harriman" had converted a proposed course of action into an instruction to Lodge, that it had been sent to the President for approval, and that it was not something on which Defense clearance was desired.[^59] [[Maxwell Taylor]] said in 1981 that the telegram had been drafted by Harriman, [[Roger Hilsman]] and Forrestal and dispatched "without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or the CIA," and called it an "end run" in his memoirs; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^60]
-On October 7, 1963 Harriman attended a White House meeting on Brazil with Kennedy, [[Robert McNamara]], [[Edwin Martin]] and Lincoln Gordon, at which Kennedy asked whether the United States might find it desirable to intervene militarily.[^59] On June 19, 1963 he attended the meeting at which Kennedy approved a sabotage program against Cuba, one of the programs later grouped as [[Operation Mongoose]], with [[John McCone]] and McGeorge Bundy present.[^60]
+On October 7, 1963 Harriman attended a White House meeting on Brazil with Kennedy, [[Robert McNamara]], [[Edwin Martin]] and Lincoln Gordon, at which Kennedy asked whether the United States might find it desirable to intervene militarily.[^61] On June 19, 1963 he attended the meeting at which Kennedy approved a sabotage program against Cuba, one of the programs later grouped as [[Operation Mongoose]], with [[John McCone]] and McGeorge Bundy present.[^62]
 ### Laos
-Harriman headed the American delegation to the Geneva conference on Laos in 1961 and 1962; the Library of Congress lists him as deputy representative to the conference.[^61][^1] A memorandum of his conversation with the North Vietnamese foreign minister at Geneva on July 22, 1962 records that he said the United States intended to carry out the Laos agreements "in the letter and in the spirit," including the removal of its military personnel from Laos.[^62] The State Department editorial note states that "On July 23, Secretary Rusk signed for the United States the Declaration on the Neutrality of Laos."[^63]
+Harriman headed the American delegation to the Geneva conference on Laos in 1961 and 1962; the Library of Congress lists him as deputy representative to the conference.[^1][^63] A memorandum of his conversation with the North Vietnamese foreign minister at Geneva on July 22, 1962 records that he said the United States intended to carry out the Laos agreements "in the letter and in the spirit," including the removal of its military personnel from Laos.[^64] The State Department editorial note states that "On July 23, Secretary Rusk signed for the United States the Declaration on the Neutrality of Laos."[^65]
 ### Paris peace talks
-In October 1968 Harriman and [[Cyrus Vance]] led the American side in the Paris talks on Vietnam. A telegram from the Paris embassy dated October 9, 1968 is headed "From Harriman and Vance" and reports a meeting in which [[Le Duc Tho]], [[Xuan Thuy]] and Lau joined the Americans during a tea break.[^64]
+In October 1968 Harriman and [[Cyrus Vance]] led the American side in the Paris talks on Vietnam. A telegram from the Paris embassy dated October 9, 1968 is headed "From Harriman and Vance" and reports a meeting in which [[Le Duc Tho]], [[Xuan Thuy]] and Lau joined the Americans during a tea break.[^66]
 ### Marriages and papers
-The Library of Congress lists Harriman's marriages as 1915 to Kathleen Lanier Lawrence (divorced 1929), 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970) and 1971 to [[Pamela Harriman]], formerly Pamela Digby Churchill Hayward. Sutton notes that Pamela Hayward had been married to [[Randolph Churchill]].[^1][^11]
+The Library of Congress lists Harriman's marriages as 1915 to Kathleen Lanier Lawrence (divorced 1929), 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970) and 1971 to [[Pamela Harriman]], formerly Pamela Digby Churchill Hayward. Sutton notes that Pamela Hayward had been married to [[Randolph Churchill]].[^1][^13]
-The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division run to 346,760 items in 1,041 containers, with series for the Georgian Manganese Company and the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, and a Classified, Top Secret, Restricted Data and Sensitive Compartmented Information series for 1946 to 1980.[^3] FRUS volume III for 1961 to 1963 records that its documents were drawn from the papers while still in the possession of the late ambassador, and other volumes cite the Chronology File for May to August 1962.[^28][^62]
+The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division run to 346,760 items in 1,041 containers, with series for the Georgian Manganese Company and the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, and a Classified, Top Secret, Restricted Data and Sensitive Compartmented Information series for 1946 to 1980.[^3] FRUS volume III for 1961 to 1963 records that its documents were drawn from the papers while still in the possession of the late ambassador, and other volumes cite the Chronology File for May to August 1962.[^30][^64]
 ### Footnotes
@ -212,58 +212,60 @@ The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division ru
 [^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
 [^8]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past," Salon, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
 [^9]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, family section (E. H. Harriman, Judge Robert Scott Lovett, and the initiation of Robert Abercrombie Lovett "with the two Harriman boys, Roland and Averell").
-[^10]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," Time, December 22, 1930. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html
+[^10]: Union Pacific Railroad Company, *Annual Report* for 1968, "Chairman Harriman" and "Top Management Changes." https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
-[^11]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology under the heading of an official summary of Averell Harriman's career (marriages; 1920, 1923, 1933 entries; Pamela Hayward and Randolph Churchill).
+[^11]: Harry S. Truman, The President's News Conference, November 2, 1950, item 1, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-574
-[^12]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology and the section "The Guaranty Trust Company."
+[^12]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," Time, December 22, 1930. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html
-[^13]: "Sanction Plan to Run Ships on German Routes," The Omaha Bee, August 17, 1920, p. 2 (Washington dispatch of August 16, 1920). https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn99021999/1920-08-17/ed-1/seq-2
+[^13]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology under the heading of an official summary of Averell Harriman's career (marriages; 1920, 1923, 1933 entries; Pamela Hayward and Randolph Churchill).
-[^14]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Library of Congress, Special Files: Business (cables incoming and outgoing, Hamburg-American Line 1920 to 1926; Cuno, Wilhelm, 1920 to 1931; Brown Brothers Harriman and Co., 1931), Subject File (Hamburg-American Line, 1933 to 1937, Box 56; United American Lines re sale of steamers, 1926). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
+[^14]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology and the section "The Guaranty Trust Company."
-[^15]: Telegram, the Chargé in the Soviet Union (Henderson) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, September 22, 1936, Foreign Relations of the United States, The Soviet Union, 1933 to 1939, document 334. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1933-39/d334
+[^15]: "Sanction Plan to Run Ships on German Routes," The Omaha Bee, August 17, 1920, p. 2 (Washington dispatch of August 16, 1920). https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn99021999/1920-08-17/ed-1/seq-2
-[^16]: W. A. Harriman and Company agreement, 1925, Hoover Institution Library and Archives (Online Archive of California). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp
+[^16]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Library of Congress, Special Files: Business (cables incoming and outgoing, Hamburg-American Line 1920 to 1926; Cuno, Wilhelm, 1920 to 1931; Brown Brothers Harriman and Co., 1931), Subject File (Hamburg-American Line, 1933 to 1937, Box 56; United American Lines re sale of steamers, 1926). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
-[^17]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925; property of voting trustees, August 10, 1925; ore shipments, November 1925 contract; Harriman correspondence while in USSR, 1926 to 1927; resignation, 1928; termination agreement, August 21 to 28, 1928; Soviet notes). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
+[^17]: Telegram, the Chargé in the Soviet Union (Henderson) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, September 22, 1936, Foreign Relations of the United States, The Soviet Union, 1933 to 1939, document 334. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1933-39/d334
-[^18]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), section "How the Order Developed the Stagnant Soviet Union" (concession agreement of July 12, 1925; four million dollars; Matthew C. Brush; State Department Decimal File 316-138-12/331), and the Order chart naming Brush as chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company.
+[^18]: W. A. Harriman and Company agreement, 1925, Hoover Institution Library and Archives (Online Archive of California). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp
-[^19]: "Russia: Concessions," Time, March 15, 1926. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736634,00.html
+[^19]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925; property of voting trustees, August 10, 1925; ore shipments, November 1925 contract; Harriman correspondence while in USSR, 1926 to 1927; resignation, 1928; termination agreement, August 21 to 28, 1928; Soviet notes). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
-[^20]: Time, July 25, 1927, on the Soviet reconfirmation of the Harriman manganese concession. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736830,00.html
+[^20]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), section "How the Order Developed the Stagnant Soviet Union" (concession agreement of July 12, 1925; four million dollars; Matthew C. Brush; State Department Decimal File 316-138-12/331), and the Order chart naming Brush as chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company.
-[^21]: "Foreign News: Harriman Out," Time, July 16, 1928. https://time.com/archive/6778286/foreign-news-harriman-out/
+[^21]: "Russia: Concessions," Time, March 15, 1926. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736634,00.html
-[^22]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, discussing Harriman's article in Look, October 3, 1967, and State Department file 861.637-Harriman (Stetson).
+[^22]: Time, July 25, 1927, on the Soviet reconfirmation of the Harriman manganese concession. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736830,00.html
-[^23]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, 1921 to 1952 (Boxes 710 to 731). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
+[^23]: "Foreign News: Harriman Out," Time, July 16, 1928. https://time.com/archive/6778286/foreign-news-harriman-out/
-[^24]: National Archives of Georgia photograph, "American Industrialist W. Averell Harriman in Poti, c. 1920," institutional description, Internet Archive item. https://archive.org/details/043-harriman-in-poti-with-mikaberidze-c-1920-01
+[^24]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, discussing Harriman's article in Look, October 3, 1967, and State Department file 861.637-Harriman (Stetson).
-[^25]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples of the Order's activity (Ruskombank and Max May of Guaranty Trust).
+[^25]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, 1921 to 1952 (Boxes 710 to 731). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
-[^26]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
+[^26]: National Archives of Georgia photograph, "American Industrialist W. Averell Harriman in Poti, c. 1920," institutional description, Internet Archive item. https://archive.org/details/043-harriman-in-poti-with-mikaberidze-c-1920-01
-[^27]: Brown Brothers Harriman records, finding aid, New-York Historical Society collection at NYU. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
+[^27]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples of the Order's activity (Ruskombank and Max May of Guaranty Trust).
-[^28]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 19, 202 and partner table pp. 231 to 234. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^28]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
-[^29]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 15 to 16. https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
+[^29]: Brown Brothers Harriman records, finding aid, New-York Historical Society collection at NYU. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
-[^30]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA (NND 960103). https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay
+[^30]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 19, 202 and partner table pp. 231 to 234. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^31]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, 7 Federal Register 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
+[^31]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 15 to 16. https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
-[^32]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples and section "The Union Banking Connection" (directors in 1932, Roland Harriman as director).
+[^32]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA (NND 960103). https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay
-[^33]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
+[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, 7 Federal Register 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
-[^34]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/
+[^34]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples and section "The Union Banking Connection" (directors in 1932, Roland Harriman as director).
-[^35]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/
+[^35]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
-[^36]: Telegram, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), Washington, August 6, 1941, "Personal from Harriman," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941, vol. III. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d14
+[^36]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/
-[^37]: Telegram 440, Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, February 10, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 761. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d761
+[^37]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/
-[^38]: Telegram, Harriman to the Chairman of the President's Soviet Protocol Committee (Hopkins), Moscow, February 13, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 957. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d957
+[^38]: Telegram, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), Washington, August 6, 1941, "Personal from Harriman," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941, vol. III. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d14
-[^39]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, citing State Department Decimal File 033.1161 Johnston Eric/6-3044, telegram of June 30, 1944.
+[^39]: Telegram 440, Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, February 10, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 761. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d761
-[^40]: Telegram, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman), Washington, February 10, 1944, 8 p.m., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. III, document 1162. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v03/d1162
+[^40]: Telegram, Harriman to the Chairman of the President's Soviet Protocol Committee (Hopkins), Moscow, February 13, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 957. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d957
-[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, passage on Edward Weintal, citing the Washington Post, March 17, 1971, VIP column by Maxine Cheshire.
+[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, citing State Department Decimal File 033.1161 Johnston Eric/6-3044, telegram of June 30, 1944.
-[^42]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. VI, document 420, editorial headnote. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v06/d420
+[^42]: Telegram, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman), Washington, February 10, 1944, 8 p.m., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. III, document 1162. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v03/d1162
-[^43]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to Secretary Harriman Following His Nomination as U.S. Special Representative in Europe, April 22, 1948, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/83/letter-secretary-harriman-following-his-nomination-us-special
+[^43]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, passage on Edward Weintal, citing the Washington Post, March 17, 1971, VIP column by Maxine Cheshire.
-[^44]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), p. 7.
+[^44]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. VI, document 420, editorial headnote. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v06/d420
-[^45]: Vernon Walters, *Silent Missions* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978).
+[^45]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to Secretary Harriman Following His Nomination as U.S. Special Representative in Europe, April 22, 1948, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/83/letter-secretary-harriman-following-his-nomination-us-special
-[^46]: Central Intelligence Agency, Central Cover Staff, "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00297384.
+[^46]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), p. 7.
-[^47]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, document 769 and its headnote on the Mutual Security Agency. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v01/d769
+[^47]: Vernon Walters, *Silent Missions* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978).
-[^48]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7
+[^48]: Central Intelligence Agency, Central Cover Staff, "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00297384.
-[^49]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952), Officers and Standing Committees, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3
+[^49]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, document 769 and its headnote on the Mutual Security Agency. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v01/d769
-[^50]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985), Campaign for the Council, individual donors of $10,000 or more, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
+[^50]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7
-[^51]: Empire State Plaza, Hall of Governors, "W. Averell Harriman, 48th Governor, 1955 to 1958," New York State Office of General Services. https://empirestateplaza.ny.gov/node/3471
+[^51]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952), Officers and Standing Committees, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3
-[^52]: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Research Office, Mary Lasker oral history, transcript pages laskerm_1_19_570 and laskerm_1_19_572. https://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/laskerm/transcripts/laskerm_1_19_572.html ; University at Albany, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, record of a 1956 interview of Dr. Paul H. Hoch, Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap015aspace_033e27487bc26a06ec8cf9fd535fb0c3
+[^52]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985), Campaign for the Council, individual donors of $10,000 or more, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
-[^53]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-364, Grayson L. Kirk, interview by David Horrocks, 1975. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa364.pdf
+[^53]: Empire State Plaza, Hall of Governors, "W. Averell Harriman, 48th Governor, 1955 to 1958," New York State Office of General Services. https://empirestateplaza.ny.gov/node/3471
-[^54]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 423, Memorandum from the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Johnson) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Harriman), September 21, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d423
+[^54]: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Research Office, Mary Lasker oral history, transcript pages laskerm_1_19_570 and laskerm_1_19_572. https://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/laskerm/transcripts/laskerm_1_19_572.html ; University at Albany, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, record of a 1956 interview of Dr. Paul H. Hoch, Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap015aspace_033e27487bc26a06ec8cf9fd535fb0c3
-[^55]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 243, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman) and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Hilsman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d243
+[^55]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-364, Grayson L. Kirk, interview by David Horrocks, 1975. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa364.pdf
-[^56]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 281, Telegram 243, Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, Washington, August 24, 1963, 9:36 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
+[^56]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 423, Memorandum from the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Johnson) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Harriman), September 21, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d423
-[^57]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 282, Memorandum for the Record by Krulak, August 24, 1963. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d282
+[^57]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 243, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman) and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Hilsman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d243
-[^58]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War," *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war ; *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. III, document 281, source note citing Taylor, *Swords and Plowshares*, pp. 292-294, and Hilsman, *To Move a Nation*, pp. 487-488. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
+[^58]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 281, Telegram 243, Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, Washington, August 24, 1963, 9:36 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
-[^59]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, Document 9 (White House meeting recording, October 7, 1963; present: Kennedy, Harriman, McNamara, Martin, Gordon and others).
+[^59]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 282, Memorandum for the Record by Krulak, August 24, 1963. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d282
-[^60]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 337 and pp. 172 to 173 (Special Group minutes and memorandum of June 19, 1963). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^60]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War," *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war ; *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. III, document 281, source note citing Taylor, *Swords and Plowshares*, pp. 292-294, and Hilsman, *To Move a Nation*, pp. 487-488. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
-[^61]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 106, Paper Prepared by the Head of the Delegation to the Laos Conference (Harriman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d106
+[^61]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, Document 9 (White House meeting recording, October 7, 1963; present: Kennedy, Harriman, McNamara, Martin, Gordon and others).
-[^62]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 410, Memorandum of Conversation, Geneva, July 22, 1962, source Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Harriman Papers, Chronology File, May to August 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d410
+[^62]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 337 and pp. 172 to 173 (Special Group minutes and memorandum of June 19, 1963). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
-[^63]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 411, Editorial Note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d411
+[^63]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 106, Paper Prepared by the Head of the Delegation to the Laos Conference (Harriman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d106
-[^64]: Telegram 805 (Delto), Embassy in France to the Department of State, Paris, October 9, 1968, "From Harriman and Vance," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 to 1968, vol. VII, document 54. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v07/d54
+[^64]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 410, Memorandum of Conversation, Geneva, July 22, 1962, source Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Harriman Papers, Chronology File, May to August 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d410
 [^65]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 411, Editorial Note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d411
 [^66]: Telegram 805 (Delto), Embassy in France to the Department of State, Paris, October 9, 1968, "From Harriman and Vance," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 to 1968, vol. VII, document 54. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v07/d54
--- a/PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony
+++ b/PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony
@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ relations:
    with: "[[Phoenix Letter]]"
    start: 1984
    role: "editor, Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984) masthead"
-    fn: 42
+    fn: 45
 ---
 Antony Cyril Sutton (1925 to 2002) was born in London, educated at the Universities of London, Göttingen and California, and held a research fellowship at the [[Hoover Institution]] at [[Stanford University]] from 1968 to 1973. He died in [[Reno, Nevada]]. His Hoover studies of Western technology in the Soviet economy were published in three volumes, and his later books covered the financing of the Bolshevik and Nazi movements, the [[Skull and Bones]] and other [[Yale University]] senior societies, and the [[Trilateral Commission]].[^1][^2][^3][^4]
@ -111,29 +111,31 @@ The chart lists nine old-line families with settlement dates and places: Whitney
 Sutton wrote that a group of 20 to 30 families had come to dominate the society, and that the families fell into two groups. The first were "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams." The second were "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^37] He wrote that intermarriage among these families was common, and that the Puritan families "either intermarried with financial power" or took in the sons of money.[^36]
 Sutton's book calls Charles Phelps Taft, a member of the Yale class of 1918, a nephew of [[William Howard Taft]] and places him at the Twentieth Century Foundation.[^38] The Yale obituary record for William Howard Taft lists a Charles Phelps, 2d, B.A. 1918 and LL.B. 1921, among Taft's own children.[^39] The Yale record of the President's half brother, Charles Phelps Taft (B.A. 1864, 1843 to 1929), lists "Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18" among that half brother's nephews.[^40] The Yale class of 1918 member is therefore the President's son and the nephew of the elder Charles Phelps Taft.
 ### Brown Brothers Harriman, Union Banking and Prescott Bush
-Sutton's account of the [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] partnership says that by the 1970s the firm had "taken in so many of 'the Brotherhood'" that, of its 26 individual partners, "no fewer than 9 were members of The Order."[^38] The list he gives of partners who were members includes [[Prescott Bush]], whom he describes as a partner for over forty years, the father of President George H. W. Bush, and initiated in 1917. It also includes W. Averell Harriman (initiated 1913) and his brother [[E. Roland Harriman]] (initiated 1917).[^38]
+Sutton's account of the [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] partnership says that by the 1970s the firm had "taken in so many of 'the Brotherhood'" that, of its 26 individual partners, "no fewer than 9 were members of The Order."[^41] The list he gives of partners who were members includes [[Prescott Bush]], whom he describes as a partner for over forty years, the father of President George H. W. Bush, and initiated in 1917. It also includes W. Averell Harriman (initiated 1913) and his brother [[E. Roland Harriman]] (initiated 1917).[^41]
-Sutton devotes a passage to the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York. He writes that Union Banking had eight directors, including four members of the Yale class of 1917, that Guaranty Trust was represented by [[Knight Woolley]], that two directors, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, were Nazi directors of the Rotterdam bank [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], which he identifies as the former von Heydt bank, and that Prescott Bush and [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery S. James]] were partners in Brown Brothers, later Brown Brothers, Harriman.[^38][^39] In The Rise of Hitler he describes Union Banking as a joint Thyssen and Harriman operation, with E. Roland Harriman as a director in 1932.[^39][^40]
+Sutton devotes a passage to the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York. He writes that Union Banking had eight directors, including four members of the Yale class of 1917, that Guaranty Trust was represented by [[Knight Woolley]], that two directors, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, were Nazi directors of the Rotterdam bank [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], which he identifies as the former von Heydt bank, and that Prescott Bush and [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery S. James]] were partners in Brown Brothers, later Brown Brothers, Harriman.[^41][^42] In The Rise of Hitler he describes Union Banking as a joint Thyssen and Harriman operation, with E. Roland Harriman as a director in 1932.[^42][^43]
 ### The Stimson and Bundy chain
-The book's section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence" follows a family line through a sequence of offices. Sutton wrote that [[Henry L. Stimson]] went to work for the Root firm in 1890 after Yale and Harvard Law School, married the daughter of a Skull and Bones member, was appointed Secretary of War by [[William Howard Taft]] in 1911, and held offices under every president from Taft through Truman except [[Warren G. Harding]].[^41] He wrote that Stimson brought [[Harvey Hollister Bundy]] into the wartime Pentagon as a special assistant, and that Stimson brought Harvey's son [[McGeorge Bundy]] into the Pentagon to work on the 1948 book On Active Service in Peace and War.[^41] Sutton summarized the pattern as Stimson using his office "to advance the career of fellow members of The Order," naming Harvey Hollister Bundy and McGeorge Bundy.[^41]
+The book's section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence" follows a family line through a sequence of offices. Sutton wrote that [[Henry L. Stimson]] went to work for the Root firm in 1890 after Yale and Harvard Law School, married the daughter of a Skull and Bones member, was appointed Secretary of War by William Howard Taft in 1911, and held offices under every president from Taft through Truman except [[Warren G. Harding]].[^44] He wrote that Stimson brought [[Harvey Hollister Bundy]] into the wartime Pentagon as a special assistant, and that Stimson brought Harvey's son [[McGeorge Bundy]] into the Pentagon to work on the 1948 book On Active Service in Peace and War.[^44] Sutton summarized the pattern as Stimson using his office "to advance the career of fellow members of The Order," naming Harvey Hollister Bundy and McGeorge Bundy.[^44]
-Sutton's account of Stimson in the Second World War also refers to the atomic bombing of [[Japan]], which he says Stimson recommended in 1945.[^41]
+Sutton's account of Stimson in the Second World War also refers to the atomic bombing of [[Japan]], which he says Stimson recommended in 1945.[^44]
 ### Phoenix Letter and the Yale senior societies
-Sutton's October 1984 issue of the Phoenix Letter, which named him as editor and was published by Research Publications at a Phoenix, Arizona post office box, argues that the three Yale senior societies, Skull and Bones ([[Russell Trust]]), [[Scroll and Key]] (Kingsley Trust) and [[Wolf's Head]] (Phelps Trust), form a network. It states that Scroll and Key had been founded by members of Skull and Bones, and that "three quarters of the inner core" had been identified in his diagram of the society.[^42] The same issue cites [[George Wilson Pierson]]'s official history of Yale, and it states that the [[Elihu]] society catalog lists [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding in 1903.[^42] The newsletter also says that it had not yet accounted for the power of Edward Mandel House, whom it had earlier identified as a friend of Yale initiates in the society.[^42]
+Sutton's October 1984 issue of the Phoenix Letter, which named him as editor and was published by Research Publications at a Phoenix, Arizona post office box, argues that the three Yale senior societies, Skull and Bones ([[Russell Trust Association|Russell Trust]]), [[Scroll and Key]] (Kingsley Trust) and [[Wolf's Head]] (Phelps Trust), form a network. It states that Scroll and Key had been founded by members of Skull and Bones, and that "three quarters of the inner core" had been identified in his diagram of the society.[^45] The same issue cites [[George Wilson Pierson]]'s official history of Yale, and it states that the [[Elihu]] society catalog lists [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding in 1903.[^45] The newsletter also says that it had not yet accounted for the power of Edward Mandel House, whom it had earlier identified as a friend of Yale initiates in the society.[^45]
-Sutton's booklet How the Order Controls Education is catalogued by archive.org with a 1985 date.[^43]
+Sutton's booklet How the Order Controls Education is catalogued by archive.org with a 1985 date.[^46]
 ### Trilaterals Over America and later works
-Sutton's book on the Trilateral Commission, in the 1995 edition titled Trilaterals Over America, states that the commission was founded in 1973 by the New York banker [[David Rockefeller]], then chairman of [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], and the Harvard academic [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], later National Security Adviser to President [[Jimmy Carter]]. Its appendix lists members as of October 1978 and July 1993.[^44] The book refers to an earlier volume, Trilaterals Over Washington, written with [[Patrick M. Wood]] and published in Scottsdale, Arizona, by the August Corporation (the Library of Congress record gives c1978, 1979 printing).[^44][^45] The 1995 book directs readers to the Phoenix Letter, then in its twelfth year, at an address in Billings, Montana.[^44]
+Sutton's book on the Trilateral Commission, in the 1995 edition titled Trilaterals Over America, states that the commission was founded in 1973 by the New York banker [[David Rockefeller]], then chairman of [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], and the Harvard academic [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], later National Security Adviser to President [[Jimmy Carter]]. Its appendix lists members as of October 1978 and July 1993.[^47] The book refers to an earlier volume, Trilaterals Over Washington, written with [[Patrick M. Wood]] and published in Scottsdale, Arizona, by the August Corporation (the Library of Congress record gives c1978, 1979 printing).[^47][^48] The 1995 book directs readers to the Phoenix Letter, then in its twelfth year, at an address in Billings, Montana.[^47]
-His later titles include The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), each catalogued by archive.org.[^46]
+His later titles include The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), each catalogued by archive.org.[^49]
 ### Death and the 2002 edition
@ -178,12 +180,15 @@ Sutton's copyright page for America's Secret Establishment gives 1983, 1986 and
 [^35]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the "Addresses" books (the membership lists back to 1832, and the remark about members bound by oath).
 [^36]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), Memorandum Number Four, "Who Is In This Secret Society?" (membership of about 2,500 initiates, Hypothesis One) and the chart the text places on page 19.
 [^37]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the membership history from 1833, including the founders William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft and the description of the two groups of families.
-[^38]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, including the list of partners initiated into The Order in the mid-1970s.
+[^38]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), passage on the Twentieth Century Foundation and Evans Clark, naming "Charles Phelps Taft (The Order '18), nephew of President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^39]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the directors of Union Banking Corporation (eight directors, four Yale 1917 initiates, Knight Woolley, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, and Ellery S. James and Prescott S. Bush).
+[^39]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 (children: "Charles Phelps, 2d (B.A. 1918, LL.B. 1921)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
-[^40]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Table 7-1 and text, p. 103 (Union Banking Corporation directors in 1932, including E. Roland Harriman).
+[^40]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864" (born December 21, 1843; died December 31, 1929; nephews include "William Howard Taft, 2d, '09, Robert A Taft, '10, and Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
-[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," points 1 to 4, and the summary bullets that follow.
+[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, including the list of partners initiated into The Order in the mid-1970s.
-[^42]: "The Yale Senior Society Program," Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Box 39850, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6.
+[^42]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the directors of Union Banking Corporation (eight directors, four Yale 1917 initiates, Knight Woolley, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, and Ellery S. James and Prescott S. Bush).
-[^43]: Antony C. Sutton, How the Order Controls Education (1985), archive.org catalogue record.
+[^43]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Table 7-1 and text, p. 103 (Union Banking Corporation directors in 1932, including E. Roland Harriman).
-[^44]: Antony C. Sutton, Trilaterals Over America (1995), Chapter One, "What is the Trilateral Commission?" (founded in 1973 by David Rockefeller, then chairman of Chase Manhattan) and Appendix A, "Membership October 1978 and July 1993."
+[^44]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," points 1 to 4, and the summary bullets that follow.
-[^45]: Library of Congress catalog record, Sutton, Antony C., and Patrick M. Wood, Trilaterals Over Washington (Scottsdale, Ariz.: August Corp., c1978, 1979 printing), call number HF1411 .S8864. https://www.loc.gov/item/78078277
+[^45]: "The Yale Senior Society Program," Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Box 39850, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6.
-[^46]: Archive.org catalogue records for The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), by Antony C. Sutton.
+[^46]: Antony C. Sutton, How the Order Controls Education (1985), archive.org catalogue record.
 [^47]: Antony C. Sutton, Trilaterals Over America (1995), Chapter One, "What is the Trilateral Commission?" (founded in 1973 by David Rockefeller, then chairman of Chase Manhattan) and Appendix A, "Membership October 1978 and July 1993."
 [^48]: Library of Congress catalog record, Sutton, Antony C., and Patrick M. Wood, Trilaterals Over Washington (Scottsdale, Ariz.: August Corp., c1978, 1979 printing), call number HF1411 .S8864. https://www.loc.gov/item/78078277
 [^49]: Archive.org catalogue records for The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), by Antony C. Sutton.
--- a/PEOPLE/(N-S)/Franklin
+++ b/PEOPLE/(N-S)/Franklin
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-06-13
-updated: 2026-06-13
+updated: 2026-10-26
 title: Franklin D. Roosevelt
 aliases:
  - FDR
@ -13,16 +13,25 @@ tags:
  - 1930s
  - 1940s
 category: "Political Figure"
-summary: "Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd U.S. president, in office from 1933 to 1945, who led the country through the Depression and most of World War II and authorized the creation of the OSS and the Manhattan Project."
+summary: "Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd U.S. president, in office from 1933 to 1945, who led the country through the Depression and most of World War II and authorized the OSS and the Manhattan Project."
 born: 1882-01-30
 died: 1945-04-12
 location: "Hyde Park, New York"
 relations:
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]"
    role: "maternal grandfather (Franklin D. Roosevelt Library catalogues him as Warren Delano II)"
    fn: 2
 ---
 Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 - April 12, 1945) was the thirty-second president of the [[United States]], elected to four terms from 1933 until his death in office in April 1945. His administration enacted the New Deal response to the Great Depression and led the country through most of [[World War II]].[^1]
 ### Maternal family
 Roosevelt's maternal grandfather, [[Warren Delano Jr.]] (catalogued by the Roosevelt Library as Warren Delano II, 1809 to 1898), sailed to [[Canton]] in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce, was associated there with Russell Sturgis and Company, and in January 1840 became a partner in [[Russell and Company]], the American commission house at Canton. He remained in Canton and [[Macao]] during the [[Opium War]] and served as acting consul. The panic of 1857 brought him severe losses, and in 1859 he returned to China.[^2] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] holds the Delano family papers, and its finding aid lists the Russell and Company records among the family's China interests.[^2]
 ### Wartime Intelligence and Science
-In July 1941 Roosevelt appointed [[William J. Donovan]] as Coordinator of Information, and in 1942 he authorized the creation of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]], the wartime intelligence agency that became the institutional ancestor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. He also approved the [[Manhattan Project]], the secret program to build an atomic bomb, and appointed [[Nelson Rockefeller]] as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]] to manage hemispheric policy and propaganda.[^2]
+In July 1941 Roosevelt appointed [[William J. Donovan]] as Coordinator of Information, and in 1942 he authorized the creation of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]], the wartime intelligence agency that became the institutional ancestor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. He also approved the [[Manhattan Project]], the secret program to build an atomic bomb, and appointed [[Nelson Rockefeller]] as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]] to manage hemispheric policy and propaganda.[^3]
 ### Death and Succession
@ -31,4 +40,5 @@ Roosevelt died of a cerebral hemorrhage at Warm Springs, [[Georgia]], on April 1
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Smith, Jean Edward. *FDR*. Random House, 2007.
-[^2]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
+[^2]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano family papers, biographical introduction to Warren Delano II, pp. 1-2 of the PDF. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf
 [^3]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
--- a/PEOPLE/(N-S)/William
+++ b/PEOPLE/(N-S)/William
@ -0,0 +1,261 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 title: William Huntington Russell
 aliases:
  - William Huntington Russell
  - William H. Russell
  - W. H. Russell
  - General William Huntington Russell
  - General Russell
 category: "Political Figure"
 tags:
  - Person
  - WilliamHuntingtonRussell
  - SkullAndBones
  - RussellTrustAssociation
  - YaleUniversity
  - PhiBetaKappa
  - CollegiateAndCommercialInstitute
  - ConnecticutGeneralAssembly
  - ConnecticutNationalGuard
  - JohnBrown
  - KansasFreeState
  - RussellAndCompany
 summary: "Yale 1833 graduate who co-founded Skull and Bones, was first-named incorporator of its 1856 charter, ran a New Haven military school, and was a Connecticut legislator and militia major general."
 born: 1809-08-12
 died: 1885-05-19
 location: "New Haven, Connecticut"
 relations:
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    role: "co-founder with Alphonso Taft; Bagg (1871) and Richards (2015) date the founding to 1832, Sutton to 1833"
    start: 1832
    fn: 1
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    role: "president of the Russell Trust Association"
    start: 1856
    fn: 23
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Collegiate and Commercial Institute]]"
    role: "family school for boys in New Haven, later the Collegiate and Commercial Institute"
    start: 1836
    fn: 4
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Collegiate and Commercial Institute]]"
    role: "head of the school until his death"
    start: 1836
    end: 1885-05-19
    fn: 53
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Phi Beta Kappa]]"
    role: "Yale chapter (Connecticut Alpha), class of 1833; corresponding secretary 1837-1838"
    start: 1833
    end: 1838
    fn: 10
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Connecticut General Assembly]]"
    role: "representative for New Haven"
    start: 1846
    end: 1847
    fn: 31
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[William A. Buckingham]]"
    role: "major general of the Connecticut militia, commissioned July 31, 1862"
    start: 1862-07-31
    end: 1870
    fn: 33
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Princeton University]]"
    role: "taught at Princeton, New Jersey"
    start: 1833-09
    end: 1835-05
    fn: 5
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Yale University]]"
    role: "tutor in the college"
    start: 1835
    end: 1836
    fn: 5
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Internal Revenue Service]]"
    role: "collector of internal revenue, Connecticut, second district"
    start: 1868-12
    fn: 38
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[National Kansas Committee]]"
    role: "listed member of the committee"
    start: 1857
    fn: 39
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[John Brown]]"
    role: "named trustee of the Kansas Free-State funds under Brown's will of April 13, 1857"
    start: 1857-04-13
    fn: 41
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Matthew Talcott Russell]]"
    role: "father"
    fn: 7
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Noadiah Russell]]"
    role: "great-great-grandfather, one of the founders of Yale College"
    fn: 8
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Thomas Hubbard]]"
    role: "father-in-law"
    start: 1836-08-29
    fn: 5
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Samuel Russell]]"
    role: "second cousin (Hamlin genealogy); Millegan calls him cousin, second cousin and uncle in different essays"
    fn: 48
 ---
 William Huntington Russell (August 12, 1809 to May 19, 1885) was a [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] schoolmaster, a member of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]], a major general of the Connecticut militia and a collector of internal revenue. [[Lyman Bagg]] wrote in 1871 that the [[Yale University]] senior society [[Skull and Bones]] was "originated in 1832" and that "General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder"; later accounts name him as its co-founder with [[Alphonso Taft]], and the 1856 act that incorporated the society's trust names him first among the incorporators.[^1][^2][^3] He founded the [[Collegiate and Commercial Institute]] in New Haven and headed it until his death.[^4]
 ### Family
 Russell was born in [[Middletown, Connecticut]] on August 12, 1809, the fifth son of [[Matthew Talcott Russell]] and Mary Huntington.[^5][^6] His father, born in Thompson on March 19, 1761, graduated from Yale in 1779, served as a tutor from November 1782 to May 1786, settled in Middletown as a lawyer, was for some years state's attorney for [[Middlesex County, Connecticut|Middlesex County]] and for sixteen years city treasurer, became a deacon in 1798, and died at Winchester, Connecticut, on November 13, 1828. He was named for Colonel Matthew Talcott of Middletown, who had married his aunt and met the expenses of his education.[^7] Mary Huntington was the eldest daughter of the Rev. Enoch Huntington (Yale 1759) of Middletown, and she died on June 9, 1857, nearly eighty-eight years old. The couple had seven daughters and six sons, and the fifth son graduated from Yale in 1833.[^7]
 Yale's obituary notice of Russell describes him as "a descendant from one of the founders of the College, each link of the descent having been in his turn a graduate and officer of the institution."[^5] The line runs through the Rev. [[Noadiah Russell]], born at New Haven on July 22, 1659, a [[Harvard University]] graduate of 1681, one of the founders of Yale College, a framer of the [[Saybrook Platform]] and from 1688 the second minister at Middletown. In February 1686 he married Mary Hamlin, daughter of [[Giles Hamlin]] of Middletown.[^8] Their son William was the father of the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745, pastor at Windsor from 1751 to 1775), of Capt. Samuel Russell, a Middletown merchant, and of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750, pastor at Thompson from 1757 to 1795), the grandfather of William Huntington Russell.[^9]
 ### Yale, Princeton and the Medical Institution
 Bagg wrote that the society's founders belonged to the class that graduated in 1833 and that Russell was "the valedictorian of that class."[^1] [[David A. Richards]] wrote in the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] in 2015 that the conception of the society "seems to have been that of the 1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of [[Phi Beta Kappa]], William Huntington Russell," and that Russell, Taft and their four cofounders were all members of Phi Beta Kappa.[^2] The Connecticut Alpha chapter's catalogue of August 1838 lists William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft among the members of the class of 1833, each marked "Tut. Y.C.," and names "William H. Russell, M.D." as the chapter's corresponding secretary for 1837 and 1838. Of the fourteen names in the Skull and Bones roster for 1833, the catalogue's list for the class carries six: John Campbell Beach, Noah Bishop, Robert Robertson, Russell, Taft and George Ingersoll Wood.[^10][^11]
 Russell taught at [[Princeton University]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] from September 1833 to May 1835, when he entered on a tutorship at Yale. He studied medicine while tutoring and received the degree of M.D. from Yale in 1838. He resigned the tutorship in September 1836 to open a family school for boys in New Haven, having married on August 29 of that year Mary E., daughter of [[Thomas Hubbard]], professor of surgery in the Medical Institution of [[Yale College]].[^5]
 [[Kris Millegan]] wrote that Russell "studied in Germany from 1831-32."[^12] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that "When its co-founder, William Russell, was in Germany in 1831-2, there was no way he could have avoided Hegelian theory and discussion."[^13] Yale's record places him at Princeton from September 1833.[^5]
 ### The Founding of the Society
 Bagg wrote in *Four Years at Yale* that the modern society system at Yale "began in 1832 when a strictly senior society called 'Skull and Bones' was established."[^14] His account of the society reads: "The society was originated in 1832 by fifteen members of the class which graduated the following year. General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder, and the best known of his associates is Judge Alphonso Taft of Cincinnati. Some injustice in the conferring of Phi Beta Kappa elections seems to have led to its establishment, and apparently it was for some time regarded throughout college as a sort of burlesque convivial club."[^1] Bagg added that "the popular college tradition, that it was transplanted from a German university, is scouted by old neutral graduates as absurd," and that the society's catalogue places the founders in the "third decade of the second period," which "may seem to make in favor of the German university theory, in the minds of many," while "the blank space in place of the eleventh man's name in the list of the founders, may perhaps be thought a straw in the same direction."[^1][^15] The members knew the society as "Eulogia," or the "Eulogian Club."[^16]
 Richards dated the founding to 1832 as well. He wrote that Russell, Taft and four cofounders, all of Phi Beta Kappa, invited eight classmates to join them; that the eight included "the only two members of the Class of 1833 from the Western states (Ohio and Illinois)" and "two of the class's seven members hailing from Southern states"; and that "eulogia is Greek for 'a blessing.'" A skull and crossbones drawn over a meeting notice on the chapel door gave the society its name, and its badge carried the number 322.[^2] The roster Sutton prints for the class of 1833 gives fourteen names: Samuel Henshaw Bates, John Campbell Beach, Noah Bishop, John Crump, Benjamin Franklin Davis, Rufus Erastus Hart, Asahel Hooker Lewis, Samuel Davies Marshall, Frederick Ellsworth Mather, Phineas Timothy Miller, Robert Robertson, William Huntington Russell, Alphonso Taft and George Ingersoll Wood.[^11]
 Sutton dated the founding to 1833. He wrote that the American chapter "was founded in 1833 at Yale University by General William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft who, in 1876, became Secretary of War in the Grant Administration."[^17] He reported the argument that "William Russell imported the society from Germany and so it has been argued the 322 stands for '32 (from 1832), the second chapter, of this German organization."[^18] He wrote that "By contrast, the two founding members, William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft, went far."[^19]
 Bagg recounted that the faculty once broke in on one of the society's meetings and was persuaded to spare it "by the intercessions and explanations of its founder, then serving as tutor among them."[^1] Russell's tutorship at Yale ran from 1835 to 1836.[^5]
 The German origin appears in a pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the society's hall. Sutton reprints the pamphlet, which reads: "Bones is a chapter of a corps in a German University. It should properly be called, not Skull & Bones Society but Skull & Bones Chapter. General R[...] (Russell), its founder, was in Germany before Senior Year and formed a warm friendship with a leading member of a German society. He brought back with him to college, authority to found a chapter here. Thus was Bones founded."[^20] Millegan reprints the same account in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones*.[^21] Sutton's comment on the pamphlet is that the society "is not American at all. It is a branch of a FOREIGN secret society."[^20]
 Bagg described the hall, erected in 1856, as "a grim-looking, windowless, tomb-like structure, of brown sandstone" on High Street near the corner of Chapel, and put the value of the premises at "upwards of $30,000."[^22] Richards described it as "a single forbidding, windowless block in Egypto-Doric style," whose cost was "later estimated at about $30,000."[^2]
 ### The 1856 Charter
 The society held its property through a corporation chartered by the Connecticut General Assembly at its May 1856 session. The act, a certified copy of which the [[Connecticut Secretary of the State]] issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] were constituted a body corporate under the name of the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." It capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars and fixed the first meeting at New Haven for the last Wednesday in July 1856.[^3] Bagg listed the same names with their class years ("William H. Russell of '33, John S. Beach of '39, Henry B. Harrison of '46, Henry T. Blake of '48, Henry D. White of '51, and Daniel C. Gilman of '52") and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next to the last as treasurer, of the association."[^1] The member named next to last is White, while Sutton wrote that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President."[^23] Millegan gives the same arrangement: Gilman "incorporated Skull and Bones as the Russell Trust in 1856, with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President."[^24] In the same passage Millegan places Gilman with [[Timothy Dwight]] and [[Andrew Dickinson White]] in a group of three Bonesmen who "formed a troika which still influences American life today."[^24]
 Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization of the Order, as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, "is essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^25]
 A resolution of July 1870 raised the ceiling on the association's property to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there, six months after Russell's death. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars, and the members accepted it at New Haven on November 12, 1943, with [[Morris Hadley]] sworn as president.[^26]
 ### The Collegiate and Commercial Institute
 Russell opened a family school for boys in New Haven in 1836. The school, in the words of Yale's obituary notice, "developed into 'The Collegiate and Commercial Institute,' having at times as many as 160 pupils, and educating in the aggregate some four thousand young men." The notice adds that "As early as 1853, it assumed the character of a military school," and that during the Civil War the school "was able ... to furnish about three hundred officers to the Union army, as well as many drill-masters to the volunteer companies in southern Connecticut."[^4]
 Bagg's glossary of Yale slang defines a "Russellite" as "a member of Gen. Russell's military school."[^27] Yale graduates taught at the school after college, and the Yale obituary records for 1870 to 1890 carry their entries. One taught there for a year before beginning theological study, another was "fitted for college" there, and a third taught in the school until he entered a tutorship in the college in January 1865.[^28]
 The state armed the school. The Quartermaster General's report of April 1, 1862 lists among the property issued to militia organizations "Wm. H. Russell's Military School, New Haven": one 6-pounder rifled bronze gun, its carriage and implements, and a caisson.[^29] The state's return of arms issued for 1871 lists "William H. Russell, New Haven Military School" with 107 cadet muskets and bayonets and 150 cavalry cartridge boxes and plates.[^30]
 ### Connecticut General Assembly and Militia
 He "represented the town in the State Legislature" in 1846 and 1847.[^5] The [[Connecticut Register]] for 1847 lists the New Haven representatives as "William W. Boardman, William H. Russell," and lists a "Russell of New Haven" on the joint standing committee on education.[^31] The same register lists "Ebenezer Jackson, Samuel Russell" as the representatives for Middletown, the town to which [[Samuel Russell]] of [[Russell and Company]] had returned in 1831.[^31][^32]
 Sutton wrote that "William Russell was a member of the Connecticut State Legislature in 1846-47, a General in the Connecticut National Guard from 1862-70, and founded the Collegiate and Commercial Institute in New Haven, Connecticut."[^19] Yale's obituary notice states that "Gov. Buckingham appointed him in 1862 Major-General of the Militia of the State, and this position he held for eight years."[^5] The governor was [[William A. Buckingham]]. The Adjutant-General's reports list "William H. Russell, New Haven" as major general commanding the division of the Connecticut National Guard, commissioned July 31, 1862, with Lieutenant Colonel Francis Wayland of New Haven (commissioned July 30, 1864) as assistant adjutant general of the division and Lieutenant Colonel [[F. St. John Lockwood]] of [[Norwalk, Connecticut|Norwalk]] (commissioned September 16, 1862) as division inspector.[^33][^34] The report for the year ending March 1869 prints the commission date as July 31, 1866 and corrects it in its errata to July 31, 1862.[^35]
 On September 12, 1866 Russell's headquarters at [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] issued the special order, signed by Major [[Edward W. Bacon]] as acting assistant adjutant general, directing Lockwood to make "a minute inspection" of the First Brigade, Brig. Gen. Prentice commanding, at the camp near Hartford on September 13 and 14; Lockwood reported to Russell on October 6, 1866 and to the Adjutant General, [[Charles T. Stanton Jr.]], on March 4, 1867.[^33] At the annual state military institute held near Hartford, where militia officers below the rank of colonel were instructed for five days, an educational visitor found Russell in charge: "General Russell, who has charge of the Institute, and commands the militia of the State."[^36] Adjutant General [[Colin M. Ingersoll]] quoted Russell's report to the governor of the previous year in his own report for the year ending March 31, 1871: "Our system is certainly the best we know of."[^37]
 ### Collector of Internal Revenue
 Russell "held the office of Collector of Internal Revenue for five years from December, 1868."[^5] The [[Official Register of the United States]] for September 30, 1869 lists "William H. Russell" of New Haven as collector for the second district of Connecticut.[^38]
 ### Kansas and John Brown
 The [[National Kansas Committee]] reported on January 25, 1857, through its assistant secretary [[Horace White]]. The report counted about two thousand emigrants forwarded to [[Kansas]] by the land route through Iowa and Nebraska, and money receipts by state, with $3,182.13 from Connecticut. [[Franklin Benjamin Sanborn]] printed the committee's membership in *The Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885). The list includes "W. H. Russell, New Haven, Conn." beside [[Samuel Cabot Jr.]], [[Thaddeus Hyatt]] and [[W. W. Hoppin]].[^39] When the [[United States Senate]] select committee on the [[Harpers Ferry]] raid examined [[William F. M. Arny]] on January 16, 1860 and asked who sat on the committee for Connecticut, the answer was "W. H. Russell, of New Haven."[^40]
 On April 13, 1857, at [[Boston]], [[John Brown]] signed a will that gave "all trust funds and personal property for the aid of the Free-State cause in Kansas" to [[George L. Stearns]], Samuel Cabot Jr. and "William H. Russell, of New Haven, Conn.," in trust, "to them and the survivor or survivors and their assigns forever." The trustees were to administer the funds "entirely at their discretion."[^41]
 On March 18, 1858, [[John Brown Jr.]] met his father at [[Philadelphia]], with [[Frederick Douglass]] and other men, and the two went on to New York and to New Haven, "where they called (March 18) at the house of Mr. W. H. Russell," before traveling on to [[North Elba]].[^42]
 In a letter written on the Missouri line on the Kansas side, dated July 20, 1858, and addressed to Sanborn and friends at Boston and Worcester, Brown wrote: "Mr. Russell and other friends at New Haven assured me before I left, that if the Lecompton abomination should pass through Congress something could be done there to relieve me from a difficulty I am in, and which they understand." In a footnote, Sanborn explains the difficulty. Brown had contracted with [[Charles Blair]] to make a thousand pikes, had not completed the payment for lack of money, and feared the contract would be forfeited. "He therefore communicated the facts to Mr. Russell, who was then the head of a military school at New Haven, and had some assurance from him of money to be raised in Connecticut to meet this contract."[^43]
 Blair, a blacksmith of [[Collinsville, Connecticut|Collinsville]], testified before the Senate committee in 1860 about the contract. Asked whether the whole weapon, including the screw that connects the handle and the blade, was furnished by the handle maker or by himself, he answered: "We furnished them all, although the ferules and the screw were made at New Haven. The malleable iron was made by a firm in New Haven."[^44]
 Other Russells appear in the same records. Sanborn places Brown at the house of "Judge Russell" in Boston in 1859, a judge whom the same volume names as the Hon. Thomas Russell, and Thomas Russell witnessed Brown's will of 1857.[^45] Dr. [[Samuel Gridley Howe]] told the Senate committee that George R. Russell of Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, was "one of our wealthy, liberal men."[^46] The committee's narrative of the raid names Israel Russell, a justice of the peace at Harpers Ferry taken hostage by Brown's party, and Major Russell of the [[United States Marine Corps]], who reached the town with the marine detachment.[^47] These are different men from William H. Russell of New Haven.
 ### The Russell Family and Samuel Russell
 Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, was the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765; married Abigail Warner at Middletown on June 29, 1788; died there December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell, the Middletown merchant who was a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were therefore first cousins, and their sons Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder, as their common great-grandfather.[^9][^48] Samuel Russell married first Mary Osborn and then her sister Frances Ann Osborn; he was a merchant "for many years in the China trade" and a member of the firm of Russell and Company; his children were George Osborn, John Augustus and Samuel Wadsworth Russell, and his widow Frances founded the [[Russell Library]] in Middletown.[^48]
 Samuel Russell lived from 1789 to about 1862. The [[Library of Congress]] holds the firm's papers, which date Russell and Company from 1819 at [[Canton]]. After his return to Middletown in 1831 he founded the Russell Manufacturing Company for elastic webbing and speculated in real estate at Chicago and Milwaukee and in Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky and New Jersey; the papers include correspondence on the Turkish opium trade.[^32]
 Millegan describes the firm's origins. He wrote that "In 1823, Samuel Russell established Russell and Company for the purpose of acquiring opium in Turkey and smuggling it to China," and that the firm "merged with the Perkins (Boston) syndicate in 1830 and became the primary American opium smuggler." He named [[Warren Delano Jr.]] as one of the firm's chief operators at Canton, "grandfather of Franklin D. Roosevelt."[^49] Millegan also listed other partners of the firm. In his account they included "John Cleve Green (who financed Princeton), Abiel Low (who financed construction of Columbia), Joseph Coolidge and the Perkins, Sturgis and Forbes families."[^49]
 Millegan states the relationship three ways in the same book. The opening article refers to "His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise," and the China-trade passage reads "William Huntington Russell (S&B 1833), Samuel's cousin, studied in Germany from 1831-32." An essay on the Connecticut families reads "Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H., established Russell and Company in 1823." In "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," written as an account of a conversation with his father, he writes that Russell, "valedictorian of the Yale class of 1832," "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell."[^12][^50][^51] A chart in the book describes Samuel Russell as "undisputed king of Middletown" during the formative years of Skull and Bones and names Governor Henry W. Edwards as "Protector of Samuel Russell's opium-financed enterprises, patron of William Huntington Russell's new secret society Skull and Bones."[^52] The essay on the Connecticut families lists the Russell, Pierpont, Edwards, Burr, Griswold, Day, Alsop and Hubbard families as the "multiply-intermarried grouping of families then ruling Connecticut."[^50]
 ### Death
 Russell was stricken by apoplexy at New Haven on May 10, 1885, and the stroke "proved fatal on the 19th of the same month." "General Russell retained his place at the head of his school, and his powers remained almost untouched by age, until his last brief illness." His wife survived him, "with six of their ten children, two daughters and four sons," and the sons were all graduates of Yale.[^53]
 ### Later Members
 Sutton places Taft's later offices beside Russell's career. He lists Taft as Secretary of War in 1876, Attorney General in 1876 to 1877, minister to Austria from 1882 to 1884 and ambassador to Russia in 1884 to 1885.[^19] Later members of the society include [[Henry L. Stimson]] (class of 1888), [[W. Averell Harriman]] (class of 1913) and [[Prescott Bush]] (class of 1917).[^54][^55]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), pp. 145 to 147, on the Russell Trust Association, the names in the act with their class years, the founding of the society by fifteen members of the class of 1833, "General Russell, the valedictorian of that class," the faculty break-in, the German tradition and the society's catalogue. https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
 [^2]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May and June 2015, on the 1832 founding, the "1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of Phi Beta Kappa," Taft as cofounder, the eight invited classmates, the Eulogian Club, the number 322 and the 1856 hall. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
 [^3]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copy (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856), as reprinted in Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," pp. 693 to 694. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^4]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell (class of 1833), p. 241, on the family school, the Collegiate and Commercial Institute, its pupils and its military character. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
 [^5]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, p. 241, on his birth at Middletown on August 12, 1809, his descent from a founder of the college, Princeton from September 1833 to May 1835, the tutorship, the M.D. of 1838, the marriage of August 29, 1836, the legislature of 1846 and 1847, the militia appointment of 1862 and the collectorship. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
 [^6]: *The Hamlin Family* (1900), entry [307] for Matthew Talcott Russell, his marriage at Middletown on September 17, 1797 to Mary Huntington and the list of their children, including William, born August 12, 1809, p. 119. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
 [^7]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. 4 (July 1778 to June 1792) (New York: Henry Holt, 1907), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125 to 126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalske05dextgoog
 [^8]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entry [1] for Mary Hamlin and the Rev. Noadiah Russell, p. 36, and entry [307] for Matthew Talcott Russell, p. 119 (descent "Noadiah, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles"). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
 [^9]: *The Hamlin Family* (1900), entries [97] (Rev. William Russell), [98] (Capt. Samuel Russell, merchant, who died March 14, 1794) and [99] (Rev. Noadiah Russell, clergyman at Thompson 1757 to 1795), pp. 87 to 88. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
 [^10]: *Catalogue of the Connecticut Alpha of the Phi Beta Kappa*, August 1838, list of officers for 1837-8 ("William H. Russell, M.D. Cor. Secretary") and list of members of 1833, pp. 39 and following. https://archive.org/details/catalogueofconne00phib
 [^11]: Sutton (1983), roster of members by class, "Founders" and class of 1833. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^12]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), opening article ("His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise was the largest American opium smuggler") and the China-trade passage reading "William Huntington Russell (S&B 1833), Samuel's cousin, studied in Germany from 1831-32." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^13]: Sutton (1983), passage on Hegelian theory: "When its co-founder, William Russell, was in Germany in 1831-2, there was no way he could have avoided Hegelian theory and discussion." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^14]: Bagg (1871), p. 52, on the origin of the secret-society system at Yale and the "modern system, which began in 1832." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
 [^15]: Bagg (1871), p. 147, on the catalogue of the society, "Period 2. Decade 3," and the blank space for the eleventh founder. https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
 [^16]: Bagg (1871), p. 153, on the members' name for the society, "Eulogia," or the "Eulogian Club." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
 [^17]: Sutton (1983), Memorandum Number Two on the origins of the Order, opening passage on the American chapter and its 1833 founding. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^18]: Sutton (1983), passage on the number 322 and the argument that "William Russell imported the society from Germany." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^19]: Sutton (1983), passages on the two founding members ("By contrast, the two founding members, William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft, went far"), on Russell's Connecticut legislature and National Guard service, and on Taft's later offices. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^20]: Anonymous pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the society's hall, as quoted in Sutton (1983), Memorandum Two, including "General R[...] (Russell), its founder, was in Germany before Senior Year," and Sutton's comment that Skull & Bones "is not American at all. It is a branch of a FOREIGN secret society." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^21]: Millegan (2003), reprint of the 1876 pamphlet on the break-in at the hall. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^22]: Bagg (1871), p. 145, description of the hall erected in 1856 "on High street, near the corner of Chapel." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
 [^23]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chapter on Daniel C. Gilman, stating that "The Order was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^24]: Millegan (2003), chapter on Daniel Coit Gilman, passage reading "with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^25]: Sutton (1983), passages on the Russell Trust Association, "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and the organization of the Order "essentially geared towards the post graduation world." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^26]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the resolution amending the charter (July 1870), the resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887), the act of July 9, 1943 and the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943, as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 694 to 695. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^27]: Bagg (1871), p. 47, glossary entry for "Russellite." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
 [^28]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College, deceased from June, 1870, to June, 1880*, entries on pp. 270 and 369, and *Obituary Record* for 1880 to 1890, p. 524. https://archive.org/details/1870t80obituary00yaleuoft ; https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
 [^29]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1862, report of the Quartermaster General (John M. Hatheway), April 1, 1862, statement [I], p. 58. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1862conn
 [^30]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, statement [G] of arms and equipment issued ("William H. Russell, New Haven Military School"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn
 [^31]: *The Connecticut Register and Official State Calendar for 1847* (Hartford, 1847), House of Representatives by town (New Haven and Middletown) and the joint standing committee on education ("Russell of New Haven"). https://archive.org/details/connecticutregis1847hart
 [^32]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," finding aid (MSS38562), on Samuel Russell (1789 to about 1862), the firm, his return to Middletown in 1831, the Russell Manufacturing Company, his real estate holdings and the Turkish opium correspondence. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
 [^33]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1867, Adjutant-General's report of April 1, 1867, p. 16 (staff of the division: "William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"; Francis Wayland, assistant adjutant general; F. St. John Lockwood, division inspector) and pp. 39 to 40 (special order of September 12, 1866 and the inspection of the First Brigade). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18671conn
 [^34]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1870, Adjutant-General's report, p. 9, division staff ("William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18701conn
 [^35]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1869 and errata ("Page 8. Maj. Gen. William H. Russell, commissioned July 31, 1866, read July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn
 [^36]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, educational report, passage on a visit to the state military institute at Hartford and a conversation with General Russell. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn
 [^37]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1871 (Colin M. Ingersoll), p. 6, quoting Russell's report to the governor of the previous year. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn
 [^38]: *Official Register of the United States*, September 30, 1869, list of collectors of internal revenue, Connecticut, second district: William H. Russell, New Haven. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-official-register-of-the-united-states_1869-09-30
 [^39]: Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, *The Life and Letters of John Brown: Liberator of Kansas, and Martyr of Virginia* (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1885), p. 352, the report of the National Kansas Committee dated January 25, 1857, its receipts by state and its list of members. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
 [^40]: United States Senate, *Report of the Select Committee of the Senate Appointed to Inquire into the Late Invasion and Seizure of the Public Property at Harper's Ferry*, 36th Cong., 1st Sess., S. Rep. No. 278 (June 15, 1860), testimony of William F. M. Arny, January 16, 1860, p. 76. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
 [^41]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386, text of John Brown's will dated Boston, April 13, 1857. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
 [^42]: Sanborn (1885), p. 451, account of the travels of John Brown Jr. and his father, March 1858. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
 [^43]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 475 to 476, letter of John Brown to F. B. Sanborn, Missouri line, July 20, 1858, and Sanborn's footnote on the contract with Charles Blair. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
 [^44]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Charles Blair, p. 127. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
 [^45]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386 (witnesses to the will of April 13, 1857, including Thomas Russell) and p. 508 (Brown at "Judge Russell's house" in Boston in 1859, and "the Hon. Thomas Russell's address"). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
 [^46]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Samuel G. Howe, pp. 166 to 167, on the direction to the house of George R. Russell at Jamaica Plain. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
 [^47]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), report of the committee, narrative of the invasion, on the hostages (Israel Russell, justice of the peace) and the marine detachment accompanied by "Major Russell, of that corps." https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
 [^48]: *The Hamlin Family* (1900), entry [302] for Capt. John Russell (son of Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles), pp. 118 to 119, and entry [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, "for many years in the China trade" and member of the firm of Russell & Co., p. 166. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
 [^49]: Millegan (2003), passages on Russell and Company, its 1823 founding for the opium trade, its 1830 merger with the Perkins syndicate and Warren Delano Jr. at Canton. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^50]: Millegan (2003), essay on the Connecticut families and the origins of the Order, pp. 313 to 314 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^51]: Millegan, "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), p. 52, passage recounting the author's conversation with his father and the words "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^52]: Millegan (2003), chart and notes on the Russell family of Middletown and the Connecticut families, pp. 321 to 325 (notes 10, 14 and 15). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^53]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, pp. 241 to 242, on his place at the head of his school, the stroke of May 10, 1885, his death on May 19 and his survivors. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
 [^54]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis) and class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^55]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries including Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
--- a/PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Dorothy
+++ b/PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Dorothy
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-10-09
-updated: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-26
 title: Dorothy Payne Whitney
 aliases:
  - Dorothy Payne Whitney
@ -43,6 +43,14 @@ relations:
    with: "[[Michael Whitney Straight]]"
    role: son
    fn: 3
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Payne Whitney]]"
    role: brother
    fn: 4
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Harry Payne Whitney]]"
    role: brother
    fn: 4
  - type: founded
    with: "[[The New Republic]]"
    start: 1914
@ -55,14 +63,14 @@ relations:
    with: "[[New School for Social Research]]"
    end: 1930
    role: board of directors
-    fn: 13
+    fn: 14
  - type: owned
    with: "[[Dartington Hall]]"
    start: 1925
    fn: 2
  - type: founded
    with: "[[William C. Whitney Foundation]]"
-    fn: 15
+    fn: 16
 ---
 Dorothy Payne Whitney (1887 to 1968) was an heiress of the [[Whitney family]] who helped found [[The New Republic]] with her first husband, [[Willard Straight]], in 1914, and who was among the principal donors to the [[New School for Social Research]] in its first decade. With her second husband, [[Leonard Knight Elmhirst]], she developed [[Dartington Hall]] in [[Devon]] as a progressive experiment that she continued to support until her death.[^1]
@ -71,56 +79,59 @@ Dorothy Payne Whitney (1887 to 1968) was an heiress of the [[Whitney family]] wh
 She was the youngest child of Flora Payne and [[William C. Whitney]], a financier and secretary of the Navy under President [[Grover Cleveland]]. By the age of seventeen her mother, stepmother and father had all died, leaving her a large inheritance. At the age of 20 she became president of the [[Junior League of New York]] (1907 to 1909), where she introduced formal training for members and was the driving force behind the Junior League Hotel, a new model of cooperative housing for women.[^1][^2] She married Willard Straight in 1911. Their son, [[Michael Whitney Straight]], was born in 1916, the third and youngest of her children with Straight; the others were [[Whitney Straight]] and [[Beatrice Straight]].[^3]
 The Yale Obituary Record entry for her brother [[Payne Whitney]], who died in 1927, lists his surviving siblings as [[Harry Payne Whitney]], Yale 1894, and a sister, the wife of Leonard Knight Elmhirst of Yorkshire, England. The same entry names [[Oliver Hazard Payne]], Yale 1863, as an uncle of Payne Whitney.[^4]
 Her papers at [[Cornell University]] (collection #3725, 10 cubic feet, dates 1887 to 1978, most of the material from 1887 to 1926) include notebooks from her school days, guardianship papers, newspaper clippings on her father's death, an inventory of the house at 1130 Fifth Avenue, and correspondence with Willard Straight on their courtship and on his service in France in 1917 and 1918. The finding aid lists her involvement with the New York State Food Commission, the Women's Liberty Loan Committee, the Social Unit Plan, the Junior League, the War Camp Service Committee, the Women's Emergency Committee of the European Relief Council, the New School for Social Research, the Tuberculosis Preventorium for Children, the Pueblos Defense Committee and the Mayor's Committee of Women on National Defense, and states that she supported students at the Bordentown Military Academy and Hobart College.[^2]
 ### The New Republic
-After reading [[Herbert Croly]]'s *[[The Promise of American Life]]* aloud during their honeymoon, the couple invited Croly to lunch. In the fall of 1914 the Straights and Croly founded The New Republic.[^1] [[Alvin Johnson]] wrote that when Croly wanted a weekly, "I will find it," Dorothy Straight said simply.[^4] The Cornell finding aid lists correspondence and statements concerning The New Republic and *Asia* magazines among her papers.[^2]
+After reading [[Herbert Croly]]'s *[[The Promise of American Life]]* aloud during their honeymoon, the couple invited Croly to lunch. In the fall of 1914 the Straights and Croly founded The New Republic.[^1] [[Alvin Johnson]] wrote that when Croly wanted a weekly, "I will find it," Dorothy Straight said simply.[^5] The Cornell finding aid lists correspondence and statements concerning The New Republic and *Asia* magazines among her papers.[^2]
-In 1922 the magazine was short of money, and its owners wanted the New School terminated so that Straight would provide the magazine with more support.[^5] A New Republic publisher interviewed by the FBI in 1969 said that her family's fund had founded the magazine in 1914 and had been used for its operation until 1954, when [[Gilbert A. Harrison]] bought a controlling interest; the editor of *Antiques*, a magazine owned by the Straight family since about 1930, said that it and The New Republic had shared the same office space in New York.[^6] Her son "enlisted new patrons" after "his mother's withdrawal of support of the magazine."[^3]
+In 1922 the magazine was short of money, and its owners wanted the New School terminated so that Straight would provide the magazine with more support.[^6] A New Republic publisher interviewed by the FBI in 1969 said that her family's fund had founded the magazine in 1914 and had been used for its operation until 1954, when [[Gilbert A. Harrison]] bought a controlling interest; the editor of *Antiques*, a magazine owned by the Straight family since about 1930, said that it and The New Republic had shared the same office space in New York.[^7] Her son "enlisted new patrons" after "his mother's withdrawal of support of the magazine."[^3]
 ### The New School Pledges
-As early as 1916 Dorothy Straight and Croly had discussed with [[Charles Austin Beard]] and [[James Harvey Robinson]] the possibility of an independent social science institute. When Beard and Robinson resigned from [[Columbia University]] in 1917, these discussions took on new meaning. Willard Straight, then serving in Europe, warned her away from the two men: "I'm getting a little restive and uncertain about some of these forward looking people."[^1] Beard and Robinson "found sympathetic and resourceful patrons" in Croly and Dorothy Straight, and the "Heir to the Whitney fortune" saw in their school an opportunity.[^7]
+As early as 1916 Dorothy Straight and Croly had discussed with [[Charles Austin Beard]] and [[James Harvey Robinson]] the possibility of an independent social science institute. When Beard and Robinson resigned from [[Columbia University]] in 1917, these discussions took on new meaning. Willard Straight, then serving in Europe, warned her away from the two men: "I'm getting a little restive and uncertain about some of these forward looking people."[^1] Beard and Robinson "found sympathetic and resourceful patrons" in Croly and Dorothy Straight, and the "Heir to the Whitney fortune" saw in their school an opportunity.[^8]
-She did not heed the warning. She turned the school from a subject of discussion into a realizable dream "by pledging $10,000 a year to the project for ten years."[^1] The school's early pledges were "ten-year pledges of support amounting to nearly $300,000, much of it from Dorothy Straight," and the townhouse the school renovated was "paid for largely by Dorothy Straight."[^8] In Alvin Johnson's *Pioneer's Progress* the founding circle consisted of Robinson, Beard, Thorstein Veblen, Croly, "Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Bacon, and other liberals," and a women's committee met at the apartment of Caroline Bacon: Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Haven Putnam, Mrs. Learned Hand, Mrs. Victor Sorchan, and "later Mrs. Thomas W. Lamont."[^9] Johnson wrote of her as "the most generous, Mrs. Straight," who "would leave us if the threatened secession from the board took place" in the crisis of 1922.[^10]
+She did not heed the warning. She turned the school from a subject of discussion into a realizable dream "by pledging $10,000 a year to the project for ten years."[^1] The school's early pledges were "ten-year pledges of support amounting to nearly $300,000, much of it from Dorothy Straight," and the townhouse the school renovated was "paid for largely by Dorothy Straight."[^9] In Alvin Johnson's *Pioneer's Progress* the founding circle consisted of Robinson, Beard, Thorstein Veblen, Croly, "Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Bacon, and other liberals," and a women's committee met at the apartment of Caroline Bacon: Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Haven Putnam, Mrs. Learned Hand, Mrs. Victor Sorchan, and "later Mrs. Thomas W. Lamont."[^10] Johnson wrote of her as "the most generous, Mrs. Straight," who "would leave us if the threatened secession from the board took place" in the crisis of 1922.[^11]
-When Johnson took over as director in April 1922 he wrote to her of the change, in a letter that includes the words "To put it baldly, I have usurped the"; the board members who stayed were Croly, [[Wesley Clair Mitchell]], Caroline Bacon, Dorothy Straight and Emily Putnam.[^11][^12] She sat on the Board of Directors until 1930, after 1925 as Mrs. Leonard Elmhirst.[^13]
+When Johnson took over as director in April 1922 he wrote to her of the change, in a letter that includes the words "To put it baldly, I have usurped the"; the board members who stayed were Croly, [[Wesley Clair Mitchell]], Caroline Bacon, Dorothy Straight and Emily Putnam.[^12][^13] She sat on the Board of Directors until 1930, after 1925 as Mrs. Leonard Elmhirst.[^14]
-[[Judith Friedlander]] uses a 1952 letter by Johnson to characterize Dorothy and other founders, including [[Learned Hand]] and [[Mary Harriman]], as antisemites. Mastrelli, reviewing the book, writes: "For the record, I am not sure what kind of antisemite Dorothy would have been," and notes "accounts that she aided Johnson in the University in Exile."[^13] The records of the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars include, in their philanthropic file series, a file titled "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935."[^14] The Cornell finding aid for her papers states that the New School was "begun with the backing of the Whitney Estate in 1919."[^2]
+[[Judith Friedlander]] uses a 1952 letter by Johnson to characterize Dorothy and other founders, including [[Learned Hand]] and [[Mary Harriman]], as antisemites. Mastrelli, reviewing the book, writes: "For the record, I am not sure what kind of antisemite Dorothy would have been," and notes "accounts that she aided Johnson in the University in Exile."[^14] The records of the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars include, in their philanthropic file series, a file titled "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935."[^15] The Cornell finding aid for her papers states that the New School was "begun with the backing of the Whitney Estate in 1919."[^2]
 ### William C. Whitney Foundation
-After 1929 she continued to support the school for several years through the [[William C. Whitney Foundation]]; Mastrelli attributes this to the Dartington Hall Trust archives.[^13] In 1969 [[Milton C. Rose]], senior partner of [[Mudge, Rose, Guthrie and Alexander]], told the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] that the foundation was "created by Mr. Straight's parents in memory of his grandfather" and that her son Michael had been its president "since its inception in 1937."[^15] The FBI's summary describes it as a charitable organization that "concerns itself with the arts, having made many grants in the fields of music, dance, theater, and painting." [[Harriett K. Evison]], who had been her social secretary, became assistant secretary-treasurer of the foundation.[^15] A December 1952 newspaper report on testimony before a House committee on tax-exempt foundations records that her son, as president, was questioned on $19,000 in grants.[^16]
+After 1929 she continued to support the school for several years through the [[William C. Whitney Foundation]]; Mastrelli attributes this to the Dartington Hall Trust archives.[^14] In 1969 [[Milton C. Rose]], senior partner of [[Mudge, Rose, Guthrie and Alexander]], told the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] that the foundation was "created by Mr. Straight's parents in memory of his grandfather" and that her son Michael had been its president "since its inception in 1937."[^16] The FBI's summary describes it as a charitable organization that "concerns itself with the arts, having made many grants in the fields of music, dance, theater, and painting." [[Harriett K. Evison]], who had been her social secretary, became assistant secretary-treasurer of the foundation.[^16] A December 1952 newspaper report on testimony before a House committee on tax-exempt foundations records that her son, as president, was questioned on $19,000 in grants.[^17]
 ### Dartington Hall
-She married Leonard Knight Elmhirst in 1925.[^3] She met Elmhirst while working on the [[Willard Straight Hall]] project at Cornell, and the couple moved to [[Totnes]] in Devon, bought and restored a medieval property, and set about developing Dartington Hall as a laboratory of experiment for a "many sided life."[^1] She and Elmhirst purchased Dartington Hall, reconstructed the fourteenth-century manor and founded a school on the property.[^2] A second set of her papers from Dartington Hall (collection #3782, 4 cubic feet, 1890 to 1976) includes correspondence on Willard Straight Hall (1920 to 1967), lecture notes, diaries and travel journals, and an inventory of the records room at Dartington Hall.[^17] Her son Michael was educated at Dartington Hall.[^3]
+She married Leonard Knight Elmhirst in 1925.[^3] She met Elmhirst while working on the [[Willard Straight Hall]] project at Cornell, and the couple moved to [[Totnes]] in Devon, bought and restored a medieval property, and set about developing Dartington Hall as a laboratory of experiment for a "many sided life."[^1] She and Elmhirst purchased Dartington Hall, reconstructed the fourteenth-century manor and founded a school on the property.[^2] A second set of her papers from Dartington Hall (collection #3782, 4 cubic feet, 1890 to 1976) includes correspondence on Willard Straight Hall (1920 to 1967), lecture notes, diaries and travel journals, and an inventory of the records room at Dartington Hall.[^18] Her son Michael was educated at Dartington Hall.[^3]
 ### Willard Straight Hall
-Willard Straight died of septic pneumonia while serving with the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] in France in 1918, before the school opened.[^3] In his will he asked that Dorothy make Cornell a "more human place." She built Willard Straight Hall, one of the first models of a student union in the [[United States]].[^1] The Cornell finding aid for her papers gives his death as 1919; the finding aid for the Dartington Hall papers and the New York Times give 1918.[^2][^17]
+Willard Straight died of septic pneumonia while serving with the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] in France in 1918, before the school opened.[^3] In his will he asked that Dorothy make Cornell a "more human place." She built Willard Straight Hall, one of the first models of a student union in the [[United States]].[^1] The Cornell finding aid for her papers gives his death as 1919; the finding aid for the Dartington Hall papers and the New York Times give 1918.[^2][^18]
 ### Death
-She died in 1968.[^1] The FBI's 1969 summary of her son's background lists her as deceased.[^15]
+She died in 1968.[^1] The FBI's 1969 summary of her son's background lists her as deceased.[^16]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: "Dorothy Payne Whitney Straight Elmhirst," Histories of The New School, by Tara Mastrelli, May 25, 2018, https://histories.newschool.edu/people/dorothy-payne-whitney-straight-elmhirst.
 [^2]: Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, "Dorothy Whitney Straight Elmhirst papers," #3725, https://archives.library.cornell.edu/repositories/2/resources/1281.
 [^3]: Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, "Michael Straight, Who Wrote of Connection to Spy Ring, Is Dead at 87," *The New York Times*, January 5, 2004 (Internet Archive copy, https://web.archive.org/web/2016id_/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html).
-[^4]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress* (New York: Viking, 1952; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1960), p. 233.
+[^4]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4
-[^5]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, *New School: A History of The New School for Social Research* (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 28.
+[^5]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress* (New York: Viking, 1952; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1960), p. 233.
-[^6]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1, special inquiry reports of September 1969 on the interviews with the publisher of The New Republic and with Alice Winchester, editor of *Antiques*.
+[^6]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, *New School: A History of The New School for Social Research* (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 28.
-[^7]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 10 and 11.
+[^7]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1, special inquiry reports of September 1969 on the interviews with the publisher of The New Republic and with Alice Winchester, editor of *Antiques*.
-[^8]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 19 and 21.
+[^8]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 10 and 11.
-[^9]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, pp. 167 and 273.
+[^9]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 19 and 21.
-[^10]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, p. 280.
+[^10]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, pp. 167 and 273.
-[^11]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 30, Johnson's letter of April 1922 to Dorothy Straight.
+[^11]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, p. 280.
-[^12]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 35.
+[^12]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 30, Johnson's letter of April 1922 to Dorothy Straight.
-[^13]: Tara Mastrelli, "'In the Name of Freedom': a Review of Judith Friedlander's *A Light in Dark Times* (2018, Columbia University Press)," *International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society* 34 (2021), pp. 125-135, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10767-019-09344-5, notes citing the New School Archives and Special Collections and the Dartington Hall Trust Archives; the board tenure, the post-1929 foundation support and the Dartington Hall attribution come from these notes. The characterization of founders by Judith Friedlander, *A Light in Dark Times* (Columbia University Press, 2018), p. 307, which quotes in full a 1952 letter by Johnson, is reported through Mastrelli's review.
+[^13]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 35.
-[^14]: New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division, Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars records (MssCol 922), Series IV, box 171, folder 15, "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935," https://archives.nypl.org/mss/922.
+[^14]: Tara Mastrelli, "'In the Name of Freedom': a Review of Judith Friedlander's *A Light in Dark Times* (2018, Columbia University Press)," *International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society* 34 (2021), pp. 125-135, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10767-019-09344-5, notes citing the New School Archives and Special Collections and the Dartington Hall Trust Archives; the board tenure, the post-1929 foundation support and the Dartington Hall attribution come from these notes. The characterization of founders by Judith Friedlander, *A Light in Dark Times* (Columbia University Press, 2018), p. 307, which quotes in full a 1952 letter by Johnson, is reported through Mastrelli's review.
-[^15]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 and teletypes of September 1969 on interviews with Milton C. Rose and Harriett K. Evison, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
+[^15]: New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division, Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars records (MssCol 922), Series IV, box 171, folder 15, "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935," https://archives.nypl.org/mss/922.
-[^16]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 ("Miscellaneous Information"), citing the Washington Times-Herald of December 6, 1952, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1."
+[^16]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 and teletypes of September 1969 on interviews with Milton C. Rose and Harriett K. Evison, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
-[^17]: Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, "Dorothy Whitney Straight Elmhirst papers from Dartington Hall," #3782, https://archives.library.cornell.edu/repositories/2/resources/1289.
+[^17]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 ("Miscellaneous Information"), citing the Washington Times-Herald of December 6, 1952, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1."
 [^18]: Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, "Dorothy Whitney Straight Elmhirst papers from Dartington Hall," #3782, https://archives.library.cornell.edu/repositories/2/resources/1289.
--- a/PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Knight
+++ b/PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Knight
@ -0,0 +1,228 @@
 ---
 aliases:
  - Knight Woolley
 category: "Business & Finance"
 tags:
  - Person
  - BrownBrothersHarriman
  - HarrimanBrothers
  - SkullAndBones
  - YaleClassOf1917
  - BankersAcceptances
  - UnionBankingCorporation
  - HollandAmericanTrading
  - ThyssenFamily
  - AlienPropertyCustodian
  - ConsolidatedSilesianSteel
  - CouncilOnForeignRelations
  - AmericanHawaiianSteamship
  - SouthernRailway
 summary: "Knight Woolley, Yale 1917 and Skull and Bones member, general manager of Harriman Brothers & Co. and partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, named in Union Banking Corporation and 1933 Silesian Steel correspondence."
 born: 1895-05-01
 died: 1984
 location: "New York, New York"
 relations:
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    start: 1917
    role: "member of the class of 1917 (The Order '17)"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Guaranty Trust Company]]"
    start: 1919
    end: 1920
    role: "as recorded by Sutton"
    fn: 8
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Harriman Brothers & Co.]]"
    start: 1927-03-17
    end: 1931-01-01
    role: "general manager from the firm's founding, then partner from January 1, 1929"
    fn: 12
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Brown Brothers Harriman]]"
    start: 1931-01-01
    role: "partner of the merged firm; managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time of the 1930 merger; listed as a partner in 1943, 1956 and 1961"
    fn: 21
  - type: partner_of
    with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
    start: 1931-01-01
    role: "partners of the merged Brown Brothers Harriman"
    fn: 12
  - type: partner_of
    with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
    start: 1931-01-01
    role: "partners of the merged Brown Brothers Harriman"
    fn: 12
  - type: partner_of
    with: "[[Robert A. Lovett]]"
    start: 1931-01-01
    role: "partners of the merged Brown Brothers Harriman"
    fn: 12
  - type: partner_of
    with: "[[Ellery Sedgwick James]]"
    start: 1931-01-01
    role: "partners of the merged Brown Brothers Harriman; classmate at Yale"
    fn: 12
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Union Banking Corporation]]"
    start: 1932
    role: "listed among the directors for 1932 in Sutton's accounts"
    fn: 31
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Caledonian Insurance Company]]"
    start: 1930
    role: "director (reported as director of the Caledonian-American in 1942); later chair of the Finance Committee"
    fn: 24
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[American-Hawaiian Steamship Company]]"
    start: 1943
    role: "director, as reported in the Securities and Exchange Commission summary of May 1943 purchases"
    fn: 25
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Southern Railway]]"
    start: 1946
    role: "named as a director in a brief in United States v. Pullman Co."
    fn: 27
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]"
    start: 1939
    role: "representative of the private banks on the bank's Foreign Exchange Committee, formed in August 1939"
    fn: 29
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
    start: 1951-11-01
    role: "listed in a November 1951 table of corporate officers who were Council members"
    fn: 39
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 ---
 Knight Woolley (May 1, 1895, Brooklyn, New York, to 1984) was a member of the [[Yale University]] class of 1917 and of [[Skull and Bones]]. Before 1927 he had worked in the foreign department of the [[American Exchange National Bank]]. In that year he organized the private bank that [[W. Averell Harriman]] and [[E. Roland Harriman]] set up as a partnership, and he was a partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] from the 1931 merger into the 1960s.[^1][^2] The record also places him as a director of the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York, as the author of a January 1941 letter to the New York state superintendent of banks about that bank, as the author of a January 1933 letter about the [[Consolidated Silesian Steel Company]] that the [[The Guardian|Guardian]] quoted in 2004, and as one of the registered holders of shares in the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], seized in 1942.
 ### Andover, Yale and Skull and Bones
 Woolley prepared at [[Phillips Academy]], Andover, where he was class historian at the 1913 commencement, business manager of the school yearbook, the Pot Pourri, and an undergraduate treasurer.[^3][^4][^5] The class history of 1917 at Yale prints his biographical entry. It gives his birth in Brooklyn on May 1, 1895, and his preparation at the Brooklyn Polytechnic Preparatory School and Phillips Academy. It records that he was on the class crews, held the John Eliot Scholarship, was assignment editor of the [[Yale Daily News]], and that "He belongs to [[Psi Upsilon]] and Skull and Bones." The entry closes with the note that Woolley "intends to go into business."[^1] A passage on the class's 1917 military training places him on guard at the sick-stables when an inspection party arrived.[^6]
 The class history's entries for [[Prescott Bush]], E. Roland Harriman, Woolley and [[Neil Mallon]] each state the same membership.[^7] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s catalogue of members by class year lists Woolley under the class of 1917 ("The Order '17"), and his list of the Brown Brothers, Harriman partners names him in the same class.[^8] [[Kris Millegan]] wrote that the office Bush joined under [[George Herbert Walker]] employed "many of his classmates from his Yale class of 1917, including Roland Harriman and Knight Woolley," and that "The three had been close friends at Yale and were all members of Skull and Bones."[^9]
 Sutton's account of the 1917 members involved in the [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and Harriman business begins with "the following five members in the class of '17 (only fifteen were initiated)." It names Woolley first, with the dates "Guaranty Trust from 1919-1920, Harriman Company from 1927-1931, then Brown Brothers, Harriman from 1933," and names [[Frank P. Shepard]] alongside him, a vice president of Guaranty Trust from 1920 to 1934.[^8]
 ### Harriman Brothers and the acceptance business
 On March 17, 1927, the Harrimans set up a partnership bank. It was first called W. A. Harriman & Co., without the "Inc.," and soon renamed [[Harriman Brothers & Co.]] [[John A. Kouwenhoven]]'s 1968 firm history names Woolley as the man the Harrimans hired to run it. He came from the foreign department of the American Exchange National Bank, which was then in the process of merging into the [[Irving Trust Company]]. He brought several former colleagues with him, three of them specialists in foreign exchange, among them [[Harold D. Pennington]], who later managed the firm's operations and sat on the board of the Union Banking Corporation. Kouwenhoven also describes Woolley as already an authority on bankers' acceptances, citing his *A B C of Bankers Acceptances*, first published by the American Acceptance Council in 1924. The bank began with four employees in a single room, with capital from the Harrimans and from [[M. Samuel & Co.]], and Averell Harriman's instruction to Woolley was "Here's four million. Go ahead and run the bank." Within less than four years the firm had moved twice and had seventy employees.[^10] Rudy Abramson wrote in his biography of Averell Harriman that the bank started with employees in a single room at 39 Broadway.[^11]
 The founding date appears in several forms. Kouwenhoven's text gives March 17, 1927. His partner table comments that Woolley "Had been general manager of Harriman Bros. & Co. from its founding in 1926 until he became a partner," and gives January 1, 1929 as the date he became a partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. and January 1, 1931 as the date of his partnership in the merged firm.[^12] *The Bankers Magazine* of January 1931 wrote that "Harriman Brothers & Co., a co partnership, was formed on February 1, 1927, to further the Harriman interests," that its partners included W. A. Harriman, E. Roland Harriman, Woolley and Prescott S. Bush, and that the directors of the affiliated W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. included the same four with others. It added that forty-nine foreign banks represented the firm as correspondents, that the firm was a member of the New York Stock Exchange and an associate member of the New York Curb Market, and that it transacted no margin account business.[^13] [[Garry Wills]] gave 1926 and wrote that the Harrimans "put a classmate in as president," identifying Woolley.[^14] A notice of new partnerships in *The New York Times* of May 5, 1929 lists Harriman Brothers & Co., May 1, 1929, 39 Broadway, with the partners W. A. Harriman, E. Roland Harriman, George H. Walker, [[Dale M. Parker]] and Knight Woolley.[^15]
 By the time of the merger, the Harriman banking partnership was doing a profitable business in acceptances and foreign exchange, held a seat on the [[New York Stock Exchange]], and carried on a brokerage business, though none on margin account.[^10] The partners' minute book for 1927 records that Woolley, as general manager, had received through [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] and accepted "the offer of a $250,000 participation" in an acceptance credit for a Berlin metal firm, along with [[Brown Brothers & Co.]] and two other banks.[^16] In June 1930 the exchange received a proposal to transfer the membership of William H. Bixby to Woolley, identified as a partner in Harriman Bros. & Co.[^17]
 ### The 1930 merger and the managing partnership
 [[Time]] reported on December 22, 1930 that the two houses had merged "last week," counting 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman & Co., eleven of them Yale graduates. The same report named Ellery Sedgwick James as a classmate of E. Roland Harriman, Prescott Bush and Woolley.[^18]
 Kouwenhoven places the origin of the merger on a train to a Yale reunion in the spring of 1930, when "Ellery James, Knight Woolley, and Prescott Bush" had taken a drawing room in a parlor car and someone suggested that the two firms should merge. Kouwenhoven called the story "now current in various versions, as all good legends are," and recorded [[Thatcher M. Brown]]'s recollection that James first suggested talking with the Harrimans.[^16] Abramson also set the card game in a New Haven Railroad parlor car with James, Bush and Woolley.[^11] [[Zachary Karabell]], writing in *[[Financial History]]*, placed a railcar trip on the same line in the fall of 1930 and wrote: "Roland wasn't on the train that day, but Ellery James and Knight Woolley were." Karabell described Woolley as "rarely without a bespoke double-breasted suit" and as "managing partner of another one of the Harriman firms."[^19]
 Kouwenhoven's photograph caption identifies Woolley as the man "who had organized the Harrimans' private bank in 1927," and as "managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time when the merger with Brown Brothers & Co. was arranged in the final months of 1930." The caption shows him as a Brown Brothers Harriman partner on a business trip to Vienna in the summer of 1933.[^10]
 Wills wrote that Bush "quickly became, with Knight Woolley, the principal expert on what projects to back" at the firm, and quoted Bush's oral-history interviews: "We [he and Woolley] were running the business, the day-to-day business, all the administrative decisions and the executive decisions. We were the ones that did it."[^14] Sutton's list of partners in the mid-1970s, which he gave as twenty-six partners, of whom nine were members of the order, includes Woolley for the class of 1917.[^8]
 ### Partnership and directorships, 1931 to 1967
 The [[New-York Historical Society]] finding aid for the Brown Brothers Harriman records lists clippings for the merger, including a clipping titled "Knight Woolley elected director" dated between December 12, 1930 and January 23, 1931, photographs of Woolley with W. Averell Harriman dated 1933, and photographs of Woolley with the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] board and the Business Advisory Council between 1936 and 1939.[^2] A Brown Brothers Harriman advertisement of October 1943, marking the firm's 125th anniversary, lists the partners as Moreau D. Brown, Thatcher M. Brown, Prescott S. Bush, Louis Curtis, E. R. Harriman, W. A. Harriman (then newly named ambassador to Russia), Ray Morris and Woolley.[^20] A Brown Brothers Harriman notice in *The Economist* of July 22, 1961 lists "Knight Woolley" among the partners, with Prescott S. Bush, Robert A. Lovett, [[Thomas McCance]] and others; the firm's notices in *Trusts and Estates* for July 1956 and January 1961 list him in the same way.[^21][^22] Photographs dated July 1964 in the finding aid show the senior partners Harriman, Lovett, Bush and Woolley in a newly built room at 59 Wall Street, and a photograph caption dated July 28, 1964 shows them in a post-luncheon discussion; a photograph of Woolley, Harriman and Kouwenhoven at the Harriman estate is dated May 19, 1967.[^2][^23]
 The finding aid also records that Woolley "was a director of [[Caledonian Insurance Company]] beginning in the 1930s," and that he later chaired its Finance Committee, to which the bank acted as investment advisor.[^2] An October 1942 survey of insurance directorships held by private bankers wrote that "Knight Woolley is a director of the Caledonian-American," counted thirty insurance companies with board or trustee members who were partners in the bank, and described W. A. Harriman of the same firm as then in London as President Roosevelt's personal representative and Lend-Lease co-ordinator.[^24]
 A Securities and Exchange Commission summary of insider transactions reported in the *Chicago Daily Tribune* of July 17, 1943 lists a May purchase of 700 shares of [[American-Hawaiian Steamship Company]] by "Knight Woolley, director."[^25] The *Daily Worker* wrote on October 5, 1946 that W. Averell Harriman exerted influence over Pacific shipping lines, including the American-Hawaiian Steamship Co. as one of the Pacific's "Big Three," "through Attorney Knight Woolley, his man Friday, who represents Harriman's interests on the American-Hawaiian board," and added that Woolley was a partner of the Harriman bank.[^26] A brief in *United States v. Pullman Co.* (Supreme Court, October term 1946, appeal of the United States) lists "Guy Cary and Knight Woolley, directors of the Southern Railway Co." among the members of the board of the Air Reduction Co.[^27]
 ### Federal Reserve Bank of New York and Guaranty Trust
 Sutton wrote in 1983 that Woolley "was also a director of the Federal Reserve Bank," and that "Guaranty Trust was represented by Knight Woolley."[^28] The twenty-fifth annual report of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]], for 1939, states that the bank organized a general committee of New York money-market interests in August 1939, and a foreign exchange committee of five commercial-bank representatives, two representatives of private banks and investment houses, and one each for foreign banks and for Stock Exchange firms. It names "Mr. Knight Woolley, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co." among the members of the foreign exchange committee, "representing private banks and investment houses," with R. F. Loree of Guaranty Trust as chairman.[^29] The bank's Circular No. 1015 of January 8, 1931 announced that the Federal Reserve Board had reappointed Clarence M. Woolley of Greenwich, Connecticut, chairman of American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Corporation, as a Class C director for the three years from January 1, 1931.[^30]
 *The Bankers Magazine* of January 1931 listed Guaranty Trust Company of New York among the corporations of which W. A. Harriman was a director.[^13]
 ### Union Banking Corporation
 Sutton's 1976 chapter notes give the 1932 directors of the Union Banking Corporation as taken from the 1932 edition of the Bankers Directory and from Poor's Directory of Directors, and state that "J.L. Guinter and Knight Woolley were also directors."[^31] In his 1983 book on Skull and Bones, Sutton lists eight directors for 1932, among them Woolley.[^28]
 On January 14, 1941, Woolley wrote to [[William R. White]], superintendent of banks for the State of New York, about the Union Banking Corporation, which he described as "a state institution under your supervision." The letter names four directors, "E. R. Harriman, [[Ray Morris]], Prescott S. Bush and our manager, H. D. Pennington," as "my partners," and writes on their behalf. It describes the corporation as "in effect a New York office, or agency, of the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], in Rotterdam," and says: "Should the United States enter the war, they feel they might be under some embarrassment because of their connection with the bank, even though we have no financial interest in the Union Banking Corporation, nor do we participate in its earnings." Woolley asked White for "a frank expression from you as to the action" the directors should take.[^32]
 The letter also describes the bank's operations. Its only depositor was the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, its activity was limited to occasional payments and a few purchases and sales of securities, and its accounts were frozen under the presidential proclamation of May 10, 1940. The company's accounts were kept at the [[Chase National Bank]], the [[National City Bank]], the Guaranty Trust Company and the Harriman firm itself. Morris or Pennington had to sign checks jointly with the company's president, [[Cornelius Lievense]], or with an assistant, and a representative of the firm had to be present whenever the company's safe deposit box at the Chase Bank was opened.[^32] A report of the corporation issued on January 1, 1941 and reprinted in the same source lists as directors Lievense, E. Roland Harriman, Pennington, Bush, J. Kouwenhoven, Ray Morris and J. G. Groeninger.[^32]
 The letter gives the origin of the directorships as a meeting in Europe in 1925 between W. A. Harriman and [[Fritz Thyssen]], after which "various members of the Harriman organizations" served on the board. It states that the directors act "merely as a matter of business courtesy."[^32] White replied on May 13, 1941 that the department "would not feel free to object" if the directors resigned, but that "the department would be gratified if these gentlemen could find it possible to remain on the board during this period of uncertainty."[^33] A memorandum of the [[Treasury Department]] dated August 18, 1941 also concerns the company.[^34]
 In the 1942 vesting orders, Woolley's name appears on the Holland-American Trading Corporation and not on the Union Banking Corporation. Vesting Order 248, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the [[Federal Register]] of November 7, 1942, vests the 4,000 shares of the Union Banking Corporation held for the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Its registered owners are E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, Cornelius Lievense with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. Woolley is not among them.[^35]
 Vesting Order 261 covers the Holland-American Trading Corporation. It was executed on October 28, 1942 by [[Leo T. Crowley]], [[Alien Property Custodian]], filed December 18, 1942, and published in the *Federal Register* of December 19, 1942. It vests 500 shares, registered to E. Roland Harriman (491), Cornelius Lievense (4), and one share each to H. D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger. The shares "are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family".[^36] The Guardian described the Holland-American and [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]] seizures as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the Union Banking Corporation seizure.[^37]
 ### Sutton's characterization
 Sutton wrote that "Averell Harriman, his brother Roland Harriman, and members E.S. James and Knight Woolley, through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^28] The sentence is Sutton's.
 ### The Consolidated Silesian Steel letter
 The Guardian reported in September 2004 that a letter of January 1933 from Woolley to W. Averell Harriman concerned the Consolidated Silesian Steel Company (CSSC), a Silesian steel and mining company, after Polish moves to nationalize the plant. The newspaper quotes the letter: "The Consolidated Silesian Steel Company situation has become increasingly complicated, and I have accordingly brought in [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], in order to be sure that our interests are protected." The letter continues: "After studying the situation Foster Dulles is insisting that their man in Berlin get into the picture and obtain the information which the directors here should have. You will recall that Foster is a director and he is particularly anxious to be certain that there is no liability attaching to the American directors." The Guardian cited [[National Archives]] files as the source of the letter and described Woolley as Bush's friend and fellow "bonesman."[^38]
 ### Council on Foreign Relations and the Luce correspondence
 A table of corporations whose officers were members of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], dated November 1951, lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance among its officers who were Council members.[^39] A list of membership proposals sent to [[Allen Dulles]] with the agenda for the Council's board meeting of December 17, 1951 names Woolley as the proposer of Grinnell Morris, vice president of the Central Hanover Bank.[^40]
 The New-York Historical Society holds the papers of [[Henry Luce]] (MS 3014). Its finding aid lists a correspondence file headed "Woolley, Knight (Mr. and Mrs.)," dated 1936 to 1957.[^41]
 ### The Hopkins telegram of July 9, 1941
 A telegram of July 9, 1941 from the Acting Secretary of State to Ambassador [[John G. Winant]] in London, number 2483, carried a message from [[Harry Hopkins]] about British exports of consumer goods and "the next lend lease bill," and ends "Have seen Woolley." The telegram gives no first name or post for Woolley. The records found do not establish whether the Woolley named is Knight Woolley, whose partner W. Averell Harriman was then in London as Roosevelt's Lend-Lease representative.[^24][^42]
 ### The Boys' Club and memoir
 A letterhead of the Boys' Club of New York in the correspondence of the Medallic Art Company, kept by the American Numismatic Society, lists Knight Woolley as assistant secretary, with E. Roland Harriman as vice president and Robert A. Lovett as assistant secretary.[^43] Woolley privately printed a memoir in 1975, titled *In Retrospect: A Very Personal Memoir*.[^44]
 ### Papers and dates
 The New-York Historical Society holds the records of Brown Brothers Harriman (MS 78). Its people files include a folder headed "Knight Woolley (1895 - [1984]), 1923-1967," and the Tax Department scrapbooks include a folder on the partners from H to W for 1941 to 1964. The finding aid dates his life 1895 to 1984.[^2]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entry for Knight Woolley, pp. 343 to 344, https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
 [^2]: Brown Brothers Harriman Records, MS 78, New-York Historical Society, finding aid: People Files (Box 77, Folder 7, "Knight Woolley (1895 - [1984]), 1923-1967"); clippings (December 12, 1930 to January 23, 1931); photographs (1933; 1936 to 1939; July 1964; May 19, 1967); Tax Department scrapbook ("Partners H-W. Newquist - Woolley, 1941-1964"); historical note on Caledonian Insurance Company. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
 [^3]: "Andover Townsman," June 13, 1913, report of the commencement exercises of Phillips Academy, naming "the class historian, Knight Woolley." https://archive.org/details/andover_townsman_1913-06-13
 [^4]: *Pot Pourri* (Phillips Academy, Andover, 1913), staff list and class biographies naming Knight Woolley business manager. https://archive.org/details/potpourri00unse_20
 [^5]: *Phillips Bulletin*, vol. 8, list of student offices naming Knight Woolley, Brooklyn, New York, undergraduate treasurer. https://archive.org/details/phillipsbulletin08phil
 [^6]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen*, vol. 1 (1917), narrative of the class's 1917 military training, p. 405, https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
 [^7]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen*, vol. 1 (1917), entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, Knight Woolley (pp. 343 to 344) and Henry Neil Mallon, https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
 [^8]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002; first published 1983), membership catalogue by class year, the section on Brown Brothers, Harriman listing the partners who were members of the order, and the section on the Union Bank and the class of 1917 (the "five members in the class of '17" passage, with the dates for Woolley and Shepard). The dating and the counts are Sutton's. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^9]: Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), chapter on Prescott Bush and Harriman & Co. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^10]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 13 to 15, on the 1927 founding, Woolley's appointment as general manager, the former American Exchange colleagues, the 1924 *A B C of Bankers Acceptances*, the four-million instruction, the staff of seventy, the 1930 position, and the photograph caption of Woolley ("Courtesy of Miss Julie Brennan"). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
 [^11]: Rudy Abramson, *Spanning the Century: The Life of W. Averell Harriman, 1891-1986* (New York: William Morrow, 1992), chapters on the Harriman banks and the merger. https://archive.org/details/spanningcenturyl00abra
 [^12]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), partner table, pp. 231 to 235, entry for Knight Woolley (became partner of Harriman Bros. & Co. January 1, 1929; of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. January 1, 1931; comment: "Had been general manager of Harriman Bros. & Co. from its founding in 1926 until he became a partner. Resident in New York."). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
 [^13]: *The Bankers Magazine*, vol. 122, no. 1 (January 1931), listing the partners of Harriman Brothers & Co., the directors of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc., and the corporations of which W. A. Harriman was a director. https://archive.org/details/sim_bankers-magazine_1931-01_122_1
 [^14]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992, on Harriman Brothers & Co. "not founded until 1926," the classmate "put in as president (Knight Woolley)," Bush and Woolley as the firm's principal experts, and the oral-history quotation. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
 [^15]: Notices of new partnerships, *The New York Times*, May 5, 1929, financial pages. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1929-05-05_78_26034_0
 [^16]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, minute book entry of 1927 quoting the partners' records on the $250,000 participation, the account of the card game on the train to a Yale reunion in the spring of 1930, and the recollection of Thatcher M. Brown. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
 [^17]: Stock Exchange membership notices, *The New York Times*, June 13, 1930, financial pages, proposal to transfer the membership of William H. Bixby to Knight Woolley, "a partner in Harriman Bros. & Co." https://archive.org/details/per_new-york-times-magazine_the-new-york-times_1930-06-13_79_26438
 [^18]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," *Time*, December 22, 1930, https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html
 [^19]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 14 to 17 (passages at pp. 15 to 17). https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
 [^20]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. advertisement on the firm's 125th anniversary, *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, October 14, 1943. https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1943-10-14_158_4220
 [^21]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. statement of condition with list of partners and limited partners, *The Economist*, July 22, 1961. https://archive.org/details/sim_economist_1961-07-22_200_6152
 [^22]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. notices listing partners and limited partners, *Trusts and Estates*, vol. 95, no. 7 (July 1956) and vol. 100, no. 1 (January 1961). https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1956-07_95_7 and https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1961-01_100_1
 [^23]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), photograph caption dated July 28, 1964, "The senior partners in a post-luncheon discussion." https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
 [^24]: "Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.," *The Insurance Eastern Underwriter*, October 9, 1942, on partners of the bank who were insurance company directors. https://archive.org/details/sim_insurance-eastern-underwriter_1942-10-09_43_41
 [^25]: Summary of Securities and Exchange Commission insider transactions, *Chicago Daily Tribune*, July 17, 1943. https://archive.org/details/per_chicago-daily-tribune_1943-07-17_102_170
 [^26]: *Daily Worker*, October 5, 1946, vol. 23, no. 239, article on West Coast shipping boards. https://archive.org/details/per_daily-worker_daily-worker_1946-10-05_23_239
 [^27]: *United States v. Pullman Co.*, 331 U.S. 865 (1947), No. 253, Supreme Court of the United States, October term 1946, printed record, passage on interlocking directorates of the directors of the Pullman Company. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA40385610_0183
 [^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section on the Union Banking Corporation (eight directors for 1932), the passage on Guaranty Trust, and the passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James and Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. The lists and characterizations are Sutton's. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^29]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, *Twenty-Fifth Annual Report* (for the year 1939), pp. 16 to 17 and note 2 on the foreign exchange committee. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-reserve-bank-of-new-york-annual-report_1939-12-31
 [^30]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Circular No. 1015, "Appointment of Directors," January 8, 1931. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/ny%20circulars/1931_01015.pdf
 [^31]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), notes to the chapter on the Union Bank, note 15, citing Bankers Directory, 1932 edition, p. 2557, and Poor's Directory of Directors: "J.L. Guinter and Knight Woolley were also directors."
 [^32]: Knight Woolley to William R. White, January 14, 1941, as reprinted with a newspaper account of the Union Banking Corporation, a report of the corporation issued January 1, 1941, and a narrative of the directorship, in Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 214 to 217 and 222 to 223. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^33]: William R. White to Knight Woolley, May 13, 1941, reprinted in Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 216 to 217. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^34]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
 [^35]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942), registered-owners table. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
 [^36]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942, *Federal Register*, vol. 7, no. 248 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
 [^37]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
 [^38]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to Averill Harriman and citing National Archives files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
 [^39]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA CREST document CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
 [^40]: Walter H. Mallory, Council on Foreign Relations, to Allen W. Dulles, December 10, 1951, enclosing the agenda of the 94th meeting of the board (December 17, 1951) and the "Membership Proposals, Suggested List, December 1951," CIA CREST document CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170002-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170002-4
 [^41]: Henry R. Luce Papers, MS 3014, New-York Historical Society, finding aid, file "Woolley, Knight (Mr. and Mrs.), 1936-1957." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
 [^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941*, vol. III, document 6, telegram 2483, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), July 9, 1941, relaying a message from Hopkins. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d6
 [^43]: Letterhead of The Boys' Club of New York, in Medallic Art Co. correspondence, American Numismatic Society, ca. 1908 to 1931 (officers: Charles H. Sabin, president; E. Roland Harriman, vice-president; Knight Woolley and Robert A. Lovett, assistant secretaries). https://archive.org/details/medallicartco19000amer
 [^44]: Knight Woolley, *In Retrospect: A Very Personal Memoir* (privately printed, 1975), as cited in the notes to Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979). https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
--- a/PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Whitney
+++ b/PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Whitney
@ -0,0 +1,205 @@
 ---
 category: "Business & Finance"
 aliases:
  - "Whitney family"
  - "The Whitneys"
 tags:
  - Person
  - Family
  - Whitney
  - Payne
  - StandardOil
  - SkullAndBones
  - Yale
  - WhitneyMuseum
  - Philanthropy
  - CIAFoundations
  - Harriman
  - StreetRailways
  - NavalReform
 summary: "New England family whose New York fortune joined William C. Whitney's street railways to the Payne share of Standard Oil, whose members belonged to Skull and Bones, and whose trust recurs in CIA-linked records."
 location: "New York City"
 relations:
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    start: 1851
    role: "eight Whitneys in Sutton's index, from Emerson Cogswell Whitney to Payne Whitney"
    fn: 13
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Yale Aviation Corps]]"
    start: 1916
    role: "Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898"
    fn: 16
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Whitney Museum of American Art]]"
    start: 1930
    role: "Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney"
    fn: 20
  - type: owned
    with: "[[New York Herald Tribune]]"
    role: "John Hay Whitney, former owner and publisher, per the 1967 Chronicle report"
    fn: 31
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Oliver Hazard Payne]]"
    start: 1869
    role: "brother of Flora Payne Whitney, uncle of Harry Payne Whitney and Payne Whitney"
    fn: 9
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Dorothy Payne Whitney]]"
    role: "daughter of William Collins Whitney"
    fn: 2
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Michael Whitney Straight]]"
    role: "grandson of William Collins Whitney"
    fn: 47
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 ---
 The Whitney family is a New England line that settled at [[Watertown, Massachusetts]] and became a New York fortune through [[William Collins Whitney]], a lawyer and financier who served as [[Grover Cleveland]]'s Secretary of the Navy and who married [[Flora Payne]], sister of the [[Standard Oil]] treasurer [[Oliver Hazard Payne]]. [[Antony C. Sutton]] places the Whitney family, dated to 1635 at Watertown, among the old-line families of [[Skull and Bones]] in his chart, which he titles "Hypothesis Number One," and he places the Payne family under Standard Oil among the new-wealth families.[^1] The [[Yale University]] Obituary Record entry for [[Payne Whitney]] traces the family to John Whitney, who came from England in 1635 and settled at Watertown.[^2]
 ### William Collins Whitney
 William Collins Whitney was born in [[Conway, Massachusetts]] on July 5, 1841, the son of [[James Scollay Whitney]], a Democratic leader in Massachusetts and superintendent of the United States Armory at [[Springfield, Massachusetts]]. He entered Yale in the class of 1863, took a course at [[Harvard Law School]], read law in the office of Abraham R. Lawrence and began practice in [[New York City]] in 1865 with his classmate Henry Farnam Dimock, who married his sister. In 1871 he helped organize the Young Men's Democratic Club, which took part in the movement that overthrew the [[Tweed Ring]]. He was appointed Counsel to the Corporation of the City of New York on August 9, 1875, was twice reappointed and resigned on November 6, 1882. At the 1884 Democratic convention in [[Chicago]] he exerted what the Yale record calls a powerful influence for Cleveland.[^3]
 ### Secretary of the Navy
 Whitney practiced law until March 1885, when he became Secretary of the Navy, and he held the post until the close of Cleveland's administration in 1889. Yale University gave him an LL.D. in 1888.[^3] His first annual report, dated December 1885, argues that the department's bureau system left no one with a duty to deliberate: the Secretary was a civilian with a staff of one stenographer, one clerk and three messengers, and the department's decisions, among them the rebuilding of the [[USS Omaha]] for $572,000, had no identifiable author. He recommended a board of naval officers and experts to advise the Secretary, as the French and German navies had, and an Assistant Secretary of the Navy.[^4]
 The report for 1887, dated December 6, 1887, states that the country lacked factories for steel gun forgings, for armor and for secondary batteries, and that all three were then being built under contracts with the department. It says that "it was a fatal mistake for this country to be dependent upon any other nation for its implements of war."[^5] The department had advertised in the summer of 1886 for armor and gun steel of domestic manufacture, allowed about seven months for bids and opened them on March 22, 1887. The result was a contract with the [[Bethlehem Iron Company]], under which a plant for armor and gun steel was being erected at [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania]].[^5] The report for 1888 gives June 1, 1887 as the date of the contracts and describes them as the first important step toward a navy modern in character.[^6]
 The Yale record credits his tenure with improvements in steel manufacture that made it possible for the first time to equip American war vessels fully with an armament produced at home.[^3]
 ### The street railways and the Whitney Group
 After 1889 Whitney turned to finance. The Yale record says he developed the [[Metropolitan Street Railway]] from a single company through reorganization and consolidation, that it bought out its only rival and that it was in turn merged into the [[Interurban Street Railway Company]]. It adds that for several years he held no visible office or connection with the system, yet controlled its operations and secured the results he sought through others, and that his judgment in selecting men to carry out his plans was unerring. He retired from active business in 1902. He was a trustee of the [[Consolidated Gas Company]] and a director of the [[Metropolitan Opera and Real Estate Company]], the [[Metropolitan Steamship Company]], the New York Loan and Investment Company, the Manufacturing Investment Company, the [[Mergenthaler Linotype Company]], the [[Guggenheim Exploration Company]] and the Cuba Company, and he held shares in several local banks. He died at his New York home on February 2, 1904.[^3] Sutton wrote that a cluster of capitalists known as "the Whitney Group" were heavily criticized in several books, and that the group's New York street railway franchises generated enormous profits.[^7]
 The railway system went into receivership three and a half years after his death. The [[New-York Tribune]] of September 26, 1907 reported that [[Adrian H. Joline]] and [[Douglas Robinson]] had been named receivers of the New York City Railway Company, the lessee of the Metropolitan Street Railway, which had guaranteed a 7 percent dividend to Metropolitan stockholders. The paper called the receivership a "friendly proceeding" and wrote that a receivership might otherwise have been precipitated by interests "distinctly unfriendly to the Ryan-Belmont control." It adds that Judge [[Emile Henry Lacombe]], who appointed the receivers, had been an assistant corporation counsel while Whitney was Corporation Counsel, and had been named a federal judge during Whitney's term in Cleveland's cabinet.[^8]
 On October 13, 1869, Whitney married Flora Payne, daughter of [[Henry B. Payne]], a United States senator from Ohio, and sister of his classmate Oliver Hazard Payne. They had two sons, who graduated from Yale in 1894 and 1898, and three daughters.[^3]
 ### Oliver Hazard Payne and the Standard Oil treasurership
 Oliver Hazard Payne was born in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]] on July 21, 1839, the son of Henry B. Payne, who served in the Ohio Senate, in the [[United States Congress]] and as a United States senator from 1885 to 1891. He left the Yale class of 1863 in October 1861 to accept a commission in the [[124th Ohio Infantry]], rose to colonel and was brevetted brigadier general on March 13, 1865. The Yale Corporation voted him a B.A. in 1878, and he was enrolled in the class of 1863 from that date. After the war he entered the oil refining business in Cleveland with [[James B. Clark]] and [[John Huntington]]. The business was absorbed by the Standard Oil Company, and Payne served as its treasurer until 1884, when he moved to New York City and joined its board.[^9]
 The decree in the government's suit, as set out in the Supreme Court's 1911 opinion, names "Oliver H. Payne" among the seven individual defendants who joined the combination, together with [[John D. Rockefeller]], [[William Rockefeller]], [[Henry H. Rogers]], [[Henry M. Flagler]], [[John D. Archbold]] and [[Charles M. Pratt]].[^10] The opinion places the trust agreement of 1882, which vested the stock of forty corporations in nine trustees, in the second of three periods of the alleged combination, and it lists "O. H. Payne" among the individual holders of stock exchanged into the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey in 1899.[^11]
 His directorships included the [[American Tobacco Company]], the Virginia and Southeastern Railway Company, the Coal Creek Mining and Manufacturing Company and the [[Tennessee Coal and Iron Company]]. His largest gifts went to the Cornell Medical School, and in 1887 he endowed the Loomis Laboratory. Payne's will left one million dollars each to Yale, the [[New York Public Library]] and [[Lakeside Hospital]] in Cleveland. He spent each summer from 1898 to 1914 in Europe on his steam yacht Aphrodite, and he died in New York City on June 27, 1917. The Yale record names his nephews as [[Harry Payne Whitney]], Payne Whitney and [[Henry Payne Bingham]].[^9]
 Sutton wrote that "The Paynes are not in The Order," and that adding the Payne piece of the Standard Oil fortune made Whitney's fortune "that much larger."[^12]
 ### Skull and Bones membership
 Sutton's index of the Order by class year lists eight Whitneys: [[Emerson Cogswell Whitney]] (1851), [[Edward Payson Whitney]] (1854), [[James Lyman Whitney]] (1855), William Collins Whitney (1863), [[Edward Baldwin Whitney]] (1878), [[Joseph Ernest Whitney]] (1882), Harry Payne Whitney (1894) and Payne Whitney (1898).[^13] Sutton's text names W.C. Whitney and his two sons as "the core of Whitney influence" in the society, and he ties that influence to the Harriman family and to intermarriage with the Paynes and the Vanderbilts.[^14]
 Sutton's chart table prints the two sons' years in reverse, giving Payne Whitney as 1894 and Harry Payne Whitney as 1898, while his text and index give Harry Payne Whitney as 1894 and Payne Whitney as 1898. The Yale records give the same graduating years as Sutton's text and index.[^15][^3] The Yale Obituary Record for Payne Whitney lists "Skull and Bones" among his undergraduate activities.[^2]
 ### Payne Whitney
 Payne Whitney was born in New York City on March 20, 1876. He rowed on the Yale crews and captained the Senior crew, took an LL.B. at Harvard Law School in 1901 and was a director and member of the executive board of the [[Great Northern Paper Company]] from 1903 to 1927. The Yale record also lists him as director and vice-president of the [[Northern Finance Corporation]] from 1911 and of the [[Whitney Realty Company]] from 1910, a trustee of the [[United States Trust Company]] from 1905 and of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] from 1922, a director of the [[First National Bank of New York]] from 1924, a former director of the [[Northern Pacific Railroad]] and chairman of the executive committee of the [[Vanadium Corporation of America]] from 1923. In 1923 he gave $2,000,000 to the New York Public Library, of which he had been a trustee since 1915.[^2]
 On February 6, 1902, in Washington, he married [[Helen Hay Whitney|Helen Hay]], daughter of [[John Hay]], then Secretary of State. Their children were Joan, who married [[Charles S. Payson]] of the Yale class of 1921, and [[John Hay Whitney]], of the class of 1926, then a student at the [[University of Oxford]]. Payne Whitney died in [[Manhasset, New York]], on May 25, 1927. The Yale record lists his surviving siblings as Harry Payne Whitney and a sister, the wife of [[Leonard Knight Elmhirst]] of [[Yorkshire]], England.[^2]
 In June 1916 Payne Whitney formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. A Yale Obituary Record entry for a member of the corps says it was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that [[Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1]] was organized by [[F. Trubee Davison]] of the class of 1918, a unit afterward known as the Huntington Unit.[^16]
 The New York appraisal of his estate was reported in November 1928. The Washington Daily News headed its account "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," gave the appraised net value as more than $175,000,000 and the expected death tax as about $20,000,000, of which about $15,600,000 would go to New York State. The larger part of the estate was a half interest in the Northern Finance Corporation, a holding company for securities, which the paper said grew from a fund set aside by his uncle, Colonel Oliver H. Payne, who established it to be relieved of the care of large blocks of Standard Oil and subsidiary stocks and tobacco shares.[^17]
 ### Harry Payne Whitney, Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney and the Whitney Museum
 Harry Payne Whitney, Yale 1894, was born in New York on April 29, 1872. He married the sculptor [[Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney]] in 1896, according to Sutton, who wrote that the Whitney-Payne fortune then "joined some Vanderbilt money," which he says was channeled into the [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and the [[J. P. Morgan & Company|J. P. Morgan]] and Guggenheim interests.[^18] He kept a racing stable whose horses won the Preakness and the Kentucky Derby and were the leading money winners of 1924, and he was a member of the American polo team that brought the international cup back from England in 1909. He died of pneumonia at his Fifth Avenue home on October 26, 1930, at 58. The United Press reported that he was the son of the Secretary of the Navy in Cleveland's cabinet and that he had inherited from his father a fortune estimated at $200,000,000.[^19]
 Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney became the leading patron of American art from 1907 until her death in 1942, established the [[Whitney Studio Club]] in Greenwich Village in 1914, and founded the [[Whitney Museum of American Art]] in 1930, after the Metropolitan Museum of Art declined the gift of her collection of more than five hundred works. The museum opened in 1931 on West Eighth Street.[^20]
 Their son [[Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney]], Yale 1922, is listed in the 1927 Yale record as a nephew of Payne Whitney.[^2] Sutton writes that Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney married Marie Norton, and that after their divorce she married [[W. Averell Harriman]].[^18] The Library of Congress finding aid for the Harriman papers lists the marriage in 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney, who died in 1970.[^21]
 ### Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney in the Truman administration
 The [[Harry S. Truman Library]] photograph record for a meeting of the [[National Security Council]] on August 19, 1948 names Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, Assistant Secretary of the Air Force, among those at the table: he sits with Secretary of the Army [[Kenneth Royall]], Executive Secretary [[Sidney Souers]], National Security Resources Board Chairman [[Arthur M. Hill]], Director of Central Intelligence Roscoe Hillenkoetter, Secretary of Defense [[James Forrestal]], Secretary of State [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]], President Truman and Under Secretary of the Navy [[W. John Kenney]].[^22] The State Department's volume of Foreign Relations documents on intelligence for 1945 to 1950 lists "Whitney, C. V., Assistant Secretary of the Air Force."[^23] A second Truman Library record, dated March 5, 1950, captions him as Acting Secretary of Commerce at the swearing-in of the director of the Census Bureau, and the library's other photographs describe him as Under Secretary of Commerce.[^24]
 ### Dorothy Payne Whitney and the Straight line
 The 1927 Yale record for Payne Whitney lists a sister, the wife of Leonard K. Elmhirst, and that sister is [[Dorothy Payne Whitney]].[^2] She had married [[Willard Straight]] in 1911, and the couple founded [[The New Republic]] in 1914 with [[Herbert Croly]].[^25] Sutton wrote that [[The Nation]] and the New Republic on the left "were financed by Willard Straight, using Payne Whitney (The Order) funds."[^26] An [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] summary of a 1969 interview with the magazine's publisher, as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page, records that her family's fund had founded the magazine and had been used for its operation until 1954.[^27]
 The [[William C. Whitney Foundation]] appears in the FBI file on Michael Straight. Milton C. Rose, senior partner of [[Mudge, Rose, Guthrie and Alexander]], told the FBI that the foundation was "created by Mr. Straight's parents in memory of his grandfather" and that Michael Whitney Straight had been its president "since its inception in 1937." The same summary records that Straight was questioned before a special House committee investigating tax-exempt foundations, as reported by the [[Washington Times-Herald]] on December 6, 1952, about $19,000 in grants the foundation had made to organizations "cited as subversive or communist fronts."[^28]
 ### Michael Whitney Straight
 [[Michael Whitney Straight]], Dorothy Payne Whitney's son, was a grandson of William Collins Whitney and the president of the William C. Whitney Foundation according to the FBI summary cited above.[^28] In June 1963 he told FBI agents that [[Anthony Blunt]] had recruited him for Soviet intelligence while he was at Cambridge, and that account was followed by Blunt's confession in 1964. The Soviet file, the British and American responses and the rest of the record are on his page.[^29]
 ### John Hay Whitney, the embassy and the Herald Tribune
 John Hay Whitney, called Jock, was the son of Payne Whitney and Helen Hay and a member of the Yale class of 1926.[^2] The Department of State's Office of the Historian records his appointment as ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] on February 11, 1957, with credentials presented on February 28, 1957, and his departure from the post on January 14, 1961.[^30]
 The [[San Francisco Chronicle]] reported on February 25, 1967 that Whitney was the former owner, publisher and editor of the [[New York Herald Tribune]], and that he was a one-third partner in its successor, the [[World Journal Tribune]], and a member of that paper's three-man executive board.[^31] A statement of ownership for [[United Nations World]] dated October 1, 1947 lists "J. H. Whitney, 630 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y." among the holders of one percent or more of the magazine's securities, beside [[Nelson Rockefeller]] and [[Max Ascoli]].[^32]
 On March 26, 1969 [[Henry A. Kissinger]] wrote to [[Peter Flanigan]] about Whitney's interest in the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board|Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]. Kissinger's memorandum reads: "You should know that this has twice been raised with the President and rejected both times."[^33]
 ### J. H. Whitney and Company, William H. Jackson and the CIA
 The investment firm [[J. H. Whitney and Company]] had its offices at 630 Fifth Avenue in New York, the address given in the 1947 ownership statement.[^32] A letter of May 29, 1947, on the firm's letterhead and signed "W. H. Jackson," came from [[William Harding Jackson|William H. Jackson]] and was addressed to Rear Admiral [[Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter]], then Director of Central Intelligence. It reads: "You need only call upon me and I shall do anything within my power to be of assistance," and it offers to come to Washington "whenever you request it regardless of other appointments."[^34]
 The writer of that letter is William Harding Jackson (1901 to 1971), the later Deputy Director of Central Intelligence. He was born in [[Nashville, Tennessee]], took a B.A. at [[Princeton University]] in 1924 and an LL.B. at Harvard in 1928, worked as a lawyer and investment banker in New York, served in the Army from 1942 to 1945 and in 1944 sat on General [[Omar Bradley]]'s intelligence staff.[^35] A member of the three-man board that reported to the National Security Council on the national intelligence system in January 1949, he was named Deputy Director of Central Intelligence by [[Walter Bedell Smith]] and served from October 1950 until August 3, 1951; the CIA's announcement of his resignation that month calls him William H. Jackson "of Princeton, New Jersey" and says he resigned "due to the pressure of private business."[^36][^37] The Eisenhower Library's description of the President's Committee on International Information Activities identifies its chairman, William H. Jackson, as "a managing partner in the investment firm J.H. Whitney and Company, and a former Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^38] From August 1951 to February 1956 he was a part-time assistant and senior consultant to the Director of Central Intelligence.[^35]
 The CIA's official history of the Walter Bedell Smith years says that when Smith and Jackson could not recruit "men of great prestige with practical experience" for the [[Board of National Estimates]], they created a group of outside advisers who met in Princeton, known as "the Princeton Consultants." The history lists among the group's original members [[Vannevar Bush]], [[George Kennan]], [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]], [[Alexander Standish]], "a partner in J. H. Whitney & Company," [[Barklie McKee Henry]] and [[Burton Fahs]].[^39] Barklie McKee Henry was later a member of the Jackson Committee, appointed by President Eisenhower in January 1953 with Jackson as chairman; its other members were [[Robert Cutler]], [[C. D. Jackson]], [[Roger Kyes]], [[Sigurd Larmon]], [[Gordon Gray]] and [[John C. Hughes]], and its report went to the President on June 30, 1953.[^38]
 A second letter, of October 3, 1952, on the same letterhead and signed by William H. Jackson, was sent to the Central Intelligence Agency about a correspondent who had to interview "a great number of people." Jackson wrote that "if he wants to see Secretary Lovett, General Smith is the person to arrange it."[^40] The letter refers to [[Robert A. Lovett]] and to Smith, then the Director of Central Intelligence.
 Hillenkoetter, the addressee of the 1947 letter, was at the same National Security Council table as Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney on August 19, 1948.[^22]
 ### The Granary Fund and the John Hay Whitney Trust
 On February 25, 1967 the San Francisco Chronicle reported from a schedule of contributions filed with the Massachusetts attorney general that the [[Granary Fund]] of [[Boston]] received $300,000 in 1964 from the [[John G. Thornton Trust]], $150,000 from the [[James Carlisle Trust]] and $500 in miscellaneous contributions. Officials who asked not to be named called the Thornton and Carlisle trusts CIA fronts, and the paper described the Granary Fund as a fund used by the CIA to channel money to organizations at home and abroad.[^31] The same report says the Granary Fund gave a John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes $225,000 in 1964 and $100,000 in 1965.[^31]
 The Chronicle reported that the Whitney trust was a charitable trust established by Whitney on December 29, 1958, during his term as ambassador to the United Kingdom. [[Walter N. Thayer]], head of the Whitney communications corporation, made a statement on Whitney's behalf that the trust had operated since that date and that its pledges and contributions to tax-exempt organizations had all been properly reported.[^31][^30] A [[Los Angeles Times]] report of February 26, 1967 said that Representative [[Wright Patman]] had named eight funds in 1964 in connection with the [[J. M. Kaplan Fund]], among them the [[Gotham Foundation]], and that the Internal Revenue Service had not yet produced records for four more, among them the Granary Fund.[^41] A February 21, 1967 newspaper item in the CIA reading room, "Foundations Fail to File Tax Report," also lists the Granary Fund, Boston, among foundations under question.[^42]
 The 1967 reports followed the disclosure of CIA funding for the [[National Student Association]]. The [[Ramparts]] article by [[Sol Stern]] on the association and the CIA appeared in March 1967, and the [[The New York Times|New York Times]] reported the magazine's account on February 16, 1967.[^43][^44] The [[Church Committee]]'s 1976 report on foreign and military intelligence states: "Until 1967 the Agency also maintained covert ties to American foundations in order to pass funds secretly to private groups whose work the CIA supported."[^45] The report says that most of those funds "were transmitted through legitimate or 'devised' foundations, that is, fictitious entities established by the CIA," and that at least 108 of the 700 grants over $10,000 made by 164 foundations other than the Ford, Rockefeller and Carnegie foundations in 1963 to 1966 involved partial or complete CIA funding.[^46]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," with the spokes WHITNEY FAMILY (1635, Watertown, Mass.) and PAYNE FAMILY (Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
 [^2]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (birth, death, descent from John Whitney of Watertown, Yale relatives, crews, the listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones," directorships, gifts, marriage to Helen Hay, children and survivors). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4.
 [^3]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1900 to 1910*, entry for William Collins Whitney, class of 1863, pp. 350 to 352. https://archive.org/details/1900t10obituary00yaleuoft.
 [^4]: William C. Whitney, *Report of the Secretary of the Navy*, December 1885, in *Annual Reports of the Navy Department* (Government Printing Office, 1885), pp. xxxviii to xli (the Secretary's staff, the rebuilding of the Omaha at $572,000, the proposed advisory board and Assistant Secretary). https://archive.org/details/annualreportsna00deptgoog.
 [^5]: William C. Whitney, *Report of the Secretary of the Navy*, Navy Department, Washington, December 6, 1887, in *Annual Reports of the Navy Department* (Government Printing Office, 1887), passages on the armor, gun-steel and secondary-battery factories and the Bethlehem Iron Company contract. https://archive.org/details/annualreportsna06deptgoog.
 [^6]: *Report of the Secretary of the Navy* for 1888, in *Annual Reports of the Navy Department* (Government Printing Office, 1888), passage on the contracts of June 1, 1887 with the Bethlehem Iron Company and the department's 1886 report on armor and gun production. https://archive.org/details/annualreportsna02deptgoog.
 [^7]: Sutton (1983), section "The Whitney Family" and the Whitney table, passage on "the Whitney Group" and the New York street railway franchises. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
 [^8]: *New-York Tribune*, September 26, 1907, p. 1 (Joline and Robinson as receivers of the New York City Railway Company; the guaranteed dividend; "friendly proceeding"; the Ryan-Belmont control; Judge Lacombe and William C. Whitney as Corporation Counsel). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030214/1907-09-26/ed-1/?sp=1.
 [^9]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296. https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
 [^10]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), Section 2 of the decree as set out in the opinion, naming "the seven individual defendants" and including "Oliver H. Payne." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1.
 [^11]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), the opinion's description of the trust agreement of 1882 and its nine trustees, and the list of individual stockholders including "O. H. Payne." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1.
 [^12]: Sutton (1983), the passage on the Paynes and Standard Oil. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
 [^13]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: the Whitney entries under 1851, 1854, 1855, 1863, 1878, 1882, 1894 and 1898, and the list for the class of 1863, which does not include Payne. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
 [^14]: Sutton (1983), the section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," point 1 ("the core of Whitney influence"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
 [^15]: Sutton (1983), Whitney table, which prints "1894 Payne Whitney" and "1898 Harry Payne Whitney"; text, which gives "Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
 [^16]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916, Sheffield Scientific School, stating that the Yale Aviation Corps was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 was organized by F. Trubee Davison (B.A. 1918). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
 [^17]: "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," *Washington Daily News*, November 23, 1928, p. 6. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82016181/1928-11-23/ed-1/?sp=6.
 [^18]: Sutton (1983), the passage on the Harriman family, the Whitney-Payne fortune and the Vanderbilt marriage, and the account of Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney's marriage to Marie Norton. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
 [^19]: "Harry Payne Whitney, Multi-Millionaire, Is Dead," United Press, *The Indianapolis Times*, October 27, 1930, p. 2. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82015313/1930-10-27/ed-1/?sp=2.
 [^20]: Whitney Museum of American Art, "Whitney History: Founding." https://whitney.org/about/history.
 [^21]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *W. Averell Harriman Papers: A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress* (2016), chronology entry "1930 Married Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970)." https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf.
 [^22]: Harry S. Truman Library, photograph 73-2702, "Truman with National Security Council," August 19, 1948 (identification of Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney and Director of Central Intelligence Roscoe Hillenkoetter at the table). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/photograph-records/73-2702.
 [^23]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, "Persons," entry "Whitney, C. V., Assistant Secretary of the Air Force." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/persons.
 [^24]: Harry S. Truman Library, photograph 2017-286, swearing-in of Roy V. Peel as Director of the Bureau of the Census, March 5, 1950 (caption: "Mr. C. V. Whitney, Acting Secretary of Commerce"), and the library's index entry for "Whitney, C. V. (Cornelius Vanderbilt), 1899-1992." https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/photograph-records/2017-286.
 [^25]: Tara Mastrelli, "Dorothy Payne Whitney Straight Elmhirst," Histories of The New School, May 25, 2018 (founding of The New Republic with Willard Straight and Herbert Croly; the 1911 marriage), as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page. https://histories.newschool.edu/people/dorothy-payne-whitney-straight-elmhirst.
 [^26]: Sutton (1983), the section on the press (the Nation and New Republic passage). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
 [^27]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), special inquiry report of September 1969, interview with the publisher of *The New Republic*, as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
 [^28]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," summary memorandum of September 10, 1969, interviews with Milton C. Rose and Harriett K. Evison, the William C. Whitney Foundation passage, the summary of the Washington Times-Herald article of December 6, 1952, and the statement that Straight was president of the foundation, as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
 [^29]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," memorandum of June 25, 1963 on the interview of June 18, 1963, as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
 [^30]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Hay Whitney (1904-1982)," Principal Officers and Chiefs of Mission, United Kingdom. https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/whitney-john-hay.
 [^31]: San Francisco Chronicle, "CIA Link to Charity Funds," February 25, 1967 (CIA reading room copy). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000800060024-5.
 [^32]: *United Nations World*, December 1947 (Vol. 1, No. 10), statement of ownership, management and circulation for October 1, 1947. https://archive.org/details/united-nations-world_1947-12_1_10.
 [^33]: Henry A. Kissinger to Peter Flanigan, memorandum, March 26, 1969, on the Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board and John Hay Whitney (CIA reading room copy, document LOC-HAK-1-2-69-2). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-loc-hak-1-2-69-2.
 [^34]: William H. Jackson to Rear Admiral R. H. Hillenkoetter, letter of May 29, 1947, on J. H. Whitney & Co. letterhead, 630 Fifth Avenue (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000040034-9). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000040034-9.
 [^35]: Georgetown University Library, *William Harding Jackson Papers* (GTM-101014), biographical note (born March 25, 1901, Nashville; B.A. Princeton 1924; LL.B. Harvard 1928; lawyer and investment banker in New York; Army 1942 to 1945; Bradley's intelligence staff 1944; Deputy Director of the CIA from August 18, 1950 to August 3, 1951; part-time assistant and senior consultant to the CIA director, August 1951 to February 1956; died September 28, 1971). https://findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/10428.
 [^36]: Central Intelligence Agency, press release of August 23, 1951 announcing Allen W. Dulles as Deputy Director of Central Intelligence to succeed William H. Jackson, "of Princeton, New Jersey," who "resigned that post due to the pressure of private business," and noting that both men were members of the three-man board that reported to the National Security Council in January 1949 (CIA reading room, CIA-RDP57-00384R000100150018-8). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp57-00384r000100150018-8.
 [^37]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, "Persons," entry "Jackson, William H.," member of the National Security Council Survey Committee in 1948 and Deputy Director of Central Intelligence from October 7, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons.
 [^38]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, *U.S. President's Committee on International Information Activities (Jackson Committee): Records, 1950-53*, finding aid, historical note (appointment of William H. Jackson, "a managing partner in the investment firm J.H. Whitney and Company, and a former Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency," as chairman; members; report of June 30, 1953). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/finding-aids/pdf/us-presidents-committee-on-international-information-activities.pdf.
 [^39]: Central Intelligence Agency, "General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October 1950 to February 1953," vol. III (CREST document 00669377), passages on the Board of National Estimates, the Princeton Consultants and their original members, and the references to William Jackson as deputy director. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00669377.
 [^40]: William H. Jackson to the Central Intelligence Agency, letter of October 3, 1952, on J. H. Whitney & Co. letterhead (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R000500470007-3). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000500470007-3.
 [^41]: Don Irwin and Vincent J. Burke, "21 Foundations, Union Got Money From CIA," *Los Angeles Times*, February 26, 1967 (CIA reading room copy). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000600210002-4.
 [^42]: "Foundations Fail to File Tax Report," February 21, 1967 (CIA reading room copy), list including the Granary Fund, Boston. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000101290002-3.
 [^43]: Sol Stern, "A Short Account of International Student Politics and the Cold War with Particular Reference to the NSA, CIA, Etc.," *Ramparts*, March 1967. https://archive.org/details/nsa-and-the-cia.
 [^44]: "Ramparts Says C.I.A. Received Student Report," *New York Times*, February 16, 1967 (CIA reading room copy), as cited on the Michael Josselson page. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000800100021-3.
 [^45]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 182. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit.
 [^46]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 183 (devised foundations; 108 of 700 grants). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit.
 [^47]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 (Straight as grandson of William C. Whitney), as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
--- a/PEOPLE/(T-Z)/William
+++ b/PEOPLE/(T-Z)/William
@ -0,0 +1,262 @@
 ---
 aliases:
  - William Howard Taft
  - William H. Taft
  - Wm. H. Taft
  - W. H. Taft
  - Governor Taft
  - President Taft
  - Chief Justice Taft
 category: "Political Figure"
 tags:
  - Person
  - SkullAndBones
  - YaleUniversity
  - PhilippineCommission
  - PhilippineAmericanWar
  - WaterCure
  - TaftKatsura
  - SecretaryOfWar
  - PanamaCanal
  - Cuba1906
  - DollarDiplomacy
  - NicaraguaLoans
  - SupremeCourt
  - Olmstead
  - Sutton
 summary: "27th President and 10th Chief Justice, Yale 1878 and Skull and Bones, first civil governor of the Philippines, and the American party to the 1905 Tokyo conversation with Katsura."
 born: 1857-09-15
 died: 1930-03-08
 location: "Cincinnati, Ohio"
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 relations:
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    role: "member, Yale class of 1878"
    fn: 17
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Yale University]]"
    start: 1913
    end: 1921
    role: "Kent Professor of Law"
    fn: 2
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Philippine Commission]]"
    start: 1900-03
    end: 1901-07
    role: "president of the United States Philippine Commission"
    fn: 21
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Philippines]]"
    start: 1901-07
    end: 1904-02
    role: "first civil governor"
    fn: 21
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Theodore Roosevelt]]"
    start: 1904-02-01
    end: 1908-06-30
    role: "Secretary of War"
    fn: 30
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Panama Canal]]"
    start: 1904
    role: "placed in charge of the Isthmian Canal project"
    fn: 30
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Cuba]]"
    start: 1906-09-29
    end: 1906-10-13
    role: "provisional governor"
    fn: 39
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Katsura Taro]]"
    start: 1905-07-27
    role: "conversation in Tokyo and agreed memorandum of July 29, 1905, reported to Elihu Root"
    fn: 35
  - type: appointed
    with: "[[Warren G. Harding]]"
    start: 1921-07-11
    end: 1930-02-03
    role: "Chief Justice of the United States"
    fn: 54
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Supreme Court of the United States]]"
    start: 1921-07-11
    end: 1930-02-03
    role: "Chief Justice of the United States"
    fn: 54
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Alphonso Taft]]"
    role: "son"
    fn: 3
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[Henry W. Taft]]"
    role: "brother"
    fn: 14
 ---
 William Howard Taft (September 15, 1857 to March 8, 1930) was the 27th President of the United States, serving from 1909 to 1913, and the 10th Chief Justice of the United States, serving from 1921 to 1930.[^1] He was a member of the Yale class of 1878 and of [[Skull and Bones]]. He was the first civil governor of the [[Philippines]] and then Secretary of War from 1904 to 1908.[^1] He held the Kent Professorship of Law at [[Yale University]] from 1913 to 1921.[^2]
 ### Alphonso Taft and the family
 His father was [[Alphonso Taft]] (1810 to 1891), born at Townshend, Vermont, on November 5, 1810, the only child of Peter R. and Sylvia (Howard) Taft. Alphonso Taft took the Yale degree of 1833, taught for two years at Ellington, Connecticut, and was a tutor at Yale from 1835 to 1837. He was admitted to the bar at New Haven in August 1838 and settled in Cincinnati in January 1840. He sat on the Cincinnati Board of Education for twenty-five years, ran as the Republican candidate for Congress in 1856, was appointed judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati in 1865, and resigned in 1871. He became a member of the Yale Corporation in 1872, when its members were first elected by the alumni, and held the seat until 1882. Yale gave him the LL.D. in 1867. In March 1876 he entered the cabinet of President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] as Secretary of War and two months later was transferred to the attorney-generalship, which he held until March 1877. [[Chester A. Arthur]] appointed him minister to Austria in April 1882 and he was transferred to Russia in 1884, where he remained until August 1885. He died at San Diego, California, on May 21, 1891.[^3]
 The Office of the Historian gives the Austria-Hungary appointment as April 26, 1882, with credentials presented on June 30, 1882 and a departure on August 25, 1884, and the Russia appointment as July 4, 1884, with credentials presented on September 3, 1884 and a recall presented on July 31, 1885.[^4]
 The Yale record of William Howard Taft names Alphonso Taft's parents as Peter Rawson Taft, a judge in Windham County, Vermont, and Sylvia (Howard) Taft of West Townshend, Vermont. His mother was Louisa Maria (Torrey) Taft, daughter of Samuel Davenport and Susan Holman (Waters) Torrey, of Millbury, Massachusetts.[^5] Alphonso Taft's first wife, Fanny (Phelps) Taft, was the daughter of Charles Phelps of Townshend; she died on June 2, 1852. He married Louisa M. Torrey on December 26, 1853.[^3]
 Alphonso Taft is named as a co-founder of Skull and Bones. [[David A. Richards]] named him as a cofounder with [[William Huntington Russell]] in the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015.[^6] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that the American chapter "was founded in 1833 at Yale University by General William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft who, in 1876, became Secretary of War in the Grant Administration."[^7] Sutton also wrote that Alphonso Taft was Attorney General in 1876 and 1877, then minister to Austria from 1882 to 1884, and ambassador to Russia from 1884 to 1885.[^8]
 Sutton's chart of old-line families gives the Taft family a settlement date of 1679 at [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]].[^9]
 ### The half brothers, the brothers and the two Charles Phelps Tafts
 The Yale record lists two half brothers of William Howard Taft, Charles P. Taft (Yale 1864), who was editor of the [[Cincinnati Times-Star]], and Peter R. Taft (Yale 1867).[^10] The elder Charles Phelps Taft was born on December 21, 1843, in Cincinnati and died there on December 31, 1929. His Yale entry lists as his nephews Peter R. Taft's son Hulbert Taft (1900), Walbridge S. Taft (1907), William Howard Taft 2d (1909), [[Robert A. Taft]] (1910) and "Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18."[^11]
 William Howard Taft's own entry in the same volume lists his children as Robert Alphonso (B.A. 1910, LL.B. Harvard 1913), Helen Herron (B.A. Bryn Mawr 1915, Ph.D. Yale 1924) and Charles Phelps, 2d (B.A. 1918, LL.B. 1921).[^12] The Yale class of 1918 therefore contained one Charles Phelps Taft, the President's son and the nephew of the elder Charles Phelps Taft. Sutton's book names "Charles Phelps Taft (The Order '18), nephew of President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft" in a passage on the Twentieth Century Foundation and [[Evans Clark]].[^13] The relationship Sutton gives as nephew of the President is, in the Yale record, that of son of the President and nephew of the older Charles.
 In 1930 the survivors of William Howard Taft were two brothers, [[Henry W. Taft]] (Yale 1880) and [[Horace D. Taft]] (Yale 1883), and a sister.[^14] The Yale record also names Henry W. Taft as one of four authors, with [[George W. Wickersham]], [[A. Lawrence Lowell]] and William Howard Taft, of the 1919 book The Covenanter, an American Exposition of the League of Nations.[^15] Henry W. Taft joined the New York law firm [[Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft]] in 1889, and the firm took that name in 1914; Wickersham had joined it in 1883.[^16]
 ### Yale, 1878, and Skull and Bones
 Taft attended Woodward High School in Cincinnati and then Yale. The Yale record describes him as salutatorian of the class of 1878, its class orator, and a member of Linonia, Delta Kappa, Phi Theta Psi, He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones and Phi Beta Kappa.[^17] The membership index in Antony C. Sutton's 1983 book lists "Taft, William Howard" in the class of 1878, and his list of Yale faculty members who were in the society gives "TAFT, William H. 1878 Professor of Law (1913)."[^18] Sutton wrote that eight Tafts had been members of the society and that "the great contribution of the Tafts to The Order" was "on the world court system and world law."[^19]
 Taft took the LL.B. at the Cincinnati Law School in 1880 and was admitted to the Ohio bar that year. He worked in his father's law office in 1880 and 1881 and then in partnership with Harlan P. Lloyd as Lloyd and Taft from 1883 to 1887. He was assistant county solicitor of Hamilton County from 1885 to 1887, judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati from 1887 to 1890, solicitor general of the United States from 1890 to 1892, and United States circuit judge for the Sixth Circuit from 1892 to 1900.[^20]
 ### The Philippine Commission and the governorship, 1900 to 1904
 Taft was president of the United States Philippine Commission from March 1900 to July 1901, and then the first civil governor of the Philippine Islands from July 1901 to February 1904.[^21] In June 1902 he was sent to Rome by President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] to confer with [[Leo XIII]] about the purchase of church lands in the Philippines, and he returned to the islands in July.[^21] The Yale record says that while governor he went to Washington in December 1901 to testify before the Senate Committee on the Philippine Islands and the House Committee on Insular Affairs.[^21]
 The printed hearings of the Senate Committee on the Philippines, chaired by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], are Senate Document 331, 57th Congress, first session, Part 1, "Affairs in the Philippine Islands." Taft's statement runs over several sessions, and the session of February 4, 1902 opens with the committee's roll of Senators Lodge, Allison, Hale, Proctor, Beveridge, Burrows, McComas, Dietrich, Culberson, Dubois, Carmack and Patterson.[^22]
 ### The water cure before the Lodge committee, 1902
 In the session of February 4, 1902, Senator Patterson asked Taft for information on the use of the so-called water cure to obtain surrenders of guns. Taft said he had intended to speak of the charges of torture "which were made from time to time, and have been made in letters written from the Philippines by soldiers and others," and that such charges would, "if they were true," be "the basis for proper charges against the management of the Army."[^23]
 Taft first took up the insurgent side. He said that the captured correspondence between the insurgent leaders showed "that the policy of terrorism adopted toward the Filipino people by the insurgent leaders in this guerrilla warfare was recognized by them as necessary," naming the correspondence of Sandico, whom he described as a brigadier general. He described the fighting as "chiefly ambushing," with a great deal of shooting into towns at night.[^24] Later in the same session he said that "warfare which depends upon terrorism and murder is a crime."[^25]
 Senator Culberson asked what Taft had heard of cruelty by American soldiers. Taft answered "Never of the mutilation of bodies," and said: "I have heard charges of whippings and charges of what has been alluded to as the water cure. They were rife in Manila."[^26] Culberson asked about a case in which a Filipino prisoner was shot after surrendering; Taft said he had not heard of it. Taft then said that "individual instances of water cure, that torture which I believe involves pouring water down the throat so that the man swells and gets the impression that he is going to be suffocated and then tells what he knows, which was a frequent treatment under the Spaniards, I am told," were among the things that "are true."[^27]
 Patterson then described Macabebe troops enlisted in the American Army who would throw natives on the ground, pour buckets of water down their throats "till they swelled up to an abnormal size," and jump on their stomachs, with the result that guns were produced "with the knowledge of American officers." Taft answered: "I have no doubt there were such instances, of course, a great many more than there ought to have been, but if the Senator will excuse me, dependence on private letters from private individuals as to what occurred is dependence on a very broken reed." He added that he "did not realize the unreliability of such letters until I had experienced what it was," and that he had been at Manila throughout, in daily conference with General [[Arthur MacArthur]].[^28]
 Taft pointed to the efforts of the military commanders, "especially General MacArthur," in ordering courts-martial and investigations and in issuing orders to the troops that such methods "would be condemned and must not be adopted." When the chairman asked whether any men had been punished, Taft said he knew that courts-martial had been ordered and that "some courts-martial were lectured for not punishing more heavily than they did men whom the evidence showed had been guilty of that method of securing evidence."[^29]
 ### Secretary of War and the Isthmus, 1904 to 1908
 Taft was Secretary of War under Theodore Roosevelt from February 1, 1904 to June 30, 1908.[^30] The Yale record says he was placed in charge of the Isthmian Canal project in 1904 and visited the isthmus in November and thereafter.[^30] Under the order of the Secretary of War of June 24, 1904, the Canal Zone was declared open to the commerce of all friendly nations, with customs districts at Ancon and Cristobal and the governor of the zone as head of the customs service.[^31]
 [[John Barrett]], the American minister at Panama, reported on December 6, 1904 on the Secretary's visit. He wrote that the method of negotiation was to lay each day before the Panama officials the proposed order, which the Panama officials considered and returned, and that Taft then laid it before Admiral Walker, General [[George W. Davis]], Judge [[Charles E. Magoon]] and Barrett in conference. Barrett added that "Mr. Nelson W. Cromwell, assisted by Mr. Farnham, has acted as an Intermediary between the two Governments, and as an adviser of Panama."[^32] Taft told President [[Manuel Amador Guerrero|Amador]] on November 27, 1904 that the United States "has no desire to exercise any power except that which it deems necessary under the treaty to insure the building, maintenance, and protection of the canal."[^32]
 On November 5, 1905 the Liberal leaders of [[Panama]] presented Taft with a memorandum on the coming elections. Their representatives were [[Pablo Arosemena]], then vice president of the Republic, [[Belisario Porras]], [[Eusebio Morales]] and General [[Domingo Diaz]]. The American minister and governor of the Canal Zone, Charles E. Magoon, reported the meeting in a despatch of November 10, 1905. He quoted the leaders' questions, including whether the American government guaranteed "public order and constitutional succession in this Republic."[^33] The Panama Journal printed Taft's reply, that "no government which, in order to remain in power, needed to have recourse to fraud and violence at the polls had the right to exist."[^33]
 ### The July 1905 conversation with Katsura
 Taft was in Tokyo in July 1905 with a congressional party, a journey the Yale record dates to July through October 1905 and describes as a visit to the Philippine Islands, Japan and China.[^34] On July 27, 1905 he held a long conversation with [[Katsura Taro]], then prime minister of Japan and temporarily in charge of the foreign ministry in place of Baron Komura, who was on his way to the Portsmouth peace conference. Taft reported it to Secretary of State [[Elihu Root]] in a memorandum dated July 29, 1905 and in a cable from Tokyo of the same date; both are in the [[Library of Congress]] Manuscript Division and are catalogued by the Theodore Roosevelt Center. The catalogue describes the memorandum as the account Secretary of War Taft gives of a conversation he had with Count Katsura about Japan's desires in regard to the Philippine Islands and Korea, and the cable as an "agreed memorandum of conversation" between the prime minister of Japan and Taft on the Philippine Islands, Korea and the maintenance of peace in the Far East.[^35]
 [[Tyler Dennett]] printed the text of the agreed memorandum in Current History in October 1924 with the American's name replaced by asterisks. In the first part Katsura observed that Japan's only interest in the Philippines would be, in his opinion, "to have these islands governed by a strong and friendly nation like the United States," and stated that "Japan does not harbor any aggressive designs whatever on the Philippines." The second part records Katsura's proposal for a good understanding among Japan, the United States and Great Britain. It records the statement that the President could not enter into even a confidential informal agreement "without the consent of the Senate," and the view that the people of the United States were so fully in accord with the policy of Japan and Great Britain that appropriate action "could be counted on by them quite as confidently as if the United States were under treaty obligations." In the third part Katsura said Japan was constrained to take definite steps to prevent Korea from falling back into her former condition. The American "fully admitted the justness of the Count's observations" and said that "in his personal opinion, the establishment by Japanese troops of a suzerainty over Korea to the extent of requiring that Korea enter into no foreign treaties without the consent of Japan was the logical result of the present war." He added that President Roosevelt would concur, "although he had no authority to give assurance of this," and that he would forward a memorandum of the conversation to Mr. Root and the President.[^36]
 Dennett wrote that at Katsura's request the agreement was regarded as so secret that it was not disclosed even to [[Lloyd C. Griscom]], the American minister at Tokyo. Roosevelt replied on July 31, 1905: "Your conversation with Count Katsura absolutely correct in every respect. Wish you would state to Katsura that I confirm every word you said."[^37] The conversation is the one later called the Taft-Katsura agreement.
 In November 1905 the American legation at [[Seoul]] was withdrawn, and Katsura wrote that the Imperial Government was "profoundly satisfied with the prompt and just steps" taken. The American chargé at Tokyo, [[Huntington Wilson]], reported that the fact that the United States "has been the first to take this step" was "esteemed as a very graceful and friendly act."[^38]
 ### Cuba, 1906
 In September 1906 Roosevelt sent Taft and Assistant Secretary of State [[Robert Bacon]] to Cuba as commissioners. They arrived at Havana on the morning of September 19 on the U.S.S. Des Moines, during a cessation of hostilities arranged by Roosevelt's public letter to the Cuban minister at Washington, and set up their offices at the residence of the American minister at Marianao. After a week of interviews they drew up a compromise that kept [[Tomas Estrada Palma|Palma]] as president, with a coalition cabinet and new congressional elections; the Liberals agreed and the Moderates refused. Palma's resignation, which he declared irrevocable, left the republic without an executive, and on September 29, 1906 the commissioners established a provisional government under the authority of the President of the United States.[^39]
 Taft signed the proclamation of that date as "Secretary of War of the United States, Provisional Governor of Cuba." It stated that the provisional government would be maintained "only long enough to restore order and peace and public confidence," and that the heads of all departments, including the commander of the rural guard, would report to him for instructions.[^40] The American minister, [[Edwin V. Morgan]], reported on October 13, 1906 that political prisoners were set at liberty, that the disbanding and disarming of the rebel forces was the chief concern of the provisional government, that Taft issued a general amnesty proclamation on October 10, and that on October 13 he transferred the provisional governorship to Charles E. Magoon, who had succeeded him.[^39] Root wrote to the Cuban minister on October 1, 1906 that "you will perceive in the terms of Secretary Taft's proclamation" that the purpose of the United States was the preservation of Cuban independence.[^41]
 ### Dollar diplomacy and Nicaragua, 1909 to 1912
 In his first annual message, dated December 7, 1909, Taft told Congress that the government had terminated diplomatic relations with the Zelaya government of [[Nicaragua]]. He said that "recently two Americans were put to death by order of President Zelaya himself."[^42]
 Taft's annual message of December 3, 1912 has a section headed "Diplomacy a hand maid of commercial intercourse and peace." It says: "This policy has been characterized as substituting dollars for bullets. It is one that appeals alike to idealistic humanitarian sentiments, to the dictates of sound policy and strategy, and to legitimate commercial aims. It is an effort frankly directed to the increase of American trade upon the axiomatic principle that the Government of the United States shall extend all proper support to every legitimate and beneficial American enterprise abroad."[^43] The same message said that the "terrible events" of the revolution in Nicaragua in the summer of 1912 "might have been averted" had the Senate approved the loan convention. It said that "it became necessary to land over 2,000 marines and bluejackets in Nicaragua," and it recorded "with sorrow the death of seven American marines and bluejackets."[^44]
 The message gave the reason for the Central American policy in terms of the Monroe doctrine: "the Monroe doctrine is more vital in the neighborhood of the Panama Canal and the zone of the Caribbean than anywhere else." It said the government had been "glad to encourage and support American bankers" who would help the Central American republics, because "the protection of their customhouses from being the prey of would-be dictators would remove at one stroke the menace of foreign creditors and the menace of revolutionary disorder," and that bankers "may naturally be loath to advance a loan adequate to set the country upon its feet without the support of some such convention as that of June, 1911, upon which the Senate has not yet acted."[^45]
 The loan of September 1, 1911 was made by [[Brown Brothers Harriman|Brown Brothers and Company]] and [[J. and W. Seligman and Company]] to the Republic of Nicaragua. Customs receipts were pledged as security, and a collector general of customs was to be nominated by the bankers. On November 2, 1911 the bankers wrote to the Department of State that they had nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]], who was at the time "Surveyor of the Port of Manila, in the Philippine Islands." They wrote that he had been "recommended to us as a person qualified for the position and worthy of our confidence."[^46] Secretary of State [[Philander C. Knox]] approved the nomination on November 11, 1911. He wrote that "I therefore approve the selection of Mr. Clifford D. Ham as Collector-General of Customs of Nicaragua." His letter added that the approval "must not in any wise be understood as indicating that the Government of the United States will lend any other or further good offices" beyond what it would give "any legitimate American enterprise abroad."[^47]
 The American minister in Managua wrote on February 14, 1912 that the legation "did not wish to take any official part in the business negotiations between the Nicaraguan Government and Brown Brothers et al." The minister also reported that the currency experts read the clause that put the government's lake steamers under the Pacific railroad option to mean that Brown Brothers "will on the exercise of the option acquire a franchise to navigate the lakes and San Juan River."[^48]
 ### The 1912 split
 Taft was renominated for president at the Republican convention in Chicago in June 1912, and he failed of election in November.[^49] [[Henry L. Stimson]], whom Taft had appointed Secretary of War in 1911, stayed in the administration through the break with Theodore Roosevelt that year.[^50]
 ### Kent Professor and Chief Justice, 1913 to 1930
 Taft held the Kent Professorship of Law in Yale College and the professorship of constitutional law in the Law School from 1913 to 1921. He had been a member of the Yale Corporation from 1906 to 1913 and again from 1922 to 1925.[^51] The Yale record lists him as president of the American Red Cross from 1905 to 1913, a founder and president in 1915 of the League to Enforce Peace, trustee of the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] from 1906 to 1915, chancellor of the [[Smithsonian Institution]] from 1923, and an incorporator of the American Law Institute.[^52] It lists him as co-chairman of the National War Labor Board in 1918 and 1919, and as the arbiter in 1922 of the Amory oil concessions, at the joint request of the British and Porto Rican governments.[^53]
 The Supreme Court's list of members gives [[Warren G. Harding]] as the president who appointed Taft, with service from July 11, 1921 to February 3, 1930.[^54] The Yale record says he was Chief Justice from 1921 until his resignation on February 3, 1930, on account of ill health. He died on March 8, 1930 of cerebral arteriosclerosis and was buried at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].[^55]
 ### Olmstead v. United States, 1928
 Taft delivered the opinion of the Court in Olmstead v. United States, argued on February 20 and 21, 1928 and decided on June 4, 1928. The writ was limited to the single question whether the use of evidence of private telephone conversations, intercepted by wire tapping, violated the Fourth and Fifth Amendments. The convictions were for a conspiracy to violate the National Prohibition Act, and the information leading to the discovery of the conspiracy "was largely obtained by intercepting messages on the telephones of the conspirators by four federal prohibition officers."[^56] The syllabus records that the tapping connections were made in the basement of a large office building and on public streets, and that no trespass was committed upon any property of the defendants.[^56]
 The opinion held that the evidence did not violate either amendment. Taft wrote: "The language of the Amendment can not be extended and expanded to include telephone wires reaching to the whole world from the defendant's house or office. The intervening wires are not part of his house or office any more than are the highways along which they are stretched." The opinion stated that Congress could protect the secrecy of telephone messages by making them inadmissible in federal criminal trials, and that it was not for the courts to do so by "attributing an enlarged and unusual meaning to the Fourth Amendment."[^57] Justices Holmes, Brandeis, Butler and Stone dissented, and the judgments were affirmed.[^58]
 ### The family in Sutton's chart
 Sutton's chart places "THE ORDER" at the center of nine old-line families, with the Taft family listed at 1679 in Braintree.[^9] Sutton wrote that the "most influential Trustee of Antioch College was the co-founder of The Order," and he named that trustee as Alphonso Taft. [[Horace Mann]] was president of [[Antioch College]] from 1853.[^59]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72. https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^2]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 71 (Kent professor of law in Yale College and professor of constitutional law in the Law School, 1913 to 1921). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^3]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1890-91 (New Haven: Yale University, 1891), class of 1833, entry "Alphonso Taft," pp. 18 to 19 of the volume. https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1890-91.pdf
 [^4]: Office of the Historian, Department of State, "Alphonso Taft (1810-1891)," Department History, People, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary entries for Austria (appointed April 26, 1882; credentials presented June 30, 1882; left post August 25, 1884) and Russia (appointed July 4, 1884; credentials presented September 3, 1884; recall presented July 31, 1885). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/taft-alphonso
 [^5]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 69 (parents, Peter Rawson Taft and Sylvia (Howard) Taft; mother Louisa Maria (Torrey) Taft, daughter of Samuel Davenport and Susan Holman (Waters) Torrey, of Milbury, Mass.). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^6]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May and June 2015, naming Alphonso Taft as a cofounder with William Huntington Russell. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
 [^7]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones (1983), passage on the founding of the American chapter. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^8]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), passage on the founders, "Alphonso Taft went further: he was Secretary of War in 1876" and "U.S. Attorney General in 1876-7, then U.S. Minister to Austria in 1882-4, and finally U.S. Ambassador to Russia in 1884-5." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^9]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," family list ("TAFT FAMILY (1679, Braintree, Mass.)"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^10]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 69 (relatives: "Charles P. Taft, '64 (half brother)" and "Peter R. Taft, '67 (half brother)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^11]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864" (born December 21, 1843, Cincinnati; died December 31, 1929, Cincinnati; Yale relatives: "Peter R Taft, '67 (brother), and his son, Hulbert Taft, '00; Walbridge S Taft, '07, William Howard Taft, 2d, '09, Robert A Taft, '10, and Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18 (nephews)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^12]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 ("Children: Robert Alphonso (B.A. 1910, LL.B. Harvard 1913); Helen Herron ... ; and Charles Phelps, 2d (B.A. 1918, LL.B. 1921)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^13]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), passage on the Twentieth Century Foundation and Evans Clark, naming "Charles Phelps Taft (The Order '18), nephew of President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^14]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 (survived by "two brothers, Henry W. Taft, '80, and Horace D. Taft, '83, and a sister, Mrs. William A. Edwards"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^15]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 71 (one of the authors, with George W. Wickersham, A. Lawrence Lowell and Henry W. Taft, of The Covenanter, an American Exposition of the League of Nations, 1919). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^16]: Yale News, "Cadwalader, Wickersham and Taft Donate Historical Records to Yale University Library," September 20, 2000 (Henry W. Taft, Class of 1880, "brother of William Howard Taft," joined in 1889; George W. Wickersham joined in 1883; the firm "officially became known as Cadwalader, Wickersham and Taft in 1914"). https://news.yale.edu/2000/09/20/cadwalader-wickersham-and-taft-donate-historical-records-yale-university-library
 [^17]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 69 (Woodward High School; salutatorian; class orator; Linonia, Delta Kappa, Phi Theta Psi, He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones and Phi Beta Kappa; LL.B. Cincinnati Law School 1880, admitted to the Ohio bar). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^18]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 ("Taft, William Howard"), and the list of Yale faculty members ("TAFT, William H. 1878 Professor of Law (1913)"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^19]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), passage on the world court system and world law ("The great contribution of the Tafts to The Order was on the world court system and world law") and the count of eight Tafts who have been members of the society. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^20]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 70 (Lloyd and Taft 1883 to 1887; assistant county solicitor of Hamilton County 1885 to 1887; judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati 1887 to 1890; solicitor general 1890 to 1892; circuit judge, Sixth Circuit, 1892 to 1900). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^21]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 70 (president of the United States Philippine Commission, March 1900 to July 1901; first civil governor, July 1901 to February 1904; Rome in June 1902 to confer with Pope Leo XIII on purchase of church lands; Washington in December 1901 to testify before the Senate and House committees). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^22]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, "Affairs in the Philippine Islands," hearings before the Committee on the Philippines of the United States Senate, session of February 4, 1902, "Statement of Governor William H. Taft, Continued," p. 68 (present: Senators Lodge, chairman, Allison, Hale, Proctor, Beveridge, Burrows, McComas, Dietrich, Culberson, Dubois, Carmack and Patterson). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
 [^23]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, p. 71 (heading "The so-called water cure"; Patterson's request and Taft's reply). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
 [^24]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, p. 72 (headings "The system of terrorism" and "Character of warfare"; the correspondence of Sandico). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
 [^25]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, p. 79 ("Now, I say that warfare which depends upon terrorism and murder is a crime"). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
 [^26]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, p. 74 (Culberson: "Have you heard in a similar way of instances in which American soldiers have been guilty of what might be termed cruelty?"; Taft: "Never of the mutilation of bodies ... They were rife in Manila"). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
 [^27]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, pp. 74 to 75 (the Metcalf case; Taft's statement on "individual instances of water cure ... all these things are true"). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
 [^28]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, pp. 75 to 76 (heading "The so-called water cure"; Patterson's Macabebe question; Taft: "I have no doubt there were such instances," "a great many more than there ought to have been," "a very broken reed," "I did not realize the unreliability of such letters until I had experienced what it was"). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
 [^29]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, p. 75 (heading "Efforts of army officers to prevent cruelty"; General MacArthur's orders; "some courts-martial were lectured for not punishing more heavily"). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
 [^30]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 70 to 71 (Secretary of War under Roosevelt, February 1, 1904 to June 30, 1908; Isthmian Canal project from 1904; Cuba 1906; the 1905 trip to the Philippines, Japan and China with a congressional committee, July to October 1905; Cuba, Puerto Rico and Panama 1907; first Filipino Legislative Assembly 1907 with return through Russia). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^31]: Order of the Secretary of War, June 24, 1904, Sections 1 to 3, printed in Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1904, Panama. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1904
 [^32]: John Barrett to the Secretary of State, Panama, December 6, 1904, No. 71 B, with inclosed remarks of Secretary Taft to President Amador of November 27, 1904, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1904, Panama. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1904
 [^33]: Charles E. Magoon to the Secretary of State, Panama, November 10, 1905 (despatch No. 21), with the translation from the Panama Journal of November 8, 1905, in Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1905, document 726, p. 717. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1905/d726
 [^34]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 70 ("visited Philippine Islands, Japan, and China with a congressional committee July-October, 1905"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^35]: Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library, "Memorandum from William H. Taft to Elihu Root," July 29, 1905, Library of Congress Manuscript Division, 7 pages, https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/digital-library/o50423/ ; and "Telegram from Rudolph Forster to Benjamin F. Barnes," July 29, 1905, forwarding a copy of the cable sent from Tokyo by Secretary of War Taft to Secretary of State Root, https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/digital-library/o50427
 [^36]: Tyler Dennett, "Roosevelt's Secret Pact With Japan," Current History (October 1924), pp. 16 to 17, text of the "agreed memorandum" of July 29, 1905, covering the conversation of July 27. https://archive.org/details/current-history_1924-10_21_1
 [^37]: Dennett, "Roosevelt's Secret Pact With Japan," Current History (October 1924), pp. 16 to 17 (the request that the agreement be kept secret from Lloyd C. Griscom; Roosevelt's telegram of July 31, 1905). The article was expanded in Dennett, Roosevelt and the Russo-Japanese War (Garden City: Doubleday, Page, 1925). https://archive.org/details/current-history_1924-10_21_1
 [^38]: Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1905, document 602, Chargé Huntington Wilson to the Secretary of State, Tokyo, November 30, 1905, with the enclosed notes of November 25 and 28, 1905, including Count Katsura's reply. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1905/d602
 [^39]: Minister Edwin V. Morgan to the Secretary of State, Habana, October 13, 1906, No. 217, with inclosed "Epitome of events attendant upon establishment of the provisional government in Cuba," Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1906, Part 1, Cuba, document 436. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1906p1/d436
 [^40]: Proclamation "To the people of Cuba," Habana, September 29, 1906, signed Wm. H. Taft, Secretary of War of the United States, Provisional Governor of Cuba, inclosure 2 to Morgan's despatch of October 13, 1906, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1906, Part 1, Cuba, document 436. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1906p1/d436
 [^41]: Elihu Root to the Cuban Minister (Quesada), Washington, October 1, 1906, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1906, Part 1, Cuba, document 433. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1906p1/d433
 [^42]: Taft, first annual message to Congress, December 7, 1909, in Presidential Addresses and State Papers of William Howard Taft, from March 4, 1909, to March 4, 1910 (1910), p. 458. https://archive.org/details/presidentialaddr00unit
 [^43]: Taft, "Fourth Annual Message," December 3, 1912, section "Diplomacy a hand maid of commercial intercourse and peace," The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/fourth-annual-message-16
 [^44]: Taft, annual message to Congress, December 3, 1912, printed as the "Message of the President" in Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912, pp. XI to XIII. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912
 [^45]: Taft, "Fourth Annual Message," December 3, 1912, section "Central America needs our help in debt adjustment," The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/fourth-annual-message-16 ; and Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912, "Message of the President," p. XIII. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912
 [^46]: Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, New York, November 2, 1911, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912, Nicaragua, document 1482. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482
 [^47]: Secretary of State P. C. Knox to Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company, November 11, 1911, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912, Nicaragua, document 1484. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1484
 [^48]: The American Minister to the Secretary of State, Managua, February 14, 1912, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912, Nicaragua, document 1498. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1498
 [^49]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 71 (renominated for president at the Republican convention in Chicago in June 1912; failed of election in November). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^50]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), ch. II, "With Roosevelt and Taft," pp. 18 to 55, and table of contents ("The Split of 1912").
 [^51]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 71 (member of the Yale Corporation 1906 to 1913 and again 1922 to 1925). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^52]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 71 to 72 (American Red Cross 1905 to 1913; League to Enforce Peace 1915; Carnegie Institution of Washington 1906 to 1915; chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution 1923; incorporator of the American Law Institute). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^53]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 71 (co-chairman of the National War Labor Board, 1918 to 1919; arbiter in the Amory oil concessions in 1922 at the joint request of the British and Porto Rican governments). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^54]: Supreme Court of the United States, "Members of the Supreme Court of the United States," list of justices with appointing president and dates of service, entry for "Taft, William Howard" (Connecticut; Harding; July 11, 1921; February 3, 1930). https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/members_text.aspx
 [^55]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 (death due to cerebral arteriosclerosis on March 8, 1930; buried at Arlington National Cemetery; Chief Justice of the United States 1921 until resignation on February 3, 1930). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
 [^56]: Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928), opinion of the Court by Chief Justice Taft and syllabus (Library of Congress, United States Reports). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep277/usrep277438/usrep277438.pdf
 [^57]: Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928), opinion of the Court (the telephone wires passage; Congress may protect the secrecy of telephone messages by legislation). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep277/usrep277438/usrep277438.pdf
 [^58]: Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928), dissenting opinions of Justices Holmes, Brandeis and Butler and the statement of Justice Stone concurring in the dissents; judgments affirmed. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep277/usrep277438/usrep277438.pdf
 [^59]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), passage on Horace Mann and Antioch College ("The most influential Trustee of Antioch College was the co-founder of The Order"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central
@ -22,37 +22,44 @@ relations:
    role: "Office of Security release of police techniques through LEAA"
    start: 1970
    end: 1973
-    fn: 10
+    fn: 14
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Bobby Ray Inman]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "deputy director"
    start: 1981-02
    end: 1982-04
-    fn: 37
+    fn: 41
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Psychological Strategy Board]]"
    role: "Member agency; the Director of Central Intelligence chaired meeting M-8"
    start: 1952-01-10
-    fn: 64
+    fn: 68
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Max Millikan]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "Assistant Director, Research and Reports (1951); Special Consultant (1952)"
    start: 1951-01
    end: 1952-03
-    fn: 65
+    fn: 69
  - type: funded
    with: "[[Center for International Studies]]"
    role: "agency money reported to have set up the center in 1951; $300,000 reported in 1967"
    start: 1951
-    fn: 72
+    fn: 76
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1951
    end: 1952
    role: "Assistant Director for Personnel, assistant to Walter Bedell Smith"
    fn: 8
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Ronald Pandolfi]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1995
    role: "analyst; described as a CIA scientist (Farley, 1995) and CIA analyst (Cox Committee, 1999)"
-    fn: 49
+    fn: 53
 ---
 The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a primary intelligence-gathering organization of the United States government. In the context of psychic research, the CIA played a significant, albeit often covert, role in funding and overseeing programs aimed at exploring and utilizing psychic phenomena for intelligence purposes.[^1]
@ -60,37 +67,37 @@ The CIA, particularly through its Photographic Intelligence Division, was instru
 ### Personnel posts, 1951 to 1973
-In July 1951 an [[Associated Press]] item reported that [[F. Trubee Davison]], formerly Assistant Secretary of War for Air and president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]], would join the Agency on July 16 as a principal assistant to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he probably would do personnel work.[^3] A memorandum from Davison dated September 11, 1951 appears on a CIA routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^4] CIA documents of 1968, 1969 and 1972 name [[Hugh T. Cunningham]] as the Agency's Director of Training.[^5] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990 that Cunningham served in the Agency from 1947 to 1973 and that Davison, Cunningham, [[William P. Bundy]] and [[Dino Pionzio]] (deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]] in 1970) were members of the Yale society [[Skull and Bones]].[^6] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members lists Davison under the class of 1918, Cunningham (Hugh Terry) under 1934, Bundy under 1939 and Pionzio under 1950.[^7]
+In July 1951 an [[Associated Press]] item reported that [[F. Trubee Davison]], formerly Assistant Secretary of War for Air and president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]], would join the Agency on July 16 as a principal assistant to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he probably would do personnel work.[^3] A memorandum from Davison dated September 11, 1951 appears on a CIA routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^4] A Springfield (Ohio) Sun editorial of July 1951 reported that Davison had "been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency," and that the Agency "has been rather unfortunate in its chiefs."[^5] A memorandum of September 10, 1951 from [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]], then Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, is addressed to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)."[^6] Davison chaired the Agency's Career Service Committee: the minutes of its second meeting (October 1, 1951) record that the committee separated a Trainee Program from a Career Service Program, that "the establishment of a Career Corps, as such, had been disapproved by the DCI," and that of the first class of nineteen trainees sixteen had graduated and fourteen been placed; the minutes of its fourteenth meeting (January 1952) list him with Matthew Baird, Director of Training, and [[Sherman Kent]], Assistant Director for National Estimates.[^7] The New York Times reported in 1974 that he left the post in April 1952, "when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the C.I.A.'s personnel."[^8] CIA documents of 1968, 1969 and 1972 name [[Hugh T. Cunningham]] as the Agency's Director of Training.[^9] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990 that Cunningham served in the Agency from 1947 to 1973 and that Davison, Cunningham, [[William P. Bundy]] and [[Dino Pionzio]] (deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]] in 1970) were members of the Yale society [[Skull and Bones]].[^10] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members lists Davison under the class of 1918, Cunningham (Hugh Terry) under 1934, Bundy under 1939 and Pionzio under 1950.[^11]
 ### Early Involvement in Psi Research
 The CIA's interest in psi research dates back to the early 1970s, partly in response to rumors of extensive Soviet psi research. Following a number of scandals in the mid-1970s, including revelations of domestic spying, the CIA came under unprecedented scrutiny from Congress. This led to a preference for "clean" spying methods, making psychic intelligence an appealing, low-profile alternative to traditional human intelligence (HUMINT).[^1]
-In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^8]
+In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^12]
 ### The Search for Behavioral Control
-Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^9]
+Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^13]
 ### Police Technique Program Through LEAA
-From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^10] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^10]
+From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^14] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^14]
-Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^11] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^12]
+Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^15] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^16]
-The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^11] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^13]
+The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^15] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^17]
-A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^14] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^15] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^16]
+A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^18] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^19] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^20]
-Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^17] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^18] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^19] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^20]
+Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^21] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^22] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^23] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^24]
 ### The 1977 Notifications to Institutions
-In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^21]
+In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^25]
-General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^22] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^23] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^24] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^25]
+General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^26] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^27] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^28] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^29]
-The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^26]
+The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^30]
 ### Notable Operations and Impact
@ -112,103 +119,103 @@ Following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]]
 ### Involvement with BCCI
-The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^27] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^27] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^28]
+The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^31] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^31] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^32]
-In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^29] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^30] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^31]
+In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^33] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^34] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^35]
-William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^32] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^32]
+William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^36] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^36]
-The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^33]
+The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^37]
 ### Operations and Activities
-The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^34] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^34]
+The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^38] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^38]
-In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^35] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^35]
+In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^39] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^39]
 ### Deputy Director Bobby Ray Inman, 1981 to 1982
-President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^36] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^37] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^36]
+President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^40] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^41] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^40]
-The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^38] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^39]
+The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^42] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^43]
 ### Senior Review Panel
-The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^40] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^40] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^41]
+The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^44] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^44] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^45]
 ### UAP Research and Secrecy
-The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^8]
+The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^12]
-The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^8]
+The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^12]
-In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^8]
+In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^12]
 ### Dark Alliance Investigation
-The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^42]
+The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^46]
 ### Contra Drug Trafficking and the Frogman Case
-Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^43]
+Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^47]
-Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^43] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^44]
+Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^47] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^48]
 ### The Secret 1982 Agreement with the Justice Department
-In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^45]
+In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^49]
 ### Ilopango Obstruction
-When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^46] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^47]
+When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^50] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^51]
 ### Inspector General Investigation
-CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^45]
+CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^49]
 ### Hughes Electronics and the Pandolfi Estimate, 1995 to 1998
-On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^48] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^49] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^50] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^48]
+On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^52] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^53] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^54] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^52]
-In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^49] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^48] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^50]
+In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^53] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^52] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^54]
 ### Iran-Contra Indictments
-Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^42]
+Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^46]
 ### Interrogation videotapes and the 2004 to 2006 directorship
-[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^51] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^52] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^53]
+[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^55] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^56] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^57]
-The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^54] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^54]
+The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^58] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^58]
-Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^55] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^56]
+Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^59] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^60]
 ### Foreign Broadcast Information Service
-The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^57] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^58] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^59]
+The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^61] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^62] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^63]
-Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^60]
+Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^64]
-The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^61]
+The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^65]
 ### Psychological warfare liaison, 1946 to 1952
-In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^62]
+In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^66]
-In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^63]
+In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^67]
-On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^64]
+On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^68]
-In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^65] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^66] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^67] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^68] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^69] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^70] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^71]
+In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^69] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^70] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^71] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^72] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^73] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^74] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^75]
-The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^72] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^73] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^74]
+The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^76] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^77] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^78]
-The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^75] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^76]
+The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^79] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^80]
-In February 1961 [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]] wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^77]
+In February 1961 Allen W. Dulles wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^81]
-A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^78] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^79] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^80] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^81] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^82]
+A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^82] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^83] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^84] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^85] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^86]
 ### Footnotes
@ -216,81 +223,85 @@ A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENI
 [^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991.
 [^3]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
 [^4]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison, September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
-[^5]: CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (May 15, 1969), CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (1968) and CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, 1972). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
+[^5]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," editorial, *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6
-[^6]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
+[^6]: Memorandum from Allen W. Dulles to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)," September 10, 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100020077-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100020077-6
-[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^7]: "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6; "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7
-[^8]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024.
+[^8]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974. https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html
-[^9]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2.
+[^9]: CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (May 15, 1969), CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (1968) and CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, 1972). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
-[^10]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5
+[^10]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
-[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053
+[^11]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^12]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041
+[^12]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024.
-[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9
+[^13]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2.
-[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3
+[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5
-[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445
+[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053
-[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1
+[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041
-[^17]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf
+[^17]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9
-[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2
+[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3
-[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0
+[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445
-[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1
+[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1
-[^21]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
+[^21]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf
-[^22]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95.
+[^22]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2
-[^23]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
+[^23]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0
-[^24]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3.
+[^24]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1
-[^25]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1.
+[^25]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
-[^26]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3.
+[^26]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95.
-[^27]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126.
+[^27]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
-[^28]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147.
+[^28]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3.
-[^29]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12.
+[^29]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1.
-[^30]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9.
+[^30]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3.
-[^31]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149.
+[^31]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126.
-[^32]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347.
+[^32]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147.
-[^33]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
+[^33]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12.
-[^34]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334.
+[^34]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9.
-[^35]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341.
+[^35]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149.
-[^36]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html
+[^36]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347.
-[^37]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3
+[^37]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
-[^38]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7
+[^38]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334.
-[^39]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5
+[^39]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341.
-[^40]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
+[^40]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html
-[^41]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1
+[^41]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3
-[^42]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
+[^42]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7
-[^43]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
+[^43]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5
-[^44]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html
+[^44]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
-[^45]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done"
+[^45]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1
-[^46]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends"
+[^46]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
-[^47]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm
+[^47]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
-[^48]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html
+[^48]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html
-[^49]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
+[^49]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done"
-[^50]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html
+[^50]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends"
-[^51]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220
+[^51]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm
-[^52]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/
+[^52]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html
-[^53]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html
+[^53]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
-[^54]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
+[^54]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html
-[^55]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750
+[^55]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220
-[^56]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/
+[^56]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/
-[^57]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^57]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html
-[^58]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
+[^58]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
-[^59]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^59]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750
-[^60]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
+[^60]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/
-[^61]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html.
+[^61]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^62]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9
+[^62]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
-[^63]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0
+[^63]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^64]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6
+[^64]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
-[^65]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1
+[^65]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html.
-[^66]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2
+[^66]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9
-[^67]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1
+[^67]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0
-[^68]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3
+[^68]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6
-[^69]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6
+[^69]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1
-[^70]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5
+[^70]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2
-[^71]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0
+[^71]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1
-[^72]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
+[^72]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3
-[^73]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
+[^73]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6
-[^74]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
+[^74]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5
-[^75]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57
+[^75]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0
-[^76]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8
+[^76]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
-[^77]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9
+[^77]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
-[^78]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2
+[^78]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
-[^79]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7
+[^79]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57
-[^80]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9
+[^80]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8
-[^81]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055
+[^81]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9
-[^82]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4
+[^82]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2
 [^83]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7
 [^84]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9
 [^85]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055
 [^86]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Office
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Office
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2025-07-23
-updated: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-26
 title: Office of Strategic Services
 aliases:
  - OSS
@ -26,6 +26,11 @@ relations:
    role: "Divided the foreign information field under Executive Order 9182 and the June 13, 1942 military order"
    start: 1942-06-13
    fn: 1
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Donald Barr]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "Army service with the OSS in Washington and Europe; Research and Analysis Branch (brief), per the CIA review of his son's memoir"
    fn: 15
 ---
 The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the United States wartime intelligence and covert operations agency established by a Military Order of June 13, 1942 that redesignated the Coordinator of Information's office and placed it under the Joint Chiefs of Staff, under the direction of General William J. "Wild Bill" Donovan, whom the order appointed Director of Strategic Services. It replaced the earlier Coordinator of Information (COI) office established July 11, 1941, and the order revoked the order of July 11, 1941.[^1] The OSS coordinated intelligence gathering, ran covert operations behind enemy lines, conducted psychological warfare, and analyzed foreign intelligence. President Truman dissolved it by Executive Order 9621 on September 20, 1945, effective October 1, 1945.[^2] Much of its personnel, methodology, and organizational culture transferred directly into the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], created by the [[National Security Act of 1947]].[^3]
@ -68,6 +73,10 @@ The Foreign Nationalities Branch reported on the [[Mazzini Society]] and its riv
 The Office of Strategic Services considered the [[New School for Social Research]] "the best collection of German, left-leaning intellectuals in the United States." Over two hundred students who had studied at the school's University in Exile worked for the government during the war, and New School scholars were involved in more than twenty-five government-associated projects routed through [[Rockefeller Foundation]] intermediaries.[^12]
 ### Personnel Files and Donald Barr
 [[Donald Barr]], a [[Columbia College]] graduate of 1941 who later became headmaster of the [[Dalton School]], "went into the Army and served with the Office of Strategic Services in Washington, D.C., and Europe."[^13][^14] The Center for the Study of Intelligence's review of his son [[William Barr]]'s 2022 memoir refers to the elder Barr's "brief service in the Research and Analysis Branch of the Office of Strategic Services during World War II."[^15] The [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] database of OSS personnel files (Record Group 226, Entry 224), dated December 23, 2010, lists a "Barr, Donald" with a T-5 serial number 36647447 and, on the following line, a Pfc serial number 39227927, in box 38. The database gives no middle initial, birthplace or unit, and records found do not establish whether either serial belongs to the Columbia graduate.[^16]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Military Order, "Office of Strategic Services," June 13, 1942, Federal Register, June 16, 1942, 7 F.R. 4469-4470, paragraphs 1 to 5. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-06-16/pdf/FR-1942-06-16.pdf
@ -82,3 +91,7 @@ The Office of Strategic Services considered the [[New School for Social Research
 [^10]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 1.
 [^11]: CIA-RDP13X00001R000100180008-7, Office of Strategic Services, Foreign Nationalities Branch organization file (1942-43), "Confusion Among Liberal and Socialist Italian and Spanish Anti-Fascists in the United States (Summary of FNB Memo No. 111)," Secretariat memorandum to Colonel Donovan, March 27, 1943, PDF p. 154; memorandum No. 111, PDF pp. 157-159. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp13x00001r000100180008-7
 [^12]: Daniel Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 137-138, citing Claus-Dieter Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile: Refugee Scholars and the New School for Social Research (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), pp. 139-149, 165-167. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
 [^13]: "Obituaries," *Columbia College Today,* May 2004, class of 1941. https://web.archive.org/web/20190905000723/https://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/may04/obituaries1.html
 [^14]: Wolfgang Saxon, "Donald Barr, 82, Headmaster And Science Honors Educator," *The New York Times,* February 10, 2004, section B, p. 8. https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/10/nyregion/donald-barr-82-headmaster-and-science-honors-educator.html
 [^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, review essay on William P. Barr, *One Damn Thing After Another* (William Morrow, 2022), *Studies in Intelligence* 67, no. 1 (extracts, March 2023). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/4-Review-Essay-Barr-Memoir.pdf
 [^16]: National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the Office of Strategic Services, RG 226, Entry 224, OSS Personnel Files, name database dated 12/23/2010. https://www.archives.gov/iwg/declassified-records/rg-226-oss/personnel-database.pdf
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/President's
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/President's
@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ summary: "White House board of private citizens created by Eisenhower in 1956 to
 start: 1956-01-13
 location: "Washington, D.C."
 created: 2026-09-24
-updated: 2026-09-24
+updated: 2026-10-26
 relations:
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]"
@ -44,6 +44,13 @@ relations:
    reverse: true
    start: 1956-01-13
    fn: 2
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Clare Boothe Luce]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member 1973 to 1977 and 1980 to 1986"
    start: 1973
    end: 1986
    fn: 7
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Maxwell Taylor]]"
    reverse: true
@ -92,17 +99,17 @@ relations:
    reverse: true
    role: "chairman"
    start: 2001-10-05
-    fn: 7
+    fn: 8
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Ray Hunt]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 2001-10-05
-    fn: 7
+    fn: 8
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Stephen Friedman]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 2001-10-05
-    fn: 7
+    fn: 8
 ---
 President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] created the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities by Executive Order 10656, issued on February 6, 1956, printed in the *[[Federal Register]]* on February 8 (21 Fed. Reg. 859) and effective from January 13, 1956. Its members were drawn from persons "outside government" chosen for their "ability, experience, and knowledge" in matters of national defense and security, and served without pay beyond travel and per diem. The order directed the board to review the foreign intelligence work of the government and the performance of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and to report to the President "twice yearly (or more often if needed)."[^1][^2]
@ -131,9 +138,11 @@ President [[Jimmy Carter]] abolished the board on May 4, 1977, by Executive Orde
 Executive Order 12863, issued by President [[Bill Clinton]], provided: "There is hereby established within the White House Office, Executive Office of the President, the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board (PFIAB). The PFIAB shall consist of not more than 16 members, who shall serve at the pleasure of the President." One third of the members at any time were, "to the extent practicable," to serve terms of no more than two years, and the President was to designate a chairman and vice chairman from among them.[^6]
 [[Clare Boothe Luce]] served on the board for 1973 to 1977 and 1980 to 1986, according to the chronology in the Library of Congress finding aid for her papers, which also holds a board series (Boxes 729-790, 1974-1987, with classified material in the 1981-1987 folders) and a 1980 essay on abolition of the board.[^7]
 ### 2001 Appointments
-On October 5, 2001, the [[White House]] announced that President [[George W. Bush]] intended to appoint members "for a term of two years": Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] as chairman, with [[Cresencio Arcos|Cresencio S. Arcos]], [[Jim Barksdale]], Robert Addison Day, [[Stephen Friedman]], [[Alfred Lerner]], [[Ray Hunt|Ray Lee Hunt]], [[Rita Hauser|Rita E. Hauser]], [[David E. Jeremiah]], [[Arnold Kanter|Arnold Lee Kanter]], James Calhoun Langdon, Jr., Marie Elizabeth Pate-Cornell, John Harrison Streicker and Peter Barton Wilson.[^7]
+On October 5, 2001, the [[White House]] announced that President [[George W. Bush]] intended to appoint members "for a term of two years": Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] as chairman, with [[Cresencio Arcos|Cresencio S. Arcos]], [[Jim Barksdale]], Robert Addison Day, [[Stephen Friedman]], [[Alfred Lerner]], [[Ray Hunt|Ray Lee Hunt]], [[Rita Hauser|Rita E. Hauser]], [[David E. Jeremiah]], [[Arnold Kanter|Arnold Lee Kanter]], James Calhoun Langdon, Jr., Marie Elizabeth Pate-Cornell, John Harrison Streicker and Peter Barton Wilson.[^8]
 ### Footnotes
@ -143,4 +152,5 @@ On October 5, 2001, the [[White House]] announced that President [[George W. Bus
 [^4]: White House, President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, "Board Panel on Covert Action Operations," Top Secret, September 10, 1963. National Security Archive, Document 6. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/document/32956-document-6-white-house-pfiab-board-panel-covert-action-operations-top-secret
 [^5]: Carter, Jimmy. Executive Order 11984, "President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board," May 4, 1977. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11984-presidents-foreign-intelligence-advisory-board
 [^6]: Clinton, William J. Executive Order 12863, "President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board." The White House, archived. https://clintonwhitehouse5.archives.gov/textonly/WH/EOP/pfiab/eo12863.html
-[^7]: The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. "Personnel Announcement," October 5, 2001. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/10/text/20011005-8.html
+[^7]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *Clare Boothe Luce Papers: A Finding Aid* (MSS30759), chronology and container list. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003044.pdf
 [^8]: The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. "Personnel Announcement," October 5, 2001. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/10/text/20011005-8.html
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Brown
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Brown
@ -69,8 +69,7 @@ relations:
    with: "[[Knight Woolley]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1931-01-01
-    end: 1956-01-01
+    role: "general manager and managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. (partner from January 1, 1929); partner of the merged firm; listed as a partner in 1943, 1956 and 1961"
    role: "general manager and managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. (partner from January 1, 1929); partner of the merged firm"
    fn: 4
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Thatcher Magoun Brown]]"
@ -97,7 +96,7 @@ relations:
    with: "[[Ray Morris]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1921-01-01
-    end: 1956-01-01
+    end: "1956"
    role: "partner; registered holder of 1 Union Banking Corporation share in 1942"
    fn: 4
  - type: employed_by
@ -119,37 +118,37 @@ relations:
    start: 1965-01-01
    end: 1991-01-01
    role: "partner after resigning as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs"
-    fn: 19
+    fn: 28
  - type: contractor_to
    with: "[[Nicaragua]]"
    start: 1911-09-01
    end: 1924-01-01
    role: "lender and fiscal agent under the agreement of September 1, 1911, the supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 and the agreement of November 4, 1912; repaid in 1924 according to Thatcher M. Brown"
-    fn: 40
+    fn: 52
  - type: investigated
    with: "[[New York Stock Exchange]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 2006-11-13
    role: "Hearing Board decision HPD 06-200: violation of NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b); censure and $170,000 fine"
-    fn: 52
+    fn: 64
  - type: investigated
    with: "[[New York State Banking Department]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 2007-08-01
    role: "written agreement requiring improvement of anti-money laundering controls, recited in the 2014 FINRA order"
-    fn: 54
+    fn: 66
  - type: investigated
    with: "[[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 2014-02-04
    role: "Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401 on anti-money laundering failures involving penny stock; censure and $8,000,000 fine"
-    fn: 54
+    fn: 66
  - type: investigated
    with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 2014-09-10
    role: "cease-and-desist order, File No. 3-16076, for late Section 16(a) filings and Schedule 13G amendments; $120,000 civil penalty"
-    fn: 53
+    fn: 65
 ---
 Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. is a private banking partnership in [[New York City|New York]]. Effective January 1, 1931 the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., [[Harriman Brothers & Co.]] and [[W. A. Harriman & Co.]], Inc. were united in the co-partnership firm of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^1] Its partners included [[Robert A. Lovett]], [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[E. Roland Harriman]] and [[Prescott Bush]], and it appears in the record of the [[Nicaragua]] customs loans of 1911 and 1912, the [[Union Banking Corporation]] and the Cold War intelligence establishment.
@ -158,79 +157,81 @@ Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. is a private banking partnership in [[New York Cit
 The Brown partnership descends from [[Alexander Brown]], a [[Belfast]] linen merchant who emigrated to the United States in 1800. In 1818 he founded [[Alex. Brown & Sons]], according to the finding aid for the firm's records at the [[New-York Historical Society]].[^2] [[Time]] dated the house differently, stating that it was "formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, previously a linen merchant."[^3] The finding aid records that Alexander Brown's eldest son William founded [[William Brown & Co.]] in [[Liverpool]] in 1810, which became [[Brown Shipley & Co.]] in 1839 and separated from Brown Brothers as a distinct business in 1918.[^2] The partner table in the firm's 1968 history lists [[Montagu Norman]] as a partner of the Brown Shipley house from 1900 to 1915, before he became Governor of the [[Bank of England]].[^4] By 1929 only three of the twelve Brown Brothers partners were Browns: the senior partner [[James Brown]] and his cousins James Crosby Brown and [[Thatcher Magoun Brown]].[^5]
-W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. was organized on November 13, 1919 under the management of W. Averell Harriman, [[George Herbert Walker]] (president from 1920 until 1930) and Prescott Bush. The firm opened an office in [[Berlin]] in 1922, extended short-term credits to German industries, helped finance zinc mines in [[Silesia]], and in 1928 financed the [[Aviation Corporation]], which became [[Pan American World Airways]].[^6] Time reported that in 1920 Averell Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea" and formed an alliance with the [[Hamburg-American Line]], that he was thwarted in it, and that the firm "made many a loan in [[Germany]]."[^3] On St. Patrick's Day, 1927, the Harrimans set up a partnership bank, originally called W. A. Harriman & Co. without the "Inc." and soon renamed Harriman Brothers & Co. [[Knight Woolley]] of the foreign department of the American Exchange National Bank became its general manager. The bank started with four employees, capital from the Harrimans and M. Samuel & Co., Ltd., and Averell Harriman's instruction, "Here's four million. Go ahead and run the bank."[^7] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date E. Roland Harriman and Averell Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank and describes Woolley as general manager "from its founding in 1926."[^4] The first bankers acceptance created by the bank, dated October 24, 1927, financed a German metal refining company's import of Chilean copper. The minute book of the bank's partners records for 1927 that Woolley accepted, through [[Ellery Sedgwick James]], "the offer of a $250,000 participation" with Brown Brothers & Co. and two other banks in an acceptance credit for a Berlin metal firm.[^8]
+W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. was organized on November 13, 1919 under the management of W. Averell Harriman, [[George Herbert Walker]] (president from 1920 until 1930) and Prescott Bush. The firm opened an office in [[Berlin]] in 1922, extended short-term credits to German industries, helped finance zinc mines in [[Silesia]], and in 1928 financed the [[Aviation Corporation]], which became [[Pan American World Airways]].[^6] Time reported that in 1920 Averell Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea" and formed an alliance with the [[Hamburg-American Line]], that he was thwarted in it, and that the firm "made many a loan in [[Germany]]."[^3] On St. Patrick's Day, 1927, the Harrimans set up a partnership bank, originally called W. A. Harriman & Co. without the "Inc." and soon renamed Harriman Brothers & Co. [[Knight Woolley]] of the foreign department of the American Exchange National Bank became its general manager. The bank started with four employees, capital from the Harrimans and M. Samuel & Co., Ltd., and Averell Harriman's instruction, "Here's four million. Go ahead and run the bank."[^7] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date E. Roland Harriman and Averell Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank and describes Woolley as general manager "from its founding in 1926."[^4] The sources differ on the founding date. *The Bankers Magazine* of January 1931 wrote that Harriman Brothers & Co. "was formed on February 1, 1927," and listed the partners as W. A. Harriman, E. Roland Harriman, Woolley and Prescott S. Bush.[^8] [[Garry Wills]] wrote that the firm was "not founded until 1926" and that the Harrimans "put a classmate in as president," naming Woolley.[^9] *The New York Times* of May 5, 1929 listed a new partnership of Harriman Brothers & Co. as of May 1, 1929 at 39 Broadway, with W. A. Harriman, E. Roland Harriman, George H. Walker, Dale M. Parker and Woolley.[^10] The first bankers acceptance created by the bank, dated October 24, 1927, financed a German metal refining company's import of Chilean copper. The minute book of the bank's partners records for 1927 that Woolley accepted, through [[Ellery Sedgwick James]], "the offer of a $250,000 participation" with Brown Brothers & Co. and two other banks in an acceptance credit for a Berlin metal firm.[^11]
-The firm's 1968 history, written by [[John A. Kouwenhoven]], quotes the 1950 firm history by Thatcher M. Brown that "it became clear to us, during the year 1930, that we were doing too large a business for our capital," after losses on securities underwritten before the 1929 crash and the withdrawal of capital by older partners.[^9] The merger was announced on December 12, 1930, according to [[Zachary Karabell]], who wrote that the announcement appeared on the front page of [[The New York Times]] on the day the Bank of United States collapsed, and that clerks carried the Harriman family's securities from 39 Broadway to 59 Wall Street under armed guard.[^10] The finding aid lists newspaper clippings announcing the merger and a clipping reporting Woolley's election as a director, dated December 12, 1930 to January 23, 1931.[^2] Time reported on December 22, 1930 that the two houses had merged "last week," counting sixteen partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman & Co., eleven of them [[Yale University|Yale]] graduates.[^3] The printed circular announcing the union is dated January 2, 1931 and states that the businesses were united "effective January 1, 1931."[^1] The chronology in the finding aid to the W. Averell Harriman papers at the [[Library of Congress]] lists him as partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1931 to 1946.[^11] The firm's history page counts seventeen partners, twelve of them Yale graduates.[^12] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that before 1933 the firm "consisted of two firms," W. A. Harriman Company and Brown Brothers, and gave 1933 as the year of the merger.[^13]
+The firm's 1968 history, written by [[John A. Kouwenhoven]], quotes the 1950 firm history by Thatcher M. Brown that "it became clear to us, during the year 1930, that we were doing too large a business for our capital," after losses on securities underwritten before the 1929 crash and the withdrawal of capital by older partners.[^12] The merger was announced on December 12, 1930, according to [[Zachary Karabell]], who wrote that the announcement appeared on the front page of [[The New York Times]] on the day the Bank of United States collapsed, and that clerks carried the Harriman family's securities from 39 Broadway to 59 Wall Street under armed guard.[^13] The finding aid lists newspaper clippings announcing the merger and a clipping reporting Woolley's election as a director, dated December 12, 1930 to January 23, 1931.[^2] Time reported on December 22, 1930 that the two houses had merged "last week," counting sixteen partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman & Co., eleven of them [[Yale University|Yale]] graduates.[^3] The printed circular announcing the union is dated January 2, 1931 and states that the businesses were united "effective January 1, 1931."[^1] The chronology in the finding aid to the W. Averell Harriman papers at the [[Library of Congress]] lists him as partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1931 to 1946.[^14] The firm's history page counts seventeen partners, twelve of them Yale graduates.[^15] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that before 1933 the firm "consisted of two firms," W. A. Harriman Company and Brown Brothers, and gave 1933 as the year of the merger.[^16]
-Three accounts place the origin of the merger on a train to a Yale event. The firm's history page states that "according to firm lore" the idea was first floated among six partners in November 1930 on the train from New York to [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] for the Yale-[[Harvard University|Harvard]] football game.[^12] Karabell described a railcar chartered on the New Haven line from Grand Central Station to a Yale reunion on a fall day in 1930, and wrote, "Roland wasn't on the train that day, but Ellery James and Knight Woolley were."[^10] Kouwenhoven placed the card game in the spring of 1930, with James, Woolley and Prescott Bush traveling to a Yale reunion with two other classmates, and called it a story "now current in various versions, as all good legends are." He recorded Thatcher Brown's recollection that James first suggested talking with the Harrimans, and Roland Harriman's recollection that James spoke to him about "working under one roof" before the crash of 1929.[^9]
+Three accounts place the origin of the merger on a train to a Yale event. The firm's history page states that "according to firm lore" the idea was first floated among six partners in November 1930 on the train from New York to [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] for the Yale-[[Harvard University|Harvard]] football game.[^15] Karabell described a railcar chartered on the New Haven line from Grand Central Station to a Yale reunion on a fall day in 1930, and wrote, "Roland wasn't on the train that day, but Ellery James and Knight Woolley were."[^13] Kouwenhoven placed the card game in the spring of 1930, with James, Woolley and Prescott Bush traveling to a Yale reunion with two other classmates, and called it a story "now current in various versions, as all good legends are." He recorded Thatcher Brown's recollection that James first suggested talking with the Harrimans, and Roland Harriman's recollection that James spoke to him about "working under one roof" before the crash of 1929.[^12]
-The firm's history page states that in 1931, a few months after the merger closed, Germany declared a Stillhalte (standstill) on debt payments to foreign private creditors, including over $10 million in credits from the firm, roughly the size of its entire capital, against liabilities of nearly ten times that amount, and that "an emergency infusion of $10 million from the Harrimans, Averell and Roland, staved off collapse."[^12] Karabell wrote, "Every Brown Brothers partner was personally exposed."[^10] The firm's 1968 history states that the Banking Act of 1933 required private banking houses to choose between underwriting and deposit banking, that Brown Brothers Harriman remained a bank of deposit, and that several partners resigned on June 9, 1934 to join Brown Harriman & Co., Inc. in the investment banking business.[^14][^4]
+The firm's history page states that in 1931, a few months after the merger closed, Germany declared a Stillhalte (standstill) on debt payments to foreign private creditors, including over $10 million in credits from the firm, roughly the size of its entire capital, against liabilities of nearly ten times that amount, and that "an emergency infusion of $10 million from the Harrimans, Averell and Roland, staved off collapse."[^15] Karabell wrote, "Every Brown Brothers partner was personally exposed."[^13] The firm's 1968 history states that the Banking Act of 1933 required private banking houses to choose between underwriting and deposit banking, that Brown Brothers Harriman remained a bank of deposit, and that several partners resigned on June 9, 1934 to join Brown Harriman & Co., Inc. in the investment banking business.[^4][^17]
 ### The Partners
 Time named the partners it considered most prominent. It described Ellery Sedgwick James as a Brown Brothers partner and a classmate of E. Roland Harriman, Prescott Bush and Knight Woolley. It described Robert A. Lovett as a partner and the son of Judge [[Robert Scott Lovett]], "longtime personal attorney and close friend of the late Edward Henry Harriman and now chairman of his Union Pacific."[^3]
-The partner table in Kouwenhoven's history gives the dates. James was a partner of Brown Brothers from January 1, 1925 and died on November 25, 1932. Lovett became a partner on January 1, 1926 and left on December 16, 1940 for Washington, rejoining on June 1, 1946, April 1, 1949 and March 1, 1953. Woolley became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1929 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Bush became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Averell Harriman was a partner of the merged firm from January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946, and a limited partner afterward. [[Ray Morris]] was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956, [[Charles J. Rhoads]] from January 1, 1921 to June 30, 1929, [[Thomas McCance]] from January 1, 1945 and [[Robert V. Roosa]] from January 1, 1965.[^4] [[Harold D. Pennington]] was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, a manager of the merged firm, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956. Kouwenhoven wrote that he was from the start manager in charge of operations for the new concern and that he walked behind the handcarts that moved the Harriman securities to the vault at 59 Wall Street with a pistol in his pocket.[^15] [[Moreau Delano]] (1877 to 1936) was a partner from 1907, and Thatcher M. Brown (1876 to 1954) from 1907 to May 2, 1954.[^4]
+The partner table in Kouwenhoven's history gives the dates. James was a partner of Brown Brothers from January 1, 1925 and died on November 25, 1932. Lovett became a partner on January 1, 1926 and left on December 16, 1940 for Washington, rejoining on June 1, 1946, April 1, 1949 and March 1, 1953. Woolley became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1929 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Bush became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Averell Harriman was a partner of the merged firm from January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946, and a limited partner afterward. [[Ray Morris]] was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956, [[Charles J. Rhoads]] from January 1, 1921 to June 30, 1929, [[Thomas McCance]] from January 1, 1945 and [[Robert V. Roosa]] from January 1, 1965.[^4] [[Harold D. Pennington]] was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, a manager of the merged firm, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956. Kouwenhoven wrote that he was from the start manager in charge of operations for the new concern and that he walked behind the handcarts that moved the Harriman securities to the vault at 59 Wall Street with a pistol in his pocket.[^18] [[Moreau Delano]] (1877 to 1936) was a partner from 1907, and Thatcher M. Brown (1876 to 1954) from 1907 to May 2, 1954.[^4] The firm's anniversary advertisement of October 1943 listed the partners as Moreau D. Brown, Thatcher M. Brown, Prescott S. Bush, Louis Curtis, E. R. Harriman, W. A. Harriman, Ray Morris and Knight Woolley.[^19] The partner notices in *Trusts and Estates* for July 1956 list Woolley, Morris and Pennington, and those of January 1961 and *The Economist* of July 22, 1961 list Woolley and name neither Morris nor Pennington.[^20][^21] The finding aid for the firm's records at the New-York Historical Society dates photographs of the senior partners W. Averell Harriman, Lovett, Bush and Woolley to July 1964 and May 19, 1967.[^22]
-Karabell described Thatcher Brown, great-grandson of Alexander Brown, as managing partner of the Brown firm and Woolley as managing partner of "another one of the Harriman firms."[^10] The New-York Historical Society finding aid lists images of the Thatcher Brown and Moreau Delano partnerships, one dated January 1, 1907, and holds the Moreau Delano papers for 1931 to 1935. It lists Thatcher M. Brown's papers for 1890 to 1966 and his firm history *Brown Brothers & Co. [and] Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1900-1950*. The records were gathered in part to support *Partners in Banking*, which Kouwenhoven wrote after the firm hired him in 1964 as Director of the Historical Files and which [[Doubleday & Co.]] commissioned for the firm's 150th anniversary in 1968.[^2]
+Karabell described Thatcher Brown, great-grandson of Alexander Brown, as managing partner of the Brown firm and Woolley as managing partner of "another one of the Harriman firms."[^13] The New-York Historical Society finding aid lists images of the Thatcher Brown and Moreau Delano partnerships, one dated January 1, 1907, and holds the Moreau Delano papers for 1931 to 1935. It lists Thatcher M. Brown's papers for 1890 to 1966 and his firm history *Brown Brothers & Co. [and] Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1900-1950*. The records were gathered in part to support *Partners in Banking*, which Kouwenhoven wrote after the firm hired him in 1964 as Director of the Historical Files and which [[Doubleday & Co.]] commissioned for the firm's 150th anniversary in 1968.[^2]
-Robert A. Lovett married Adele Quartley Brown, daughter of the senior partner James Brown, in 1919, joined Brown Brothers in 1921, was granted a power of attorney in January 1925 and was admitted to partnership in 1926. In that year he was also elected a director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] and member of its executive committee. Kouwenhoven recorded that Roland Harriman and Lovett met as eight-year-old boys in 1903.[^16] A November 1951 table of corporations whose officers belonged to the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^17] A 1981 North American roster of the [[Trilateral Commission]] lists Robert V. Roosa as a partner of the firm.[^18] The Kennedy Library's biographical note records that Roosa was a director of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1966 to 1981.[^19]
+Robert A. Lovett married Adele Quartley Brown, daughter of the senior partner James Brown, in 1919, joined Brown Brothers in 1921, was granted a power of attorney in January 1925 and was admitted to partnership in 1926. In that year he was also elected a director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] and member of its executive committee. The Defense Department biography says that he became a clerk at the [[National Bank of Commerce]] in 1921, and the biography printed in the Senate subcommittee record of 1960 gives the sequence as that bank from 1921 to 1923, then clerk at Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1923 and partner in 1926, and records that he became chairman of the executive committee of the Union Pacific on May 28, 1953.[^23][^24] Kouwenhoven recorded that Roland Harriman and Lovett met as eight-year-old boys in 1903.[^25] A November 1951 table of corporations whose officers belonged to the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^26] A 1981 North American roster of the [[Trilateral Commission]] lists Robert V. Roosa as a partner of the firm.[^27] The Kennedy Library's biographical note records that Roosa was a director of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1966 to 1981.[^28]
 ### Public Service of the Partners
-Thatcher Brown wrote in 1950 that public service "was more or less expected of the leaders of our business." Kouwenhoven recorded that Averell Harriman chaired the Commerce Department's [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939, served with the [[National Recovery Administration]], the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the Office of Production Management, and went to Great Britain as President Roosevelt's special representative to coordinate lend-lease aid. During the war Roland Harriman managed the North Atlantic Area of the [[American Red Cross]] and Prescott Bush became national campaign chairman of the combined fund-raising drives of the [[United Service Organizations|USO]] and other wartime charities in 1942. Lovett was called to Washington in June 1940 as Special Assistant to the Secretary of War (the partner table dates the post from December 1940 to April 1941) and served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1941 to 1945. The firm's history reproduces the Distinguished Service Medal citation calling him "the eyes, ears, and hands of the Secretary of War in respect to the growth of that enormous American air power."[^20] President Truman appointed Roland Harriman president of the American Red Cross in 1950. Bush served as United States Senator from [[Connecticut]] from 1952 to 1962, and Lovett served as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949 and as Deputy Secretary and Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1953.[^21] The [[United States Senate]] timeline for Connecticut records that Bush won election to the Senate on November 4, 1952, "following a defeat in the 1950 election," and that he "served until 1963."[^22]
+Thatcher Brown wrote in 1950 that public service "was more or less expected of the leaders of our business." Kouwenhoven recorded that Averell Harriman chaired the Commerce Department's [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939, served with the [[National Recovery Administration]], the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the Office of Production Management, and went to Great Britain as President Roosevelt's special representative to coordinate lend-lease aid. During the war Roland Harriman managed the North Atlantic Area of the [[American Red Cross]] and Prescott Bush became national campaign chairman of the combined fund-raising drives of the [[United Service Organizations|USO]] and other wartime charities in 1942. According to the firm's history, Lovett was called to Washington in June 1940 as Special Assistant to the Secretary of War (the partner table dates the post from December 1940 to April 1941), while Stimson's memoir dates his arrival as air assistant to November 1940.[^29] He served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1941 to 1945. The firm's history reproduces the Distinguished Service Medal citation calling him "the eyes, ears, and hands of the Secretary of War in respect to the growth of that enormous American air power."[^30] President Truman appointed Roland Harriman president of the American Red Cross in 1950. Bush served as United States Senator from [[Connecticut]] from 1952 to 1962, and Lovett served as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949 and as Deputy Secretary and Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1953.[^31] The [[United States Senate]] timeline for Connecticut records that Bush won election to the Senate on November 4, 1952, "following a defeat in the 1950 election," and that he "served until 1963."[^32]
-Roosa, who had served in London with the Enemy Objectives Unit of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in the Second World War, joined the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] after the war, served as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson until 1964, and worked at the firm from 1965 to 1991. He was chairman of the board of trustees of the [[Brookings Institution]] from 1975 to 1986.[^19] Kouwenhoven quoted the American Banker on Roosa's resignation from the Treasury: "one of the great innovators" in financial affairs.[^23] The finding aid lists correspondence about the appointment of partner Charles J. Rhoads as [[Commissioner of Indian Affairs]] in 1929, donated to the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1965.[^2]
+Roosa, who had served in London with the Enemy Objectives Unit of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in the Second World War, joined the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] after the war, served as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson until 1964, and worked at the firm from 1965 to 1991. He was chairman of the board of trustees of the [[Brookings Institution]] from 1975 to 1986.[^28] Kouwenhoven quoted the American Banker on Roosa's resignation from the Treasury: "one of the great innovators" in financial affairs.[^33] The finding aid lists correspondence about the appointment of partner Charles J. Rhoads as [[Commissioner of Indian Affairs]] in 1929, donated to the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1965.[^2]
 ### Robert A. Lovett and the Intelligence Establishment
-Lovett's oral history at the [[Harry S. Truman Library]], recorded July 7, 1971, describes his move from the firm to the [[State Department]] in 1947. He recalled that the President telephoned him early in the morning at a superintendent's cottage on his father's place in [[Locust Valley, New York|Locust Valley]]. The President told him, "I've got to get a new Secretary of State and I've signed up General Marshall on the condition which he made that you'd come down and be his Under Secretary." Lovett answered, "I've got to go and check with my partners; I've got to get permission to get out of the firm and the New York State Bank Department has to approve."[^24] The library's biographical summary lists his posts as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, private law practice with Brown Brothers, Harriman and Company from 1949 to 1950, Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1951, and later Secretary of Defense. The firm's partner table gives April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950 as his second period as partner.[^24][^4]
+Lovett's oral history at the [[Harry S. Truman Library]], recorded July 7, 1971, describes his move from the firm to the [[State Department]] in 1947. He recalled that the President telephoned him early in the morning at a superintendent's cottage on his father's place in [[Locust Valley, New York|Locust Valley]]. The President told him, "I've got to get a new Secretary of State and I've signed up General Marshall on the condition which he made that you'd come down and be his Under Secretary." Lovett answered, "I've got to go and check with my partners; I've got to get permission to get out of the firm and the New York State Bank Department has to approve."[^34] The library's biographical summary lists his posts as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, private law practice with Brown Brothers, Harriman and Company from 1949 to 1950, Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1951, and later Secretary of Defense. The firm's partner table gives April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950 as his second period as partner.[^4][^34]
-In the *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on the intelligence community, a memorandum of March 30, 1950 from [[George F. Kennan]] records that the [[National Security Council]] directive NSC 10/2 of June 1948 established an Office of Special Projects (later the [[Office of Policy Coordination]]) in the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to plan and conduct covert operations, and that Kennan's designation as the State Department's representative for the purpose was made known to the Council by a letter signed August 13, 1948 by Lovett.[^25] A State Department memorandum of October 15, 1952 recalls the "concept of General Marshall, Mr. Forrestal, Mr. Lovett and Mr. Kennan, when OPC was set up in the spring of 1948," that covert political warfare was of primary interest to the State Department.[^26] The first meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]], held on July 2, 1951 in the Director of Central Intelligence's conference room, was attended by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], Lovett as Deputy Secretary of Defense, [[Gordon Gray]], [[Allen Dulles]] and Edward Barrett for the Under Secretary of State.[^27] On October 24, 1952 President Truman addressed a memorandum on communications intelligence to Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] and Secretary of Defense Lovett, designating them a Special Committee of the National Security Council for the subject. The volume also prints a memorandum to Lovett from the Director of the [[National Security Agency]] and representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff.[^28] The volume lists Lovett as a member of the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee (the "Teapot Committee") from June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954 and of the [[President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities]] from January 13, 1956.[^29]
+In the *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on the intelligence community, a memorandum of March 30, 1950 from [[George F. Kennan]] records that the [[National Security Council]] directive NSC 10/2 of June 1948 established an Office of Special Projects (later the [[Office of Policy Coordination]]) in the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to plan and conduct covert operations, and that Kennan's designation as the State Department's representative for the purpose was made known to the Council by a letter signed August 13, 1948 by Lovett.[^35] A State Department memorandum of October 15, 1952 recalls the "concept of General Marshall, Mr. Forrestal, Mr. Lovett and Mr. Kennan, when OPC was set up in the spring of 1948," that covert political warfare was of primary interest to the State Department.[^36] The first meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]], held on July 2, 1951 in the Director of Central Intelligence's conference room, was attended by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], Lovett as Deputy Secretary of Defense, [[Gordon Gray]], [[Allen Dulles]] and Edward Barrett for the Under Secretary of State.[^37] On October 24, 1952 President Truman addressed a memorandum on communications intelligence to Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] and Secretary of Defense Lovett, designating them a Special Committee of the National Security Council for the subject. The volume also prints a memorandum to Lovett from the Director of the [[National Security Agency]] and representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff.[^38] The volume lists Lovett as a member of the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee (the "Teapot Committee") from June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954 and of the [[President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities]] from January 13, 1956.[^39]
-A State Department memorandum of December 22, 1955 reported that Allen Dulles had said the White House would soon announce the appointment of a Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, and listed the expected members as John E. Hull, Richard Connolly, James Doolittle, James Killian, David Bruce, Benjamin Fairless and Morris Hadley. The board was established by Executive Order 10656 of February 6, 1956.[^30] The Center for the Study of Intelligence newsletter of Spring 1995 states that [[David K. E. Bruce]] and Lovett prepared a report for President Eisenhower in the fall of 1956 and that they "had been charter members" of the board; the CIA History Staff searched the board's files, the Eisenhower Library, the National Archives and the Virginia Historical Society without finding it.[^31] [[Peter Grose]] wrote that Killian delegated Lovett and Bruce to investigate the covert action programs, and described Lovett as "a partner in the investment banking firm of Brown Brothers Harriman." Grose and [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]], who saw the report among Robert Kennedy's papers, quoted from it. Lovett told the Taylor board of inquiry on the Bay of Pigs in 1961 that Bruce "was very much disturbed" and that "instead of completing the report in thirty days we took two months or more." According to Schlesinger, the report found that "no one, other than those in the CIA immediately concerned with their day to day operation, has any detailed knowledge of what is going on," that a "horde of CIA representatives" was exerting "significant, almost unilateral influences" on the formulation of foreign policy, and asked whether anyone in an authoritative position was weighing "the long-range wisdom of activities which have entailed our virtual abandonment of the international 'golden rule.'"[^32] Schlesinger wrote that the full board's December 1956 statement on "the extremely informal and somewhat exclusive methods" used for clandestine projects was signed by another board member, [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], and that in its January 1961 report the board stated, "We have been unable to conclude that, on balance, all of the covert action programs undertaken by CIA up to this time have been worth the risk or the great expenditure of manpower, money and other resources involved." Schlesinger also wrote that when [[Richard Bissell]] and others briefed the board on the Cuban project in late 1960, "its members, Lovett particularly, registered dismay."[^32]
+A State Department memorandum of December 22, 1955 reported that Allen Dulles had said the White House would soon announce the appointment of a Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, and listed the expected members as John E. Hull, Richard Connolly, James Doolittle, James Killian, David Bruce, Benjamin Fairless and Morris Hadley. The board was established by Executive Order 10656 of February 6, 1956.[^40] The Center for the Study of Intelligence newsletter of Spring 1995 states that [[David K. E. Bruce]] and Lovett prepared a report for President Eisenhower in the fall of 1956 and that they "had been charter members" of the board; the CIA History Staff searched the board's files, the Eisenhower Library, the National Archives and the Virginia Historical Society without finding it.[^41] [[Peter Grose]] wrote that Killian delegated Lovett and Bruce to investigate the covert action programs, and described Lovett as "a partner in the investment banking firm of Brown Brothers Harriman." Grose and [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]], who saw the report among Robert Kennedy's papers, quoted from it. Lovett told the Taylor board of inquiry on the Bay of Pigs in 1961 that Bruce "was very much disturbed" and that "instead of completing the report in thirty days we took two months or more." According to Schlesinger, the report found that "no one, other than those in the CIA immediately concerned with their day to day operation, has any detailed knowledge of what is going on," that a "horde of CIA representatives" was exerting "significant, almost unilateral influences" on the formulation of foreign policy, and asked whether anyone in an authoritative position was weighing "the long-range wisdom of activities which have entailed our virtual abandonment of the international 'golden rule.'"[^42] Schlesinger wrote that the full board's December 1956 statement on "the extremely informal and somewhat exclusive methods" used for clandestine projects was signed by another board member, [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], and that in its January 1961 report the board stated, "We have been unable to conclude that, on balance, all of the covert action programs undertaken by CIA up to this time have been worth the risk or the great expenditure of manpower, money and other resources involved." Schlesinger also wrote that when [[Richard Bissell]] and others briefed the board on the Cuban project in late 1960, "its members, Lovett particularly, registered dismay."[^42]
 ### Prescott Bush and the Union Banking Corporation
-Karabell wrote that Bush had gone from selling rubber flooring to working as a vice president at Harriman with his college friend E. Roland Harriman, and that he had married the daughter of George Herbert Walker of [[St. Louis]].[^10] Kouwenhoven's caption describes Bush as vice-president and a director of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. and a partner in Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time of the merger, and as secretary of the [[United States Golf Association]] in 1932 and its president from 1935.[^6]
+Karabell wrote that Bush had gone from selling rubber flooring to working as a vice president at Harriman with his college friend E. Roland Harriman, and that he had married the daughter of George Herbert Walker of [[St. Louis]].[^13] Kouwenhoven's caption describes Bush as vice-president and a director of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. and a partner in Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time of the merger, and as secretary of the [[United States Golf Association]] in 1932 and its president from 1935.[^6]
-Bush appears in the records of the Union Banking Corporation, a New York company whose stock the [[Office of the Alien Property Custodian]] vested in 1942. Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value stock. It listed the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991 shares; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order says the shares were "held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam," which it describes as "owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested claims of that bank and of the August [[Thyssen-Bank]], Berlin, Germany, against the corporation for indebtedness. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^33] Of the seven holders, four (Harriman, Morris, Bush and Pennington) appear in the firm's partner table or staff records.[^4][^15]
+Bush appears in the records of the Union Banking Corporation, a New York company whose stock the [[Office of the Alien Property Custodian]] vested in 1942. Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value stock. It listed the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991 shares; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order says the shares were "held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam," which it describes as "owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested claims of that bank and of the August [[Thyssen-Bank]], Berlin, Germany, against the corporation for indebtedness. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^43] Of the seven holders, four (Harriman, Morris, Bush and Pennington) appear in the firm's partner table or staff records.[^4][^18]
-A [[Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] memorandum of August 18, 1941 on the corporation records that it was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart of Rotterdam. It records that the corporation's president, Cornelius Lievense, claimed no knowledge of the bank's ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It also records gold purchases of more than eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It records that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^34]
+A [[Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] memorandum of August 18, 1941 on the corporation records that it was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart of Rotterdam. It records that the corporation's president, Cornelius Lievense, claimed no knowledge of the bank's ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It also records gold purchases of more than eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It records that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^44]
-Sutton wrote that the Union Banking Corporation was "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," and listed eight directors for 1932. He named E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., Ellery Sedgwick James as a partner of Brown Brothers, Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, Knight Woolley as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann Groninger, Cornelius Lievense and [[J. L. Guinter]] as the remaining directors.[^35] The 1942 vesting order lists Morris and Pennington among the registered holders. Kouwenhoven's partner table gives James's death as November 25, 1932.[^33][^4]
+Sutton wrote that the Union Banking Corporation was "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," and listed eight directors for 1932. He named E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., Ellery Sedgwick James as a partner of Brown Brothers, Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, Knight Woolley as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann Groninger, Cornelius Lievense and [[J. L. Guinter]] as the remaining directors.[^45] The Federal Reserve Bank of New York's annual report for 1939 lists Woolley as a member of the bank's foreign exchange committee, representing private banks and investment houses.[^46] The bank's Circular No. 1015 of January 8, 1931 names Clarence M. Woolley of Greenwich, Connecticut, chairman of American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Corporation, as a Class C director of the bank for three years from January 1, 1931.[^47] The 1942 vesting order lists Morris and Pennington among the registered holders. Kouwenhoven's partner table gives James's death as November 25, 1932.[^4][^43]
 ### The Yale Concentration
-Time counted eleven Yale graduates among the sixteen partners, and the firm's history page counts twelve among seventeen.[^3][^12] Sutton's catalogue of [[Skull and Bones]] members by class year, printed in the 2002 edition of his book, gives Prescott Sheldon Bush, Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Knight Woolley for the class of 1917, W. Averell Harriman for the class of 1913, and Robert Abercrombie Lovett for the class of 1918. It also lists William Ellery Sedgwick James for the class of 1917.[^36] Sutton wrote that among the firm's 26 partners in the mid-1970s, no fewer than nine were members of the order, and listed [[Walter H. Brown]] (1945), Bush (1917), Granger Kent Costikyan (1929), E. Roland Harriman (1917), W. Averell Harriman (1913), Stephen Young Hord (1921), Lovett (1918), John Beckwith Madden (1941) and Woolley (1917).[^37] Karabell wrote that James and Woolley had each been sworn into Skull and Bones before enlisting in the military and that Lovett belonged to their circle.[^10] Kouwenhoven's table gives Hord's partnership as beginning January 1, 1945 in Chicago and Madden's on January 1, 1955.[^4]
+Time counted eleven Yale graduates among the sixteen partners, and the firm's history page counts twelve among seventeen.[^3][^15] Sutton's catalogue of [[Skull and Bones]] members by class year, printed in the 2002 edition of his book, gives Prescott Sheldon Bush, Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Knight Woolley for the class of 1917, W. Averell Harriman for the class of 1913, and Robert Abercrombie Lovett for the class of 1918. It also lists William Ellery Sedgwick James for the class of 1917.[^48] Sutton wrote that among the firm's 26 partners in the mid-1970s, no fewer than nine were members of the order, and listed [[Walter H. Brown]] (1945), Bush (1917), Granger Kent Costikyan (1929), E. Roland Harriman (1917), W. Averell Harriman (1913), Stephen Young Hord (1921), Lovett (1918), John Beckwith Madden (1941) and Woolley (1917).[^49] Karabell wrote that James and Woolley had each been sworn into Skull and Bones before enlisting in the military and that Lovett belonged to their circle.[^13] Kouwenhoven's table gives Hord's partnership as beginning January 1, 1945 in Chicago and Madden's on January 1, 1955.[^4]
 ### Nicaragua, 1911 to 1912
-The firm's loans to the Republic of Nicaragua are documented in the *Foreign Relations of the United States* for 1911 and 1912. The headnote to the loan convention records that the Nicaraguan assembly ratified it on June 15 and July 7, 1911, and that it was "Still pending in the Senate of the United States."[^38] In a July 17, 1911 message the President proposed amending Article IV, under which the Nicaraguan government "will appoint from a list of names to be presented to it by the fiscal agent of the loan and approved by the President of the United States of America, a collector general of customs." The message proposed striking the words "who need not be a Nicaraguan and" from the article.[^39]
+The firm's loans to the Republic of Nicaragua are documented in the *Foreign Relations of the United States* for 1911 and 1912. The headnote to the loan convention records that the Nicaraguan assembly ratified it on June 15 and July 7, 1911, and that it was "Still pending in the Senate of the United States."[^50] In a July 17, 1911 message the President proposed amending Article IV, under which the Nicaraguan government "will appoint from a list of names to be presented to it by the fiscal agent of the loan and approved by the President of the United States of America, a collector general of customs." The message proposed striking the words "who need not be a Nicaraguan and" from the article.[^51]
-Brown Brothers and [[J. and W. Seligman and Company]] wrote to the Secretary of State on November 2, 1911 that "on September 1, 1911, we entered into an agreement with the Republic of Nicaragua, by which we undertook to make a temporary loan of $1,500,000, which the Republic urgently needed." The two houses had nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]], Surveyor of the Port of [[Manila]], as Collector General of Customs.[^40] On November 11, 1911 the Secretary of State told the Nicaraguan minister that he had approved the nomination.[^41]
+Brown Brothers and [[J. and W. Seligman and Company]] wrote to the Secretary of State on November 2, 1911 that "on September 1, 1911, we entered into an agreement with the Republic of Nicaragua, by which we undertook to make a temporary loan of $1,500,000, which the Republic urgently needed." The two houses had nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]], Surveyor of the Port of [[Manila]], as Collector General of Customs, and wrote that he "has been recommended to us as a person qualified for the position and worthy of our confidence."[^52] On November 11, 1911 the Secretary of State told the Nicaraguan minister that he had approved the nomination.[^53]
-The loans followed in a series of agreements. The houses reported the [[Ethelburga]] contract of December 9, 1911, which later failed.[^42] They reported a supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 for loans up to $775,000.[^43] Their June 3, 1912 letter reported contracts dated May 25, 1912 with the [[Corporation of Foreign Bondholders]].[^44] On August 2, 1912 the houses wrote that the Republic had asked for an immediate loan of $100,000 "for the purpose of enabling it to reestablish order," and that they would make it through the [[National Bank of Nicaragua]], which had opened at [[Managua]] on August 1. They wrote that "The entire capital stock of that Bank is pledged with us as security for the various loans which we have heretofore made to the Republic," and that "the Bank is under our management and control."[^45] On November 13, 1912 they reported an agreement dated November 4, 1912 and a separate fund of $400,000.[^46]
+The loans followed in a series of agreements. The houses reported the [[Ethelburga]] contract of December 9, 1911, which later failed.[^54] They reported a supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 for loans up to $775,000.[^55] Their June 3, 1912 letter reported contracts dated May 25, 1912 with the [[Corporation of Foreign Bondholders]].[^56] On August 2, 1912 the houses wrote that the Republic had asked for an immediate loan of $100,000 "for the purpose of enabling it to reestablish order," and that they would make it through the [[National Bank of Nicaragua]], which had opened at [[Managua]] on August 1. They wrote that "The entire capital stock of that Bank is pledged with us as security for the various loans which we have heretofore made to the Republic," and that "the Bank is under our management and control."[^57] On November 13, 1912 they reported an agreement dated November 4, 1912 and a separate fund of $400,000.[^58]
-In a February 14, 1912 letter the American Minister wrote that the Legation "did not wish to take any official part in the business negotiations between the Nicaraguan Government and Brown Brothers et al."[^47] In 1914 the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations took testimony on the convention. [[Charles A. Douglas]], who said that "I have represented Nicaragua for a little over a year," testified that Ham was "nominated and put there really by the bankers with the assent of the Secretary of State." He said that Brown Brothers and Seligman were the only bankers he knew in connection with the Nicaraguan affair, and that the treaty "was never ratified."[^48] The same hearing volume prints a list of five agreements the committee received. Two of them were between the Republic and Brown Bros. & Co. and J. & W. Seligman & Co., one for the purchase of Treasury bills and one for the purchase of railroad and bank stock. The others were between the Republic and the National Bank of Nicaragua, the [[Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua]], and the [[United States Mortgage and Trust Company]].[^49] The finding aid lists an excerpt from Senate Committee on Foreign Relations confidential hearings on Nicaragua from October 1912, a transcript from June 1914, and a [[Linton Wells]] memorandum on the involvement of Brown Brothers and Seligman in Nicaraguan affairs covering 1911 to 1929.[^2]
+In a February 14, 1912 letter the American Minister wrote that the Legation "did not wish to take any official part in the business negotiations between the Nicaraguan Government and Brown Brothers et al."[^59] In 1914 the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations took testimony on the convention. [[Charles A. Douglas]], who said that "I have represented Nicaragua for a little over a year," testified that Ham was "nominated and put there really by the bankers with the assent of the Secretary of State." He said that Brown Brothers and Seligman were the only bankers he knew in connection with the Nicaraguan affair, and that the treaty "was never ratified."[^60] The same hearing volume prints a list of five agreements the committee received. Two of them were between the Republic and Brown Bros. & Co. and J. & W. Seligman & Co., one for the purchase of Treasury bills and one for the purchase of railroad and bank stock. The others were between the Republic and the National Bank of Nicaragua, the [[Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua]], and the [[United States Mortgage and Trust Company]].[^61] The finding aid lists an excerpt from Senate Committee on Foreign Relations confidential hearings on Nicaragua from October 1912, a transcript from June 1914, and a [[Linton Wells]] memorandum on the involvement of Brown Brothers and Seligman in Nicaraguan affairs covering 1911 to 1929.[^2]
-Kouwenhoven reproduced a specimen of the 1912 Nicaraguan paper currency bearing the signature of James Brown, senior partner of Brown Brothers & Co., as "Presidente" of the Banco Nacional de Nicaragua. He recorded that [[Oswald Garrison Villard]] published an editorial entitled "The Republic of Brown Brothers" in *[[The Nation]]* on June 7, 1922, charging that the United States had reduced Haiti, Santo Domingo and Nicaragua "to the status of colonies." Kouwenhoven wrote that the firm's records, including James Brown's private diary and an unpublished account by Thatcher M. Brown, "suggest that it was quite the other way around," that the loan was made in 1911 at the request of the State Department, which "was anxious" for a one-year loan for currency reform and a bank headed by Americans. Thatcher Brown's account, quoted there, describes James Brown and Albert Straus of the Seligman firm before a Senate committee, Senator Williams's remark that "I always knew Wall Street bankers were crooks, but this is the first time I ever realized they were damn fools as well," and payment of the loans "principal and interest, in 1924." The J. G. White Engineering Corporation was employed by Brown Brothers and the Seligmans to put the country's railroads into operating condition.[^50]
+The minister also reported that both currency experts read the clause that put the government's lake steamers under the Pacific railroad option to mean that Brown Brothers "will on the exercise of the option acquire a franchise to navigate the lakes and San Juan River."[^59]
 Kouwenhoven reproduced a specimen of the 1912 Nicaraguan paper currency bearing the signature of James Brown, senior partner of Brown Brothers & Co., as "Presidente" of the Banco Nacional de Nicaragua. He recorded that [[Oswald Garrison Villard]] published an editorial entitled "The Republic of Brown Brothers" in *[[The Nation]]* on June 7, 1922, charging that the United States had reduced Haiti, Santo Domingo and Nicaragua "to the status of colonies." Kouwenhoven wrote that the firm's records, including James Brown's private diary and an unpublished account by Thatcher M. Brown, "suggest that it was quite the other way around," that the loan was made in 1911 at the request of the State Department, which "was anxious" for a one-year loan for currency reform and a bank headed by Americans. Thatcher Brown's account, quoted there, describes James Brown and Albert Straus of the Seligman firm before a Senate committee, Senator Williams's remark that "I always knew Wall Street bankers were crooks, but this is the first time I ever realized they were damn fools as well," and payment of the loans "principal and interest, in 1924." The J. G. White Engineering Corporation was employed by Brown Brothers and the Seligmans to put the country's railroads into operating condition.[^62]
 ### Later Records
-The [[Office of Government Ethics]] disclosure that [[Jay Clayton]] filed on his nomination to the SEC listed Brown Brothers Harriman among the clients from which he had earned more than $5,000 in a year.[^51]
+The [[Office of Government Ethics]] disclosure that [[Jay Clayton]] filed on his nomination to the SEC listed Brown Brothers Harriman among the clients from which he had earned more than $5,000 in a year.[^63]
 ### Regulatory Record
-The firm's FINRA registration record, CRD number 104487, classifies it as a partnership. It states that the firm "was formed in [[Pennsylvania]]," that its FINRA registration ran from January 4, 1933 to July 12, 2017, and that it ceased business on June 12, 2017. The record describes the bank as principally regulated by the [[New York State Department of Financial Services]] and the securities division as principally regulated by the [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]].[^52]
+The firm's FINRA registration record, CRD number 104487, classifies it as a partnership. It states that the firm "was formed in [[Pennsylvania]]," that its FINRA registration ran from January 4, 1933 to July 12, 2017, and that it ceased business on June 12, 2017. The record describes the bank as principally regulated by the [[New York State Department of Financial Services]] and the securities division as principally regulated by the [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]].[^64]
-The record lists three regulatory events. The first is a [[New York Stock Exchange]] Hearing Board decision dated November 13, 2006 (case HPD 06-200). It found that the firm violated NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b) by failing to establish and maintain adequate policies, procedures and controls. The firm consented, without admitting or denying guilt, to a censure and a fine of $170,000.[^52]
+The record lists three regulatory events. The first is a [[New York Stock Exchange]] Hearing Board decision dated November 13, 2006 (case HPD 06-200). It found that the firm violated NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b) by failing to establish and maintain adequate policies, procedures and controls. The firm consented, without admitting or denying guilt, to a censure and a fine of $170,000.[^64]
-The second is an order of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] dated September 10, 2014, File No. 3-16076. The order records that BBH "also serves as the general partner" of the BBH Fund, and that "BBH designated certain of its partners to exercise voting and investment power over investments of the BBH Fund and to serve as directors of the BBH Fund." It found failures to timely file Section 16(a) reports concerning two corporations in which the firm held more than 10 percent, and failures to amend Schedule 13G filings. The firm consented without admitting or denying the findings and paid a civil penalty of $120,000.[^53]
+The second is an order of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] dated September 10, 2014, File No. 3-16076. The order records that BBH "also serves as the general partner" of the BBH Fund, and that "BBH designated certain of its partners to exercise voting and investment power over investments of the BBH Fund and to serve as directors of the BBH Fund." It found failures to timely file Section 16(a) reports concerning two corporations in which the firm held more than 10 percent, and failures to amend Schedule 13G filings. The firm consented without admitting or denying the findings and paid a civil penalty of $120,000.[^65]
-The third is a FINRA Acceptance, Waiver and Consent, No. 2013035821401, accepted by FINRA on February 4, 2014. Respondents were the firm and Harold A. Crawford, its Global Anti Money Laundering Compliance Officer from May 2007 through December 31, 2013. The order states that in August 2007 the firm and the then-named New York State Banking Department entered into a written agreement requiring it to improve its system of internal controls, policies and procedures on verifying the identities of account holders and to devote resources to an effective anti-money laundering program. For January 1, 2009 through June 30, 2013, FINRA found that the firm directly executed sales or, as a custodian, delivered to other firms the securities underlying the sale of at least 6 billion shares of low-priced securities, generating at least $850 million in proceeds to the sellers, less than 20 percent of it through transactions where the firm acted as executing broker. The firm conducted penny stock transactions for omnibus accounts of banks in Switzerland, Guernsey and Jersey on behalf of undisclosed underlying customers. FINRA found that the firm and Crawford were aware its brokerage activity had expanded when its Swiss bank clients "realized they could offer their underlying clients anonymous access to U.S. Securities markets." It found that the anti-money laundering program failed to monitor and investigate suspicious penny stock activity, including delivery-versus-payment transactions, failed to conduct adequate periodic reviews of correspondent accounts for foreign financial institutions, failed to ensure that suspicious activity was reported, and that the firm lacked a supervisory system to prevent the distribution of unregistered securities. The firm was censured and fined $8,000,000, and Crawford was suspended for one month and fined $25,000, without admitting or denying the findings. The firm's corrective action statement states that equity brokerage accounted for less than 1 percent of annual revenues in 2013 and that it announced in December 2013 a decision to close the business effective June 2014. The BrokerCheck record states that the firm paid the fine on February 12, 2014.[^54][^52]
+The third is a FINRA Acceptance, Waiver and Consent, No. 2013035821401, accepted by FINRA on February 4, 2014. Respondents were the firm and Harold A. Crawford, its Global Anti Money Laundering Compliance Officer from May 2007 through December 31, 2013. The order states that in August 2007 the firm and the then-named New York State Banking Department entered into a written agreement requiring it to improve its system of internal controls, policies and procedures on verifying the identities of account holders and to devote resources to an effective anti-money laundering program. For January 1, 2009 through June 30, 2013, FINRA found that the firm directly executed sales or, as a custodian, delivered to other firms the securities underlying the sale of at least 6 billion shares of low-priced securities, generating at least $850 million in proceeds to the sellers, less than 20 percent of it through transactions where the firm acted as executing broker. The firm conducted penny stock transactions for omnibus accounts of banks in Switzerland, Guernsey and Jersey on behalf of undisclosed underlying customers. FINRA found that the firm and Crawford were aware its brokerage activity had expanded when its Swiss bank clients "realized they could offer their underlying clients anonymous access to U.S. Securities markets." It found that the anti-money laundering program failed to monitor and investigate suspicious penny stock activity, including delivery-versus-payment transactions, failed to conduct adequate periodic reviews of correspondent accounts for foreign financial institutions, failed to ensure that suspicious activity was reported, and that the firm lacked a supervisory system to prevent the distribution of unregistered securities. The firm was censured and fined $8,000,000, and Crawford was suspended for one month and fined $25,000, without admitting or denying the findings. The firm's corrective action statement states that equity brokerage accounted for less than 1 percent of annual revenues in 2013 and that it announced in December 2013 a decision to close the business effective June 2014. The BrokerCheck record states that the firm paid the fine on February 12, 2014.[^64][^66]
-The affiliated entities on the same record are [[Brown Brothers Harriman Investments]], LLC, [[Brown Brothers Harriman Credit Partners]], LLC, and the [[Brown Brothers Harriman Mutual Fund Advisory Department]].[^52]
+The affiliated entities on the same record are [[Brown Brothers Harriman Investments]], LLC, [[Brown Brothers Harriman Credit Partners]], LLC, and the [[Brown Brothers Harriman Mutual Fund Advisory Department]].[^64]
 ### Footnotes
@ -241,50 +242,62 @@ The affiliated entities on the same record are [[Brown Brothers Harriman Investm
 [^5]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 192. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
 [^6]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 12 to 13, text and caption of the photograph of Prescott S. Bush. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
 [^7]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 13. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^8]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 14 to 15 (first bankers acceptance of October 24, 1927) and p. 16 (minute book entry of 1927). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^8]: *The Bankers Magazine*, vol. 122, no. 1 (January 1931), news item on the combination of Brown Brothers & Co. and the Harriman firms. https://archive.org/details/sim_bankers-magazine_1931-01_122_1
-[^9]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's informal history of the firm. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^9]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
-[^10]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 14 to 17 (passages quoted at pp. 15 to 16). https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
+[^10]: Notices of new partnerships, *The New York Times*, May 5, 1929, financial pages. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1929-05-05_78_26034_0
-[^11]: W. Averell Harriman Papers, A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division (2016), Biographical Note (chronology 1891 to 1986). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
+[^11]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 14 to 15 (first bankers acceptance of October 24, 1927) and p. 16 (minute book entry of 1927). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^12]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history page. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
+[^12]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's informal history of the firm. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^13]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), memoranda on Guaranty Trust and Brown Brothers, Harriman, and the Harriman chronology. The dating is Sutton's.
+[^13]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 14 to 17 (passages quoted at pp. 15 to 16). https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
-[^14]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 15, on the Banking Act of 1933 and the "Big Four" houses of 1931. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^14]: W. Averell Harriman Papers, A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division (2016), Biographical Note (chronology 1891 to 1986). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
-[^15]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 197 to 198, caption of the photograph of Harold D. Pennington. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^15]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history page. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
-[^16]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 17 to 18. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^16]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), memoranda on Guaranty Trust and Brown Brothers, Harriman, and the Harriman chronology. The dating is Sutton's.
-[^17]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
+[^17]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 15, on the Banking Act of 1933 and the "Big Four" houses of 1931. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^18]: The Trilateral Commission, membership roster "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf
+[^18]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 197 to 198, caption of the photograph of Harold D. Pennington. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^19]: Jennifer Marciello, "Collection Opening: Robert V. Roosa Personal Papers," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library archives blog, November 7, 2024. https://jfk.blogs.archives.gov/2024/11/07/collection-opening-robert-v-roosa-personal-papers
+[^19]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. anniversary advertisement, *Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, October 14, 1943.
-[^20]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 202 to 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^20]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. notices listing partners, *Trusts and Estates*, vol. 95, no. 7 (July 1956) and vol. 100, no. 1 (January 1961). https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1956-07_95_7 and https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1961-01_100_1
-[^21]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^21]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. statement of condition with list of partners, *The Economist*, July 22, 1961. https://archive.org/details/sim_economist_1961-07-22_200_6152
-[^22]: United States Senate, Connecticut timeline, entry for November 4, 1952 (Prescott Bush). https://www.senate.gov/states/CT/timeline.htm
+[^22]: Brown Brothers Harriman Records, MS 78, New-York Historical Society, finding aid, photographs (July 24 and 28, 1964; May 19, 1967). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
-[^23]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 208. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^23]: Robert A. Lovett, biography, Historical Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense (archived copy, November 23, 2023). https://web.archive.org/web/2023/https://history.defense.gov/DOD-History/Deputy-Secretaries-of-Defense/Article-View/Article/585251/robert-a-lovett/
-[^24]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript pp. 4 to 7, with the library's biographical summary. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra
+[^24]: *Organizing for National Security: Hearings before the Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery*, Part 1 (1960), Exhibit IV, "Biographies," p. 233. https://archive.org/details/HearingsOnOrganizingForNationalSecurity1960
-[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 4, Memorandum from the Counselor of the Department of State (Kennan) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), March 30, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d4
+[^25]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 17 to 18. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 129, Memorandum from Robert P. Joyce of the Policy Planning Staff to the Under Secretary of State (Bruce), October 15, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d129
+[^26]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
-[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 78, Minutes of a Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board, July 2, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d78
+[^27]: The Trilateral Commission, membership roster "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf
-[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 132, Memorandum from President Truman to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett, October 24, 1952, and document 136, Memorandum from the Director of the National Security Agency (Canine) and Representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense Lovett. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d132
+[^28]: Jennifer Marciello, "Collection Opening: Robert V. Roosa Personal Papers," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library archives blog, November 7, 2024. https://jfk.blogs.archives.gov/2024/11/07/collection-opening-robert-v-roosa-personal-papers
-[^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, list of persons, entry for Lovett, Robert A. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons
+[^29]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (Harper & Brothers, 1948), p. 338. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235
-[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 247, Memorandum from the Secretary of State's Special Assistant for Intelligence and Research (Armstrong) to Secretary of State Dulles, December 22, 1955, with the editorial note on Executive Order 10656. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d247
+[^30]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 202 to 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^31]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence Newsletter, no. 3 (Spring 1995), "The Elusive 'Bruce-Lovett Report.'" https://web.archive.org/web/2005/https://www.cia.gov/csi/bulletin/csi3.htm
+[^31]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^32]: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., *Robert Kennedy and His Times* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 455 to 458, and Peter Grose, *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 444 to 448, (excerpts at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm)
+[^32]: United States Senate, Connecticut timeline, entry for November 4, 1952 (Prescott Bush). https://www.senate.gov/states/CT/timeline.htm
-[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
+[^33]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 208. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^34]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
+[^34]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript pp. 4 to 7, with the library's biographical summary. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra
-[^35]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection." The lists and characterizations are Sutton's.
+[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 4, Memorandum from the Counselor of the Department of State (Kennan) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), March 30, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d4
-[^36]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), membership catalogue by class year in the 2002 edition.
+[^36]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 129, Memorandum from Robert P. Joyce of the Policy Planning Staff to the Under Secretary of State (Bruce), October 15, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d129
-[^37]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, list of partners "who were also members of The Order in the mid 1970s." The count and list are Sutton's.
+[^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 78, Minutes of a Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board, July 2, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d78
-[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1478, headnote to the Loan Convention between the United States and Nicaragua. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1478
+[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 132, Memorandum from President Truman to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett, October 24, 1952, and document 136, Memorandum from the Director of the National Security Agency (Canine) and Representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense Lovett. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d132
-[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1480, Senate Executive E, 62d Congress, 1st session, amendments proposed in the President's message of July 17, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1480
+[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, list of persons, entry for Lovett, Robert A. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons
-[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1482, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 2, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482
+[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 247, Memorandum from the Secretary of State's Special Assistant for Intelligence and Research (Armstrong) to Secretary of State Dulles, December 22, 1955, with the editorial note on Executive Order 10656. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d247
-[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1485, the Secretary of State to the Nicaraguan Minister, November 11, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1485
+[^41]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence Newsletter, no. 3 (Spring 1995), "The Elusive 'Bruce-Lovett Report.'" https://web.archive.org/web/2005/https://www.cia.gov/csi/bulletin/csi3.htm
-[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1486, December 13, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1486
+[^42]: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., *Robert Kennedy and His Times* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 455 to 458, and Peter Grose, *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 444 to 448, (excerpts at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm)
-[^43]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1504, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, April 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1504
+[^43]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
-[^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1509, June 3, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1509
+[^44]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
-[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1512, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, August 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1512
+[^45]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection." The lists and characterizations are Sutton's.
-[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1517, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 13, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1517
+[^46]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, *Twenty-Fifth Annual Report* (for the year 1939), pp. 16 to 17 and note 2 on the foreign exchange committee. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-reserve-bank-of-new-york-annual-report_1939-12-31
-[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1498, the American Minister to the Secretary of State, February 14, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1498
+[^47]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Circular No. 1015, "Appointment of Directors," January 8, 1931. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/ny%20circulars/1931_01015.pdf
-[^48]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), statement of Charles A. Douglas, counsel for the Government of Nicaragua. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
+[^48]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), membership catalogue by class year in the 2002 edition.
-[^49]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), list of agreements submitted to the committee in May 1914. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
+[^49]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, list of partners "who were also members of The Order in the mid 1970s." The count and list are Sutton's.
-[^50]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 189 to 190, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's account; Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Republic of Brown Brothers," *The Nation*, June 7, 1922, as described there. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^50]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1478, headnote to the Loan Convention between the United States and Nicaragua. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1478
-[^51]: ProPublica, "Jay Clayton," *Trump Town*, from his OGE Form 278e financial disclosure (database updated October 2019). https://projects.propublica.org/trump-town/staffers/jay-clayton
+[^51]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1480, Senate Executive E, 62d Congress, 1st session, amendments proposed in the President's message of July 17, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1480
-[^52]: FINRA BrokerCheck, firm report for Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., CRD 104487, Disclosure Events, Firm Statement and Firm History sections. https://files.brokercheck.finra.org/firm/firm_104487.pdf
+[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1482, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 2, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482
-[^53]: Securities and Exchange Commission, Order Instituting Cease-and-Desist Proceedings, Release No. 34-73047 (September 10, 2014), File No. 3-16076, *In the Matter of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2014/34-73047.pdf
+[^53]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1485, the Secretary of State to the Nicaraguan Minister, November 11, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1485
-[^54]: Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Letter of Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401, *Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* (CRD 104487) and Harold A. Crawford (CRD 5326696), accepted February 4, 2014, with the Corrective Action Statement of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. https://www.finra.org/sites/default/files/fda_documents/2013035821401_FDA_D821567%20%282019-1562955575747%29.pdf
+[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1486, December 13, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1486
 [^55]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1504, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, April 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1504
 [^56]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1509, June 3, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1509
 [^57]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1512, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, August 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1512
 [^58]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1517, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 13, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1517
 [^59]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1498, the American Minister to the Secretary of State, February 14, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1498
 [^60]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), statement of Charles A. Douglas, counsel for the Government of Nicaragua. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
 [^61]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), list of agreements submitted to the committee in May 1914. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
 [^62]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 189 to 190, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's account; Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Republic of Brown Brothers," *The Nation*, June 7, 1922, as described there. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
 [^63]: ProPublica, "Jay Clayton," *Trump Town*, from his OGE Form 278e financial disclosure (database updated October 2019). https://projects.propublica.org/trump-town/staffers/jay-clayton
 [^64]: FINRA BrokerCheck, firm report for Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., CRD 104487, Disclosure Events, Firm Statement and Firm History sections. https://files.brokercheck.finra.org/firm/firm_104487.pdf
 [^65]: Securities and Exchange Commission, Order Instituting Cease-and-Desist Proceedings, Release No. 34-73047 (September 10, 2014), File No. 3-16076, *In the Matter of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2014/34-73047.pdf
 [^66]: Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Letter of Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401, *Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* (CRD 104487) and Harold A. Crawford (CRD 5326696), accepted February 4, 2014, with the Corrective Action Statement of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. https://www.finra.org/sites/default/files/fda_documents/2013035821401_FDA_D821567%20%282019-1562955575747%29.pdf
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Columbia
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Columbia
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-10-15
-updated: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-26
 title: Columbia University
 aliases:
  - Columbia
@ -81,6 +81,12 @@ relations:
    start: 1947
    end: 1949
    fn: 13
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Donald Barr]]"
    reverse: true
    end: 1964
    role: "instructor in English, then assistant to the dean and assistant dean, School of Engineering; director, Science Honors Program"
    fn: 62
 ---
 Columbia University is a private research university in [[New York City]]. It was founded in 1754 as King's College by royal charter of King George II, took the name Columbia in 1784, and moved to its [[Morningside Heights]] campus in 1897.[^1] Its laboratories, institutes, clinicians and graduates recur in the documented record of the [[Manhattan Project]], CIA-sponsored behavioral research, Army-contracted drug testing, Cold War area studies, parapsychology and the analysis staff of the wartime [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]].
@ -155,6 +161,10 @@ The [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA) listed Columbia among the "universitie
 Irving Langmuir's colloquium on "pathological science," given at the Knolls Research Laboratory on December 18, 1953, was transcribed and edited for the CIA. The transcript records that on April 23, 1920 "Professor Bergen Davis from Columbia University" gave a colloquium in Langmuir's laboratory, and that Langmuir never published his own investigation of the Davis-Barnes effect.[^55] The psychologist [[Arthur Jensen]] received his Ph.D. from Columbia in 1956.[^56]
 ### Science Honors Program and the School of Engineering
 The School of Engineering announced the Science Honors Program on June 10, 1958: sixty selected high-school students would attend Saturday classes taught by university faculty, under the Joint Program for Technical Education, funded since 1956 by the [[Hebrew Technical Institute]], which gave an additional $25,000. [[Donald Barr]] was director, and the advisory board included [[Margaret Mead]]. By September 1959 the program had 150 students after the [[Fund for the Advancement of Education]] matched the grant.[^60][^61] Barr taught English at Columbia after his OSS service, received a master's degree in 1950, and in 1955 was asked by the Engineering School to oversee its search for promising science students. He became assistant dean of the Engineering faculty in 1959 and from 1963 administered the [[National Science Foundation]]'s Cooperative College-School Program until he left for the [[Dalton School]] in 1964.[^62] An article by Barr, "Sex, Love, and Modern Education," appeared in [[Columbia College Today]] in fall 1967.[^63]
 ### The 1968 disturbances and the Institute for Defense Analyses
 The fact-finding commission appointed to investigate the April and May 1968 disturbances at Columbia was chaired by [[Archibald Cox]] of Harvard. Its report states that Columbia became an institutional member of the [[Institute for Defense Analyses]] (IDA), a body created to give the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff access to university research on weapons systems and warfare, and that Kirk and the Columbia trustee [[William A. M. Burden]] served on the IDA board of trustees.[^57] The report records that in January 1968 Kirk appointed a faculty committee under Professor Louis Henkin to study Columbia's external relations, that in early April the trustees approved ending formal institutional sponsorship of IDA while having IDA appoint one member of the university community as an individual trustee, and that critics took this as an attempt to claim severance while keeping the relationship. It reports that the leaders of Students for a Democratic Society cultivated the IDA issue, and that six students faced discipline for the March 27 IDA demonstration.[^58] The commission treats the planned gymnasium in Morningside Park as a second source of the protest.[^59]
@ -276,3 +286,11 @@ The fact-finding commission appointed to investigate the April and May 1968 dist
 [^58]: *Crisis at Columbia*, sections on the IDA affiliation and the March 27, 1968 IDA demonstration, and the Commission's appraisal of the IDA issue.
 [^59]: *Crisis at Columbia*, section "The Gymnasium in Morningside Park."
 [^60]: "College Science Courses for Gifted Secondary Pupils," *School and Society* 86, no. 2141 (November 22, 1958), p. 422. https://archive.org/details/sim_usa-today_1958-11-22_86_2141
 [^61]: Marjorie Oden, "Field Notes," *Consulting Engineer* 13, no. 3 (September 1959). https://archive.org/details/sim_consulting-engineer_1959-09_13_3
 [^62]: "Obituaries," *Columbia College Today,* May 2004. https://web.archive.org/web/20190905000723/https://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/may04/obituaries1.html
 [^63]: Dalton School Archives, agent record "Barr, Donald." https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/agents/people/276
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council
@ -86,12 +86,12 @@ relations:
    reverse: true
    end: 2023-06-30
    role: "president, 1,868,393 dollars reportable compensation in the return for the year to June 2023"
-    fn: 33
+    fn: 35
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[David Rubenstein]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "chairman in the return for the year to June 2023"
-    fn: 33
+    fn: 35
  - type: funded
    with: "[[Bernard L. Schwartz]]"
    reverse: true
@ -103,8 +103,22 @@ relations:
    reverse: true
    role: "director, term expiring 1987; Executive Committee; Vice Chairman of the Board"
    fn: 28
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[William P. Bundy]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1964
    end: 1972
    role: "board of directors"
    fn: 33
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[William P. Bundy]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1972
    end: 1984
    role: "editor of Foreign Affairs"
    fn: 34
 created: 2026-10-01
-updated: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-26
 ---
 The Council on Foreign Relations is a New York membership organization that publishes [[Foreign Affairs]] and runs study groups, a meetings program for members, affiliated Committees on Foreign Relations in other cities and a corporate subscription program.
@ -143,7 +157,7 @@ The fourth page of the November 1951 table lists corporations with officers who
 ### Officers and committees in 1952
-For 1952 to 1953 the Council's officers were [[R. C. Leffingwell]] as chairman of the board, Allen W. Dulles as vice-chairman (on leave), [[Henry M. Wriston]] as president, David Rockefeller as vice-president, Frank Altschul as vice-president and secretary, [[Devereux C. Josephs]] as vice-president and treasurer, [[Walter H. Mallory]] as executive director (on leave) and George S. Franklin Jr. as acting executive director. The directors included [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[William A. M. Burden]], [[John W. Davis]], [[Grayson Kirk]], [[Lewis W. Douglas]], [[Thomas K. Finletter]], [[Whitney H. Shepardson]] and Taylor. Rockefeller chaired the Membership Committee; Dulles sat on the Committee on Studies with Wriston, Armstrong, Dean, Mosely and others; Armstrong edited Foreign Affairs, whose Editorial Advisory Board comprised [[George H. Blakeslee]], Davis, Dulles, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George Kennan]], Langer, [[Charles H. McIlwain]], Seymour and Wriston.[^4]
+For 1952 to 1953 the Council's officers were [[R. C. Leffingwell]] as chairman of the board, Allen W. Dulles as vice-chairman (on leave), [[Henry M. Wriston]] as president, David Rockefeller as vice-president, Frank Altschul as vice-president and secretary, [[Devereux C. Josephs]] as vice-president and treasurer, [[Walter H. Mallory]] as executive director (on leave) and George S. Franklin Jr. as acting executive director. The directors included W. Averell Harriman, [[William A. M. Burden]], [[John W. Davis]], [[Grayson Kirk]], [[Lewis W. Douglas]], [[Thomas K. Finletter]], [[Whitney H. Shepardson]] and Taylor. Rockefeller chaired the Membership Committee; Dulles sat on the Committee on Studies with Wriston, Armstrong, Dean, Mosely and others; Armstrong edited Foreign Affairs, whose Editorial Advisory Board comprised [[George H. Blakeslee]], Davis, Dulles, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George Kennan]], Langer, [[Charles H. McIlwain]], Seymour and Wriston.[^4]
 Membership stood at 927 on August 1, 1951 and 933 on August 1, 1952, in the classes resident (420 and 420), resident academic (164 and 167), junior (13 and 9), nonresident (160 and 160) and nonresident academic (170 and 177). The Committees on Foreign Relations held 191 meetings that year, and a grant from the Fund for Adult Education financed the reprinting of an article from Foreign Affairs nine times a year, with a discussion guide, for about 1,000 adult discussion groups.[^4]
@ -199,17 +213,19 @@ Two months earlier, on January 9, 2002, [[Space Systems/Loral]] had signed a con
 Foreign Affairs published "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in July 1947 over the signature "X," credited by the journal to George F. Kennan; the article called for "a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[^32]
 William P. Bundy served on the Council's board of directors from 1964 to 1972.[^33] A 1972 press item reported that he would succeed Hamilton Fish Armstrong, who had edited the quarterly for 43 years, as editor of Foreign Affairs in the fall of 1972.[^34] The Princeton finding aid gives his editorship as 1972 to 1984.[^33] He also served as a trustee of the [[American Assembly]] from 1964 to 1984.[^33]
 ### Recent filings
-The Council's Form 990 for the year ended June 30, 2023 reports revenue of 106,930,600 dollars, expenses of 83,166,400 dollars and year-end assets of 719,707,600 dollars; the same series of returns on the [[ProPublica]] Nonprofit Explorer shows revenue of 59,633,100 dollars and assets of 438,237,900 dollars for the year to June 2011.[^2] The 2023 return lists contributions of 63,113,857 dollars, Foreign Affairs revenue of 11,709,500, individual membership revenue of 9,036,200 and corporate membership revenue of 1,103,843, with 711 employees and 34 voting members of the governing body. It describes the membership as "over 5,000," states that the members elect all voting directors, and gives the year of founding as 1921.[^33]
+The Council's Form 990 for the year ended June 30, 2023 reports revenue of 106,930,600 dollars, expenses of 83,166,400 dollars and year-end assets of 719,707,600 dollars; the same series of returns on the [[ProPublica]] Nonprofit Explorer shows revenue of 59,633,100 dollars and assets of 438,237,900 dollars for the year to June 2011.[^2] The 2023 return lists contributions of 63,113,857 dollars, Foreign Affairs revenue of 11,709,500, individual membership revenue of 9,036,200 and corporate membership revenue of 1,103,843, with 711 employees and 34 voting members of the governing body. It describes the membership as "over 5,000," states that the members elect all voting directors, and gives the year of founding as 1921.[^35]
-[[Richard Haass]] is shown as president through June 30, 2023 with reportable compensation of 1,868,393 dollars and 59,851 dollars of other compensation; [[Michael Froman]] is named as principal officer. Other reported compensation includes 524,534 dollars to the chief investment officer, [[Giovanna Ban]], 519,740 to the executive vice president and chief financial officer, Keith Olson, 459,793 to the director of studies, [[James M. Lindsay]], 330,419 to the editor of Foreign Affairs, [[Daniel Kurtz-Phelan]], and 280,205 to the distinguished fellow [[Martin Indyk]]. [[David Rubenstein]] is chairman, [[Blair Effron]] and [[Jami Miscik]] vice-chairmen, and the directors include [[Thad Allen]], [[Ashton B. Carter]] (through October 2022), [[Kenneth I. Chenault]], [[Laurence D. Fink]] (through June 30, 2023), [[Timothy F. Geithner]] (through June 30, 2023), [[James P. Gorman]], [[Stephen J. Hadley]], [[Jeh Johnson]], [[William H. McRaven]], [[Janet Napolitano]], [[Meghan O'Sullivan]], [[Ruth Porat]], [[Laurene Powell Jobs]], [[Frances F. Townsend]], [[Daniel H. Yergin]] and [[Fareed Zakaria]]. Schedule O reports business relationships between Haass and directors Effron, [[Stephen C. Freidheim]] and [[Nicholas Beim]]; between Rubenstein and Carter and Yergin; between Miscik and Gorman; and between directors [[James Manyika]] and Porat. Schedule I lists fellowship payments including 596,458 dollars for nine International Affairs Fellows, 288,750 dollars for four fellows in national security, 119,350 dollars for six in Japan, 100,000 dollars for one Edward R. Murrow press fellow and 80,000 dollars for one Stanton nuclear security fellow. The donor schedule is redacted in the public copy.[^33]
+[[Richard Haass]] is shown as president through June 30, 2023 with reportable compensation of 1,868,393 dollars and 59,851 dollars of other compensation; [[Michael Froman]] is named as principal officer. Other reported compensation includes 524,534 dollars to the chief investment officer, [[Giovanna Ban]], 519,740 to the executive vice president and chief financial officer, Keith Olson, 459,793 to the director of studies, [[James M. Lindsay]], 330,419 to the editor of Foreign Affairs, [[Daniel Kurtz-Phelan]], and 280,205 to the distinguished fellow [[Martin Indyk]]. [[David Rubenstein]] is chairman, [[Blair Effron]] and [[Jami Miscik]] vice-chairmen, and the directors include [[Thad Allen]], [[Ashton B. Carter]] (through October 2022), [[Kenneth I. Chenault]], [[Laurence D. Fink]] (through June 30, 2023), [[Timothy F. Geithner]] (through June 30, 2023), [[James P. Gorman]], [[Stephen J. Hadley]], [[Jeh Johnson]], [[William H. McRaven]], [[Janet Napolitano]], [[Meghan O'Sullivan]], [[Ruth Porat]], [[Laurene Powell Jobs]], [[Frances F. Townsend]], [[Daniel H. Yergin]] and [[Fareed Zakaria]]. Schedule O reports business relationships between Haass and directors Effron, [[Stephen C. Freidheim]] and [[Nicholas Beim]]; between Rubenstein and Carter and Yergin; between Miscik and Gorman; and between directors [[James Manyika]] and Porat. Schedule I lists fellowship payments including 596,458 dollars for nine International Affairs Fellows, 288,750 dollars for four fellows in national security, 119,350 dollars for six in Japan, 100,000 dollars for one Edward R. Murrow press fellow and 80,000 dollars for one Stanton nuclear security fellow. The donor schedule is redacted in the public copy.[^35]
-Five of the directors named in the 2023 return (Rubenstein, Manyika, O'Sullivan, Townsend and Yergin) are members of the North American group in the Trilateral Commission's list of September 6, 2024, on which five Council fellows also appear.[^34]
+Five of the directors named in the 2023 return (Rubenstein, Manyika, O'Sullivan, Townsend and Yergin) are members of the North American group in the Trilateral Commission's list of September 6, 2024, on which five Council fellows also appear.[^36]
 ### Jeffrey Epstein
-Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|Epstein Library]], one headed "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein" and one "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," neither dated on its face, describe [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as "a former member of the Trilateral Commission and a former member of the Council on Foreign Relations." No Council membership roll appears in the documents examined.[^35] An exchange of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Epstein and the Council's director of events concerns travel and a weekend event.[^36]
+Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|Epstein Library]], one headed "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein" and one "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," neither dated on its face, describe [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as "a former member of the Trilateral Commission and a former member of the Council on Foreign Relations." No Council membership roll appears in the documents examined.[^37] An exchange of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Epstein and the Council's director of events concerns travel and a weekend event.[^38]
 ### Footnotes
@ -245,7 +261,9 @@ Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|E
 [^30]: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, Office of Defense Trade Controls, consent agreement with Space Systems/Loral, Inc., January 9, 2002, Exhibit 10.1 to Loral Space & Communications Ltd. Form 8-K, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001006269/000095012302000193/y56456ex10-1.txt
 [^31]: U.S. Department of State, Office of Defense Trade Controls, Draft Charging Letter to Space Systems/Loral, Inc. (undated), https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/sys_attachment.do?sys_id=032ef245db15df00d0a370131f96192b
 [^32]: "X" (George F. Kennan), "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," Foreign Affairs, vol. 25, no. 4, July 1947, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/1947-07-01/sources-soviet-conduct
-[^33]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of Council on Foreign Relations Inc for the year ended June 30, 2023 (tax year 2022), Parts I, III, VI, VII, VIII, Schedules B, I and O, IRS e-file XML object 202430169349300598, https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_01A.zip (member 2024_TEOS_XML_01A/202430169349300598_public.xml)
+[^33]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189
-[^34]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "Last updated September 6, 2024," North American Group, https://archive.org/details/tc-membership-list-sept-6-2024-1
+[^34]: "William Bundy to Head Foreign Affairs Journal," press item, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000100540012-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100540012-3
-[^35]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725190, and "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725191, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725190.pdf and https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725191.pdf
+[^35]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of Council on Foreign Relations Inc for the year ended June 30, 2023 (tax year 2022), Parts I, III, VI, VII, VIII, Schedules B, I and O, IRS e-file XML object 202430169349300598, https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_01A.zip (member 2024_TEOS_XML_01A/202430169349300598_public.xml)
-[^36]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, emails of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Jeffrey Epstein and the Council on Foreign Relations director of events, EFTA00751793, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00751793.pdf
+[^36]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "Last updated September 6, 2024," North American Group, https://archive.org/details/tc-membership-list-sept-6-2024-1
 [^37]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725190, and "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725191, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725190.pdf and https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725191.pdf
 [^38]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, emails of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Jeffrey Epstein and the Council on Foreign Relations director of events, EFTA00751793, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00751793.pdf
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Dalton
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Dalton
@ -0,0 +1,228 @@
 ---
 aliases:
  - Dalton School
  - The Dalton School
  - Dalton Schools Inc
  - Dalton Schools, Inc.
  - Children's University School
 category: "Private Organization"
 tags:
  - Organization
  - DaltonSchool
  - PrivateSchool
  - DaltonPlan
  - HelenParkhurst
  - DonaldBarr
  - JeffreyEpstein
  - WilliamBarr
  - BearStearns
  - AlanGreenberg
  - GardnerDunnan
  - DavidSambur
  - Form990
  - UpperEastSide
 summary: "The Dalton School is a Manhattan private school founded in 1919 by Helen Parkhurst, whose headmaster Donald Barr resigned in 1974 and which employed Jeffrey Epstein from 1974 to 1976."
 location: "New York, New York"
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 relations:
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Helen Parkhurst]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1919
    fn: 4
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Donald Barr]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1964
    end: 1974
    role: "headmaster"
    fn: 15
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Peter Branch]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1974
    role: "interim headmaster from July 1, 1974, according to his account to Thomas Volscho"
    fn: 27
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Jeffrey Epstein]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1974
    end: 1976
    role: "mathematics and physics teacher"
    fn: 24
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Gardner Dunnan]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1975
    end: 1997
    role: "headmaster"
    fn: 36
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Jose Manuel De Jesus]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "Head of School, as listed on the Form 990 for the fiscal year ending June 2025"
    fn: 46
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[David Sambur]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 2023
    role: "trustee, as listed on the Forms 990 for the fiscal years ending June 2023 to June 2025 and on Apollo's leadership page"
    fn: 48
 ---
 The Dalton School is a private school at 108 East 89th Street in [[Manhattan]]. [[Helen Parkhurst]] founded it in 1919 as the Children's University School, and the [[Dalton Plan]] she devised gave the school its name. Its headmaster from 1964 to 1974 was [[Donald Barr]], the father of [[William Barr]]. From September 1974 to 1976 the school employed [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as a mathematics and physics teacher. The tax-exempt corporation that operates it is Dalton Schools Inc.
 ### Helen Parkhurst and the Laboratory Plan
 Parkhurst's own account, in the 1922 book *Education on the Dalton Plan*, places her first teaching experience fifteen years before September 1919 and describes drafting a "laboratory plan" for children between eight and twelve. The plan, she wrote, was perfected in 1913, when pupils were organized into groups with a free choice of laboratories, and by 1915 the school timetable had been eliminated entirely.[^1] In 1914 she sought leave to study the method of [[Maria Montessori]] in Italy, and in 1915 she served as Montessori's assistant in California, where she tested her plan on a selected group of one hundred children between nine and twelve. From December 1915 to January 1918 she looked after Montessori's interests in the United States, and then resumed her own experiments with the support of the Child Education Foundation, which she directed.[^2]
 The plan was first applied in full in September 1919 in an ungraded school for disabled boys, after Mrs. W. Murray Crane, a trustee of that school and chair of its educational committee, accepted it in November 1918. Crane then proposed the plan for the high school in her home town, [[Dalton, Massachusetts]], where it began in February 1920 under the principal, Ernest Jackman. Soon afterward the school was visited by Mrs. Anne Saunderson and Belle Rennie of London. Rennie wrote about the work after returning to England, and Parkhurst, fearing that "laboratory" would be misunderstood, named it the Dalton Laboratory Plan.[^3] The school's own history gives a different date, stating that the Laboratory Plan "was put into effect as an experiment in the High School of Dalton, Massachusetts, in 1916," and that the plan and the school took their names from that beginning.[^4] The school's history also describes Parkhurst's earlier work in a one-room school in [[Tacoma, Washington]] and with Montessori.[^4]
 Parkhurst moved to [[New York City]] in 1919 and opened her first school on [[West 74th Street]]. The Lower School later moved to West 72nd Street, and the high school opened in the autumn of 1929 in the building at 108 East 89th Street.[^4] The 1922 book states that the Children's University School was founded through the generosity of Mr. and Mrs. Murray Crane, and its title page gives Parkhurst's position as "Education Director, Children's University School."[^5] The book describes the method in terms of a contract. "Each pupil is classified as a member of a form, and for each form a maximum and a minimum curriculum is drawn up." The curriculum is "divided up into jobs and the pupil accepts the work assigned for his class as a contract."[^6] It names freedom as "the first principle of the Dalton Laboratory Plan," and says that under the method "there are no bells to tear him away at an appointed hour."[^7] The school's current statement of the plan describes a "triangular framework of House, Assignment, and Lab" and quotes the same passage on freedom.[^8]
 ### The Dalton Plan in England
 The book carries an introduction by T. P. Nunn, professor of education at the [[University of London]], who recounted how the plan reached Britain. Belle Rennie's account appeared in the *Times* Education Supplement in May 1920. A month later Rosa Bassett began a large-scale trial at the Streatham County Secondary School for girls in London, and in August 1920 her first results were discussed at the Cardiff meeting of the British Association. When Parkhurst came to England in July 1921, Nunn wrote, no hall could hold all who wished to hear her, and when Bassett opened her school to visitors for three days "the roads of Streatham were encumbered with over two thousand pilgrims."[^9] Parkhurst thanked in her foreword Sir Michael Sadler, Edmond Holmes, C. W. Kimmins and Nunn for their advice in England, and the book carries chapters by Bassett on a year at Streatham and by John Eades, headmaster of Kirkstall Road School in Leeds, on the plan in an elementary school.[^10] A separate book by Evelyn Dewey, published in 1922 with thanks to Bassett's school and to Jackman for information on the Massachusetts high school, devotes chapters to the Dalton high school, to Streatham and to the Children's University School.[^11] The school's history states that schools in the Netherlands, Australia, England, Korea, the Czech Republic, Taiwan and Chile have adopted the plan, and that two schools in Japan are founded on it.[^12]
 ### Incorporation, the Todhunter consolidation and growth
 The school's archive dates its organizational documents from 1921 and describes records of the incorporation of the Dalton School and its consolidation with the [[Todhunter School]], including charters and by-laws, concentrated in the 1920s and 1930s.[^13] The archive holds a certificate of approval of the consolidation and affidavit dated July 1939 and the consolidation of Dalton Schools, Inc. and the Todhunter School, with the absolute charter of Dalton Schools, Inc. from the Regents of the University of the State of New York, dated July 28, 1939.[^13] The school's history credits [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] with promoting the 1939 merger.[^4]
 The same history records that the student newspaper, *The Daltonian*, was founded in 1933, the literary magazine *Blue Flag* in 1935, and the community service program in 1942, and that during the Second World War students spent summers as farm laborers in New York State.[^4] The archive's series of files on Parkhurst as head of the school covers 1924 to 1942, and a further folder of correspondence of 1971 to 1974 concerns her estate, a loan and her brother as executor.[^14] The First Program for kindergartners and first graders moved to 61 East 91st Street in 1964, and a physical education center opened at 200 East 87th Street in 1992.[^4]
 ### Donald Barr's headship, 1964 to 1974
 Donald Barr was born in Manhattan on August 2, 1921, graduated from [[Columbia College]] in 1941, served with the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in Washington and Europe, and returned to Columbia, where he directed the Science Honors Program at the School of Engineering. In 1963 the [[National Science Foundation]] asked him to administer its Cooperative College-School Program, which he did until he became headmaster of Dalton in 1964.[^15] The school's archive holds a series for his headship covering 1964 to 1972, including a headmaster's report to parents of November 1965.[^16] His 1971 book, *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty?*, gave an account of the Dalton years.[^17]
 *Time* reported on April 5, 1971 that the trustees "picked a stubborn new headmaster in 1964" who "arrived at Dalton with a dim view of 'orthodox' progressive education's emphasis on emotional development." He carried out trustee decisions to make the all-girl high school coeducational and to more than double the school to 1,000 pupils, added tests to supplement written evaluations, and tried to ban blue jeans and long hair on boys. In 1970 he expelled five sixth-graders, four for "extortion" and one for stealing $15 from a teacher. At a November 1970 board meeting trustees asked for his removal; an evaluation committee was named, and two months later the board voted unanimously to keep him. In March 1971 a 21-page memorandum from his supporters named the president of the parents' association as a plotter against him, and a mail poll run by the Honest Ballot Association went 435 to 300 against the parents' representative.[^18] In 1968 he told the *New York Times*: "They think they can cheat on tests, steal from one another's lockers and exploit each other emotionally so long as they have the right opinions about the war or civil rights or something else. That is not morality."[^19]
 On February 20, 1974 the *New York Times* reported that Barr had resigned "in protest of what he considers the trustee's interference with his leadership." In a letter to faculty and parents the day before he wrote: "I am not comfortable with the definition of board-head relations that I see becoming current in schools everywhere." The board said the resignation "was not requested and not expected." [[Richard Ravitch]], a construction executive and president of the board, said: "The issue is the prerogatives of the board and the headmaster." The article recorded that school officials had dismissed clerical and administrative staff in January 1974, that more than half a dozen teaching positions would be eliminated in the fall, that tuition would rise by about $150, and that the board had hired an outside committee to study the school. Barr said he would remain until June 7. Enrollment was 1,254 from prekindergarten through twelfth grade, and the board had 20 members.[^20]
 The 2004 *New York Times* obituary of Barr states that his tenure ended "in 1974 with his departure after disputes with the trustees over budget priorities and his disciplinarian approach to substance abuse."[^21] [[Marie Brenner]] wrote in *Vanity Fair* that Ravitch told her: "I brought in the dean of the Harvard School of Education and the head of Teachers College to evaluate Barr... I fired him. It took years to get him out, but we did it." She wrote that Barr announced his resignation "as part of an arrangement."[^22] The next year Barr became headmaster of the [[Hackley School]] in Tarrytown, New York.[^21] The *Times* later described him as having run "a private school in the cramped confines of Manhattan before becoming headmaster of the Hackley School on an 83-acre campus in Tarrytown."[^23]
 ### Epstein at Dalton, 1974 to 1976
 The school's student newspaper reported in September 1974 that Epstein was starting that year as a mathematics and physics teacher. He was 21, from Brooklyn, and arrived without a college degree, according to the *New York Times*.[^24] [[Thomas Volscho]] wrote in the *Daily Beast* that Epstein began "after the summer of 1974," that reports of a 1973 start are incorrect because the 1973-74 yearbook has no mention of him, and that Epstein confirmed in a deposition that he taught at Dalton from 1974 to 1976.[^25] The school archive holds a folder titled "Physics A, B, A-B, and Advanced Physics, Assignments, Epstein, 1975-1976."[^26]
 The *Daltonian* recorded Epstein at the piano in the first parent-faculty musical "in recent memory" in April 1975, where he "proved himself to be the ivory show man." It named him as coach of the school's math team, with a February 1976 meet against Ramaz and the Manhattan Talmudic Academy and a March 5, 1976 issue reporting "Boss Epstein watching from the sidelines." The 1974-75 yearbook carries his remark, "I'm teaching a bunch of little brats next year."[^25] The *New York Times* reported that he appeared in later issues as coach of the Dalton Tigers math team until the beginning of 1976.[^24]
 [[Peter Branch]], who had been upper school director, became interim headmaster after Barr. Branch, who told Volscho he was upper school director before the appointment, said that his appointment began on July 1, 1974 and that Barr's contract expired on June 30.[^27] Branch told the *New York Times* that Epstein "was a young teacher who didn't come up to snuff. So, ultimately, he was asked to leave," that he had heard concerns from faculty about Epstein's teaching, and that he did not recall anyone raising concerns about Epstein's conduct with students.[^24] Branch told the *Miami Herald* that Epstein "had not adequately grown as a new teacher to the standard of the school."[^28] In the update to Volscho's article, Branch said that mathematics and science faculty asked him what he was "going to do about Jeff," that Epstein's teaching had not improved over the previous year, and that Branch then told Epstein it was time to move on. Volscho wrote that after the 1975-76 year Epstein told the school he was not returning.[^27]
 Volscho wrote that he put a request under the New York Freedom of Information Law to the State Education Department and was told it had no teaching license on file for Epstein, and added that a private school such as Dalton does not require its teachers to hold a state license.[^27]
 In an update to the same article, Volscho wrote that the journalist [[Edward Jay Epstein]] had recently claimed that investigators from the firm [[Kroll]], hired by [[L Brands]], the company of [[Les Wexner]], to look into Jeffrey Epstein's background, told him that Epstein had faked his resume to land the Dalton job.[^27]
 ### The hiring accounts
 Accounts of who hired Epstein conflict. [[Law and Crime]] wrote on July 13, 2019 that Epstein was hired "by the school's headmaster Donald Barr in the mid 1970's."[^29] [[Frank Figliuzzi]], a former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] assistant director, cited press reports, as CNBC described his remarks, that Barr's father had hired a 20-something Epstein to teach math despite his having no college degree.[^30] Brenner wrote in *Vanity Fair* that Barr "brought in photographers, White Russian aristocrats, anti-Castro Cuban grandees, and a group of gifted college dropouts, including one Jeffrey Epstein."[^22]
 The *New York Times* wrote on July 12, 2019: "In February 1974, Mr. Barr had announced that he was resigning as headmaster, protesting the meddling by the board of trustees, but that he would stay on until the end of the school year. It is unclear whether Mr. Barr hired Mr. Epstein during that time."[^24] [[Susan Semel]], who taught social studies at Dalton from the 1960s into the 1980s and wrote a history of the school, told the *Times*: "Barr didn't care about credentials as long as you were interesting and knew your stuff." She told NPR: "Donald Barr would hire young people, and not necessarily young people who had a lot of credentials." NPR wrote that it is unclear whether Barr hired Epstein.[^24][^31] HuffPost quoted seven former students that teachers like Epstein were not unusual at Dalton in the 1970s, and appended a clarification that an earlier version had said Barr hired Epstein at age 20 and that it is unclear whether Barr had a role in the hiring.[^32] [[Snopes]] concluded: "It's not clear whether Donald Barr played any part in hiring Epstein to work at Dalton School."[^33]
 Volscho set out the timeline. Barr resigned in February 1974 (according to the March 14, 1974 *Daltonian*), "seven months before Jeffrey Epstein began teaching there that fall." He wrote that "it is possible that Donald Barr may have hired Epstein, if he made personnel decisions long in advance," but that the *Daltonian* showed the school lost four mathematics teachers before the 1974-75 year, so the school "may have hired Epstein, in part, out of an urgent need to fill vacant positions." Branch told him that he did not recall hiring Epstein, was "relatively certain Barr or possibly the head of the Math Department hired Epstein because hiring decisions were typically made in the spring," and that Barr liked to hire unconventional teachers.[^27]
 William Barr, then attorney general, was asked in a deposition before the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]] on August 18, 2025 whether his father's role as headmaster had been a consideration in the ethics analysis of his continued involvement in the Epstein matter. He answered: "I don't know whether I was aware of that at that time. Obviously not. It's not pertinent at all."[^34] A Justice Department official told CNBC in 2019 that, because of Barr's prior association with [[Kirkland & Ellis]], the attorney general "has and will remain recused from any retrospective review of the resolution of the earlier [Southern District of Florida] matter."[^30]
 ### Bear Stearns and the Greenberg route
 [[Vicky Ward]] wrote in *Vanity Fair* in March 2003 that Epstein, in his early 20s, "got a job teaching physics and math at Dalton, the elite Manhattan private school." While there, she wrote, he began tutoring the son of [[Bear Stearns]] chairman [[Alan Greenberg|Ace Greenberg]] and was friendly with a daughter of Greenberg's. He went to Bear Stearns, where, under the mentorship of Greenberg and [[James Cayne]], he became a limited partner, "a rung beneath full partner," and left abruptly in 1981.[^35]
 NPR reported, citing the *Miami Herald*, that Epstein got the Bear Stearns job because an impressed parent told Greenberg to hire him. Greenberg's daughter told the *Herald*: "Give Jeff credit. He was brilliant."[^31] HuffPost reported that Epstein lasted two years at Dalton before Bear Stearns hired him after he tutored the chairman's son.[^32] Ward wrote that rumors circulated inside the firm that Epstein was involved in a technical infringement; Greenberg says he can't recall this, and Cayne denies it happened.[^35] Semel told NPR that Epstein was taken with the "glitz and ritz" at Dalton, with its wealthy and influential student and parent body.[^31]
 ### Gardner Dunnan, 1975 to 1997
 [[Gardner Dunnan]] headed the school after the interim period. The archive's series for his headship covers 1975 to 1997 and holds 52 folders and three DVDs, and its catalogue also lists a 1975-76 high school course, "Exploring Human Nature," taught with a colleague.[^36] The *New York Times* reported that under the new leadership Dunnan "tentatively explored a rollback" of the strict rules and announced in early 1975 a policy allowing denim in the building.[^24] The archive holds fundraising and capital campaign correspondence of Dunnan for 1988 to 1992 and alumni correspondence for 1995 to 1997.[^37] The archive's oral history project holds his release form of May 1, 2008.[^38]
 Dunnan's attorney told the *Times* in 2019 that Dunnan had not been aware of any concerns about Epstein's conduct at the school.[^24] News reports in 1997 quoted Dunnan saying he was stepping down because of school officials' concerns with his leadership and personal life.[^39] The Associated Press reported in 2018 that his LinkedIn account lists several positions at schools in the New York City area since he left Dalton.[^39]
 ### The 2018 suit against Dunnan and the school
 On June 7, 2018 a former student filed suit in the [[U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]] against Dunnan and Dalton Schools, Inc., alleging that Dunnan sexually abused her in the fall of 1986 while she was a student. The complaint contended that Dalton "knew or should have known that Dunnan engaged in acts of inappropriate, abusive, and/or harmful behavior toward individuals over whom he had power or control." Dunnan denied the allegations in an email: "During a career spanning more than 55 years in education I have never mistreated a student or previously been accused of doing that, and am heartbroken about these false accusations." Through a spokeswoman the school said: "We take these issues very seriously and support any victim of sexual abuse."[^39]
 The docket, No. 2:18-cv-10258 (D.N.J.), was assigned to Judge Claire C. Cecchi. An amended complaint followed on June 29, 2018. On August 3, 2018 the school moved to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction, supported by an affidavit of Michael Hwang, and in October Dunnan moved to change venue. On January 9, 2019 the court granted the motion to change venue, transferred the action to the Southern District of New York and dismissed the jurisdictional motion as moot. The New Jersey case was terminated on January 10, 2019, and a case with the same caption was opened in the Southern District of New York as No. 1:19-cv-02099 on March 7, 2019.[^40]
 ### 2019 reporting and the school's response
 Epstein was charged with sex trafficking of minors in federal court in Manhattan in July 2019. The *New York Times* reported on July 12, 2019 that former Dalton students recalled how he interacted with teenage girls, and that officials of the school did not respond to requests for comment.[^24] Several former students told NPR that they remember seeing Epstein surrounded by female students, though none recalled any incident of misconduct. One described a "general circle of girls."[^31] Alumni and former teachers reconnected through email chains and Facebook comments.[^32]
 NPR reported that none of the 2019 charges is connected to Epstein's time at Dalton, though prosecutors had raised the question in the past.[^31] In a 2009 deposition, an attorney asked Epstein whether he ever had "sexual contact" with female students he taught at Dalton. Epstein replied, "While I was a teacher?" and then answered "No." Asked about sexual encounters with students after he left the school, he answered "Not that I remember." Asked whether he had dated anyone who had previously been his student at Dalton, he invoked the Fifth, Sixth and 14th Amendments.[^25][^31]
 The [[Survivors Network of those Abused by Priests]] urged the school on July 16, 2019 to contact former students and staff who might have seen, suspected or suffered crimes by Epstein.[^41]
 ### Trustees and the Form 990
 The organization that files for the school is Dalton Schools Inc, employer identification number 13-2751872, at 108 East 89th Street. The [[Internal Revenue Service]] ruling date is November 1, 1973.[^42] [[ProPublica]]'s Nonprofit Explorer carries its Form 990 filings. Totals for fiscal years ending June 30 are as follows.[^43]
 | Fiscal year | Total revenue | Total expenses | Total assets |
 |---|---|---|---|
 | 2011 | $64,891,346 | $57,627,856 | $145,505,007 |
 | 2012 | $65,597,100 | $61,661,087 | $146,267,620 |
 | 2013 | $67,656,214 | $62,959,184 | $154,542,495 |
 | 2014 | $64,779,686 | $65,130,870 | $165,886,976 |
 | 2015 | $69,979,280 | $67,178,498 | $166,018,740 |
 | 2016 | $98,408,838 | $70,482,638 | $190,788,670 |
 | 2017 | $96,959,513 | $73,002,104 | $228,968,236 |
 | 2018 | $91,560,732 | $78,339,938 | $251,102,217 |
 | 2019 | $80,050,092 | $81,438,602 | $254,955,328 |
 | 2020 | $90,558,973 | $82,996,922 | $250,410,973 |
 | 2021 | $87,154,384 | $95,937,721 | $268,184,018 |
 | 2022 | $98,396,076 | $93,666,007 | $246,644,269 |
 | 2023 | $110,777,355 | $98,572,032 | $284,093,708 |
 | 2024 | $107,368,051 | $103,278,173 | $289,382,113 |
 | 2025 | $112,825,136 | $107,234,408 | $296,398,422 |
 The filing for fiscal 2025 reports net assets of $239,346,270 and total liabilities of $57,052,152.[^44]
 The Form 990 for the fiscal year ending June 2025 lists [[Jose Manuel De Jesus]] as Head of School, with reportable compensation of $1,075,533, and Michael Hwang as assistant head for operations and chief financial officer, with $476,487. The school's own leadership page lists De Jesus as Head of School and Hwang as assistant head for operations.[^45] Erica Klein is listed as president, Alexander Robinson as treasurer and Bruce Menin as secretary, each with no reportable compensation.[^46] For fiscal 2022 the filing lists James Best as Head of School and Ellen C. Stein as interim head; for fiscal 2023 it lists Best as former head of school, Stein as interim head and De Jesus as head of school.[^47]
 The filings for fiscal years 2023, 2024 and 2025 list [[David Sambur]] as a trustee. Apollo's leadership page gives his title as "Partner, Co-Head of Private Equity and Head of Equity" and states that "Mr. Sambur serves on the Board of Trustees for the Dalton School and the Jewish Museum of New York."[^48] Sambur is a partner at [[Apollo Global Management]], which he joined in 2004.[^48] The fiscal 2025 filing also lists a trustee named Alison Nathan. A judge of the same name has sat on the [[U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] since 2022; records found do not establish whether the trustee and the judge are the same person.[^49]
 [^1]: Helen Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan* (E. P. Dutton, 1922), chap. 1, pp. 12-13, on her first teaching "fifteen years" before September 1919, the laboratory plan perfected in 1913 and the abolition of the timetable in 1915. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
 [^2]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, pp. 13-14, on the 1914 application to study the Montessori method, the 1915 California work as Montessori's assistant, the test on one hundred children, the 1915-1918 period and the Child Education Foundation. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
 [^3]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, pp. 14-16, on the September 1919 trial, Mrs. W. Murray Crane, the February 1920 start at Dalton High School, the visit of Mrs. Saunderson and Belle Rennie, and the naming of the Dalton Laboratory Plan; foreword on Ernest Jackman as principal of the Dalton High School. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
 [^4]: "Our School History," The Dalton School, passages on the Children's University School, Tacoma and Montessori, the 1916 Dalton, Massachusetts experiment, West 74th Street, the 1929 building, the 1939 Todhunter merger and Eleanor Roosevelt, *The Daltonian* (1933), *Blue Flag* (1935), community service (1942), the First Program (1964) and the Physical Education Center (1992), and the adoption of the plan abroad. https://www.dalton.org/our-school/history
 [^5]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, title page, and p. 16 on the founding of the Children's University School through the generosity of Mr. and Mrs. W. Murray Crane. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
 [^6]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, chap. 3, "The Plan in Practice," pp. 34-35. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
 [^7]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, chap. 2, "The Plan in Principle," p. 19. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
 [^8]: "The Dalton Plan," The Dalton School, passage on House, Assignment and Lab and the quotation from the 1922 book. https://www.dalton.org/learning/the-dalton-plan
 [^9]: T. P. Nunn, introduction, in Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, pp. xvi-xvii, on Belle Rennie, the May 1920 *Times* Education Supplement, Rosa Bassett and Streatham, the Cardiff meeting and the July 1921 visit. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
 [^10]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, foreword (June 1922) and contents, on Sadler, Holmes, Kimmins and Nunn, Bassett's chapter ix and Eades's chapter x. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
 [^11]: Evelyn Dewey, *The Dalton Laboratory Plan* (E. P. Dutton, 1922), preface (December 1921) and contents. https://archive.org/details/daltonlaboratory00dewe
 [^12]: "Our School History," The Dalton School, passage on schools that have adopted the Dalton Plan. https://www.dalton.org/our-school/history
 [^13]: The Dalton School Archives, "Organizational Documents" (1.1), 1921-1991, with items "The Dalton Schools, Inc. and the Todhunter School, 1939," "Certificate of Approval of Consolidation and Affidavit, Todhunter, July 1939" and "Consolidation of Dalton Schools, Inc. and the Todhunter School and Absolute Charter of Dalton Schools, Inc. by the Regents of the University of the State of New York, July 28, 1939." https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/search?q[]=Todhunter&op[]=&field[]=
 [^14]: The Dalton School Archives, search for "Parkhurst," records "Helen Parkhurst [9 folders], 1924-1942" (1.5.1) and the 1971-1974 correspondence folder (Box 099, 11.1). https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/search?q[]=Parkhurst&op[]=&field[]=
 [^15]: "Obituaries," *Columbia College Today*, May 2004, class of 1941, passages on Barr's birth, Columbia degree, OSS service, Science Honors Program, the 1963 National Science Foundation program and the move to Dalton. https://web.archive.org/web/20190905000723/https://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/may04/obituaries1.html
 [^16]: "Donald Barr [4 folders], 1964-1972," The Dalton School Archives, Head of School's Office (1.5.1), and "Headmasters Report to the Parents on the Progress and Plans of Dalton School, November 1965." https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/repositories/2/archival_objects/1857
 [^17]: "Barr, Donald 1921-2004," *Something About the Author*, obituary notice (Gale), on *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty?: Dilemmas in American Education* (1971). https://www.encyclopedia.com/children/scholarly-magazines/barr-donald-1921-2004
 [^18]: "Education: The Dalton Brawl," *Time*, April 5, 1971. https://time.com/archive/6814618/education-the-dalton-brawl/
 [^19]: Rebecca Klein, "Jeffrey Epstein Was Their Teacher. He Became A Monster," *HuffPost*, July 12, 2019, passage quoting Barr's 1968 *New York Times* article. https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/jeffrey-epstein-math-science-students-memories_n_5d28cf17e4b0060b11ebf987
 [^20]: Gene I. Maeroff, "Barr Quits Dalton School Post, Charging Trustees' Interference," *New York Times*, February 20, 1974, p. 41. https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/20/archives/barr-quits-dalton-school-post-charging-trustees-interference.html (access copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/20/archives/barr-quits-dalton-school-post-charging-trustees-interference.html)
 [^21]: Wolfgang Saxon, "Donald Barr, 82, Headmaster And Science Honors Educator," *New York Times*, February 10, 2004, section B, p. 8. https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/10/nyregion/donald-barr-82-headmaster-and-science-honors-educator.html
 [^22]: Marie Brenner, "'I Had No Problem Being Politically Different': Young William Barr Among the Manhattan Liberals," *Vanity Fair*, October 7, 2019. https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2019/10/the-untold-tale-of-young-william-barr
 [^23]: Gene I. Maeroff, "Barr Puts His Stamp on Hackley," *New York Times*, March 13, 1977. https://www.nytimes.com/1977/03/13/archives/barr-puts-his-stamp-on-hackley.html
 [^24]: Mike Baker and Amy Julia Harris, "Jeffrey Epstein Taught at Dalton. His Behavior Was Noticed.," *New York Times*, July 12, 2019 (print, July 15, 2019, p. A16, "New Teacher in Gold Chains, and Lingering Questions Over Conduct"). https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html (access copy: https://web.archive.org/web/20200107115402/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html)
 [^25]: Thomas Volscho, "Jeffrey Epstein Dodged Questions About Sex With His Dalton Prep School Students," *Daily Beast*, published July 12, 2019, updated September 27, 2019, passages on the September 1974 *Daltonian*, the 1973-74 yearbook, the deposition, the April 1975 musical, the math team and the 2009 deposition. https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students (access copy: https://web.archive.org/web/20200117212831/https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students)
 [^26]: "Physics A, B, A-B, and Advanced Physics, Assignments, Epstein, 1975-1976," Box 047, The Dalton School Archives, Academic Affairs by Department: Science, Physics (2.4.9). https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/repositories/2/archival_objects/2640
 [^27]: Volscho, *Daily Beast*, July 12, 2019, updated September 27, 2019, passages on Barr's resignation and the four mathematics teachers, Branch's appointment of July 1, 1974, Branch's telephone account, the FOIL response and the update on Kroll. https://web.archive.org/web/20200117212831/https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students
 [^28]: Snopes, "Did Bill Barr's Father 'Mentor' Jeffrey Epstein and Write a 'Bizarre' Novel?", passage quoting Peter Branch to the *Miami Herald*. https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/bill-barr-jeffrey-epstein-book/
 [^29]: "The 'Epstein-Barr' Problem of New York City's Dalton School," *Law and Crime*, July 13, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/2019/https://lawandcrime.com/high-profile/the-epstein-barr-problem-of-new-york-citys-dalton-school/
 [^30]: Dan Mangan, "Attorney General Bill Barr will not recuse himself from Jeffrey Epstein child sex prosecution," *CNBC*, July 9, 2019. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/09/bill-barr-will-not-recuse-himself-in-jeffrey-epstein-prosecution.html
 [^31]: Cat Schuknecht, "A Young Jeffrey Epstein Made An Impression On His High School Students," *NPR*, July 19, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/07/19/742725946/a-young-jeffrey-epstein-made-an-impression-on-his-high-school-students
 [^32]: Klein, *HuffPost*, July 12, 2019, passages on former students, the clarification, the move to Bear Stearns and the email chains. https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/jeffrey-epstein-math-science-students-memories_n_5d28cf17e4b0060b11ebf987
 [^33]: Snopes, same article, passages on whether Barr played any part in hiring Epstein. https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/bill-barr-jeffrey-epstein-book/
 [^34]: Deposition of William P. Barr, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, August 18, 2025, p. 51, lines 9 to 12. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Barr-Transcript.pdf
 [^35]: Vicky Ward, "The Talented Mr. Epstein," *Vanity Fair*, March 2003. https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2003/03/jeffrey-epstein-200303
 [^36]: "Gardner P. Dunnan [52 folders, 3 DVDs], 1975-1997," The Dalton School Archives, Head of School's Office (1.5.1); and "Exploring Human Nature, High School, Fallick and Dunnan, 1975-1976," Box 124 (2.4.14). https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/repositories/2/archival_objects/1860
 [^37]: The Dalton School Archives, search for "Dunnan," records "Fundraising Correspondence, Gardner Dunnan [2 folders], 1988-1992" (8.2), "Capital Campaign Correspondence, Gardner Dunnan, 1990-1992" (8.3) and "Gardner Dunnan Alumni Correspondence, 1995-1997" (9). https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/search?q[]=Dunnan&op[]=&field[]=
 [^38]: The Dalton School Archives, "Gardner Dunnan, Release Form, May 1, 2008," Oral History Project (11.2), Box 104. https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/search?q[]=Dunnan&op[]=&field[]=
 [^39]: Associated Press (David Porter), "Ex-head of prestigious Dalton School accused of abuse in 80s," June 7, 2018. https://www.ksl.com/article/46336552/ex-head-of-prestigious-dalton-school-accused-of-abuse-in-80s
 [^40]: Docket, a former student v. Dalton Schools, Inc., No. 2:18-cv-10258 (D.N.J.), filed June 7, 2018, terminated January 10, 2019 (entries 6, 12, 37 and 46); and docket, No. 1:19-cv-02099 (S.D.N.Y.), filed March 7, 2019, as indexed by CourtListener. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/7077975/
 [^41]: Zach Hiner, "Dalton School Should Do Outreach in Wake of Epstein Scandal," Survivors Network of those Abused by Priests, July 16, 2019. https://www.bishop-accountability.org/news2019/07_08/2019_07_16_Zach_Priests_Dalton_in.htm
 [^42]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., EIN 13-2751872, organization record (address, NTEE code B200, ruling date 1973-11-01). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/132751872.json
 [^43]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., extracted filing data for fiscal years 2011 to 2023 (API) and 2024 and 2025 (organization page). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/132751872
 [^44]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., organization page, fiscal year ending June 2025 (filed May 8, 2026). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/132751872
 [^45]: "Leadership," The Dalton School, administrative team listing. https://www.dalton.org/our-school/leadership
 [^46]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., organization page, officers and key employees on the Form 990 for the fiscal year ending June 2025. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/132751872
 [^47]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., organization page, officers and key employees on the Forms 990 for the fiscal years ending June 2022 and June 2023. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/132751872
 [^48]: Apollo Global Management, David Sambur leadership page. https://www.apollo.com/aboutus/leadership-and-people/david-sambur
 [^49]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., organization page, trustees on the Form 990 for the fiscal year ending June 2025; and Federal Judicial Center, "Nathan, Alison Julie" (Second Circuit commission March 30, 2022). https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/nathan-alison-julie
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Kirkland
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Kirkland
@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ relations:
    end: 2008
    fn: 4
 created: 2026-09-25
-updated: 2026-09-25
+updated: 2026-10-26
 ---
 Kirkland & Ellis LLP is an American law firm with a large Washington office. Two of its lawyers, the litigation partner [[Jay Lefkowitz]] and [[Kenneth Starr]], then of counsel, represented [[Jeffrey Epstein]] in 2007 and 2008 in negotiating the [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] with the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida]], whose head, [[Alexander Acosta]], had been an associate in the firm's Washington office. Lefkowitz was at the same time the [[George W. Bush]] administration's part-time Special Envoy for Human Rights in [[North Korea]]. In late 2008 Acosta recused himself from matters involving the firm because he had begun to discuss employment with it. [[William Barr]] joined the firm in 2009 and, as Attorney General in 2019, recused himself from the Justice Department's review of the Florida agreement because of that tie.[^1][^2][^3][^4]
@ -80,7 +80,9 @@ On December 15, 2010 a correspondent writing as "jagesq" told Epstein that forme
 ### Barr
-Barr joined Kirkland & Ellis in 2009. After Epstein's July 2019 arrest in New York, Barr told reporters on July 8, 2019: "I'm recused from that matter because one of the law firms that represented Epstein long ago was a firm I subsequently joined for a period of time." The next day a Justice Department official said that Barr had consulted career ethics officials and "concluded he did not have to recuse himself from the current prosecution" in the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], and that "[d]ue to his prior association with Kirkland and Ellis, the Attorney General has and will remain recused from any retrospective review of the resolution of the earlier [Southern District of Florida] matter." The former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] assistant director [[Frank Figliuzzi]] called the distinction "a distinction without a difference," saying the two matters were "inexorably linked," and also pointed to reports that Barr's father, [[Donald Barr]], as headmaster of the [[Dalton School]] in the 1970s, had hired Epstein to teach mathematics although Epstein had no college degree.[^12]
+Barr joined Kirkland & Ellis in 2009. After Epstein's July 2019 arrest in New York, Barr told reporters on July 8, 2019: "I'm recused from that matter because one of the law firms that represented Epstein long ago was a firm I subsequently joined for a period of time." The next day a Justice Department official said that Barr had consulted career ethics officials and "concluded he did not have to recuse himself from the current prosecution" in the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], and that "[d]ue to his prior association with Kirkland and Ellis, the Attorney General has and will remain recused from any retrospective review of the resolution of the earlier [Southern District of Florida] matter." The former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] assistant director [[Frank Figliuzzi]] called the distinction "a distinction without a difference," saying the two matters were "inexorably linked," and also pointed to reports that Barr's father, [[Donald Barr]], as headmaster of the [[Dalton School]] in the 1970s, had hired Epstein to teach mathematics although Epstein had no college degree.[^12] The [[New York Times]] wrote on July 12, 2019 that Barr announced in February 1974 that he was resigning as headmaster but would stay until the end of the school year, and that "It is unclear whether Mr. Barr hired Mr. Epstein during that time."[^13] [[Snopes]] reported that Epstein began teaching at Dalton in September 1974 and that "It's not clear whether Donald Barr played any part in hiring Epstein to work at Dalton School."[^14] [[Thomas Volscho]] wrote in the [[Daily Beast]] that [[Peter Branch]], interim headmaster from July 1, 1974, did not recall hiring Epstein and was "relatively certain Barr or possibly the head of the Math Department hired Epstein."[^15]
 In his August 18, 2025 deposition before the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]], Barr was asked about the issue of the firm's representation of Epstein and his former employment there. He answered: "I actually don't think I would've had to recuse myself from that. But I just was never involved in that." He added that "the thing that happened under my tenure relating to Epstein was the investigation of Epstein in the Southern District. And I did not recuse myself from that."[^16]
 ### Lefkowitz's Retirement
@ -100,3 +102,7 @@ Lefkowitz retired from the firm in March 2026 after three decades, saying: "Alth
 [^10]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01830557, DataSet 10, email, "jagesq" to Jeffrey Epstein, "krischer richardson," December 15, 2010. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01830557.pdf
 [^11]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00798522, DataSet 9, Affirmation of John M. Browning in Support of Motion to Unseal, People v. Jeffrey E. Epstein, App. Div. No. 6081 (N.Y. App. Div., 1st Dep't), with press article exhibit. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00798522.pdf
 [^12]: "Attorney General Bill Barr will not recuse himself from Jeffrey Epstein child sex prosecution," *CNBC,* July 9, 2019. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/09/bill-barr-will-not-recuse-himself-in-jeffrey-epstein-prosecution.html
 [^13]: Mike Baker and Amy Julia Harris, "Jeffrey Epstein Taught at Dalton. His Behavior Was Noticed," *The New York Times,* July 12, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html
 [^14]: Snopes, "Did Bill Barr's Father 'Mentor' Jeffrey Epstein and Write a 'Bizarre' Novel?" https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/bill-barr-jeffrey-epstein-book/
 [^15]: Thomas Volscho, "Jeffrey Epstein Dodged Questions About Sex With His Dalton Prep School Students," *The Daily Beast,* July 12, 2019 (updated September 27, 2019). https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students
 [^16]: Deposition of William P. Barr, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, August 18, 2025, pp. 92-93. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Barr-Transcript.pdf
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/National
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/National
@ -54,9 +54,9 @@ relations:
    reverse: true
    start: 1957
    role: "managing editor from 1959"
-    fn: 8
+    fn: 9
 created: 2026-10-01
-updated: 2026-10-01
+updated: 2026-10-26
 ---
 *National Review* is an American conservative magazine whose first issue was dated November 19, 1955, under the editor and publisher [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] The opening statement by Buckley in that issue said that the magazine "stands athwart history, yelling Stop."[^1] National Review Inc., a New York corporation (EIN 13-1899384), has been a wholly owned subsidiary of the [[National Review Institute]], a 501(c)(3) charity Buckley founded in 1991, since August 1, 2015.[^2]
@ -73,47 +73,61 @@ Willmoore Kendall, a political scientist, worked from 1942 in the offices of Int
 Frank Meyer joined the British Communist Party in 1931 as a student at Oxford, was expelled from the London School of Economics and deported from England in 1934, and began to draw away from the party in 1945. In the early 1950s, John Judis wrote, he was an expert government witness at Smith Act trials in New York and Chicago. [[Ralph de Toledano]], who had known him on the left, introduced him to Buckley in 1955, and he became a senior editor in 1957 and remained until his death in 1972.[^7]
-[[Priscilla Buckley]], the managing editor from 1959, appears in a printed biographical directory entry preserved in the FBI file as "reports officer CIA, Washington, 1951-53," followed by "with Nat. Review mag., N.Y.C., 1957-, mng. editor, 1959-."[^8] In the entries for William F. Buckley Jr. reproduced in the same file from two editions of a biographical directory, the listed positions are "Sr. editor American Mercury, 1952" in one and "Asso. editor Am. Mercury, 1952" in the other, then editor-in-chief of *National Review* from 1955; the second also lists membership of the [[United States Information Agency|U.S. Information Agency]]'s advisory commission from 1969, and neither entry lists service with the Central Intelligence Agency.[^8]
+A CIA file holds letters from Whittaker Chambers to Buckley. In one dated March 10, 1957, Chambers wrote: "My silence has lasted too long." In a later letter on the CIA copy, a check mark sits beside Chambers's account of [[Allen Dulles]] saying "there seems no reason to suppose that the Russian mind is not the equal of the American mind," followed by: "Perhaps Bukharin's last words should hang in Mr. Dulles' office too, in the offices of both Mr. Dulleses."[^8]
 [[Priscilla Buckley]], the managing editor from 1959, appears in a printed biographical directory entry preserved in the FBI file as "reports officer CIA, Washington, 1951-53," followed by "with Nat. Review mag., N.Y.C., 1957-, mng. editor, 1959-."[^9] In the entries for William F. Buckley Jr. reproduced in the same file from two editions of a biographical directory, the listed positions are "Sr. editor American Mercury, 1952" in one and "Asso. editor Am. Mercury, 1952" in the other, then editor-in-chief of *National Review* from 1955; the second also lists membership of the [[United States Information Agency|U.S. Information Agency]]'s advisory commission from 1969, and neither entry lists service with the Central Intelligence Agency.[^9]
 ### Buckley in Mexico City
-Hunt wrote that he volunteered to open the Office of Policy Coordination station in [[Mexico City]], began planning in the late summer of 1950, and interviewed candidates to work for him as agents outside the embassy: "First on my list was Bill Buckley, who readily agreed and set about working out details of his cover." Hunt wrote that Burnham had told him Buckley was looking for the best way of working against the Stalinists and that Buckley spoke English, Spanish and French.[^9]
+Hunt wrote that he volunteered to open the Office of Policy Coordination station in [[Mexico City]], began planning in the late summer of 1950, and interviewed candidates to work for him as agents outside the embassy: "First on my list was Bill Buckley, who readily agreed and set about working out details of his cover." Hunt wrote that Burnham had told him Buckley was looking for the best way of working against the Stalinists and that Buckley spoke English, Spanish and French.[^10]
-Hunt wrote that he assigned Buckley to help Eudocio Ravines, a Chilean communist who had been recruited by the Agency and was living in Mexico City under an alias, finish *The Yenan Way* and translate it into English; that when Scribner's accepted the translation Buckley decided to leave Mexico and the Agency; and that Buckley told him he was thinking either of purchasing the *American Mercury* or of founding a magazine of his own. In a footnote Hunt wrote that he and his wife had asked Buckley to be guardian of their children and executor of their estate, and that Buckley, already the children's godfather, agreed.[^10]
+Hunt wrote that he assigned Buckley to help Eudocio Ravines, a Chilean communist who had been recruited by the Agency and was living in Mexico City under an alias, finish *The Yenan Way* and translate it into English; that when Scribner's accepted the translation Buckley decided to leave Mexico and the Agency; and that Buckley told him he was thinking either of purchasing the *American Mercury* or of founding a magazine of his own. In a footnote Hunt wrote that he and his wife had asked Buckley to be guardian of their children and executor of their estate, and that Buckley, already the children's godfather, agreed.[^11]
 ### The Director of Security's Memorandum, 1958
-A memorandum of November 24, 1958 from the CIA's Director of Security to the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] concerns an article in the *National Review Bulletin* of November 15, 1958 asserting that the Agency was responsible for the Dutch publication of Boris Pasternak's *Doctor Zhivago.* The memorandum states that a source of the [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]] had advised that Ralph de Toledano wrote the article, describes de Toledano as a member of "the extreme right wing element" and a close associate of Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]], and states that the editors of *National Review* and the *Bulletin* "have had numerous articles in the past charging that the Committee for Free Europe and [[Radio Free Europe]] are CIA sponsored and financed."[^11] A text excerpt from the magazine, catalogued with the Agency's records as of 1958, states that *National Review* was encouraged by the enthusiasm of a number of serious persons for a "private investigation of Radio Free Europe," that an informal meeting of prospective members of a committee had been held, and that the enterprise was hampered by lack of funds.[^12]
+A memorandum of November 24, 1958 from the CIA's Director of Security to the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] concerns an article in the *National Review Bulletin* of November 15, 1958 asserting that the Agency was responsible for the Dutch publication of Boris Pasternak's *Doctor Zhivago.* The memorandum states that a source of the [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]] had advised that Ralph de Toledano wrote the article, describes de Toledano as a member of "the extreme right wing element" and a close associate of Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]], and states that the editors of *National Review* and the *Bulletin* "have had numerous articles in the past charging that the Committee for Free Europe and [[Radio Free Europe]] are CIA sponsored and financed."[^12] A text excerpt from the magazine, catalogued with the Agency's records as of 1958, states that *National Review* was encouraged by the enthusiasm of a number of serious persons for a "private investigation of Radio Free Europe," that an informal meeting of prospective members of a committee had been held, and that the enterprise was hampered by lack of funds.[^13]
 ### The FBI File, 1950 to 1969
-The FBI file begins with a memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]], Assistant to the Director, to [[Clyde Tolson]]. It records that Buckley, who had been editor of the *Yale Daily News* the year before and had sponsored a forum at which Nichols spoke, had written asking to visit the Bureau, that Nichols arranged for him to call at his office, and that "an Agent in Mr. Jones' office will take Buckley on a very special tour." Nichols noted that after the Yale forum he had said that someday the Bureau would hear from Buckley. A later note in the file describes Buckley as an outspoken anticommunist who became friendly with Nichols, by then an executive vice president of Schenley Industries. A summary memorandum in the file records that Buckley and his wife came to the Bureau on October 25, 1950, were given "a very special tour of Bureau facilities" and met the Director, and that in April 1953 Buckley told Nichols he was writing a book to counteract the books of [[Alan Barth]] and Biddle denouncing loyalty and security investigations. A memorandum of October 1962 records that Buckley, identified as editor of *National Review,* was given a special tour on October 26, 1962 after a brief visit with the Director in his office, commented on the excellence of the communism exhibit, and was provided Bureau transportation to the [[White House]] for the public tour.[^13]
+The FBI file begins with a memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]], Assistant to the Director, to [[Clyde Tolson]]. It records that Buckley, who had been editor of the *Yale Daily News* the year before and had sponsored a forum at which Nichols spoke, had written asking to visit the Bureau, that Nichols arranged for him to call at his office, and that "an Agent in Mr. Jones' office will take Buckley on a very special tour." Nichols noted that after the Yale forum he had said that someday the Bureau would hear from Buckley. A later note in the file describes Buckley as an outspoken anticommunist who became friendly with Nichols, by then an executive vice president of Schenley Industries. A summary memorandum in the file records that Buckley and his wife came to the Bureau on October 25, 1950, were given "a very special tour of Bureau facilities" and met the Director, and that in April 1953 Buckley told Nichols he was writing a book to counteract the books of [[Alan Barth]] and Biddle denouncing loyalty and security investigations. A memorandum of October 1962 records that Buckley, identified as editor of *National Review,* was given a special tour on October 26, 1962 after a brief visit with the Director in his office, commented on the excellence of the communism exhibit, and was provided Bureau transportation to the [[White House]] for the public tour.[^14]
-On May 28, 1969 the President named Buckley to the U.S. Advisory Commission on Information. An FBI memorandum of the following days states that the White House had requested an investigation; that the Bureau's main files showed "limited but cordial relations with Buckley in the past"; and that he had been on the Bureau's Special Correspondents List until May 25, 1967, when he was removed after writing in *National Review* a mock editorial of the *[[New York Times]]* "at the expense of the Director." A teletype dated June 2, 1969 ordered the inquiry completed by June 9 and directed that no neighborhood investigation be conducted without Bureau approval.[^14]
+On May 28, 1969 the President named Buckley to the U.S. Advisory Commission on Information. An FBI memorandum of the following days states that the White House had requested an investigation; that the Bureau's main files showed "limited but cordial relations with Buckley in the past"; and that he had been on the Bureau's Special Correspondents List until May 25, 1967, when he was removed after writing in *National Review* a mock editorial of the *[[New York Times]]* "at the expense of the Director." A teletype dated June 2, 1969 ordered the inquiry completed by June 9 and directed that no neighborhood investigation be conducted without Bureau approval.[^15]
-A teletype in the inquiry lists associates of the appointee, among them Senator [[Barry Goldwater]], Senator [[Jacob Javits]], Peter Starr, president of Starr Broadcasting Group of Omaha, and James Burnham, assistant editor of *National Review.* It states that "among others" the members of the board of directors of *National Review* were Roger A. Moore, Morrie Ryskind and Lloyd H. Smith, with other names redacted.[^15] A biographical summary in the file lists Buckley as chairman of the board of directors of Starr Broadcasting Group, Omaha, Nebraska, and as a member of the board of directors of Catawba Corporation, New York.[^16] Peter Starr told agents that he had known Buckley since 1954, that Buckley was the majority stockholder and chairman of Starr Broadcasting Group and Starr the minority stockholder, and that the company had been founded with Buckley's financial backing. A person whose name is redacted told agents that Buckley had published *National Review* for many years although it operated at a financial loss and that he had offset losses by soliciting contributions from friends and subscribers.[^17]
+A teletype in the inquiry lists associates of the appointee, among them Senator [[Barry Goldwater]], Senator [[Jacob Javits]], Peter Starr, president of Starr Broadcasting Group of Omaha, and James Burnham, assistant editor of *National Review.* It states that "among others" the members of the board of directors of *National Review* were Roger A. Moore, Morrie Ryskind and Lloyd H. Smith, with other names redacted.[^16] A biographical summary in the file lists Buckley as chairman of the board of directors of Starr Broadcasting Group, Omaha, Nebraska, and as a member of the board of directors of Catawba Corporation, New York.[^17] Peter Starr told agents that he had known Buckley since 1954, that Buckley was the majority stockholder and chairman of Starr Broadcasting Group and Starr the minority stockholder, and that the company had been founded with Buckley's financial backing. A person whose name is redacted told agents that Buckley had published *National Review* for many years although it operated at a financial loss and that he had offset losses by soliciting contributions from friends and subscribers.[^18]
 In 1966 the *New York Daily News* reported that the Historic Research Foundation, of which Buckley was a trustee, planned a $2,000 grant to study the Warren Commission report.[^19]
 ### The Vietnam documents hoax, 1971
 A 1971 clipping from the *San Bernardino Sun-Telegram*, held in the CIA reading room, describes a set of "secret Vietnam documents" that the magazine published as a hoax. Dispatches were attributed to former Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]], the CIA and others. The article quotes Buckley as saying the purpose was to demonstrate that "the Pentagon and the CIA are not composed of incompetents."[^20]
 ### Hunt and Watergate, 1973
-On January 21, 1973 the program *Firing Line* on station WETA in Washington, hosted by Buckley, broadcast a discussion on the CIA and Cuba with E. Howard Hunt and the Havana lawyer Mario Lazo. A transcript prepared for a public affairs staff is among the CIA's records. Buckley introduced Hunt as having been intimately involved as an official in the Central Intelligence Agency in the [[Bay of Pigs]], and asked him whether public identification as a long-time CIA official allowed him to discuss the Agency's activities.[^18]
+On January 21, 1973 the program *Firing Line* on station WETA in Washington, hosted by Buckley, broadcast a discussion on the CIA and Cuba with E. Howard Hunt and the Havana lawyer Mario Lazo. A transcript prepared for a public affairs staff is among the CIA's records. Buckley introduced Hunt as having been intimately involved as an official in the Central Intelligence Agency in the [[Bay of Pigs]], and asked him whether public identification as a long-time CIA official allowed him to discuss the Agency's activities.[^21]
-In August 1973 an FBI background check on Buckley for a government appointment recorded the statement of [[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]], who said on August 15 that he had debated Buckley publicly on a number of occasions, thought him a person of good character and a loyal American, and had some question concerning Buckley's associates because it was his understanding that Buckley was a good friend of E. Howard Hunt, "connected with the Watergate break-in," and the godfather of some of his children; Schlesinger said he was very much opposed to Buckley's ideas and would not recommend him for a government position. The teletype also directed the New York office to check court records on a libel suit against *Esquire* magazine and [[Gore Vidal]].[^19]
+In August 1973 an FBI background check on Buckley for a government appointment recorded the statement of [[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]], who said on August 15 that he had debated Buckley publicly on a number of occasions, thought him a person of good character and a loyal American, and had some question concerning Buckley's associates because it was his understanding that Buckley was a good friend of E. Howard Hunt, "connected with the Watergate break-in," and the godfather of some of his children; Schlesinger said he was very much opposed to Buckley's ideas and would not recommend him for a government position. The teletype also directed the New York office to check court records on a libel suit against *Esquire* magazine and [[Gore Vidal]].[^22]
-Hunt wrote in *Undercover* that after his testimony to the Senate, thousands of telegrams and letters arrived and were answered by "a small committee William Buckley established in my behalf at his National Review offices." Hunt wrote that Buckley solicited funds for his legal defense and, when returns were disappointing, suggested that he retain Buckley's personal attorney, C. Dickerman Williams, at no cost.[^20]
+Hunt wrote in *Undercover* that after his testimony to the Senate, thousands of telegrams and letters arrived and were answered by "a small committee William Buckley established in my behalf at his National Review offices." Hunt wrote that Buckley solicited funds for his legal defense and, when returns were disappointing, suggested that he retain Buckley's personal attorney, C. Dickerman Williams, at no cost.[^23]
 ### Copeland and the Watergate Hearings, 1973
-The staff report on the CIA and Watergate prepared for Senator [[Howard Baker]] of the Senate Watergate Committee after the committee's public hearings records that in the issue of September 14, 1973 of *National Review,* [[Miles Copeland]] wrote an article entitled "The Unmentionable Uses of a CIA," suggesting that [[James McCord]] had led the Watergate burglars into a trap. The report records it alongside an article in *Harper's Magazine* by Andrew St. George that indicated former Director of Central Intelligence [[Richard Helms]] had prior knowledge of the break-in.[^21] The journal of the CIA's Office of Legislative Counsel for November 19, 1973 records a conversation between two Senate Armed Services Committee staff members and Copeland in London about allegations in two recent articles by him in *National Review,* and a meeting with Senator [[Stuart Symington]], who said that he was inclined to "let all the St. Georges and Copelands have their say" and then rebut them on the Senate floor.[^22]
+The staff report on the CIA and Watergate prepared for Senator [[Howard Baker]] of the Senate Watergate Committee after the committee's public hearings records that in the issue of September 14, 1973 of *National Review,* [[Miles Copeland]] wrote an article entitled "The Unmentionable Uses of a CIA," suggesting that [[James McCord]] had led the Watergate burglars into a trap. The report records it alongside an article in *Harper's Magazine* by Andrew St. George that indicated former Director of Central Intelligence [[Richard Helms]] had prior knowledge of the break-in.[^24] The journal of the CIA's Office of Legislative Counsel for November 19, 1973 records a conversation between two Senate Armed Services Committee staff members and Copeland in London about allegations in two recent articles by him in *National Review,* and a meeting with Senator [[Stuart Symington]], who said that he was inclined to "let all the St. Georges and Copelands have their say" and then rebut them on the Senate floor.[^25]
 ### Agency Assessments, 1957 to 1962
-A memorandum of December 13, 1957 for the Director of Central Intelligence, prepared by an assistant to the Director, counts 26 clippings in the Agency's files on references to the CIA by the columnist Fulton Lewis Jr. between January 1950 and December 1957, fourteen of them derogatory. It names Senator McCarthy, Westbrook Pegler, *The American Mercury* and *The National Review* as examples of others sharing Lewis's general point of view who "have shown no friendliness toward CIA," and states that there is no evidence that the groups have any cohesiveness, including an agreed plan of attack.[^23] An action memorandum from the Office of the Director dated October 1962 records that Director [[John McCone]] had picked out of his press clipping file an article from *National Review* of October 9 entitled "Swiped from the CIA, Relocation Bulletin 19, Toilet Facilities," and asked for background.[^24]
+A memorandum of December 13, 1957 for the Director of Central Intelligence, prepared by an assistant to the Director, counts 26 clippings in the Agency's files on references to the CIA by the columnist Fulton Lewis Jr. between January 1950 and December 1957, fourteen of them derogatory. It names Senator McCarthy, Westbrook Pegler, *The American Mercury* and *The National Review* as examples of others sharing Lewis's general point of view who "have shown no friendliness toward CIA," and states that there is no evidence that the groups have any cohesiveness, including an agreed plan of attack.[^26] An action memorandum from the Office of the Director dated October 1962 records that Director [[John McCone]] had picked out of his press clipping file an article from *National Review* of October 9 entitled "Swiped from the CIA, Relocation Bulletin 19, Toilet Facilities," and asked for background.[^27]
 A 1968 *New York Times* report, held in the CIA reading room, said that Buckley was starting a newsletter to expose "Communist intrigues" in American life. Buckley said the publication would become "the rallying point for the forces struggling to restore an ordered America."[^28]
 ### Liberty Lobby libel suit, 1985
 In October 1985 a federal jury in Washington found that Liberty Lobby, publisher of *The Spotlight*, had libeled *National Review* and Buckley and awarded $1,001. Liberty Lobby's attorney [[Mark Lane]] had accused Buckley in closing argument of working with Hunt "to put Spotlight out of business."[^29]
 ### Ownership and Funding
-The National Review Institute's Form 990 for the fiscal year ended July 31, 2017 reports National Review Inc. in Schedule R as a related corporation engaged in magazine sales, 100 percent owned by the Institute. The return lists as trustees [[Rich Lowry]], Jack Fowler, [[John Bolton]], [[Dick DeVos]], David Bahnsen, Daniel Mahoney, Brian Murdock, John Buser, L. Stanton Towne, Robert Agostinelli and Peter Travers among others, and as fellows [[Jonah Goldberg]], [[Kevin Williamson]], [[Kathryn Lopez]], [[Ramesh Ponnuru]] and Jay Nordlinger. Lowry and Fowler received reportable compensation of 367,206 dollars and 225,397 dollars respectively from related organizations, and the Institute's president received 289,752 dollars.[^25]
+The National Review Institute's Form 990 for the fiscal year ended July 31, 2017 reports National Review Inc. in Schedule R as a related corporation engaged in magazine sales, 100 percent owned by the Institute. The return lists as trustees [[Rich Lowry]], Jack Fowler, [[John Bolton]], [[Dick DeVos]], David Bahnsen, Daniel Mahoney, Brian Murdock, John Buser, L. Stanton Towne, Robert Agostinelli and Peter Travers among others, and as fellows [[Jonah Goldberg]], [[Kevin Williamson]], [[Kathryn Lopez]], [[Ramesh Ponnuru]] and Jay Nordlinger. Lowry and Fowler received reportable compensation of 367,206 dollars and 225,397 dollars respectively from related organizations, and the Institute's president received 289,752 dollars.[^30]
-ProPublica's Nonprofit Explorer lists the Institute's total revenue as 519,459 dollars for the fiscal year ended July 2013, 3,963,429 dollars for July 2014, 3,286,106 dollars for July 2015, 9,034,282 dollars for July 2016, 5,689,857 dollars for July 2017 and 7,342,526 dollars for July 2018.[^26]
+ProPublica's Nonprofit Explorer lists the Institute's total revenue as 519,459 dollars for the fiscal year ended July 2013, 3,963,429 dollars for July 2014, 3,286,106 dollars for July 2015, 9,034,282 dollars for July 2016, 5,689,857 dollars for July 2017 and 7,342,526 dollars for July 2018.[^31]
 ### Footnotes
@ -124,22 +138,27 @@ ProPublica's Nonprofit Explorer lists the Institute's total revenue as 519,459 d
 [^5]: E. Howard Hunt, *Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent* (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1974), pp. 68-69 (page numbers taken from the running heads of the scanned text). https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
 [^6]: "Willmoore Kendall," *Modern Age,* online biographical profile. https://modernagejournal.com/willmoore-kendall-3/244747/
 [^7]: John B. Judis, "The Godfather of American Conservatism," Alicia Patterson Foundation. https://aliciapatterson.org/john-judis/the-godfather-of-american-conservatism/
-[^8]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, printed biographical directory entries for Priscilla Langford Buckley and William Frank Buckley Jr. (directory titles not shown in the scan). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
+[^8]: Letter from Whittaker Chambers to William F. Buckley Jr., March 10, 1957, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100020108-6 (file dated January 27, 1970). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100020108-6
-[^9]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 68-69.
+[^9]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, printed biographical directory entries for Priscilla Langford Buckley and William Frank Buckley Jr.. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
-[^10]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 76-77 (page numbers taken from the running heads of the scanned text).
+[^10]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 68-69.
-[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence from the Director of Security, "Article in the National Review Bulletin of 15 November 1958 concerning the book 'Dr. Zhivago,'" November 24, 1958, CIA Reading Room document 0005796341 (scan partly illegible). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0005796341
+[^11]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 76-77 (page numbers taken from the running heads of the scanned text).
-[^12]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP74-00297R000900080057-6, text excerpt from *National Review.* https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000900080057-6
+[^12]: Central Intelligence Agency, Memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence from the Director of Security, "Article in the National Review Bulletin of 15 November 1958 concerning the book 'Dr. Zhivago,'" November 24, 1958, CIA Reading Room document 0005796341. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0005796341
-[^13]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, with Buckley's letter of October 19, 1950, and later routing note; summary memorandum on the main file; memorandum on the October 26, 1962 tour. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
+[^13]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP74-00297R000900080057-6, text excerpt from *National Review.* https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000900080057-6
-[^14]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, "Special Inquiry - White House" memorandum and teletype of June 2, 1969. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
+[^14]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, with Buckley's letter of October 19, 1950, and later routing note; summary memorandum on the main file; memorandum on the October 26, 1962 tour. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
-[^15]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, 1969 inquiry teletype listing associates and board members (names partly redacted; scan partly illegible).
+[^15]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, "Special Inquiry - White House" memorandum and teletype of June 2, 1969. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
-[^16]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 1, biographical summary (the scan is partly illegible). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
+[^16]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, 1969 inquiry teletype listing associates and board members (names partly redacted).
-[^17]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, 1969 interview summaries (Peter H. Starr; one interviewee redacted).
+[^17]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 1, biographical summary. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
-[^18]: *Firing Line,* WETA-TV Washington, January 21, 1973, transcript, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP84-00499R000200010003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00499r000200010003-1
+[^18]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, 1969 interview summaries (Peter H. Starr; one interviewee redacted).
-[^19]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, teletype of August 1973 reporting the interview of Arthur Schlesinger on "8/15/73."
+[^19]: CIA-RDP73-00475R000202020001-1, *New York Daily News*, September 8, 1966. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000202020001-1
-[^20]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 322-323 (page numbers taken from the running heads of the scanned text).
+[^20]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80-01601R000300360081-4, *San Bernardino Sun-Telegram*, July 23, 1971, "The Misadventure of Buckley." https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80-01601R000300360081-4
-[^21]: United States Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities (staff), "CIA Investigation," report to Senator Howard Baker on the CIA and Watergate, 1973, introduction and note citing Miles Copeland, "The Unmentionable Uses of a CIA," *National Review,* September 14, 1973, p. 996; CIA Reading Room document C01481990. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01481990
+[^21]: *Firing Line,* WETA-TV Washington, January 21, 1973, transcript, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP84-00499R000200010003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00499r000200010003-1
-[^22]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, Journal, Monday, November 19, 1973, items 5 and 6, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75B00380R000400010011-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000400010011-9
+[^22]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, teletype of August 1973 reporting the interview of Arthur Schlesinger on "8/15/73."
-[^23]: Central Intelligence Agency, Memorandum for the Director, "Fulton Lewis, Jr.," December 13, 1957, paras 2, 18 and 19, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP74-00297R000900070007-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000900070007-2
+[^23]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 322-323 (page numbers taken from the running heads of the scanned text).
-[^24]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of the Director, Action Memorandum No. S-254 (October 1962; day not legible in the scan), CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80B01676R000200060002-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r000200060002-4
+[^24]: United States Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities (staff), "CIA Investigation," report to Senator Howard Baker on the CIA and Watergate, 1973, introduction and note citing Miles Copeland, "The Unmentionable Uses of a CIA," *National Review,* September 14, 1973, p. 996; CIA Reading Room document C01481990. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01481990
-[^25]: National Review Institute, Form 990 for the fiscal year ended July 31, 2017, Part VII and Schedule R (see note 2).
+[^25]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, Journal, Monday, November 19, 1973, items 5 and 6, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75B00380R000400010011-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000400010011-9
-[^26]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, National Review Institute, EIN 13-3649537, API v2 organization record. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/133649537
+[^26]: Central Intelligence Agency, Memorandum for the Director, "Fulton Lewis, Jr.," December 13, 1957, paras 2, 18 and 19, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP74-00297R000900070007-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000900070007-2
 [^27]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of the Director, Action Memorandum No. S-254 (October 1962), CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80B01676R000200060002-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r000200060002-4
 [^28]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01314R000100310006-5, Henry Raymont, "Buckley Starting Newsletter to Expose Leftist Influence," *New York Times*, 1968. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100310006-5
 [^29]: George Archibald, *Washington Times*, October 25, 1985, p. 3-A, CIA-RDP90-00845R000201140006-4. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00845R000201140006-4 ; *The Washington Post*, October 26, 1985, "National Review Wins $1,001 in Libel Suit Against Liberty Lobby."
 [^30]: National Review Institute, Form 990 for the fiscal year ended July 31, 2017, Part VII and Schedule R (see note 2).
 [^31]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, National Review Institute, EIN 13-3649537, API v2 organization record. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/133649537
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Newsweek.md
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Newsweek.md
@ -94,6 +94,11 @@ relations:
    role: "published the May 5, 1987 profile of Richard Secord, the first witness before the joint committees"
    start: 1987-05-05
    fn: 34
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "Director, per Antony C. Sutton (1976); no dates given"
    fn: 45
 ---
 Newsweek is an American news weekly, founded in 1933 as News-Week and owned from 1961 to 2010 by the [[Washington Post]] Company. Its staff and stringers appear in the 1977 Rolling Stone account of CIA press relations by [[Carl Bernstein]], and it reported on the [[Contras]] and the [[Iran-Contra affair]]. It covered the [[Dark Alliance]] story, calling it a powerful series.[^1]
@ -104,6 +109,8 @@ The masthead of the July 29, 1933 issue (volume 1, number 24) lists T. J. C. Mar
 Time wrote in 1961 that when Astor "got control in 1937" Newsweek had reached a circulation of 250,000 but had cost its original investors $2,250,000 in four years. Astor died in 1959 and left his controlling 60 percent of the stock, 177,200 shares, to the Vincent Astor Foundation, a trust he established in 1948.[^4] Bernstein dates [[Malcolm Muir]]'s tenure as editor to the magazine's founding in 1937 and places it until the sale to the Washington Post Company in 1961.[^5] In Time's account of the sale, Muir was board chairman and [[John Denson]] was the editor who resigned a month before the sale to join the [[New York Herald Tribune]].[^6]
 [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote in 1976 that [[E. Roland Harriman]] was a director of Newsweek magazine, without giving dates. The statement appears in a list of his later positions that also named the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] chairmanship (held 1946 to 1969, according to the company's annual reports), a seat on the board of governors of the [[American Red Cross]] (which he headed from 1950 to 1973) and membership of the [[American Museum of Natural History]].[^45]
 ### Sale to the Washington Post Company, 1961
 In January 1961 Time reported that the Astor Foundation was asking $8,000,000 for its stock. The publisher [[Samuel Newhouse]] had offered more than market value and was rejected, reportedly on the insistence of Astor's widow, [[Brooke Astor|Brooke Russell Marshall Astor]], who sat on the Newsweek and Foundation boards. The Meredith Publishing Company approached and withdrew. Muir said a management group was negotiating to buy the majority interest.[^4]
@ -172,6 +179,8 @@ Newsweek's May 23 edition said the original information came from a "knowledgeab
 According to [[Gary Webb]]'s account, [[William J. Casey]] himself leaked news of the Contra project to Newsweek because he wanted to ensure the project did not get shelved. Once it became public knowledge that the Reagan administration was helping the Contras, Webb wrote, stopping it would look like a sellout, another [[Bay of Pigs]]. Webb presented the leak to Newsweek as an illustration of how the CIA used the media to build political support for its covert operations and to box in congressional opponents.[^1]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Ch. 6.
 [^2]: *News-Week*, vol. 1, no. 24, July 29, 1933, masthead (Martyn, president and treasurer; Samuel T. Williamson, editor). https://archive.org/details/sim_newsweek-us_1933-07-29_1_24
 [^3]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/
@ -216,3 +225,4 @@ According to [[Gary Webb]]'s account, [[William J. Casey]] himself leaked news o
 [^42]: "Newsweek retracts Quran report," Al Jazeera (Reuters), May 17, 2005. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2005/5/17/newsweek-retracts-quran-report.
 [^43]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), pp. 7, 135, 157-158. https://archive.org/details/aftermathofwaram0000scho
 [^44]: United Press International, "De Borchgrave named CEO of UPI," December 16, 1998, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1998/12/16/De-Borchgrave-named-CEO-of-UPI/2072913784400/ (appointment; start January 4; editor in chief of The Washington Times, 1985 to 1991; Newsweek chief foreign correspondent, 1963 to 1980; senior adviser at CSIS and director of the Global Organized Crime Project).
 [^45]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), pp. 106 to 107.
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Rockefeller
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Rockefeller
@ -11,45 +11,52 @@ tags:
 summary: "The Rockefeller Foundation, endowed from the Standard Oil fortune in 1913, ran Latin American public-health campaigns, supplied trustees to the State Department, and in 1943 funded the McGill psychiatric institute later tied to CIA experiments."
 location: New York, NY
 created: 2026-06-12
-updated: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-26
 relations:
  - type: funded
    with: "[[New School for Social Research]]"
    start: 1933
    end: 1943
    role: "co-funded University in Exile appointments and the Research Project on Totalitarian Communication"
-    fn: 11
+    fn: 12
  - type: funded
    with: "[[Max Ascoli]]"
    start: 1931
    role: "fellowship that brought him to the United States"
-    fn: 25
+    fn: 26
  - type: funded
    with: "[[Princeton Listening Center]]"
    start: 1939-11
    end: 1941-06
    role: "foundation funding for the listening center, per the Princeton finding aid and Mercado"
-    fn: 29
+    fn: 30
  - type: funded
    with: "[[Institute of World Affairs]]"
    role: "grants to the Institute's predecessor projects and to Institute studies; donor listed in the historical note"
    start: 1941-03
    end: 1951
-    fn: 24
+    fn: 25
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Cyrus Vance]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "trustee 1970 to 1977; chairman of the board 1975 to 1977"
    start: 1970
    end: 1977
-    fn: 8
+    fn: 9
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Cyrus Vance]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "trustee again 1980 until retirement effective June 30, 1982"
    start: 1980
    end: 1982-06-30
-    fn: 9
+    fn: 10
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Robert A. Lovett]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "trustee; chairman of the finance committee, April 1954 to April 1955"
    start: 1954
    end: 1955
    fn: 8
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Johns Hopkins University]]"
    reverse: true
@ -83,41 +90,42 @@ The Foundation's survey programs doubled as intelligence-gathering. The Harvard
 ### State Department Pipeline
-The Foundation's board functioned as a recruiting pool for US foreign policy. In 1952, as [[John Foster Dulles]] prepared to become Eisenhower's secretary of state, he turned over the chair of the Foundation to [[John D. Rockefeller III|John D. Rockefeller 3rd]] and tapped his friend [[Dean Rusk]] for the presidency. When [[John F. Kennedy]] formed his cabinet in December 1960, Robert Lovett, a Foundation trustee, declined State, Defense, and Treasury and instead recommended Rusk, then the Foundation's president, who took the call from the president-elect while attending a board meeting and became secretary of state; trustee [[Chester Bowles]] joined him as undersecretary. Earlier figures linking the Foundation to the foreign-policy establishment included UN undersecretary-general [[Ralph Bunche]] (a former grantee and trustee), [[Council on Foreign Relations]] guiding light Fosdick, Union Theological Seminary president Henry Pitney Van Dusen, and Colombia's [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]], who collaborated with Nelson Rockefeller and became a Foundation trustee.[^7]
+The Foundation's board functioned as a recruiting pool for US foreign policy. In 1952, as [[John Foster Dulles]] prepared to become Eisenhower's secretary of state, he turned over the chair of the Foundation to [[John D. Rockefeller III|John D. Rockefeller 3rd]] and tapped his friend [[Dean Rusk]] for the presidency. When [[John F. Kennedy]] formed his cabinet in December 1960, [[Robert A. Lovett]], a Foundation trustee, declined State, Defense, and Treasury and instead recommended Rusk, then the Foundation's president, who took the call from the president-elect while attending a board meeting and became secretary of state; trustee [[Chester Bowles]] joined him as undersecretary. Earlier figures linking the Foundation to the foreign-policy establishment included UN undersecretary-general [[Ralph Bunche]] (a former grantee and trustee), [[Council on Foreign Relations]] guiding light Fosdick, Union Theological Seminary president Henry Pitney Van Dusen, and Colombia's [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]], who collaborated with Nelson Rockefeller and became a Foundation trustee.[^7] The Foundation's trustee list for April 1954 to April 1955 includes Lovett and Rusk. Lovett was a member of the executive committee and chairman of the finance committee in that year.[^8]
-The chairman of the board at the end of 1976 was [[Cyrus Vance]], a trustee from 1970 who had chaired the board since 1975. The trustees listed as of December 31, 1976 included [[W. Michael Blumenthal]], [[Theodore Hesburgh]], [[Vernon Jordan]], [[Lane Kirkland]], [[Bill Moyers]], [[Robert V. Roosa]], [[Frederick Seitz]], [[Paul Volcker]] and [[Clifton R. Wharton, Jr.|Clifton Wharton]], with John D. Rockefeller 3rd as honorary chairman. The president's report for 1976 states that in the selection of Americans to serve the incoming administration of [[Jimmy Carter]] the chairman of the board, Vance, had been appointed Secretary of State and the chairman of its Audit Committee, Blumenthal, Secretary of the Treasury, and that "Mr. Vance becomes the third Trustee in the history of the Foundation to be named Secretary of State, the others being John Foster Dulles and Dean Rusk."[^8] In October 1975 Vance had headed a world affairs delegation to China, which the president's report mentions in connection with a Foundation working paper, "China Diary."[^8] He rejoined the board in 1980 and retired effective June 30, 1982, having served on its Executive and Finance Committees; the 1982 report notes the retirement in the same year of the chairman, Hesburgh, and of the former chairman, Vance, whose combined service on the board was 30 years.[^9]
+The chairman of the board at the end of 1976 was [[Cyrus Vance]], a trustee from 1970 who had chaired the board since 1975. The trustees listed as of December 31, 1976 included [[W. Michael Blumenthal]], [[Theodore Hesburgh]], [[Vernon Jordan]], [[Lane Kirkland]], [[Bill Moyers]], [[Robert V. Roosa]], [[Frederick Seitz]], [[Paul Volcker]] and [[Clifton R. Wharton, Jr.|Clifton Wharton]], with John D. Rockefeller 3rd as honorary chairman. The president's report for 1976 states that in the selection of Americans to serve the incoming administration of [[Jimmy Carter]] the chairman of the board, Vance, had been appointed Secretary of State and the chairman of its Audit Committee, Blumenthal, Secretary of the Treasury, and that "Mr. Vance becomes the third Trustee in the history of the Foundation to be named Secretary of State, the others being John Foster Dulles and Dean Rusk."[^9] In October 1975 Vance had headed a world affairs delegation to China, which the president's report mentions in connection with a Foundation working paper, "China Diary."[^9] He rejoined the board in 1980 and retired effective June 30, 1982, having served on its Executive and Finance Committees; the 1982 report notes the retirement in the same year of the chairman, Hesburgh, and of the former chairman, Vance, whose combined service on the board was 30 years.[^10]
 ### Mind-Control Research Funding
-The Foundation's reach extended into the psychiatric research that the CIA would later exploit. In 1943 it funded the establishment of the [[Allan Memorial Institute]] at [[McGill University]] in Montreal (the book renders the name "Allen"), the psychiatric institute later directed by [[D. Ewen Cameron]], whose depatterning experiments became [[MKULTRA]] Subproject 68. The Foundation also funded [[Sensory Deprivation]] research, the technique of strapping subjects in a sealed box cut off from light, sound, smell, and touch; in March 1955 the [[National Institutes of Health]] began CIA-funded experiments using the standard method minus the practice of releasing subjects on request, after which mind-control experiments spread under funding directed by [[Sidney Gottlieb]] of the CIA's [[TSS|Technical Services Staff]], part of an old-boy network that included Nelson Rockefeller's former CIAA associate [[J.C. King]]. Colby and Dennett note that Nelson "needed little introduction to MKULTRA," the CIA's use of the health and welfare bureaucracy for mind-control work having begun during his own tenure as undersecretary of HEW.[^10]
+The Foundation's reach extended into the psychiatric research that the CIA would later exploit. In 1943 it funded the establishment of the [[Allan Memorial Institute]] at [[McGill University]] in Montreal (the book renders the name "Allen"), the psychiatric institute later directed by [[D. Ewen Cameron]], whose depatterning experiments became [[MKULTRA]] Subproject 68. The Foundation also funded [[Sensory Deprivation]] research, the technique of strapping subjects in a sealed box cut off from light, sound, smell, and touch; in March 1955 the [[National Institutes of Health]] began CIA-funded experiments using the standard method minus the practice of releasing subjects on request, after which mind-control experiments spread under funding directed by [[Sidney Gottlieb]] of the CIA's [[TSS|Technical Services Staff]], part of an old-boy network that included Nelson Rockefeller's former CIAA associate [[J.C. King]]. Colby and Dennett note that Nelson "needed little introduction to MKULTRA," the CIA's use of the health and welfare bureaucracy for mind-control work having begun during his own tenure as undersecretary of HEW.[^11]
 ### New School for Social Research
-The Foundation paired with the [[New School for Social Research]] in 1933 to bring German and Central European scholars to the University in Exile. [[Alvin Johnson]] and the Foundation agreed on a dozen individuals to rescue, and the Foundation's Paris associate [[Tracy Kittredge]] wrote on the State Department's view of the question on March 29, 1933. The [[Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars]] acted for the Foundation in these early cases and did not seek permanent United States posts for the men it supported.[^11] Johnson later went to Raymond Fosdick, then the Foundation's president, for travel and two-year stipends for five scholars, and the Foundation supplied expert information on who was a Nazi or Fascist.[^12]
+The Foundation paired with the [[New School for Social Research]] in 1933 to bring German and Central European scholars to the University in Exile. [[Alvin Johnson]] and the Foundation agreed on a dozen individuals to rescue, and the Foundation's Paris associate [[Tracy Kittredge]] wrote on the State Department's view of the question on March 29, 1933. The [[Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars]] acted for the Foundation in these early cases and did not seek permanent United States posts for the men it supported.[^12] Johnson later went to Raymond Fosdick, then the Foundation's president, for travel and two-year stipends for five scholars, and the Foundation supplied expert information on who was a Nazi or Fascist.[^13]
-The New School's history states that after Johnson had raised only $10,000, [[Hiram J. Halle]] gave the whole $60,000 for the University in Exile, and that additional funding from the Foundation "enabled him to enlarge his rescue efforts."[^13] [[Daniel Bessner]] describes Halle as associated with the Foundation, which he says spent $1.4 million helping displaced scholars.[^14]
+The New School's history states that after Johnson had raised only $10,000, [[Hiram J. Halle]] gave the whole $60,000 for the University in Exile, and that additional funding from the Foundation "enabled him to enlarge his rescue efforts."[^14] [[Daniel Bessner]] describes Halle as associated with the Foundation, which he says spent $1.4 million helping displaced scholars.[^15]
-The Rockefeller Archive Center's account of the Foundation's refugee scholar program states that Foundation officers worked closely with Johnson, with whom they had been working since 1933, and that the Foundation depended on the Emergency Committee to find permanent employment for scholars and on the [[United States Department of State]] to secure non-quota visas.[^15] Johnson's memoir has his request to Fosdick growing from five scholars to fifteen and then twenty-five, then to a project of one hundred, which Fosdick put to his trustees and approved the next day; the New York Times obituary of June 9, 1971 states that the Foundation "approved the request and assured the financing of 100 emigres."[^16] The Foundation's grant records group the New School's files under the refugee-scholar program, with a separate file for the [[Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes]] and wartime projects including Totalitarian Communication Studies and War and Peace Studies.[^17] A July 31, 1941 letter from [[Marc Bloch]] to Johnson, written after the French government barred French males of military age from leaving Paris, is filed in the Foundation's records.[^18]
+The Rockefeller Archive Center's account of the Foundation's refugee scholar program states that Foundation officers worked closely with Johnson, with whom they had been working since 1933, and that the Foundation depended on the Emergency Committee to find permanent employment for scholars and on the [[United States Department of State]] to secure non-quota visas.[^16] Johnson's memoir has his request to Fosdick growing from five scholars to fifteen and then twenty-five, then to a project of one hundred, which Fosdick put to his trustees and approved the next day; the New York Times obituary of June 9, 1971 states that the Foundation "approved the request and assured the financing of 100 emigres."[^17] The Foundation's grant records group the New School's files under the refugee-scholar program, with a separate file for the [[Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes]] and wartime projects including Totalitarian Communication Studies and War and Peace Studies.[^18] A July 31, 1941 letter from [[Marc Bloch]] to Johnson, written after the French government barred French males of military age from leaving Paris, is filed in the Foundation's records.[^19]
-The Foundation funded the [[Research Project on Totalitarian Communication]] at the New School, led by [[Hans Speier]] and [[Ernst Kris]], which analyzed radio broadcasts from totalitarian countries and was coordinated with the British Broadcasting Corporation and government agencies. Foundation funding ended in 1943, and many of the researchers later held federal posts. John Foster Dulles, a Foundation trustee, urged the Foundation to continue work in this field after the war in order to counter Soviet propaganda in Europe.[^19]
+The Foundation funded the [[Research Project on Totalitarian Communication]] at the New School, led by [[Hans Speier]] and [[Ernst Kris]], which analyzed radio broadcasts from totalitarian countries and was coordinated with the British Broadcasting Corporation and government agencies. Foundation funding ended in 1943, and many of the researchers later held federal posts. John Foster Dulles, a Foundation trustee, urged the Foundation to continue work in this field after the war in order to counter Soviet propaganda in Europe.[^20]
-The Foundation's grants reached the [[Institute of World Affairs]] through its predecessor projects and through studies run by the Institute. Its grants for the Research Project on Totalitarian Communication were $15,960 in March 1941 and $19,000 in 1942.[^20] A study titled "Germany's Position in European Postwar Reconstruction," compiled by the Institute from 1944 to 1949, was funded by the Foundation "in order to study the results of post-World War I reconstruction in Germany, with an eye toward the practical implementation of these lessons following World War II."[^21] The Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia project, formed in 1941, was financed by the Foundation and "focused largely on labor politics in Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia."[^22] A folder for [[Joseph H. Willits]] for 1941 to 1952 concerns a Foundation grant for the project of [[Hans Neisser]] titled Domestic Determinants of International Trade.[^23] The Institute's historical note reports its funding for 1943 to 1951 at $630,000, with the Foundation among its donors.[^24]
+The Foundation's grants reached the [[Institute of World Affairs]] through its predecessor projects and through studies run by the Institute. Its grants for the Research Project on Totalitarian Communication were $15,960 in March 1941 and $19,000 in 1942.[^21] A study titled "Germany's Position in European Postwar Reconstruction," compiled by the Institute from 1944 to 1949, was funded by the Foundation "in order to study the results of post-World War I reconstruction in Germany, with an eye toward the practical implementation of these lessons following World War II."[^22] The Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia project, formed in 1941, was financed by the Foundation and "focused largely on labor politics in Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia."[^23] A folder for [[Joseph H. Willits]] for 1941 to 1952 concerns a Foundation grant for the project of [[Hans Neisser]] titled Domestic Determinants of International Trade.[^24] The Institute's historical note reports its funding for 1943 to 1951 at $630,000, with the Foundation among its donors.[^25]
 ### Refugee Scholar Fellowships, 1931 to 1933
-The Italian anti-fascist [[Max Ascoli]] came to the United States in 1931 on a Foundation fellowship; Ascoli wrote in 1954 that the offer was made in the spring of 1931 by the Foundation's representative in Italy, [[Luigi Einaudi]].[^25][^26] In 1933 Johnson recruited Ascoli, with the Austrian scholar [[Erich Hula]], as one of two additional Rockefeller scholars for the University in Exile, and Ascoli joined the Graduate Faculty in late 1933.[^27]
+The Italian anti-fascist [[Max Ascoli]] came to the United States in 1931 on a Foundation fellowship; Ascoli wrote in 1954 that the offer was made in the spring of 1931 by the Foundation's representative in Italy, [[Luigi Einaudi]].[^26][^27] In 1933 Johnson recruited Ascoli, with the Austrian scholar [[Erich Hula]], as one of two additional Rockefeller scholars for the University in Exile, and Ascoli joined the Graduate Faculty in late 1933.[^28]
 ### Belém Virus Laboratory
-In the Brazilian Amazon the Foundation's medical infrastructure directly served the development drive. The BR-010 highway pushed south from [[Belem|Belém]] toward [[Juscelino Kubitschek|Kubitschek's]] new capital at Brasília, "shielded from the jungle's malarial counterattacks by mosquito control programs and scientists from the Rockefeller Foundation-funded Belém Virus Laboratory," the same road network that opened uncontacted indigenous territories to settlement and mining.[^28]
+In the Brazilian Amazon the Foundation's medical infrastructure directly served the development drive. The BR-010 highway pushed south from [[Belem|Belém]] toward [[Juscelino Kubitschek|Kubitschek's]] new capital at Brasília, "shielded from the jungle's malarial counterattacks by mosquito control programs and scientists from the Rockefeller Foundation-funded Belém Virus Laboratory," the same road network that opened uncontacted indigenous territories to settlement and mining.[^29]
 ### Princeton Listening Center and Wartime Monitoring
-The Foundation's money reached American radio monitoring before the government had a monitoring service of its own. The [[Princeton Listening Center]] was launched in November 1939 at [[Princeton University]] with Foundation funding, and its finding aid states that it was financed by the Foundation and continued its work until June 1941, when the [[Federal Communications Commission]] took over; [[Stephen C. Mercado]] likewise gives the absorption by the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] as June.[^29] Daniel Bessner writes that Washington organizations "used intermediaries at the Rockefeller Foundation to assign projects to Graduate Faculty members," some of whom could not work directly for the government because they remained foreign nationals.[^30]
+The Foundation's money reached American radio monitoring before the government had a monitoring service of its own. The [[Princeton Listening Center]] was launched in November 1939 at [[Princeton University]] with Foundation funding, and its finding aid states that it was financed by the Foundation and continued its work until June 1941, when the [[Federal Communications Commission]] took over; [[Stephen C. Mercado]] likewise gives the absorption by the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] as June.[^30] Daniel Bessner writes that Washington organizations "used intermediaries at the Rockefeller Foundation to assign projects to Graduate Faculty members," some of whom could not work directly for the government because they remained foreign nationals.[^31]
-A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC, Princeton and the Foundation. [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]] wrote a memo for [[Lloyd Free]] on July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment" at inaccuracies in the article, among them its claim of a joint project.[^31]
+A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC, Princeton and the Foundation. [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]] wrote a memo for [[Lloyd Free]] on July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment" at inaccuracies in the article, among them its claim of a joint project.[^32]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995. Ch. 2.
 [^2]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 2; Ch. 3.
 [^3]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 3.
@ -125,27 +133,28 @@ A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC,
 [^5]: *Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. Rockefeller Foundation*, No. 22-1678 (4th Cir. March 20, 2024), on appeal from No. 1:15-cv-00950-TDC (D. Md.). https://www.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinions/221678.P.pdf
 [^6]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 9; Ch. 10.
 [^7]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12; Ch. 18; Ch. 23.
-[^8]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1976, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1976-1.pdf
+[^8]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1954, "Trustees" (April 1954 to April 1955), "Executive Committee" and "Finance Committee" lists, with Robert A. Lovett as chairman of the finance committee. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1954-1.pdf
-[^9]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1982, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1982-1.pdf
+[^9]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1976, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1976-1.pdf
-[^10]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 18.
+[^10]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1982, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1982-1.pdf
-[^11]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of The New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 86, p. 91 and p. 94.
+[^11]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 18.
-[^12]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366-367.
+[^12]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of The New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 86, p. 91 and p. 94.
-[^13]: Histories of The New School, "University in Exile." https://histories.newschool.edu/histories/university-exile
+[^13]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366-367.
-[^14]: Daniel Morris Bessner, The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State (Duke University dissertation, 2013), p. 84 and note 16. https://hdl.handle.net/10161/7101
+[^14]: Histories of The New School, "University in Exile." https://histories.newschool.edu/histories/university-exile
-[^15]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program," REsource, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/the-rockefeller-foundations-refugee-scholar-program-world-war-ii-nazi-europe/ (Foundation officers worked closely with Alvin Johnson of the New School for Social Research, with whom they had been working since 1933; the Emergency Committee found permanent employment for scholars).
+[^15]: Daniel Morris Bessner, The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State (Duke University dissertation, 2013), p. 84 and note 16. https://hdl.handle.net/10161/7101
-[^16]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (Viking Press, 1952; University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366 to 367; "Dr. Alvin Johnson Of New School Dies," The New York Times, June 9, 1971, p. 1, https://www.nytimes.com/1971/06/09/archives/dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school-dies-dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school.html
+[^16]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program," REsource, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/the-rockefeller-foundations-refugee-scholar-program-world-war-ii-nazi-europe/ (Foundation officers worked closely with Alvin Johnson of the New School for Social Research, with whom they had been working since 1933; the Emergency Committee found permanent employment for scholars).
-[^17]: Rockefeller Archive Center, DIMES catalog, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 1.1, Series 200, file groups "Refugee Scholars - New School for Social Research - (French Institute)," "New School for Social Research - Totalitarian Communication Studies," and "War and Peace Studies," https://dimes.rockarch.org.
+[^17]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (Viking Press, 1952; University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366 to 367; "Dr. Alvin Johnson Of New School Dies," The New York Times, June 9, 1971, p. 1, https://www.nytimes.com/1971/06/09/archives/dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school-dies-dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school.html
-[^18]: Rockefeller Archive Center, REsource story "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program" (letter from Marc Bloch to Alvin Johnson, July 31, 1941, RAC, RG 1.1, Series 200, Box 48, Folder 550).
+[^18]: Rockefeller Archive Center, DIMES catalog, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 1.1, Series 200, file groups "Refugee Scholars - New School for Social Research - (French Institute)," "New School for Social Research - Totalitarian Communication Studies," and "War and Peace Studies," https://dimes.rockarch.org.
-[^19]: "Rockefeller Foundation Support for Communications Media in the 1930s and 1940s," Rockefeller Archive Center, RE:source, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/rockefeller-foundation-support-for-communications-media-in-the-1930s-and-1940s/
+[^19]: Rockefeller Archive Center, REsource story "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program" (letter from Marc Bloch to Alvin Johnson, July 31, 1941, RAC, RG 1.1, Series 200, Box 48, Folder 550).
-[^20]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 130-131. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
+[^20]: "Rockefeller Foundation Support for Communications Media in the 1930s and 1940s," Rockefeller Archive Center, RE:source, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/rockefeller-foundation-support-for-communications-media-in-the-1930s-and-1940s/
-[^21]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "'Germany's Postion in European Postwar Reconstruction', 1944-1949," Institute of World Affairs records, Box 5, Folders 32-33. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27256
+[^21]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 130-131. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
-[^22]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia, 1941-1956," Institute of World Affairs records, Series 3. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27285
+[^22]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "'Germany's Postion in European Postwar Reconstruction', 1944-1949," Institute of World Affairs records, Box 5, Folders 32-33. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27256
-[^23]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Willits, Joseph H., 1941-1952," Box 3, Folder 6. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27198
+[^23]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia, 1941-1956," Institute of World Affairs records, Series 3. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27285
-[^24]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Institute of World Affairs records," NS-02-16-01, historical note. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/resources/235
+[^24]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Willits, Joseph H., 1941-1952," Box 3, Folder 6. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27198
-[^25]: Boston University, Bridge, "Connections," November 23, 2001, https://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive/2001/11-23/connections.htm. Also Isabelle Richet, review of Davide Grippa, Un antifascista tra Italia e Stati Uniti, Primo Levi Center, November 24, 2014, https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/an-antifascist-between-italy-and-the-united-states/.
+[^25]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Institute of World Affairs records," NS-02-16-01, historical note. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/resources/235
-[^26]: "The Reporter's Notes," The Reporter, September 23, 1954, pp. 2-6, https://archive.org/details/sim_reporter_1954-09-23_11_5.
+[^26]: Boston University, Bridge, "Connections," November 23, 2001, https://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive/2001/11-23/connections.htm. Also Isabelle Richet, review of Davide Grippa, Un antifascista tra Italia e Stati Uniti, Primo Levi Center, November 24, 2014, https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/an-antifascist-between-italy-and-the-united-states/.
-[^27]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of the New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), pp. 102 and 118.
+[^27]: "The Reporter's Notes," The Reporter, September 23, 1954, pp. 2-6, https://archive.org/details/sim_reporter_1954-09-23_11_5.
-[^28]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 22.
+[^28]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of the New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), pp. 102 and 118.
-[^29]: Princeton University Library, "Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941" (AC015), finding aid. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015. Stephen C. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), on the Princeton Listening Center's launch in November 1939 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, and on its absorption by FBIS in June. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
+[^29]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 22.
-[^30]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 138. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
+[^30]: Princeton University Library, "Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941" (AC015), finding aid. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015. Stephen C. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), on the Princeton Listening Center's launch in November 1939 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, and on its absorption by FBIS in June. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
-[^31]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article of July 1941 and Graves's memo of 9 July 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^31]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 138. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
 [^32]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article of July 1941 and Graves's memo of 9 July 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Russell
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Russell
@ -0,0 +1,294 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-10-26
 updated: 2026-10-26
 title: Russell and Company
 aliases:
  - Russell and Company
  - Russell & Company
  - Russell & Co.
  - Russell and Co.
  - Russell & Co., Canton
  - Russell & Co., Guangzhou
  - Samuel Russell & Co.
  - Kee-Chang-Hong
 tags:
  - Organization
  - TradingHouse
  - ChinaTrade
  - OpiumTrade
  - Canton
  - Boston
  - Delano
  - Forbes
  - Perkins
  - 1820s
  - 1830s
  - 1840s
  - 1890s
  - Bankruptcy
 category: "Private Organization"
 summary: "American commission house at Canton that Samuel Russell founded, which absorbed the Boston firm Perkins and Company in 1831, handled Turkish and Indian opium, and failed in 1891."
 start: 1824-01-01
 end: 1891
 location: "Canton, China"
 relations:
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Samuel Russell]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1824-01-01
    role: "founder; the Library of Congress dates the Canton house to 1819"
    fn: 3
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Philip Ammidon]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1824-01-01
    end: 1830-06-30
    role: "partner"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[William H. Low]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1829-09-01
    end: 1833-12-31
    role: "partner; left Canton in ill health and died at the Cape of Good Hope"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Augustine Heard]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1830-11-01
    end: 1836-12-31
    role: "partner"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[John Cleve Green]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1834-01-01
    end: 1836-12-31
    role: "partner; special agent at Canton for N. L. and G. Griswold of New York"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[John Murray Forbes]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1834-01-01
    end: 1838-12-31
    role: "partner"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Joseph Coolidge]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1834-01-01
    end: 1839-12-31
    role: "partner"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Abiel Abbot Low]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1837-01-01
    end: 1840-12-31
    role: "partner; nephew of William H. Low"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Robert Bennet Forbes]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1839-01-01
    end: 1840-07-07
    role: "partner; chief of the house until his departure for New York"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1840-01-01
    role: "partner; succeeded Robert Bennet Forbes as chief of the house"
    fn: 7
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Russell Sturgis]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1842-01-01
    end: 1843-12-31
    role: "partner"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[W. C. Hunter]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1837-01-01
    end: 1842-12-31
    role: "partner; author of The Fan Kwae at Canton (1882)"
    fn: 1
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Edward King]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1837-07-01
    end: 1842-12-31
    role: "partner"
    fn: 1
  - type: represented
    with: "[[Houqua]]"
    start: 1829-08-01
    role: "agent for the Canton merchant's foreign business, secured to the house in 1830"
    fn: 15
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Opium War]]"
    start: 1839-03-22
    end: 1842-08-29
    role: "partners at Canton signed the May 25, 1839 memorial to Congress after the opium surrender"
    fn: 29
 ---
 Russell and Company was an American commission house at [[Canton]], [[China]], formed by [[Samuel Russell]] of [[Middletown, Connecticut]]. [[W. C. Hunter]], a partner of the house, wrote that it "confined itself strictly to agency business."[^1] The [[Baker Library]] at [[Harvard Business School]] describes it as "the largest American commission house in China" until its demise in 1891.[^2] Its Canton correspondence includes the Turkish opium trade, and from 1830 the house kept the ship Lintin at anchor as its receiving ship in the opium anchorage off Canton.[^3][^4]
 ### Founding and partners
 The [[Library of Congress]] finding aid for the firm's papers describes it as a "Trading house founded in 1819 by Samuel Russell" in Canton.[^3] Hunter, a partner from 1837 to 1842 whose 1882 book describes the Canton factories, dates the house to January 1, 1824, as the successor of Samuel Russell & Co., which he says existed from December 26, 1818 to December 26, 1823, and records that the Chinese knew the house as Kee-Chang-Hong.[^1] The National Historic Landmark nomination for Russell's Middletown house, prepared by the [[National Park Service]], places his arrival in Canton in 1819 under arrangements made by Edward Carrington and Providence merchants, and dates the commission house in partnership with [[Philip Ammidon]] to 1824.[^5] It adds that the first Canton venture returned about $15,000 to each of five partners in 1823.[^5]
 From January 1, 1824, until the middle of 1830 the sole partners were Russell and Ammidon.[^1] In September 1829 [[William H. Low]] arrived from [[Salem, Massachusetts]], and in November 1830 [[Augustine Heard]] arrived from [[Boston]] in the bark Lintin under Captain R. B. Forbes. Both became partners. Low left Canton in ill health in 1833 and died at the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. Hunter lists the 1834 to 1836 admissions as [[John Cleve Green]], special agent at Canton for N. L. and G. Griswold of [[New York]], [[John Murray Forbes]], who had arrived in the Lintin in 1830 to join the office, and [[Joseph Coolidge]], who arrived in 1832. Heard retired in the same term.[^1] The nomination states that Ammidon, unable to return to Canton, was terminated from the partnership after Low and Russell accepted Heard on a recommendation in 1830.[^5]
 In 1837 [[Abiel Abbot Low]], a nephew of William H. Low, and Hunter were admitted, and [[Edward King]] became a partner in July of that year. [[Robert Bennet Forbes]], the elder brother of John Murray Forbes, arrived in the Bashaw in October 1838 and was admitted on January 1, 1839, becoming chief of the house.[^1] Hunter gives his departure for New York in the Niantic on July 7, 1840.[^1] The Forbes brothers were nephews of [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]], who headed the Boston house of J. and T. H. Perkins, and Robert Bennet Forbes's plans for the Lintin station in 1829 and 1830 ran through arrangements with the Perkins family and the [[Bryant and Sturgis]] house.[^6]
 [[Warren Delano Jr.]] joined in the term beginning in 1840 and succeeded Forbes as chief. Hunter describes him as formerly of the house of [[Russell, Sturgis and Company]] of Canton and [[Manila]].[^1] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] catalogues him as Warren Delano II (1809 to 1898), the maternal grandfather of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and dates his partnership to January 1840.[^7] [[Russell Sturgis]] became a partner on January 1, 1842.[^1]
 Forbes's own memoir gives his partnership in Russell and Company as running from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844, and again from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and says that he held the vice-consulate while in China on his last visit.[^8] Hunter's list has him admitted in 1839 and leaving for New York in July 1840.[^1]
 ### Samuel Russell of Middletown
 The nomination gives Samuel Wadsworth Russell's dates as 1789 to 1862 and his ancestry as a line from William Russell (1612 to 1664), a founder of the Saybrook and New Haven colonies, through the Rev. [[Noadiah Russell]] (1659 to 1713), second pastor of the Congregational church at Middletown from 1698 and one of the founders of [[Yale University]], and his eldest son the Rev. William Russell (born 1690). It names his grandfather as Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727) and his father as Captain John Russell (1765 to 1801), who died insolvent.[^5] His middle name came from a great uncle, [[Jeremiah Wadsworth]] of Hartford, Commissary General of the Continental Army, who had married the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable.[^5] The nomination records that Russell was twelve when his father died, that he was an apprentice clerk to the Middletown merchants Whittlesley and Alsop, and that after a voyage that ended in 1813 he acted as Middletown commission merchant for Hull and Griswold, and that the first Russell and Company was founded in a building he had leased there.[^5]
 The nomination dates his withdrawal from the Canton house to 1836, with his profits reinvested in industry, banking and western railroad stock, and gives his estate at death in 1862 as $630,000, left to his widow and his sole surviving son, Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr.[^5] Hunter records that Russell and John Perkins Cushing took their final leave of Canton in the Bashaw on February 27, 1831; the nomination says both returned to America upon completing their work in March 1831.[^5][^9] The house at Middletown, designed by [[Ithiel Town]] in 1827 to 1830, passed to [[Wesleyan University]] in 1937 by the gift of his great-grandson Thomas MacDonough Russell Jr.[^5]
 The Yale biographical sketches record that the Rev. William Russell of Middletown (Yale tutor, minister 1715 to 1761), the eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin, married Mary Pierpont in 1719 and had four sons and five daughters, of whom the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) and one other son survived him.[^10] [[Matthew Talcott Russell]] was the second son of that Noadiah Russell of Thompson, Connecticut, born March 19, 1761, a lawyer at Middletown, and the father of [[William Huntington Russell]], a co-founder of the [[Skull and Bones]] society, who was graduated from Yale in 1833.[^11][^12] The nomination says that Wadsworth had been apprenticed to his uncle Matthew Talcott of Middletown, and the Yale sketch records that Matthew Talcott Russell was named for Colonel Matthew Talcott of Middletown, who had married his aunt and paid for his education.[^5][^11] The sketch of the Rev. William Russell gives the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) as his son and the father of Matthew Talcott Russell; the nomination gives the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable as the wife of Jeremiah Wadsworth, Samuel Russell's great uncle, and names Samuel Russell's grandfather as Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727).[^5][^10][^11]
 The Hamlin family genealogy of 1900 records Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, as the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765, died December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell (born July 7, 1727), a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were first cousins, and Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder Noadiah Russell, as their common great-grandfather.[^13] [[Kris Millegan]] calls William Huntington Russell Samuel Russell's cousin in his opening article and at pages 151 to 152, his second cousin at page 313, and, at page 52, calls Samuel Russell his uncle.[^14]
 ### The 1831 merger with Perkins and Company
 The Library of Congress finding aid states that in 1831 the China trading operations of [[John P. Cushing]], [[William Perkins and Company]] of Boston, and [[Houqua]], the Canton merchant, merged with Russell and Company.[^3] The Baker Library guide to the firm's records gives the same event from the Boston side: Cushing, who had been the sole agent in Canton for Perkins and Company, arranged to dissolve the Boston house by merging its Canton business into Russell and Company in 1831.[^2]
 Hunter's account is dated by deaths. Thomas T. Forbes, who had succeeded Cushing at Perkins and Company in 1828, drowned in a typhoon on August 9, 1829, with S. H. Monson, the bookkeeper of Russell and Company. Among Forbes's papers was a sealed letter to Russell and Company asking them, in case of accident, to take charge of the local business of his own firm and of J. and T. H. Perkins. They did so, "and naturally came with it that of Houqua, who had been the intimate personal friend of Mr. Cushing during his unbroken residence of over twenty years in Canton."[^15] Cushing, who was in England when the news arrived, returned to Canton in the Bashaw in August 1830, and arrangements "were then definitely concluded by which Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up, while the important foreign business of Houqua was then also definitely secured to them."[^15]
 The nomination describes the reorganization as one directed by Cushing: Heard was made the representative of Perkins and their associated Boston firms, Robert Bennet Forbes was given charge of the Lintin station storeship business, and John Murray Forbes was placed with the firm as an assistant in line for partnership.[^5] The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters adds that Cushing, returning from Europe, went overland to Canton to look after the Perkins business and merged it into Russell and Company before the arrival in China of Forbes's father and uncle.[^16] The Baker Library holds the Perkins and Company letter books from Canton that precede the merger, and the Library of Congress finding aid says that more Russell and Company business records are in the William Perkins and Company records at Baker Library.[^2][^3]
 ### Turkish opium and the Indian trade
 The Library of Congress finding aid says that the correspondence after 1818 contains much information on the daily operation of the Canton company and on the Turkish opium trade, along with the Amsterdam commodity exchanges.[^3] Its subject index includes an entry for the opium trade with Turkey, and among the firms represented in the correspondence it lists [[Clarke and Company]], of Smyrna, [[Turkey]].[^3] The box list includes account books for 1816 to 1829 that carry a manuscript on the Chinese method of preparing opium for smoking.[^17]
 The nomination's account of the trade is longer. It states that Americans, largely excluded from the Indian and Persian markets, were for a time restricted to Turkish opium transshipped through American ports, that the Perkins brothers of Boston had been associated with the Turkish opium trade since the 1780s and organized a Smyrna merchant house in 1816, and that there is no evidence that Russell took part in the opium trade during his first Canton venture.[^5] It states that by the time Ammidon left, his dealings "had made Russell & Company one of the most important American sellers of the opium in Canton, second or third in the trade behind the British firms of Jardine Matheson & Company and Dent & Company," that during the first Opium War the firm "managed to hold its position in the Turkish trade and became the third largest purveyor of the drug from India," and that by 1842 it was the largest and strongest American house in China.[^5]
 Robert Bennet Forbes's memoir describes a 1828 voyage to Smyrna in the Danube, a vessel fitted out at New York by [[Sturgis and Perkins]]. He states the object plainly: "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China."[^18] He carried a credit on the [[Baring Brothers]] of about £60,000 and a cargo of coffee and specie. At Smyrna the principal American merchant was [[Joseph Langdon]]. Forbes says that he sailed from [[Vourla]] under the convoy of the United States schooner Porpoise through the Archipelago and then went on to [[Gibraltar]] to await operations on a larger scale.[^19] On the way up the Mediterranean he met the brig Leander, of Salem, bound home from Smyrna, and he suspected from her that her owner, [[Joseph Peabody]], who held an interest in the China and [[India]] trade, had been on the same errand.[^19]
 The Indian side of the trade ran through the store-ships anchored at [[Lintin]]. Forbes writes that the store-ships lay outside at Lintin and that the drug was run up the river in small boats, sometimes carried by the mandarin boats sent to protect the revenue.[^20] He gives the annual value of the trade as ten or twelve million dollars and says that the officials encouraged its introduction "from India and Turkey, not only by levying a duty on it for their own benefit, but by consuming it."[^20] Hunter says the Lintin was Russell and Company's "receiving ship" from 1830, and that she held her anchorage for nine years.[^4] Robert Bennet Forbes sought the command of the Lintin station ship in 1829 and 1830. The station ship was then the Tartar of Bryant and Sturgis, commanded by a relative of Mr. Sturgis.[^6] Forbes wrote that from January 1 to the closing of the port the commission account and the gains of the Lintin "showed a grand result."[^21]
 ### The 1839 surrender at Canton
 In March 1839 the imperial commissioner [[Lin Zexu]] demanded the opium held by the foreign community at Canton. The [[Chinese Repository]], published at Canton, printed the sequence. On March 21 the General Chamber of Commerce, whose chairman was [[William S. Wetmore]], resolved in a letter to the Hong merchants that there was "an almost unanimous feeling in the community of the absolute necessity of the foreign residents of Canton having no connexion with the opium traffic," and that night the Hong merchants reported that Lin would be at the Consoo house at ten the next morning unless opium was delivered.[^22] An edict of April 1 addressed the chairman of the Chamber and called on the American consul to surrender a quantity of opium not less than the British superintendent had given up.[^22] A later edict from Lin recorded that the American consul [[P. W. Snow]] had declared that "the merchants of his country, acting in obedience to the new regulations, will not presume to traffic in opium," and objected that Snow's added remark about ordering offending ships home did not accord with conforming to the law.[^23]
 [[Charles Elliot]], the British superintendent of trade, notified Lin on March 28, 1839 that he held himself responsible for delivering 20,283 chests of opium owned by British subjects, and that as the chests came into his possession each would be delivered up.[^24] Forbes's memoir records that Elliot called on British subjects and on all who held British-owned opium to surrender it in the name of [[Queen Victoria]], and that schedules were made chest by chest for delivery to Lin's officers.[^25] Hunter gives the count: by May 2, 15,501 chests had been handed over, and the whole quantity, 20,283 chests, was completed on May 21.[^26]
 Hunter wrote that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium, "of which we held at the time of surrender about fifty cases of Turkey."[^27] He adds: "The English on leaving placed theirs in charge of the American houses. A large share of it fell under the control of Russell & Co."[^27] He describes a discussion among the Canton agents about charging half-commissions on consignments withdrawn from the trade, and says the charge was dropped on the quantity Russell and Company delivered up, which he gives as nearly 15,000 dollars.[^28] Forbes wrote that the American hong housed the United States consul, P. W. Snow, together with Russell and Company and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and that the foreign community was kept under strict guard while the delivery went on.[^25]
 ### The memorial of the American merchants
 A memorial dated at Canton on May 25, 1839 was printed by the [[United States House of Representatives]] as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress, first session, dated January 9, 1840 and referred to the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs]]. The caption describes it as the memorial of R. B. Forbes and others, American merchants at Canton, for a commercial agent to be sent to China to negotiate a commercial treaty, with a naval force to protect the persons and property of Americans. It is signed by Russell Sturgis, W. Delano Jr., Gideon Nye Jr., R. B. Forbes, A. A. Low, Edward King, S. B. Rawle, and Jas. Ryan.[^29]
 The memorial states that the signers were "made prisoners in our factories" on March 22, that the commissioner had obtained "upwards of twenty thousand chests of British owned opium," valued at more than ten million dollars, and that the signers had been threatened over a bond under which a ship found bringing opium would be given up for punishment by death.[^29] It gives the opium sales at Canton by season: 3,210 chests for $3,657,000 in 1816 to 1817, 5,822 chests in 1822 to 1823, 9,535 chests in 1827 to 1828, and 23,670 chests for $15,332,759 in 1832 to 1833. It states that the receiving vessels moved from Whampoa to Lintin about 1821, that the Governor and the Hoppo had boats that received opium at Lintin, and that the officials took a fee of twenty to seventy dollars a chest.[^29]
 The memorial also states: "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade," that most of the signers had signed a voluntary pledge to abstain from dealing in the drug, and that the drug had been "productive of much evil and of scarcely a single good to the Chinese." It continues that the signers could not "perceive the slightest ground for justification of the robbery committed upon British subjects here." It asks the government to act, if it thought fit, with Great Britain, France and Holland to obtain six demands: envoys at Peking, a fixed tariff, bonding warehouses, trade at other ports, compensation for the stoppage of trade, and limits on punishments of foreigners until Chinese laws were made known. Failing that, it asks for an agent or commissioner with a naval force to protect American commerce and to prevent any paper blockade. It names Snow as the consul whose despatches to the State Department would confirm the account and expresses "entire approbation" of his conduct.[^29]
 On April 25, 1840, as the British blockade was expected, a petition to Lin from American houses asking that their ships be allowed to come directly to Whampoa was signed by Augustine Heard and Company, Gideon Nye Jr., A. A. Ritchie, James Ryan, Henry W. Hubbell, Olyphant and Company, Russell and Company, S. W. Lewis, Henry Fessenden, John Shillaber and Isaac M. Bull.[^30] The Chinese Repository gives Lin's reply as a declaration that it was an "egregious mistake" to think the English contemplated a blockade.[^30]
 The treaty between the United States and China was signed at the village of Wanghia (Mong-Ha in Hunter's spelling) at Macao on July 3, 1844, by [[Caleb Cushing]] and [[Qiying]]. Hunter, who dates the signing, described the two signatories as together the end of Old Canton.[^31]
 ### Opium, Houqua and the Chesapeake in 1840
 Hunter records that in 1840 Russell and Company bought the British ship Cambridge, renamed her Chesapeake under the American flag, and loaded her with British goods valued at £150,000 for [[Whampoa]]. On June 22, 1840, as H.M.S. Volage took up a station off [[Chuenpi]], she sailed past it, and she was the last vessel to enter the port.[^32] When the Chinese authorities then sought a large foreign ship to anchor above a raft across the river, they applied to Warren Delano Jr., "the then chief of Russell & Co.," who had never left Canton. The Chesapeake was made over to the mandarins, her American papers were removed, and the officials fitted her out as an auxiliary defence.[^33]
 Forbes's account gives the firm a separate position on the opium trade itself. He wrote that between January and July 1840 Russell and Company "controlled considerable operations" for the Canton merchant Houqua, whose shipments were made in the firm's name and were known to the consignees to be for his account. When it became certain that the English government would make stringent demands on China, it was "arranged to buy all this property amounting to millions, and account to him for the returns," so that the shipments could not be seized in England, and the firm took its usual commission.[^34] He also wrote that the firm considered it important to keep a pledge made by John Cleve Green and that it had nothing to do with opium "between 1840 and 1844," a period he placed outside his own tenure.[^35] Forbes also wrote about the money. He said the price of the surrendered drug was contested, one side arguing that it had cost $400 or $500 a chest and the other that it sold for $250 or $300 at the time of seizure.[^35] He wrote that "most of the smaller holders of scrip were great losers, and that the large agents, who sold mostly on commission, turned their attention to speculation in scrip and in the drug itself, and made large fortunes."[^35] He also wrote that he sent out the schooner Anglona for Russell and Company in early 1841, and that she raced the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin.[^36] Hunter, for his part, records that Houqua liked to compare himself with "that famous house" with which, through Russell and Company, he had had years of important business. Hunter's footnote identifies the phrase "Ba-Blo" as Baring Brothers & Co.[^37]
 The city of Canton was ransomed in 1841, after Sir [[Hugh Gough]]'s British forces took the heights above it. Hunter gives the ransom as six million dollars, five million of which were paid on the 31st, and the Hong merchants contributed two million dollars toward it, of which Houqua gave 1,100,000.[^38] For Houqua's share, Captain Elliot received three promissory notes drawn by Russell and Company at thirty days in favour of Houqua, who endorsed them to Elliot's order. The notes, for 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars, were deposited for collection with [[Jardine, Matheson and Company]] and [[Dent and Company]], and Russell and Company had moved its own office to Macao.[^37] Hunter writes: "At this time the last-named house held about two and a half millions of dollars belonging to their constituent, the endorser." The sentence follows his statement that the offices of Jardine, Matheson and Company, Dent and Company and Russell and Company had been removed to Macao, and he says the notes were cashed, less a discount of a little under a thousand dollars.[^37]
 ### Railroads and the partners' American institutions
 Several of the partners turned to American railroads and institutions in the next decades. The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters, his daughter [[Sarah Forbes Hughes]], writes that for the ten years before 1856 his business in ships and merchandise had been "gradually decreasing," that his work was "mainly devoted to the Michigan Central," and to the enterprise already, in 1856, known by its permanent title of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, and that the ocean telegraph "was soon to do away with the old-fashioned China merchant."[^39] She quotes his notes that he was "undoubtedly very busy with the Michigan Central Railroad, and also with the small roads which then formed the embryo of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy."[^40] The two roads are the [[Michigan Central Railroad]] and the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]].
 In 1857 the Michigan Central was in trouble. Forbes was called up from [[Naushon]] in October and asked to go to [[London]] to raise a loan of two million dollars, which the editor says might have prevented the railroad's bankruptcy.[^41] The letters print a resolution of the directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, dated October 18, 1898, which records their sorrow at Forbes's death.[^42] In the second volume he is described as chairman of the board of that road, with his cousin C. E. Perkins managing it.[^43]
 Samuel Russell turned to American investment after he returned to Middletown in 1831. The Library of Congress finding aid says that he founded the [[Russell Manufacturing Company]] for elastic webbing and that his real estate speculation reached [[Chicago]], [[Milwaukee]], and land in Michigan, [[Ohio]], [[Kentucky]], and [[New Jersey]].[^44] Of the later partners, the [[Landmarks Preservation Commission]] designation report for the [[Low Memorial Library]] at [[Columbia University]], given by [[Seth Low]] in honor of his father Abiel Abbot Low, says that the elder Low was a prominent tea merchant in the China trade who established an import business in 1849 and was associated with the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad and the founding of [[Newport News, Virginia]].[^45] The Trustee minutes of [[Princeton University]] record that John Cleve Green gave $200,000 for the School of Science on September 20, 1872; the John C. Green School of Science was occupied in 1874 and destroyed by fire on November 26 and 27, 1928.[^46] The university's museum reference entry on Green says that by the time President McCosh retired in 1888 Green and his residuary legatees had contributed "upwards of a million and a half, perhaps two million dollars," and describes his China fortune as derived from tea and textiles and, after the end of the East India Company's monopoly, from the opium trade, enhanced by railroad investments.[^47]
 ### The Delano family
 The Franklin D. Roosevelt Library finding aid for the Delano family papers says that Warren Delano II sailed to China in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce, became associated at Canton with Russell Sturgis and Company, and in January 1840 became a partner in Russell and Company. During the [[Opium War]] he remained in Canton and [[Macao]] and served as acting consul. The panic of 1857 brought severe losses, and in 1859 he returned to China to restore his fortune. His family, including the president's mother, joined him at [[Hong Kong]] in 1862, and he died at his house [[Algonac]] on January 17, 1898.[^7] The finding aid states that the papers include material on the history of Russell and Company's financial interests in China.[^7]
 Forbes's memoir records the terms of a later reorganization of the house in 1846, under which "W. Delano was to retire after a time" and [[Edward Delano]] remained a partner.[^48] The memoir adds that Edward Delano returned home in 1846.[^49]
 ### William Huntington Russell and the Russell name at Yale
 [[Franklin Bowditch Dexter]]'s biographical sketches of Yale graduates give Matthew Talcott Russell as the second son of Rev. Noadiah Russell, Yale 1750, born in 1761. He settled as a lawyer in Middletown in 1786, served sixteen years as city treasurer, and in 1797 married Mary, eldest daughter of Rev. [[Enoch Huntington]] of Middletown. The sketch says their children were seven daughters and six sons, and that "The fifth son was graduated here in 1833."[^11] The Yale obituary record gives William Huntington Russell as the son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary Huntington Russell, born in Middletown on August 12, 1809.[^12]
 The 1856 act incorporating the [[Russell Trust Association]], the trust through which Skull and Bones conducts its corporate affairs, names William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] as its first incorporators.[^50] A letter to the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] by [[Bruce L. Reynolds]] in 2015 attributed the money for the society's 1856 building to Russell and Company, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book on the China trade.[^51]
 ### Failure and closing
 The Library of Congress holds records dated 1812 to 1894, chiefly from 1819 to 1840, which were given to the library by [[Thomas Macdonough Russell]] in 1931.[^3] The Baker Library records of the firm are dated 1820 to 1891, and the Baker Library's Forbes family business records include papers on the creation of the Shanghai Navigation Company, a steamboat company on the Yangtze River.[^2]
 The second volume of the Forbes letters describes the last years of John Murray Forbes, who died in 1898. The editor, Sarah Forbes Hughes, writes that he was grieved by "the failure of his old house in China, Russell & Co., occasioned by some speculations in steamers and the close competition by German commission merchants." She adds that his friends, the "time-honored" Baring Brothers, had suspended payment, and that these events gave him "an actual physical shock."[^43] A footnote to that passage prints Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of the firm, which argued that its commission business alone could yield $200,000 a year net on a capital of $2,000,000, and that speculations of any sort would damage that capital.[^52]
 The [[Hong Kong Daily Press]] of July 22, 1891 reported a petition in bankruptcy before the Acting Chief Justice, E. J. Ackroyd. A Canton merchant petitioned "for the adjudication in bankruptcy" of W. H. Forbes, J. M. Forbes, A. W. Pomeroy, Chas. V. Smith and C. A. Tomes, "trading under the style of Russell & Co. at Hongkong and elsewhere." The petitioner's claim was for $1,044, and the court made an order adjudicating all the debtors bankrupts.[^53] The index to the Forbes letters lists J. Malcolm Forbes and William Hathaway Forbes as sons of John Murray Forbes; the records found do not establish whether they are the W. H. Forbes and J. M. Forbes named in the petition.[^54] On September 1, 1891 the Supreme Court of Hong Kong heard an application in a suit by No Chi Kiu and four others against Ng Woon Soon and others, which the report described as "a case arising out of the How Qua property and the failure of Messrs. Russell & Co." Counsel read an affidavit stating that Russell and Company became insolvent in June, that Hong Kong lots formerly registered in the Land Office as the property of John Murray Forbes junior had been registered in the name of a trustee for the creditors of Russell and Company, that an equitable charge by Russell and Company in favour of John Murray Forbes, trustee for How Qua, secured a sum in taels with interest at seven per cent, and that judgments of about $229,000 had been obtained against the partners in the late firm.[^55]
 The [[Hong Kong Telegraph]] of August 31, 1891 printed a letter signed A. B. McKean from the head office of the [[National Bank of China]], Limited, in Hong Kong. It reported that at a statutory meeting of shareholders in London on July 30 "an informal resolution was passed in favor of winding up the Bank," that the bank's articles of association appointed "the late firm of Russell & Co." secretaries of the bank for fifty years on a commission on profits, and that "the failure of Russell & Co. in June, and their consequent inability to carry out their part, cancels this agreement." It stated that "Rumours, absolutely false, have been circulated to the effect that the Bank has sustained heavy losses owing to the failure of Russell & Co." and that counsel's opinion in London was that the resolution of July 30 was not binding on the bank.[^56]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 156-157 (house constitution, the Samuel Russell & Co. dates, the Kee-Chang-Hong name, the phrase on agency business, partner admissions and departures, Delano, Sturgis and Forbes). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^2]: Heard Library, Baker Library, Harvard Business School, collection guide, "Russell & Company records," Mss:766, 1820-1891, 25 volumes, with the history paragraph on the 1831 merger, the Perkins and Company letter books and the firm's demise in 1891; same guide, Forbes Family business records, Mss:766 1803-1942. https://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/heard/manuscript-collections.html
 [^3]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," MSS38562, finding aid revised February 2024, collection summary, scope and content note, subject index, related material, container list. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 and https://lccn.loc.gov/mm80038562
 [^4]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 150, the Lintin as Russell and Company's "receiving ship" from 1830 and the nine years her anchors were not raised. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^5]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8 statement of significance, pp. 8-11, drawing on Alain Munkittrick, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell (1789-1862): A Study in Ordered Investment," Wesleyan University honors thesis, 1973, which is based on the Russell & Company papers at the Library of Congress. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
 [^6]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 131-132, his plans in 1829-1830 for the command of the Lintin station, arranged with the Perkins family and Bryant and Sturgis, whom he calls "my powerful friends," and the Tartar then on the station. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^7]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano family papers, biographical introduction to Warren Delano II (1809-1898), pp. 1-2 of the PDF, and the description of the papers. The library's numbering is Warren Delano II; this page uses the name Warren Delano Jr. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf
 [^8]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 223, his partnership in Russell and Company from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844 and from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and his service as vice-consul. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^9]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 122-123, the departure of Mr. Russell and Mr. Cushing from Canton in the Bashaw, February 27, 1831. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^10]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. II (1745-1763), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, p. 90, born Middletown November 20, 1690, eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin; married Mary Pierpont August 19, 1719; four sons and five daughters, including the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket02dext
 [^11]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. IV (1778-1792), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125-126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket04dextuoft
 [^12]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College*, entry for William Huntington Russell, son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary (Huntington) Russell, born in Middletown, August 12, 1809. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
 [^13]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302] for Capt. John Russell (pp. 118 to 119), [307] for Matthew Talcott Russell (p. 119) and [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, with the descent lines "(John, Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)" and "(Noadiah, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)". https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
 [^14]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), opening article ("His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise"), pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"), p. 313 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and p. 52 ("drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^15]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118-119, the death of Thomas T. Forbes and S. H. Monson on August 9, 1829, the sealed letter to Russell and Company, Cushing's return in August 1830 and the appointment of Russell and Company as sole agents. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^16]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, editor's note on Cushing and the Perkins business at Canton, roughly p. 62. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
 [^17]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, box 9, account books, 1816-1829, with the entry for "Notes on the Chinese Method of Preparing Opium for Smoking." https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
 [^18]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 123-124, the voyage to Smyrna fitted out at New York by Sturgis and Perkins to procure Turkey opium for China. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^19]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 124-125, the Smyrna consignment to Joseph Langdon, the Barings credit, the convoy from Vourla under the schooner Porpoise, the passage to Gibraltar, and the brig Leander and Joseph Peabody. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^20]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 142-144, the store-ships at Lintin, the smuggling boats, the mandarin boats, the annual value of the trade, and the government's encouragement of opium from India and Turkey. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^21]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 159, the commission account and gains of the Lintin from January 1 to the closing of the port. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^22]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 7, no. 12 (April 1839), "Crisis in the Opium Traffic," the proceedings of March 21, 1839 (letter of the General Chamber of Commerce to the Hong merchants, W. S. Wetmore, chairman) and the edict of April 1, 1839. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor7121unse
 [^23]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 8, no. 1 (May 1839), the edict to Elliot, Johnston, Snow and Van Basel and the commissioner's reply on the American consul's declaration. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor8118unse
 [^24]: *Correspondence relating to China*, presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty (London, 1840), enclosure 21 in no. 146, Captain Elliot to the Imperial Commissioner, Canton, March 28, 1839. https://archive.org/details/CorrespondenceRelatingToChina1840
 [^25]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 146-147, the surrender of British-owned opium in the name of Queen Victoria, the schedules issued chest by chest, the nominal value of 20,283 chests, the American hong with Mr. P. W. Snow, United States consul, Russell and Company, and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and the strict guard over the foreign community. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^26]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 144, the 15,501 chests given up by May 2, 1839, and the completed total of 20,283 chests on May 21. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^27]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 146, the statement that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium and held about fifty cases of Turkey at the time of surrender, and the sentences on the English placing theirs in charge of the American houses and on the share that fell under the control of Russell and Co. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^28]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 145-146 and note 1, the half-commission discussion and the charge foregone on the quantity delivered up by Russell and Company, nearly 15,000 dollars. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^29]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," January 9, 1840, referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs (U.S. Serial Set vol. 364), pp. 1-4, with the signatures dated Canton, May 25, 1839. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000
 [^30]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 9, no. 1 (May 1840), the petition of American houses at Canton dated April 25, 1840 and the commissioner's reply. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor9118unse
 [^31]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 154-155, the treaty of the United States signed at Mong-Ha (Macao) on July 3, 1844 by Mr. Caleb Cushing and Ke-Ying. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^32]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the purchase of the Cambridge, her renaming as the Chesapeake under the American flag, the British cargo, the sailing past the blockade station on June 22, 1840, and her arrival as the last vessel to enter the port. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^33]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the application to Mr. Delano, "the then chief of Russell & Co.," the sale of the Chesapeake to the mandarins and her fitting out as an auxiliary defence. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^34]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 161-162, the operations controlled for Houqua between January and July 1840, the purchase of the shipments to prevent their seizure in England, the shipments made in the firm's name, and the commission charged. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^35]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 160-161, the dispute over the price of the surrendered opium ($400 or $500 a chest against $250 or $300 at seizure), the passage on the holders of scrip and the speculators who made large fortunes, and the pledge made by Mr. Green with the statement that the firm had nothing to do with opium between 1840 and 1844. This is Forbes's own account. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^36]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 302, the schooner Anglona sent out in early 1841 for Russell and Company and her race with the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^37]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 46-47, the three promissory notes of 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars drawn by Russell and Company in Houqua's favour, the deposit with Jardine, Matheson and Company and Dent and Company, the sentence beginning "At this time the last-named house," the discount, and Houqua's remark "My all same, 'Ba-Blo.'" https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^38]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 45-46 (the Hong merchants' contribution of 2,000,000 dollars and Houqua's share of 1,100,000 dollars) and p. 150 (the ransom of six million dollars, five million paid on the 31st). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
 [^39]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 160, the editor's text on John Murray Forbes's business in the 1850s, the Michigan Central, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the ocean telegraph. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
 [^40]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 138, quoting Forbes's notes. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
 [^41]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, pp. 168-169, the October loan request in London to prevent the Michigan Central's bankruptcy during the crisis of 1857. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
 [^42]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, Appendix A, resolution of the board of directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, October 18, 1898. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
 [^43]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, pp. 224-225, the editor's account of the chairmanship of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy board, C. E. Perkins, the failure of Russell and Company and the suspension of Baring Brothers and Company. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
 [^44]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, scope and content note on Samuel Russell (1789 to circa 1862) of Middletown, the Greek Revival mansion letters of 1827-1830, the Russell Manufacturing Company, the 1831 return to Middletown, and the land speculation subjects. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
 [^45]: New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, Designation List 139, LP-1118, "Low Memorial Library Interior," February 3, 1981, history of the donor. https://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/1118.pdf
 [^46]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green School of Science," citing Trustee Minutes of September 20, 1872, with the dates of occupancy (1874) and destruction by fire (November 26-27, 1928). https://www.princetonianamuseum.org/reference/5ef15e9b-6369-491c-a2e0-cc20b816db83
 [^47]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green," including President McCosh's farewell report of 1888. https://princetonianamuseum.org/reference/b5388d91-1efc-4e01-ace3-3b5d7a6e3774
 [^48]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 168, the 1846 reorganization terms under which W. Delano was to retire and Edward Delano was to remain a partner. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^49]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 355, the return of Edward Delano in 1846. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
 [^50]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856), resolution amending the charter (July 1870), and resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887). The act names William H. Russell, John S. Beach, Henry B. Harrison, Daniel C. Gilman, Henry T. Blake and Henry D. White as the body corporate, with the power of the General Assembly to amend or repeal it.
 [^51]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article, citing James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
 [^52]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, p. 225 and note 1, Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of Russell and Company. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
 [^53]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, July 22, 1891, p. 2, "In Bankruptcy," before Mr. E. J. Ackroyd, Acting Chief Justice. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910722
 [^54]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, index, p. 244, entries for J. Malcolm Forbes and William Hathaway Forbes, sons of J. M. F. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
 [^55]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, September 2, 1891, p. 2, Supreme Court, 1st September, before Sir James Russell, Chief Justice, No Chi Kiu and four others v. Ng Woon Soon, Creasy Ewens and Ng Chau Fong. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910902
 [^56]: *Hong Kong Telegraph*, August 31, 1891, p. 3, letter to the editor from the head office of the National Bank of China, Limited, signed A. B. McKean. https://archive.org/details/NPTG18910831
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull
@ -31,62 +31,73 @@ relations:
    with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1948"
-    fn: 37
+    fn: 48
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[George W. Bush]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1968"
-    fn: 37
+    fn: 48
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1940"
-    fn: 43
+    fn: 56
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1917"
-    fn: 31
+    fn: 41
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1917"
-    fn: 31
+    fn: 41
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1913"
-    fn: 30
+    fn: 40
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1888"
-    fn: 26
+    fn: 36
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1918"
-    fn: 55
+    fn: 69
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Payne Whitney]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "B.A. 1898"
    fn: 73
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Henry Luce]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1920"
-    fn: 42
+    fn: 53
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[William F. Buckley Jr.]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1950"
-    fn: 45
+    fn: 58
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[John Kerry]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member, Class of 1966"
-    fn: 49
+    fn: 62
  - type: founded
    with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]"
    reverse: true
    start: "1832"
    fn: 1
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1856
    role: "president of the Russell Trust Association"
    fn: 16
  - type: founded
    with: "[[Alphonso Taft]]"
    reverse: true
@ -98,174 +109,214 @@ Skull and Bones is a senior society at [[Yale University]] in [[New Haven, Conne
 ### Founding and the tomb
-[[David A. Richards]] wrote in the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] in May and June 2015 that "The society had been founded in 1832."[^1] Richards wrote that the conception "seems to have been that of the 1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of [[Phi Beta Kappa]], William Huntington Russell," and named [[Alphonso Taft]], father of [[William Howard Taft]], as a cofounder.[^1] He wrote that the members first called their club the Eulogian Club, and that a skull and crossbones over the number 322, on a meeting notice posted by one member in the first year, gave the society its name and badge.[^1] Graduate members are called patriarchs and initiates are called knights.[^1]
+[[David A. Richards]] wrote in the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] in May and June 2015 that "The society had been founded in 1832."[^1] Richards wrote that the conception "seems to have been that of the 1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of [[Phi Beta Kappa]], [[William Huntington Russell]]," and named [[Alphonso Taft]], father of [[William Howard Taft]], as a cofounder.[^1] He wrote that the members first called their club the Eulogian Club, and that a skull and crossbones over the number 322, on a meeting notice posted by one member in the first year, gave the society its name and badge.[^1] Graduate members are called patriarchs and initiates are called knights.[^1]
 [[Antony C. Sutton]] dated the founding to 1833. His chart is titled "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day."[^2] Sutton wrote that the American chapter "was founded in 1833 at Yale University by General William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft."[^3]
-Before 1856 the society met in a low-studded back room on the third floor of the building opposite the college yard that became the [[Courant building]].[^4] Richards wrote that the alumni built a hall on High Street in 1856, near the corner of [[Chapel Street]]. The name "Tomb" attached to it at that time, and Richards wrote that "a tomb is what it resembled": "a single forbidding, windowless block in Egypto-Doric style."[^1] Its cost was later estimated at about $30,000.[^1] A nineteenth-century description of the building, reprinted by Sutton, gives its iron doors, its roof plates of 1867 and the value of the premises as "upwards of $30,000."[^5]
+Bagg wrote in *Four Years at Yale* (1871) that the modern society system at Yale "began in 1832 when a strictly senior society called 'Skull and Bones' was established," and that "The society was originated in 1832 by fifteen members of the class which graduated the following year. General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder, and the best known of his associates is Judge Alphonso Taft of Cincinnati. Some injustice in the conferring of Phi Beta Kappa elections seems to have led to its establishment, and apparently it was for some time regarded throughout college as a sort of burlesque convivial club."[^4] Bagg wrote that "the popular college tradition, that it was transplanted from a German university, is scouted by old neutral graduates as absurd," that the faculty once broke in on a meeting and was persuaded to spare the society "by the intercessions and explanations of its founder, then serving as tutor among them," and that the members knew the society as "Eulogia," or the "Eulogian Club."[^4] He noted that the society's catalogue places the founders in the "third decade of the second period," which "may seem to make in favor of the German university theory, in the minds of many," and that "the blank space in place of the eleventh man's name in the list of the founders, may perhaps be thought a straw in the same direction."[^4]
 The catalogue of the Connecticut Alpha chapter of Phi Beta Kappa (August 1838) lists six of the fourteen names in the Skull and Bones roster for 1833 as members of the class: John Campbell Beach, Noah Bishop, Robert Robertson, William Huntington Russell, Alphonso Taft and George Ingersoll Wood. It names "William H. Russell, M.D." as the chapter's corresponding secretary for 1837 and 1838.[^5]
 An anonymous pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the hall, which Sutton reprints, names the founder as "General R[...] (Russell)" and states that he "was in Germany before Senior Year and formed a warm friendship with a leading member of a German society. He brought back with him to college, authority to found a chapter here."[^6] Sutton's comment on the pamphlet is that the society "is not American at all. It is a branch of a FOREIGN secret society."[^6]
 The Yale Obituary Record gives the degree of Alphonso Taft as B.A. 1833, with service as a tutor at Yale from 1835 to 1837 and as a member of the Yale Corporation from 1872 to 1882.[^7]
 Before 1856 the society met in a low-studded back room on the third floor of the building opposite the college yard that became the [[Courant building]].[^8] Richards wrote that the alumni built a hall on High Street in 1856, near the corner of [[Chapel Street]]. The name "Tomb" attached to it at that time, and Richards wrote that "a tomb is what it resembled": "a single forbidding, windowless block in Egypto-Doric style."[^1] Its cost was later estimated at about $30,000.[^1] [[Lyman Bagg]]'s description of the building in *[[Four Years at Yale]]* (1871), which Sutton reprints in an appendix, gives its iron doors, its roof plates of 1867 and the value of the premises as "upwards of $30,000."[^9]
 The Yale obituary record and Franklin Bowditch Dexter's sketches of Yale graduates give the family of William Huntington Russell. He was the son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), a Middletown lawyer who served sixteen years as city treasurer, and of Mary Huntington Russell, eldest daughter of Rev. Enoch Huntington of Middletown.[^10][^11] Dexter wrote that the couple had seven daughters and six sons and that "The fifth son was graduated here in 1833."[^10] [[Samuel Russell]] (1789 to 1862), who founded [[Russell and Company]] at Canton, was a Middletown Russell of the same colonial family. The Hamlin genealogy of 1900 records Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, and William Huntington Russell as second cousins, both descended from William Russell, a son of the Rev. [[Noadiah Russell]] (1659 to 1713), one of the founders of Yale College.[^12] The National Historic Landmark nomination for Samuel Russell's house traces him through Noadiah Russell and the Rev. William Russell (born 1690) to his grandfather Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727) and his father Captain John Russell (1765 to 1801), and records that Jeremiah Wadsworth, the Commissary General, was his great uncle by marriage to the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable.[^13] The Yale sketch of the Rev. William Russell lists the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750), the father of Matthew Talcott Russell, among his sons.[^14] Millegan calls Samuel Russell William Huntington Russell's cousin in two passages, his second cousin in a third and his uncle in a fourth.[^15]
 ### The 1856 charter and RTA Incorporated
-Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the fall of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^6]
+Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the fall of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^16]
-The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^7] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^7] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^8]
+The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^17] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^17] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^18] Bagg listed the same names with their class years and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next to the last as treasurer, of the association"; the next-to-last name in the act is Henry D. White, and Sutton wrote that Gilman became treasurer.[^4]
-On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^9] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^10] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^10][^11]
+On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^19] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^20] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^20][^21]
-The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^12] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^13] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^14] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^15]
+The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^22] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^23] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^24] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^25]
-The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^9]
+The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^19]
-Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^16] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the [[Yale University Library|Yale library]], filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^15] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^17] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^18]
+Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^26] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the [[Yale University Library|Yale library]], filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^25] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^27] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^28]
 ### Finances and the island
-The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^19] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^20] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^20]
+The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^29] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^30] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^30]
-The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^19][^21]
+The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^29][^31]
-Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^14] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^15] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^22] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^15]
+Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^24] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^25] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^32] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^25]
-Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^23] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^15] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^9]
+Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^33] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^25] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^19]
 ### Membership in government, intelligence and finance
-Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^24] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted.
+Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^34] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted.
-[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^25] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^26] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^27] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^15] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^22] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^28] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^29] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3]
+The Yale Obituary Record for 1929 to 1930 lists among William Howard Taft's undergraduate societies "Linonia, Delta Kappa, Phi Theta Psi, He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, and Phi Beta Kappa."[^7]
-[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^30] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^31] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^15] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^32] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^33] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^34] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^31]
+[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^35] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^36] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^37] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^25] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^32] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^38] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^39] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3]
-[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^31] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^35] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^36] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^36]
+[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^40] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^41] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^25] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^42] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^43] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^44] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^41] The 1979 company history of Dresser Industries by [[Darwin Payne]] states that Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon had been fellow members of the society.[^45]
-On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^33]
+[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^41] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^46] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^47] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^47]
-[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^37] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^38] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^39] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^36]
+On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^43]
-[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^40] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^41]
+[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^48] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^49] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^50] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^47]
-[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^42] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^15] Leslie named Luce as well.[^22]
+[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^51] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^52]
-[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^43] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^44]
+[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^53] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^25] Leslie named Luce as well.[^32] Sutton's name index lists fourteen members of the class of 1920, among them "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^54] [[Briton Hadden]] co-founded [[Time Inc.]] with Luce in 1923. The Harvard Crimson of May 16, 1919 printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15 listing the men elected to Skull and Bones: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, Harry P. Davison, Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls. The same dispatch lists the Scroll and Key and Wolf's Head elections for 1919.[^55]
-[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^45] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^46] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^47] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^48] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^49] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^50] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^51] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^52]
+[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^56] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^57]
-[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^53] [[Harry Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1894.[^54] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan]].[^24]
+[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^58] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^59] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^60] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^61] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^62] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^63] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^64] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^65]
 [[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^66] [[Harry Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1894.[^67] [[Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1898; Sutton's text gives the two brothers as 1894 and 1898, and his chart table prints the years in reverse.[^68] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan]].[^34]
 ### The Yale Unit and the Central Intelligence Agency
-The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^55] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^56]
+The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^69] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^70] The Air Force biography dates the crash to July 28, 1917, over Huntington Bay, New York, and Ralph D. Paine's 1925 history records that the injury was a fractured vertebra with injury to the spinal cord.[^71]
-An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^57] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^58] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^59]
+The Yale News account of the First Yale Unit states that on April 19, 1917, Tap Day in New Haven, two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida, where the unit was training, to tap students at noon. Davison was the first tapped for the society, and eleven other members of the unit were tapped with him.[^72]
-The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^59] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^60] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^61] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^59] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^62]
+The Yale Obituary Record for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, who died on May 25, 1927, lists "Skull and Bones" among his undergraduate activities.[^73] A Yale Obituary Record entry for a member of the Yale Aviation Corps says the corps was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 was organized by Davison.[^74]
-Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^63] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^63] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^59]
+An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^75] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^76] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^77] The New York Times obituary of November 16, 1974 states that he left the post the following April, when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the personnel of the Agency; CIA committee minutes of October 1951 and January 1952 list him as Assistant Director for Personnel and chairman of the Career Service Committee.[^78]
-Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^36]
+The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^77] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^79] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^80] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^77] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^81]
 Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^82] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^82] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^77]
 Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^47]
 ### Communications
 Sutton wrote that the society had "a significant penetration into communications," and gave as its first example that "Henry Luce of Time-Life is in The Order."[^83]
 ### Sutton's hypothesis
-Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^24]
+Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^34]
-The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), Phelps (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^24] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the Pillsbury family (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^24]
+The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), Phelps (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^34] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the Pillsbury family (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^34]
 In the text Sutton describes "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams and so on," and "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^3] He adds that "Some families, like the Whitneys, were Connecticut Yankees and acquired wealth in the nineteenth century."[^3] Sutton writes that active members "have enough influence to push their sons and relatives into The Order," and that there is "significant inter-marriage among the families."[^3]
 ### Other writers
-Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named [[John Hersey]] and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^22]
+Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named [[John Hersey]] and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^32]
-[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^64]
+[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^84]
-Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^65][^14]
+Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^24][^85]
 ### The Geronimo skull claim
-The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^66] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^66] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^66]
+The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^86] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^86] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^86]
-The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^55] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^55]
+The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^69] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^69]
-Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^65] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^65] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^65] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^65] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^65]
+Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^85] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^85] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^85] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^85] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^85]
-The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^67] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^68] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^67] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^68]
+The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^87] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^88] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^87] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^88]
-In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^68] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^68] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^68]
+In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^88] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^88] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^88]
 ### The Pancho Villa skull suit
-A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^69] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^69]
+A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^89] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^89]
-The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^69]
+The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^89]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
 [^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," after the text on the three hypotheses. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^3]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), opening chapter and the passage that sets out Hypothesis One, with the old-line and new-wealth families. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^4]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), nineteenth-century description of the hall reprinted in the appendix, passage on the earlier meeting room in the Courant building. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^4]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), p. 52 ("modern system, which began in 1832"), pp. 145 to 147 (the Russell Trust Association, the society, its founders and catalogue) and p. 153 ("Eulogia"). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
-[^5]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), appendix, undated nineteenth-century description of the hall, its doors and roof plates and its value. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^5]: *Catalogue of the Connecticut Alpha of the Phi Beta Kappa*, August 1838, officers for 1837-8 and list of members of 1833, compared with the roster of the class of 1833 in Sutton (1983). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofconne00phib
-[^6]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and on Daniel C. Gilman's role as treasurer, his appointment as assistant librarian in 1856 and as librarian in 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^6]: Anonymous pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the hall, as quoted in Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Memorandum Two, and reprinted in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones ; https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
-[^7]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
+[^7]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72, including the entry for his father ("Alphonso Taft (B A. 1833, LL.D. 1867) ... tutor at Yale 1835-37; member of Yale Corporation 1872-1882"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
-[^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), nineteenth-century description of the hall reprinted in the appendix, passage on the earlier meeting room in the Courant building. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^9]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
+[^9]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), pp. 145 to 146, description of the hall, its doors and roof plates and its value, reprinted in the appendix to Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
-[^10]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
+[^10]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. IV (1778-1792), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125 to 126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket04dextuoft
-[^11]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^11]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, born in Middletown, August 12, 1809, pp. 241 to 242. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
-[^12]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^12]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302], [307] and [638] (Capt. John Russell; Matthew Talcott Russell; Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
-[^13]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
+[^13]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, section 8, pp. 8-11. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
-[^14]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
+[^14]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. II (1745-1763), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, p. 90. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket02dext
-[^15]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
+[^15]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), opening article and pp. 151 to 152 ("cousin"), p. 313 ("second cousin") and p. 52 ("uncle"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
-[^16]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^16]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and on Daniel C. Gilman's role as treasurer, his appointment as assistant librarian in 1856 and as librarian in 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^17]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^17]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 693 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
-[^18]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^18]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^19]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
+[^19]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
-[^20]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
+[^20]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
-[^21]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
+[^21]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^22]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
+[^22]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^23]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^23]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
-[^24]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^24]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
-[^25]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^25]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
-[^26]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial
+[^26]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^27]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
+[^27]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^29]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^29]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
-[^30]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^30]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
-[^31]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
+[^31]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
-[^32]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^32]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
-[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
+[^33]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^34]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^34]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^35]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^35]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^36]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
+[^36]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial
-[^37]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^37]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
-[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^39]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^39]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^41]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
-[^42]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^42]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^43]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
-[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^45]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^45]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), chapter "New Command in a Troubled Era." https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
-[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^47]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
+[^47]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
-[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^50]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^50]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^51]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress
+[^51]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^52]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^52]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Harry Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), name index, class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^55]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
+[^55]: "Tap Day Results!," special dispatch from New Haven, May 15, 1919, *The Harvard Crimson*, May 16, 1919. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1919/5/16/tap-day-results-pnew-haven-conn/
-[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^57]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
+[^57]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^58]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
+[^58]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^59]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
+[^59]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^60]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
+[^60]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
-[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^63]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
+[^63]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^64]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb
+[^64]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress
-[^65]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
+[^65]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^66]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
+[^66]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^67]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
+[^67]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Harry Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^68]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
+[^68]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1898 (Whitney, Payne), and the Whitney table and text. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^69]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
+[^69]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
 [^70]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^71]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography. https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/ ; Ralph D. Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), chapter "Trubee, the Crippled Leader." https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
 [^72]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies: Yale's pioneering pilots form first naval aviation unit" (August 17, 2014), text on Tap Day, April 19, 1917. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
 [^73]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4
 [^74]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916. https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
 [^75]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
 [^76]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
 [^77]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
 [^78]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974. https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html ; "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6, and "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7
 [^79]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
 [^80]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^81]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^82]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
 [^83]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones* (1983), section "Communications." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
 [^84]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb
 [^85]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
 [^86]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
 [^87]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
 [^88]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
 [^89]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Standard
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Standard
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-06-13
-updated: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-26
 title: Standard Oil
 aliases:
  - Standard Oil Company
@ -46,47 +46,47 @@ relations:
    with: "[[I.G. Farben]]"
    start: 1929-11-09
    role: "four agreements of November 9, 1929, and the Standard-I.G. and Jasco patent licensing"
-    fn: 12
+    fn: 14
  - type: investigated
    with: "[[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1942-03-05
    end: 1942-04-07
    role: "Part 11, Rubber, hearings on the I.G. Farben agreements"
-    fn: 12
+    fn: 14
  - type: prosecuted
    with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1942-03-25
    role: "criminal information, complaint and consent decree of March 25, 1942"
-    fn: 36
+    fn: 38
  - type: investigated
    with: "[[Federal Trade Commission]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1949-12-02
    end: 1951-10
    role: "international petroleum cartel staff investigation; staff report filed October 1951"
-    fn: 41
+    fn: 43
  - type: prosecuted
    with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1953-04-14
    role: "civil antitrust complaint in the international petroleum cartel case, Civil No. 86-27"
-    fn: 57
+    fn: 59
  - type: owned
    with: "[[Creole Petroleum Company]]"
    role: "Venezuelan subsidiary; Nelson Rockefeller sat on its board"
-    fn: 72
+    fn: 74
  - type: partner_of
    with: "[[Arabian American Oil Company]]"
    start: 1948-12
    role: "30 percent stake in Aramco from December 1948; Socony-Vacuum held 10 percent"
-    fn: 51
+    fn: 53
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Iranian Consortium]]"
    start: 1954-04-01
    role: "eight percent share of the 1954 consortium"
-    fn: 64
+    fn: 66
 ---
 Standard Oil was the petroleum monopoly founded in 1870 by [[John D. Rockefeller]] that controlled roughly ninety percent of American oil refining before the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ordered its dissolution in 1911 under the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]]. The breakup created successor companies, including Standard Oil of [[New Jersey]] (later [[Exxon]]), Standard Oil of New York ([[Mobil]]), and Standard Oil of California ([[Chevron]]), whose combined assets preserved the [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]] family's financial power.[^1] Between 1929 and 1942 the New Jersey company's patent and licensing arrangements ran through the German chemical combine [[I.G. Farben]]; after the war it held a 30 percent interest in the [[Arabian American Oil Company]] (Aramco) and an 8 percent share of the 1954 [[Iranian Consortium]].
@ -97,83 +97,85 @@ The government's bill alleged that the conspiracy was formed "in or about the ye
 The appeal was brought by "The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and thirty-three other corporations," together with John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller and five other individuals.[^6] [[Edward Douglass White]] delivered the opinion of the Court on May 15, 1911, which affirmed the decree under the antitrust act of 1890 with directions to modify it and kept jurisdiction in the court below to compel compliance.[^7] [[John Marshall Harlan]] concurred in part and dissented in part.[^8]
 [[Oliver Hazard Payne]], a Yale graduate of the class of 1863 and a brother of Flora Payne, the wife of [[William Collins Whitney]], served as the company's treasurer until 1884 and then sat on its board until his death in 1917, according to the Yale Obituary Record.[^9] The decree in the government's suit names "Oliver H. Payne" among the seven individual defendants, beside John D. Rockefeller and William Rockefeller, in the list reproduced in the Court's opinion.[^10] The Yale record states that Payne's nephews were [[Harry Payne Whitney]], [[Payne Whitney]] and [[Henry Payne Bingham]].[^9]
 ### Successor companies
-The Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) changed its name to Exxon Corporation in November 1972; on November 30, 1999 a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon was merged into Mobil Corporation and Exxon changed its name to Exxon Mobil Corporation, a New Jersey corporation incorporated in 1882.[^9] The Standard Oil Company of California, incorporated in Delaware in 1926, took the name Chevron Corporation in 1984, ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001, and Chevron Corporation again in 2005.[^10] The Senate's 1974 print, in describing the five defendants in the 1953 cartel case, gives their then-current names as Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Mobil ([[Socony-Vacuum]] Oil Company), Socal ([[Standard Oil of California|Standard Oil Company of California]]), [[Texaco]] ([[The Texas Company]]) and [[Gulf Oil|Gulf]].[^11]
+The Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) changed its name to Exxon Corporation in November 1972; on November 30, 1999 a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon was merged into Mobil Corporation and Exxon changed its name to Exxon Mobil Corporation, a New Jersey corporation incorporated in 1882.[^11] The Standard Oil Company of California, incorporated in Delaware in 1926, took the name Chevron Corporation in 1984, ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001, and Chevron Corporation again in 2005.[^12] The Senate's 1974 print, in describing the five defendants in the 1953 cartel case, gives their then-current names as Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Mobil ([[Socony-Vacuum]] Oil Company), Socal ([[Standard Oil of California|Standard Oil Company of California]]), [[Texaco]] ([[The Texas Company]]) and [[Gulf Oil|Gulf]].[^13]
 ### The 1929 agreements with I.G. Farben
-The company's chemical relationship with I.G. Farben rested on four agreements dated November 9, 1929. [[Thurman Arnold]], the assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust, described them to the [[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program|Truman Committee]] on March 26, 1942 as the "division of the fields" agreement, the four-party agreement, the coordination agreement and the German sales agreement.[^12] Arnold testified that Standard turned its non-oil chemical processes over to I.G., and that I.G. turned over to Standard the patents and discoveries that directly concerned oil production, including synthetic gasoline, so that each company held a world monopoly in its field.[^13] The arrangement created two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled from [[Germany]] and one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil.[^14]
+The company's chemical relationship with I.G. Farben rested on four agreements dated November 9, 1929. [[Thurman Arnold]], the assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust, described them to the [[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program|Truman Committee]] on March 26, 1942 as the "division of the fields" agreement, the four-party agreement, the coordination agreement and the German sales agreement.[^14] Arnold testified that Standard turned its non-oil chemical processes over to I.G., and that I.G. turned over to Standard the patents and discoveries that directly concerned oil production, including synthetic gasoline, so that each company held a world monopoly in its field.[^15] The arrangement created two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled from [[Germany]] and one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil.[^16]
-Arnold gave his own account of the motive in the same testimony: "these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control."[^15] He read into the record a letter signed by [[Walter C. Teagle]] of Standard, in which each party proposed "to hold itself willing to take care of any future eventualities in a spirit of mutual helpfulness" and, if performance of the agreements were restrained or prevented "by operation of any existing or future law" or the beneficial interest of either party alienated "by operation of law or governmental authority," to "enter into new negotiations in the spirit of the present agreements."[^16]
+Arnold gave his own account of the motive in the same testimony: "these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control."[^17] He read into the record a letter signed by [[Walter C. Teagle]] of Standard, in which each party proposed "to hold itself willing to take care of any future eventualities in a spirit of mutual helpfulness" and, if performance of the agreements were restrained or prevented "by operation of any existing or future law" or the beneficial interest of either party alienated "by operation of law or governmental authority," to "enter into new negotiations in the spirit of the present agreements."[^18]
-Arnold identified a second set of arrangements as the Hague Memorandum, made in September 1939, which he said carried the 1929 conspiracy through the war between Germany and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. He read a letter of October 12, 1939 from [[Frank A. Howard]], the president of the [[Standard Oil Development Company]], stating that in [[Netherlands|Holland]] "They delivered to me assignments of some 2,000 foreign patents" and that the parties had worked toward "complete plans for a modus Vivendi which would operate through the term of the war, whether or not the United States came in."[^17]
+Arnold identified a second set of arrangements as the Hague Memorandum, made in September 1939, which he said carried the 1929 conspiracy through the war between Germany and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. He read a letter of October 12, 1939 from [[Frank A. Howard]], the president of the [[Standard Oil Development Company]], stating that in [[Netherlands|Holland]] "They delivered to me assignments of some 2,000 foreign patents" and that the parties had worked toward "complete plans for a modus Vivendi which would operate through the term of the war, whether or not the United States came in."[^19]
-[[William S. Farish]], the president of the New Jersey company, testified on March 31, 1942 and described the 1939 readjustment. The company's patent licensing had run through two American corporations, Standard-I.G. and [[Jasco]], in one of which Standard held 80 per cent and in the other 50 per cent, the Germans holding the other shares; the stock holdings represented roughly the German participations in licensing fixed by the 1929 contracts. Farish said that substantially all the patents had originated with I.G. and that legal title to most of them, especially the foreign patents, had been left in I.G. to avoid the expense of transfers.[^18] The assignments were taken by an American trustee who, if the United States went to war with Germany, would be subject to account to the [[Alien Property Custodian]] for any equitable interest of the Germans. The German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. was purchased at book value ($20,000), and the Germans retained title to their 20 per cent of the royalties.[^19]
+[[William S. Farish]], the president of the New Jersey company, testified on March 31, 1942 and described the 1939 readjustment. The company's patent licensing had run through two American corporations, Standard-I.G. and [[Jasco]], in one of which Standard held 80 per cent and in the other 50 per cent, the Germans holding the other shares; the stock holdings represented roughly the German participations in licensing fixed by the 1929 contracts. Farish said that substantially all the patents had originated with I.G. and that legal title to most of them, especially the foreign patents, had been left in I.G. to avoid the expense of transfers.[^20] The assignments were taken by an American trustee who, if the United States went to war with Germany, would be subject to account to the [[Alien Property Custodian]] for any equitable interest of the Germans. The German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. was purchased at book value ($20,000), and the Germans retained title to their 20 per cent of the royalties.[^21]
-The same agreements appear in the first order the Custodian issued. Vesting Order No. 1, signed by [[Leo T. Crowley]] on March 25, 1942 (the date of the consent decree) and published in the Federal Register on March 31, 1942, vested all right, title and interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G. in the Division of Fields Agreement of November 9, 1929 and the Jasco Agreement of September 30, 1930; the four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; a series of agreements of October 7, 1938 among [[Ruhrchemie]], I.G., [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[M.W. Kellogg Company|Kellogg]] on hydrocarbon synthesis; the Hague Memorandum dated September 25, 1939, effective September 1, 1939; the trust agreement executed March 8, 1940 by Walter Schaefer and Harold Koechling; and a trust agreement of August 31, 1939 among Frank A. Howard, W.E. Currie and P.L. Young. The order also vested the stock, patents and contracts of the [[Standard Catalytic Company]], the capital stock of Jasco, Inc. (including five certificates held by Schaefer and Koechling as trustees), and all patents held by or in the name of Standard-I.G. Company, Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc. or W.E. Currie, listed in four schedules.[^20] The Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943, a period in which 1,792 vesting orders were issued, lists it first and states that German holders of American patents had "acquired a substantial influence in American industry" through patent contracts, naming synthetic rubber among the affected industries.[^21][^22]
+The same agreements appear in the first order the Custodian issued. Vesting Order No. 1, signed by [[Leo T. Crowley]] on March 25, 1942 (the date of the consent decree) and published in the Federal Register on March 31, 1942, vested all right, title and interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G. in the Division of Fields Agreement of November 9, 1929 and the Jasco Agreement of September 30, 1930; the four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; a series of agreements of October 7, 1938 among [[Ruhrchemie]], I.G., [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[M.W. Kellogg Company|Kellogg]] on hydrocarbon synthesis; the Hague Memorandum dated September 25, 1939, effective September 1, 1939; the trust agreement executed March 8, 1940 by Walter Schaefer and Harold Koechling; and a trust agreement of August 31, 1939 among Frank A. Howard, W.E. Currie and P.L. Young. The order also vested the stock, patents and contracts of the [[Standard Catalytic Company]], the capital stock of Jasco, Inc. (including five certificates held by Schaefer and Koechling as trustees), and all patents held by or in the name of Standard-I.G. Company, Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc. or W.E. Currie, listed in four schedules.[^22] The Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943, a period in which 1,792 vesting orders were issued, lists it first and states that German holders of American patents had "acquired a substantial influence in American industry" through patent contracts, naming synthetic rubber among the affected industries.[^23][^24]
-The [[Federal Trade Commission]]'s staff later recorded the German marketing side of the relationship: an agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Royal Dutch Shell and the [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]], which together controlled more than 60 percent of the German domestic market, with the cooperation reported of the marketing subsidiaries of [[Leuna]] and I.G. Farben, and the distributor [[Deutsche Gasolin]] A.G. owned 50 percent by Standard and 50 percent by I.G. Farbenindustrie in 1933.[^23]
+The [[Federal Trade Commission]]'s staff later recorded the German marketing side of the relationship: an agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Royal Dutch Shell and the [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]], which together controlled more than 60 percent of the German domestic market, with the cooperation reported of the marketing subsidiaries of [[Leuna]] and I.G. Farben, and the distributor [[Deutsche Gasolin]] A.G. owned 50 percent by Standard and 50 percent by I.G. Farbenindustrie in 1933.[^25]
 ### Synthetic rubber and the buna patents
-Arnold told the Truman Committee that I.G. Farben had "the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber." He said that between 1932 and 1934 four rubber companies and one chemical company approached Standard seeking licenses, and that negotiations in 1932 between [[B.F. Goodrich|Goodrich]] and Standard were subject to the supervision of I.G., which refused to accept various portions of the proposed terms.[^24] Howard's letter of February 6, 1940 to [[E.J. Sadler]] stated the company's position: "The interest of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey in the buna process dates back to the original agreement of 1929 between I. G. and Jersey."[^25] Arnold also said that for Standard's own butyl development the company licensed only two rubber companies, apart from specialty companies.[^26]
+Arnold told the Truman Committee that I.G. Farben had "the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber." He said that between 1932 and 1934 four rubber companies and one chemical company approached Standard seeking licenses, and that negotiations in 1932 between [[B.F. Goodrich|Goodrich]] and Standard were subject to the supervision of I.G., which refused to accept various portions of the proposed terms.[^26] Howard's letter of February 6, 1940 to [[E.J. Sadler]] stated the company's position: "The interest of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey in the buna process dates back to the original agreement of 1929 between I. G. and Jersey."[^27] Arnold also said that for Standard's own butyl development the company licensed only two rubber companies, apart from specialty companies.[^28]
-The company issued a release on the day of the consent decree, introduced as Exhibit 359, which stated that "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency."[^27] Arnold asked the committee to keep the release in mind when weighing the documents, one of which showed that the company had refused to let the British have a sample of rubber as late as 1941.[^28]
+The company issued a release on the day of the consent decree, introduced as Exhibit 359, which stated that "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency."[^29] Arnold asked the committee to keep the release in mind when weighing the documents, one of which showed that the company had refused to let the British have a sample of rubber as late as 1941.[^30]
 ### Ethyl, aviation fuel and the German plants
-Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^29] In 1940 the Supreme Court recorded that Standard "owns one-half of the capital stock" of Ethyl and that "The remainder is owned by General Motors Corporation and E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company."[^30] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^31]
+Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^31] In 1940 the Supreme Court recorded that Standard "owns one-half of the capital stock" of Ethyl and that "The remainder is owned by General Motors Corporation and E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company."[^32] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^33]
-The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^32] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^33]
+The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^34] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^35]
-The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^34]
+The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^36]
-Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^35]
+Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^37]
 ### The 1942 consent decree
-On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^29] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^36]
+On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^31] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^38]
-Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^37] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^38] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^39] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^40]
+Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^39] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^40] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^41] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^42]
 ### The Federal Trade Commission staff report
-The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^41] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^42] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^43] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^44]
+The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^43] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^44] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^45] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^46]
-The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^45] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^46]
+The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^47] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^48]
 ### Aramco and the Saudi concessions
-Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^47] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^48]
+Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^49] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^50]
-Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^49] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^50] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^51] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^47]
+Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^51] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^52] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^53] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^49]
-In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^52] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^53] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^54]
+In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^54] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^55] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^56]
 ### The grand jury and the cartel case
-The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^41][^55] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^56] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^57]
+The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^43][^57] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^58] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^59]
 ### Iran and the 1954 consortium
-Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^56][^57] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^57][^58] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^58]
+Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^58][^59] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^59][^60] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^60]
-Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^59] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^60] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^61] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^58]
+Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^61] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^62] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^63] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^60]
-On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^62] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^63]
+On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^64] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^65]
-The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^64] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^65] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^66] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^67] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^68]
+The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^66] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^67] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^68] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^69] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^70]
-Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^58][^69] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^69]
+Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^60][^71] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^71]
 ### Guatemala, June 1954
-On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^70]
+On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^72]
 ### Latin America and the Rockefeller Network
-Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^71] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^72] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^73]
+Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^73] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^74] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^75]
 ### Footnotes
@ -185,68 +187,70 @@ Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[La
 [^6]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), opinion of White, C.J., opening paragraph ("The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and thirty-three other corporations, John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller, and five other individual defendants prosecute this appeal"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
 [^7]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), concluding part of the opinion ("Our order will therefore be one of affirmance, with directions, however, to modify the decree"; the court below "to retain jurisdiction"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
 [^8]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), opinion of Harlan, J., "concurring in part and dissenting in part." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
-[^9]: Exxon Mobil Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1999 (filed March 23, 2000), Item 1 ("Exxon Mobil Corporation ('ExxonMobil'), formerly named Exxon Corporation, was incorporated in the State of New Jersey in 1882"; merger of Mobil Corporation into a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon on November 30, 1999) and SEC header (former conformed name Standard Oil Co of New Jersey, date of name change 1972-11-23), accession no. 0000930661-00-000656. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34088/0000930661-00-000656.txt
+[^9]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (treasurer until 1884; board thereafter; death June 27, 1917; nephews). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
-[^10]: Chevron Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 (filed February 21, 2025), note to Item 1 ("Incorporated in Delaware in 1926 as Standard Oil Company of California, the company adopted the name Chevron Corporation in 1984 and ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001. In 2005, ChevronTexaco Corporation changed its name to Chevron Corporation"), accession no. 0000093410-25-000009. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/93410/000009341025000009/cvx-20241231.htm
+[^10]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), decree Section 2 as set out in the opinion ("the seven individual defendants"; "Oliver H. Payne"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
-[^11]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI ("Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now Mobil), Standard Oil Company of California (Socal), The Texas Company (now Texaco), and Gulf Oil Corporation (Gulf)"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^11]: Exxon Mobil Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1999 (filed March 23, 2000), Item 1 ("Exxon Mobil Corporation ('ExxonMobil'), formerly named Exxon Corporation, was incorporated in the State of New Jersey in 1882"; merger of Mobil Corporation into a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon on November 30, 1999) and SEC header (former conformed name Standard Oil Co of New Jersey, date of name change 1972-11-23), accession no. 0000930661-00-000656. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34088/0000930661-00-000656.txt
-[^12]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), statement of Thurman W. Arnold, Assistant Attorney General, March 26, 1942, p. 4309 (the four agreements of November 9, 1929; "division of the fields," four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; Exhibits 360 to 364-A, appendix pp. 4561-4580). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^12]: Chevron Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 (filed February 21, 2025), note to Item 1 ("Incorporated in Delaware in 1926 as Standard Oil Company of California, the company adopted the name Chevron Corporation in 1984 and ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001. In 2005, ChevronTexaco Corporation changed its name to Chevron Corporation"), accession no. 0000093410-25-000009. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/93410/000009341025000009/cvx-20241231.htm
-[^13]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4309-4310 (allocation of fields; I.G. turning over patents directly concerning oil production, including synthetic gasoline). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^13]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI ("Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now Mobil), Standard Oil Company of California (Socal), The Texas Company (now Texaco), and Gulf Oil Corporation (Gulf)"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^14]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4309 (two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled by Germany, one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^14]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), statement of Thurman W. Arnold, Assistant Attorney General, March 26, 1942, p. 4309 (the four agreements of November 9, 1929; "division of the fields," four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; Exhibits 360 to 364-A, appendix pp. 4561-4580). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^15]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4307-4308 ("these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^15]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4309-4310 (allocation of fields; I.G. turning over patents directly concerning oil production, including synthetic gasoline). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^16]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4310 (letter signed by Mr. Teagle, Exhibit 367, appendix p. 4584); U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 ("Walter Teagle of Standard"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^16]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4309 (two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled by Germany, one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^17]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4310-4311 (The Hague Memorandum; letter of Frank A. Howard of October 12, 1939, Exhibit 368, appendix pp. 4584-4585). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^17]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4307-4308 ("these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^18]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of W.S. Farish, March 31, 1942, p. 4374 (Standard-I.G. and Jasco holdings of 80 and 50 per cent; patents originated with I.G.; legal title left in I.G.). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^18]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4310 (letter signed by Mr. Teagle, Exhibit 367, appendix p. 4584); U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 ("Walter Teagle of Standard"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^19]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish testimony, p. 4375 (assignment to an American trustee; German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. bought at "book value ($20,000)"; Jasco settlement). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^19]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4310-4311 (The Hague Memorandum; letter of Frank A. Howard of October 12, 1939, Exhibit 368, appendix pp. 4584-4585). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^20]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 1, "Vesting of Property of I.G. Farbenindustrie, Standard-I.G. Co., and Others," signed by Leo T. Crowley, March 25, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 2417 (March 31, 1942) (Exhibit A, items 1 to 14 and schedules A to D of patents; issued under Executive Order 9095, 7 F.R. 1971). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-03-31/pdf/FR-1942-03-31.pdf
+[^20]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of W.S. Farish, March 31, 1942, p. 4374 (Standard-I.G. and Jasco holdings of 80 and 50 per cent; patents originated with I.G.; legal title left in I.G.). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^21]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), Exhibit A, "List of Vesting Orders Issued by the Office of Alien Property Custodian, Mar. 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943," first entry (interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie in Standard Catalytic Co. and Jasco Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
+[^21]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish testimony, p. 4375 (assignment to an American trustee; German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. bought at "book value ($20,000)"; Jasco settlement). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^22]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), p. 97 (German interests in American patents and cartels; "acquired a substantial influence in American industry"; synthetic rubber among the industries listed). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
+[^22]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 1, "Vesting of Property of I.G. Farbenindustrie, Standard-I.G. Co., and Others," signed by Leo T. Crowley, March 25, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 2417 (March 31, 1942) (Exhibit A, items 1 to 14 and schedules A to D of patents; issued under Executive Order 9095, 7 F.R. 1971). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-03-31/pdf/FR-1942-03-31.pdf
-[^23]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 325 and note (agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Shell and Anglo-Iranian in Germany; marketing subsidiaries of Leuna and I.G. Farben; Deutsche Gasolin A.G. "owned 50 percent by Standard (Now Jersey), and 50 percent by I. G. Farbenindustrie"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^23]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), Exhibit A, "List of Vesting Orders Issued by the Office of Alien Property Custodian, Mar. 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943," first entry (interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie in Standard Catalytic Co. and Jasco Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
-[^24]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 ("I. G. Farben had the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber"; four rubber companies and one chemical company, 1932 to 1934; Goodrich negotiations of 1932). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^24]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), p. 97 (German interests in American patents and cartels; "acquired a substantial influence in American industry"; synthetic rubber among the industries listed). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
-[^25]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (letter of Frank A. Howard to E.J. Sadler, February 6, 1940, Exhibit 371, appendix p. 4589); the same letter at pp. 4589-4590. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^25]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 325 and note (agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Shell and Anglo-Iranian in Germany; marketing subsidiaries of Leuna and I.G. Farben; Deutsche Gasolin A.G. "owned 50 percent by Standard (Now Jersey), and 50 percent by I. G. Farbenindustrie"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^26]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (butyl licensing). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^26]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 ("I. G. Farben had the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber"; four rubber companies and one chemical company, 1932 to 1934; Goodrich negotiations of 1932). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^27]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4307 (Exhibit 359, release issued by Standard Oil on March 25, 1942, appendix p. 4560-4561; "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^27]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (letter of Frank A. Howard to E.J. Sadler, February 6, 1940, Exhibit 371, appendix p. 4589); the same letter at pp. 4589-4590. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^28]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4308 (refusal to let the British have a rubber sample as late as 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^28]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (butyl licensing). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^29]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information in the District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4693-4697 (defendants; Standard and General Motors each owning 50 per cent of the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, "sole producer of tetraethyl lead," p. 4697). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^29]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4307 (Exhibit 359, release issued by Standard Oil on March 25, 1942, appendix p. 4560-4561; "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^30]: Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436 (1940), Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/309/cases/0436-01.json.
+[^30]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4308 (refusal to let the British have a rubber sample as late as 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^31]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^31]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information in the District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4693-4697 (defendants; Standard and General Motors each owning 50 per cent of the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, "sole producer of tetraethyl lead," p. 4697). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^32]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^32]: Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436 (1940), Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/309/cases/0436-01.json.
-[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^38]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^38]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^41]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^41]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^42]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^42]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^43]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^43]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^44]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^44]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^45]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^45]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^46]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^46]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^48]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^48]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^49]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^49]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^50]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^50]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^51]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^51]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850
+[^52]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^53]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892
+[^53]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920
+[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850
-[^55]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^55]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892
-[^56]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^56]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920
-[^57]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^57]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^58]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^58]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^59]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397
+[^59]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^60]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^60]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^61]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397
-[^62]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411
+[^62]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^63]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413
+[^63]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^64]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449
+[^64]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411
-[^65]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458
+[^65]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413
-[^66]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490
+[^66]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449
-[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496
+[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458
-[^68]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502
+[^68]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490
-[^69]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^69]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496
-[^70]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189
+[^70]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502
-[^71]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
+[^71]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^72]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^72]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189
-[^73]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the
+[^73]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
 [^74]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
 [^75]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Time.md
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Time.md
@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ tags:
  - LSD
  - MKUltra
 summary: "American news magazine, first published in 1923, whose 1991 cover story on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International was later disputed in a Senate subcommittee report."
-updated: 2026-10-12
+updated: 2026-10-26
 start: 1923
 location: "New York City, New York"
 relations:
@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ Bernstein wrote that [[Allen Dulles]] "often interceded with his good friend, th
 Bernstein described [[C. D. Jackson]] as "Luce's personal emissary to the CIA." He wrote that Jackson "approved specific arrangements for providing CIA employees with Time-Life cover," and that some of these arrangements were made with the knowledge of [[Clare Boothe Luce]]. [[Hedley Donovan]], who took over editorial direction of all Time Inc. publications in 1959, denied in a telephone interview that he knew of any such arrangements. Bernstein wrote that, according to CIA officials including those who dealt with Luce, other arrangements for Time cover were made with Donovan's knowledge. Bernstein also wrote that Jackson, while a Time executive, coauthored a CIA-sponsored study recommending the reorganization of the American intelligence services in the early 1950s. "I was never approached and I'd be amazed if Luce approved such arrangements," Donovan said. "Luce had a very scrupulous regard for the difference between journalism and government."[^4]
-The [[Church Committee]] took up the same subject in Book I of its final report. The committee recorded that on February 11, 1976 the CIA announced: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station." The committee counted approximately 50 CIA relationships with U.S. journalists or media employees at the time of that announcement, of which fewer than one-half would be terminated under the new guidelines. It found that more than a dozen U.S. news organizations and publishing houses had provided cover for CIA agents abroad. The committee wrote that the use of American journalists and media organizations for clandestine operations "is a threat to the integrity of the press."[^5]
+The [[Church Committee]] took up the same subject in Book I of its final report. The committee recorded that on February 11, 1976 the CIA announced: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station." The committee counted about 50 CIA relationships with U.S. journalists or media employees at the time of that announcement, of which fewer than one-half would be terminated under the new guidelines. It found that more than a dozen U.S. news organizations and publishing houses had provided cover for CIA agents abroad. The committee wrote that the use of American journalists and media organizations for clandestine operations "is a threat to the integrity of the press."[^5]
 The minutes of the CIA Deputies' Meeting of July 21, 1952 record [[Frank Wisner]] as having "Noted that we were prepared to talk to Mr. Luce's representative any time he came to Washington and that we had sufficient material on hand which would allow TIME and/or LIFE to publish an exclusive story on the Duclos affair over and above the information already made public." In response to a query from the Director, [[Walter Bedell Smith]], on authenticity, Wisner stated that "(1) we were 90% positive that the information in question was authentic; (2) he would, however, pass this along to the TIME and/or LIFE representative; (3) we now have in our possession a photostat copy of Duclos' diary which was written in longhand; (4) he believed we were on safe ground in our '90% estimate' since the Communists had already vociferously decried publicity given so far to the Duclos papers."[^6]
@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ A 2024 article by [[Simon Willmetts]], "The CIA and Time Magazine: Journalistic
 ### C. D. Jackson and the psychological warfare apparatus
-Jackson's papers at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] list him as a Time Inc. vice president from 1940, as president of the [[Free Europe Committee]] from 1951 to 1952, as a special assistant to President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] for international affairs from 1953 to 1954, and as publisher of Life from 1960. A Central Intelligence Agency biographical sheet on Jackson states that he joined Time Incorporated in 1931 as Assistant to the President, became General Manager of Life in 1937 and Vice President of Time Incorporated in 1940, became Publisher of Fortune in February 1949, went on leave in February 1951 to become President of the [[Free Europe Committee|National Committee for a Free Europe]], returned to Time Inc. in February 1952, and in October 1952 was on leave to head the Eisenhower headquarters speech-writer group.[^8] The finding aid states that the Free Europe Committee directed [[Radio Free Europe]]. Jackson died in New York City on September 18, 1964. The papers include a folder on [[Crusade for Freedom]].[^9]
+Jackson's papers at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] list him as a Time Inc. vice president from 1940, as president of the [[Free Europe Committee]] from 1951 to 1952, as a special assistant to President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] for international affairs from 1953 to 1954, and as publisher of Life from 1960. A Central Intelligence Agency biographical sheet on Jackson states that he joined Time Incorporated in 1931 as Assistant to the President, became General Manager of Life in 1937 and Vice President of Time Incorporated in 1940, became Publisher of Fortune in February 1949, went on leave in February 1951 to become President of the National Committee for a Free Europe, returned to Time Inc. in February 1952, and in October 1952 was on leave to head the Eisenhower headquarters speech-writer group.[^8] The finding aid states that the Free Europe Committee directed [[Radio Free Europe]]. Jackson died in New York City on September 18, 1964. The papers include a folder on [[Crusade for Freedom]].[^9]
 The finding aid sets a condition on use. It records that "Permission of Time Incorporated is required to cite or quote materials originated by any individual in his capacity as an official of Time Incorporated," which applies to the Time Inc. file covering Jackson's career from 1931 to 1964.[^10]
@ -101,15 +101,15 @@ The [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT, which had emerged from [[Projec
 ### Life and the Zapruder film
-After the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Abraham Zapruder]] took his camera film to a Dallas processing plant, had three copies made, gave two to representatives of the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]], and kept the original and one copy.[^15] [[Richard Stolley]], Life's Los Angeles bureau chief, was the first journalist to reach him. Life obtained the print rights on November 23, 1963 for $50,000. On November 25, 1963 Time-Life bought all rights, including the motion picture rights, for $150,000 in total, paid in six installments. Accounts of the purchase credit C. D. Jackson with approving the purchase of the motion picture rights and with limiting what Life's mass-market magazines would show.[^16] Zapruder told the [[Warren Commission]] that he had received $25,000, which he gave to the family of [[J. D. Tippit]]. The Assassination Records Review Board staff noted that this $25,000 apparently was the first of six payments for the film and its copy, and reported the sale price as $150,000.[^17]
+After the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Abraham Zapruder]] took his camera film to a Dallas processing plant, had three copies made, gave two to representatives of the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]], and kept the original and one copy.[^15] [[Richard Stolley]], Life's Los Angeles bureau chief, was the first journalist to reach him. [[Jim DiEugenio]] wrote in the journal Probe in 1998, drawing on an interview with Stolley, that Life obtained the print rights on November 23, 1963 for $50,000 and that on November 25, 1963 Time-Life bought all rights, including the motion picture rights, for $150,000 in total. He wrote that C. D. Jackson approved the purchase of the motion picture rights and "decided to restrict what that company would show through its mass market magazines," that Life never showed the film in anything near its entirety, that the company sued [[Josiah Thompson]] over stills in *Six Seconds in Dallas*, and that [[Jim Garrison]] subpoenaed the film from Time-Life in 1969 for the [[Clay Shaw]] trial.[^16] Zapruder told the [[Warren Commission]] that he had received $25,000, which he gave to the family of [[J. D. Tippit]]. The Assassination Records Review Board staff noted that this $25,000 apparently was the first of six payments for the film and its copy, and reported the sale price as $150,000.[^17]
 At the commission's request a representative of Life brought the original to the commission's offices and screened it several times, because "the original had considerably more detail and more there to study than any of the copies, since in the photographic process each time you copy you lose some detail." The board's letter of April 21, 1995 to the general counsel of Time Warner records that the commission's report shows Life cooperating closely with the commission's investigation.[^18]
-In October 1974 [[Lawrence Layburne]], a vice president of Time Inc., informed the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] that transfer of the original film to the government was proposed. On April 9, 1975 Time Inc. assigned the copyright to Mrs. Zapruder for "$1 and other valuable consideration," and on the same date deeded first and second generation copies of the film to the federal government. The original was placed at the archives at the Zapruders' request for storage, and no deed of gift transferring the original was ever executed. In 1978 Henry Zapruder asked the archives to hold and administer the original.[^15][^18]
+In October 1974 [[Lawrence Layburne]], a vice president of Time Inc., informed the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] that transfer of the original film to the government was proposed. The review board's memorandum of April 6, 1995 records that in 1974 Time-Life notified the archives that it was considering whether to donate all of its rights in the film.[^15] A review board letter of April 21, 1995 to the general counsel of [[Time Warner]] gives the notice from Layburne as 1975.[^18] On April 9, 1975 Time Inc. assigned the copyright to Mrs. Zapruder for "$1 and other valuable consideration," and on the same date deeded first and second generation copies of the film to the federal government. The original was placed at the archives at the Zapruders' request for storage, and no deed of gift transferring the original was ever executed. In 1978 Henry Zapruder asked the archives to hold and administer the original.[^15][^18]
 The review board's letter of May 1, 1995 to [[E. Gabriel Perle]], a former general counsel of Time Inc., reports that from Time Inc.'s files "it appears that the Zapruders do have legal title to the original film as well as ownership of the copyright." The letter adds that, according to the documents, Time Inc. was constrained by terms in the original contract.[^19] Under the 1992 JFK Records Collection Act the original film was transferred to the JFK Records Collection at the National Archives on August 1, 1998. On August 3, 1999 the Justice Department announced that an arbitration panel, chaired by the former Third Circuit judge Arlin M. Adams, had voted two to one to award the heirs of Abraham Zapruder $16 million for the film. The LMH Company, the film's former owner, had asked for $30 million, and the arbitrator Walter Dellinger dissented, writing that $3 to $5 million would have been enough. The company kept the copyright.[^20]
-The review board's executive director, [[T. Jeremy Gunn]], wrote to Time Inc. asking for early reproductions of frames from the film, for any further documentation of the film's chain of custody, and for information from Life's inquiry of 1966 and 1967. The letter states that during the autumn of 1966 Life and [[Bernard Geis Associates]] had jointly retained [[Josiah Thompson]] to research the assassination.[^21]
+The review board's executive director, [[T. Jeremy Gunn]], wrote to Time Inc. asking for early reproductions of frames from the film, for any further documentation of the film's chain of custody, and for information from Life's inquiry of 1966 and 1967. The letter states that during the autumn of 1966 Life and [[Bernard Geis Associates]] had jointly retained Josiah Thompson to research the assassination.[^21]
 ### LSD and the Luce magazines
@ -182,10 +182,10 @@ On September 16, 2018, the Meredith Corporation, which had acquired Time Inc., a
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Time, "The First Issue of TIME Magazine: Read It Here," time.com. https://time.com/4684747/first-issue-vault/ (cover dated March 3, 1923).
-[^2]: Carl Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977. Reprint at carlbernstein.com, http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php (passage on the cooperating executives and the New York Times, CBS and Time Inc.).
+[^2]: Carl Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977. Reprint, https://ia600409.us.archive.org/23/items/carl-bernstein-cia-and-the-media/Carl%20Bernstein%20CIA%20and%20the%20Media.pdf (passage on the cooperating executives and the New York Times, CBS and Time Inc.).
 [^3]: Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," reprint (passage on Allen Dulles, Luce's briefings of the Agency, and Time's correspondents at CIA briefing dinners).
 [^4]: Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," reprint (passage on C. D. Jackson, Time-Life cover, and Hedley Donovan's denial).
-[^5]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rep. No. 94-755 (1976), Chapter X.B, "Covert Relationships with the United States Media," pp. 191-201. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf
+[^5]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rep. No. 94-755 (1976), Chapter X.B, "Covert Relationships with the United States Media," pp. 191-201 (about 50 relationships and the Director's pledge at p. 192), and the covert action chapter, "The Covert Use of U.S. Journalists and Media Institutions," pp. 454-455 (the announcement of February 11, 1976, the statement on news organizations that provided cover, and the statement that the use of journalists "is a threat to the integrity of the press"). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf
 [^6]: Central Intelligence Agency, Deputies' Meeting, July 21, 1952, p. 1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/1952-07-21.pdf
 [^7]: Simon Willmetts, "The CIA and Time Magazine: Journalistic Ethics and Newsroom Dissent," Universiteit Leiden, research output listing, August 19, 2024. https://universiteitleiden.nl/en/research/research-output/governance-and-global-affairs/the-cia-and-time-magazine-journalistic-ethics-and-newsroom-dissent
 [^8]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Charles D. Jackson," biographical sheet, CIA-RDP75-00001R000200140002-9, p. 1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000200140002-9
@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ On September 16, 2018, the Meredith Corporation, which had acquired Time Inc., a
 [^13]: Time, February 24, 1967, vol. 89, no. 8, passage on the Center for International Studies, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
 [^14]: Jennet Conant, *The Irregulars: Roald Dahl and the British Spy Ring in Wartime Washington* (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008).
 [^15]: Assassination Records Review Board, Sheryl Walter, memorandum, "Zapruder film update," April 6, 1995, NARA JFK Collection, ARRB file ZP45MT. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/ZP45MT.WPD.pdf
-[^16]: Richard Stolley's purchase of the Zapruder film for Life, as described in "The Zapruder Film Comes to Home Video," kennedysandking.com, October 15, 1998. https://www.kennedysandking.com/john-f-kennedy-articles/333
+[^16]: Jim DiEugenio, history of the film's ownership, *Probe* vol. 5, no. 6 (September-October 1998), reproduced as "The Zapruder Film Comes to Home Video," kennedysandking.com, October 15, 1998, citing Stolley's interview on *Burden of Proof*, July 18, 1998. https://www.kennedysandking.com/john-f-kennedy-articles/333
 [^17]: Walter memorandum, April 6, 1995, note 1 (Zapruder's Warren Commission testimony and the $25,000 payment).
 [^18]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to Harry M. Johnston III, general counsel, Time Warner Inc., April 21, 1995, ARRB file TMLF421. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/TMLF421.WPD.pdf
 [^19]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to E. Gabriel Perle, May 1, 1995, ARRB file ZPTHXGP. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/ZPTHXGP.WPD.pdf
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Union
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Union
@ -63,13 +63,19 @@ relations:
    start: 1924-08-04
    end: 1942-10-20
    role: "one of seven directors according to the incorporation documents as reported by the Guardian; registered holder of one share in Vesting Order Number 248"
-    fn: 11
+    fn: 14
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1932
    role: "director in 1932, according to Sutton (1976), Table 7-1"
-    fn: 6
+    fn: 7
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Knight Woolley]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1932
    role: "listed among eight directors for 1932 in Sutton's 1983 account; not among the directors in the corporation's report of January 1, 1941"
    fn: 8
 ---
 The Union Banking Corporation (UBC) was a New York corporation incorporated on August 4, 1924 and wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam. The Alien Property Custodian vested all of its capital stock under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] on October 20, 1942, in an order that records the stock as held for the benefit of that bank and describes the bank as owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family.[^1]
@ -80,35 +86,44 @@ A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to Mr. [[J. W.
 The memorandum records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It states that the rumor that Fritz Thyssen had large gold deposits in the United States might have arisen from those purchases, while adding that all purchases were "satisfactorily accounted for" in the books. It states that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^2] The memorandum does not name [[Prescott Bush]].[^2] The [[The Guardian|Guardian]] dated the same memorandum August 16, 1941.[^3]
 ### Correspondence with the Superintendent of Banks, 1941
 On January 14, 1941, Knight Woolley, a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, wrote to [[William R. White]], superintendent of banks for the State of New York, about the corporation, which he described as "a state institution under your supervision." The letter names "E. R. Harriman, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush and our manager, H. D. Pennington" as the directors, and describes the corporation as "in effect a New York office, or agency, of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, in Rotterdam." The letter calls the four directors "my partners" and says the corporation was located at 39 Broadway. It states that the bank was the corporation's only depositor, that its activity was "limited to occasional payments and a few purchases and sales of securities," and that its accounts had been frozen under the presidential proclamation of May 10, 1940. Morris or Pennington had to sign checks jointly with the president, Cornelius Lievense, or with an assistant, and a representative of the firm had to be present whenever the safe deposit box at the Chase Bank was opened. The letter says: "Should the United States enter the war, they feel they might be under some embarrassment because of their connection with the bank, even though we have no financial interest in the Union Banking Corporation, nor do we participate in its earnings." Woolley asked White for "a frank expression from you as to the action" the directors should take, and wrote that they acted as directors "merely as a matter of business courtesy."[^4]
 White replied on May 13, 1941 that the department had not had to give the corporation the unusual attention given other banking organizations affected by the freezing orders "because of the confidence which the department has in the directors of this institution," that it "would not feel free to object" if Harriman, Bush and Pennington resigned, and that "the department would be gratified if these gentlemen could find it possible to remain on the board during this period of uncertainty."[^4] A report of the corporation issued on January 1, 1941 and reprinted in the same source lists the directors as Lievense, E. Roland Harriman, Pennington, Bush, J. Kouwenhoven, Ray Morris and J. G. Groeninger.[^4]
 ### Vesting Order Number 248
 On October 20, 1942 the Alien Property Custodian, Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942. It vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock, and listed the registered owners and their shares: [[E. Roland Harriman]], 3,991; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; [[Harold D. Pennington]], 1; [[Ray Morris]], 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order states "all of which shares are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested all claims of that bank and of the August Thyssen-Bank, Berlin, against the corporation for indebtedness.[^1]
 ### Holders and Directors
-Of the seven registered holders in the vesting order, four were connected with Brown Brothers Harriman. E. Roland Harriman became a partner of the Harriman bank on October 30, 1926 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Prescott Bush was a partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Ray Morris was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956. Harold D. Pennington was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, manager in charge of operations of the merged firm from its start, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956.[^4] The Yale class history of 1917 states of Edward Roland Noel Harriman, "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones," and of Prescott Sheldon Bush, "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^5]
+Of the seven registered holders in the vesting order, four were connected with Brown Brothers Harriman. E. Roland Harriman became a partner of the Harriman bank on October 30, 1926 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Prescott Bush was a partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Ray Morris was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956. Harold D. Pennington was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, manager in charge of operations of the merged firm from its start, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956.[^5] The Yale class history of 1917 states of Edward Roland Noel Harriman, "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones," and of Prescott Sheldon Bush, "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^6]
-[[Antony C. Sutton]] described the corporation in 1976 as "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," wrote that the Harrimans had a financial interest in it, described the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart as a Thyssen front bank in Holland that controlled it, and named E. Roland Harriman, a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., and H. J. Kouwenhoven as directors in a table of its directors in 1932.[^6] In his 1983 book on Skull and Bones he listed eight directors: E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co.; [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] as a partner of Brown Brothers & Co.; Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman; [[Knight Woolley]] as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]; Cornelius Lievense as president; and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann G. Groeninger and [[J. L. Guinter]]. He wrote that four of the directors were members of the Yale class of 1917 and of the same society, and that Kouwenhoven and Groeninger were directors of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which he described as the former von Heydt bank.[^7] The firm's partner table gives November 25, 1932 as the date of James's death.[^4]
+[[Antony C. Sutton]] described the corporation in 1976 as "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," wrote that the Harrimans had a financial interest in it, described the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart as a Thyssen front bank in Holland that controlled it, and named E. Roland Harriman, a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., and H. J. Kouwenhoven as directors in a table of its directors in 1932.[^7] In his 1983 book on Skull and Bones he listed eight directors: E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co.; [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] as a partner of Brown Brothers & Co.; Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman; [[Knight Woolley]] as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]; Cornelius Lievense as president; and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann G. Groeninger and [[J. L. Guinter]]. He wrote that four of the directors were members of the Yale class of 1917 and of the same society, and that Kouwenhoven and Groeninger were directors of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which he described as the former von Heydt bank.[^8] The Federal Reserve Bank of New York's annual report for 1939 lists Knight Woolley of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. as a member of the bank's foreign exchange committee, representing private banks and investment houses.[^9] The bank's Circular No. 1015 of January 8, 1931 names Clarence M. Woolley of Greenwich, Connecticut, chairman of American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Corporation, as a Class C director of the bank for three years from January 1, 1931.[^10] The firm's partner table gives November 25, 1932 as the date of James's death.[^5]
 ### Holland-American Trading and Seamless Steel Equipment, 1942
-Vesting Order Number 259 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation of 500 shares of $100 par value stock, registered in the name of Cornelius Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Vesting Order Number 261 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], also a New York corporation with 500 shares, held by E. Roland Harriman (491 shares), Lievense (4), and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger (1 share each), for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Both orders were executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on December 19, 1942.[^8][^9] The Guardian described both companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the seizure of the Union Banking Corporation.[^10]
+Vesting Order Number 259 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation of 500 shares of $100 par value stock, registered in the name of Cornelius Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Vesting Order Number 261 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], also a New York corporation with 500 shares, held by E. Roland Harriman (491 shares), Lievense (4), and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger (1 share each), for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Both orders were executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on December 19, 1942.[^11][^12] The Guardian described both companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the seizure of the Union Banking Corporation.[^13]
 ### The Guardian Account, 2004
-[[Ben Aris]] and [[Duncan Campbell]] reported in the Guardian in 2004 that the incorporation documents of the corporation "list him as one of seven directors" and show that Prescott Bush owned one share worth $125.[^11] They also reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation. Jones named the directors of the bank in that memorandum, including Bush, and wrote that the stock was "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^12]
+[[Ben Aris]] and [[Duncan Campbell]] reported in the Guardian in 2004 that the incorporation documents of the corporation "list him as one of seven directors" and show that Prescott Bush owned one share worth $125.[^14] They also reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation. Jones named the directors of the bank in that memorandum, including Bush, and wrote that the stock was "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^15]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
 [^2]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
 [^3]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, which gives the date of the report as "August 16 1941." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
-[^4]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), partner table pp. 231 to 235 and caption of the Pennington photograph pp. 197 to 198. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^4]: Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), reprint of the Woolley letter of January 14, 1941, the White reply of May 13, 1941 and the corporation's report of January 1, 1941, pp. 214 to 217, and the chapter's narrative of the directorship, pp. 222 to 223. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
-[^5]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
+[^5]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), partner table pp. 231 to 235 and caption of the Pennington photograph pp. 197 to 198. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
-[^6]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 103 (Table 7-1 and text on the 1932 directors and the joint Thyssen-Harriman operation) and pp. 106 to 107 (E. Roland Harriman).
+[^6]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
-[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983; Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection," with the table of the eight directors in 1932.
+[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 103 (Table 7-1 and text on the 1932 directors and the joint Thyssen-Harriman operation) and pp. 106 to 107 (E. Roland Harriman).
-[^8]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942, filed December 18, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626 to 10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
+[^8]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983; Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection," with the table of the eight directors in 1932.
-[^9]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
+[^9]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, *Twenty-Fifth Annual Report* (for the year 1939), pp. 16 to 17 and note 2 on the foreign exchange committee. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-reserve-bank-of-new-york-annual-report_1939-12-31
-[^10]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^10]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Circular No. 1015, "Appointment of Directors," January 8, 1931. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/ny%20circulars/1931_01015.pdf
-[^11]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^11]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942, filed December 18, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626 to 10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
-[^12]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the Homer Jones memorandum from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
+[^12]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
 [^13]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
 [^14]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
 [^15]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the Homer Jones memorandum from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale
@ -30,83 +30,83 @@ relations:
    role: "assistant professor of English; OSS Library Project collector in Istanbul from April 1943; returned to Yale in the summer of 1946"
    start: 1943
    end: 1946
-    fn: 24
+    fn: 27
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Richard Bissell]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "doctorate in economics, 1939; taught economics at Yale before moving to MIT in 1942"
    start: 1939
    end: 1942
-    fn: 33
+    fn: 36
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Sherman Kent]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "history professor before 1941; left for the OSS Research and Analysis Branch; returned in 1947 or 1949 (the CIA essays give both); left for the CIA in 1950"
    start: 1933
    end: 1950
-    fn: 32
+    fn: 35
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Mark A. May]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "professor of educational psychology; director of the Institute of Human Relations, 1935 to 1961"
    start: 1927
    end: 1960
-    fn: 36
+    fn: 39
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Stanley Milgram]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "conducted the obedience experiments in the Yale interaction laboratory; at Harvard by 1963"
    start: 1960
    end: 1963
-    fn: 39
+    fn: 42
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Myron S. Malkin]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "member of the physics faculty"
    start: 1952
    end: 1961
-    fn: 48
+    fn: 51
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[José M. R. Delgado]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "Department of Psychiatry; came to Yale in 1952 as an instructor"
    start: 1952
-    fn: 41
+    fn: 44
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Robert B. Livingston]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under John F. Fulton"
    start: 1946
    end: 1952
-    fn: 42
+    fn: 45
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Robert Byck]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine; testified before the House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control on July 26, 1979"
    start: 1979
    end: 1979
-    fn: 53
+    fn: 56
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[José A. Cabranes]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "general counsel and director of government relations"
    start: 1975
    end: 1979
-    fn: 58
+    fn: 62
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Richard Levin]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "twenty-second president"
    start: 1993
    end: 2013
-    fn: 77
+    fn: 81
  - type: funded
    with: "[[Thiel Foundation]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "$25,000 grant to Yale University for education, 2006"
    start: 2006
    end: 2006
-    fn: 76
+    fn: 80
 ---
 Yale University is a private university in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], chartered by the [[Connecticut Colony]] in 1701 as a collegiate school. Its senior society [[Skull and Bones]], its wartime faculty recruited into the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], its psychology, psychiatry and neurophysiology laboratories, and its alumni in the federal courts and the executive branch appear in the records of intelligence services, behavioral research, parapsychology, drug policy and finance.
@ -117,170 +117,180 @@ The General Court of the Colony of Connecticut passed an "Act for a Collegiate S
 ### Skull and Bones and the Russell Trust Association
-[[David A. Richards]], who is writing a history of American college societies and whose name the magazine's editors note appears in the Class of 1967 list of Skull and Bones members, wrote in the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015 that Skull and Bones was founded in 1832 on the conception of [[William Huntington Russell]], the valedictorian of the Class of 1833, with [[Alphonso Taft]] as a cofounder, and that its members called it the Eulogian Club before a skull and crossbones sketched on a chapel-door notice gave it its name and its badge number, 322. He wrote that in 1856 the society's alumni incorporated it in Connecticut as a trust called the Russell Trust Association, so that a corporation could hold title to the windowless "tomb" on High Street, which was later estimated to have cost about $30,000.[^3] A reader's letter in the same magazine, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book *The China Mirage*, stated that the money for the 1856 building was "Russell money" traced to [[Russell and Company]] of Canton, "America's biggest smuggler of Turkish opium into China."[^4] The Connecticut Secretary of the State's business registry lists "The Russell Trust Association" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," status "Active," account number 0269315.[^5]
+[[David A. Richards]], who is writing a history of American college societies and whose name the magazine's editors note appears in the Class of 1967 list of Skull and Bones members, wrote in the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015 that Skull and Bones was founded in 1832 on the conception of [[William Huntington Russell]], the valedictorian of the Class of 1833, with [[Alphonso Taft]] as a cofounder, and that its members called it the Eulogian Club before a skull and crossbones sketched on a chapel-door notice gave it its name and its badge number, 322. He wrote that in 1856 the society's alumni incorporated it in Connecticut as a trust called the Russell Trust Association, so that a corporation could hold title to the windowless "tomb" on High Street, which was later estimated to have cost about $30,000.[^3] [[Lyman Bagg]] wrote in *[[Four Years at Yale]]* (1871) that "General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder."[^4] A reader's letter in the same magazine, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book *The China Mirage*, stated that the money for the 1856 building was "Russell money" traced to [[Russell and Company]] of Canton, "America's biggest smuggler of Turkish opium into China."[^5] The Hamlin genealogy of 1900 records that the founder of Russell and Company, Samuel Russell (born at Middletown on August 25, 1789), and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, both descended from William Russell, a son of the Yale founder, the Rev. Noadiah Russell.[^6] Yale's obituary notice of William Huntington Russell describes him as "a descendant from one of the founders of the College, each link of the descent having been in his turn a graduate and officer of the institution."[^7] The Connecticut Secretary of the State's business registry lists "The Russell Trust Association" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," status "Active," account number 0269315.[^8]
-[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists, among the undergraduate honors of Stimson, B.A. 1888, "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^6] Rosenbaum also wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society.[^7] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^8] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^9]
+[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists, among the undergraduate honors of Stimson, B.A. 1888, "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^9] Rosenbaum also wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society: one could ask "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," and "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^10] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^11] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^12]
-[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^10] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^11]
+[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^13] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^14]
-The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^12] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^13]
+The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^15] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^16]
-A special act of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856 incorporated the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only"; the act limited its holdings of real and personal estate to fifteen thousand dollars, and an act approved July 9, 1943 raised the limit to seven hundred thousand dollars.[^14] In 1961 the members incorporated RTA Incorporated as a Connecticut nonstock corporation "for exclusively educational purposes," including "the support of education at Yale University," with its assets on dissolution payable to Yale University.[^15] RTA Incorporated (EIN 06-0768741) is recognized by the [[Internal Revenue Service]] as a section 501(c)(3) organization and reports itself as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization of Yale University; its return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 reports total assets of $16,127,481, and the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890 for the period ending June 2025.[^16][^17] A Yale spokeswoman told the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2009 that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^18]
+A special act of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856 incorporated the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only"; the act limited its holdings of real and personal estate to fifteen thousand dollars, and an act approved July 9, 1943 raised the limit to seven hundred thousand dollars.[^17] In 1961 the members incorporated RTA Incorporated as a Connecticut nonstock corporation "for exclusively educational purposes," including "the support of education at Yale University," with its assets on dissolution payable to Yale University.[^18] RTA Incorporated (EIN 06-0768741) is recognized by the [[Internal Revenue Service]] as a section 501(c)(3) organization and reports itself as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization of Yale University; its return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 reports total assets of $16,127,481, and the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890 for the period ending June 2025.[^19][^20] A Yale spokeswoman told the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2009 that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^21]
-[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s book states that the Sterling Library at Yale, which holds major holdings of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to the Russell Trust papers.[^19] Ron Rosenbaum reported in 1977 that he found the File and Claw pamphlet in the library's manuscript room, filed under the corporate name Russell Trust Association.[^20]
+[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s book states that the Sterling Library at Yale, which holds major holdings of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to the Russell Trust papers.[^22] Ron Rosenbaum reported in 1977 that he found the File and Claw pamphlet in the library's manuscript room, filed under the corporate name Russell Trust Association.[^23]
-In 2017 a pro se complaint, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), named Yale University, the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush and Willard Mitt Romney as defendants. It alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]] and asked for its return for burial in Mexico City. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^21] In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, twenty descendants of Geronimo sued Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones in 2009 over the removal of Geronimo's remains, which the opinion places "in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] dismissed the complaint as to all defendants in a memorandum opinion of July 27, 2010.[^22] The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 a letter of June 7, 1918 from one member to another stating that the skull of Geronimo had been taken from [[Fort Sill]] and was "safe inside" the society's building.[^23]
+In 2017 a pro se complaint, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), named Yale University, the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush and Willard Mitt Romney as defendants. It alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]] and asked for its return for burial in Mexico City. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^24] In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, twenty descendants of Geronimo sued Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones in 2009 over the removal of Geronimo's remains, which the opinion places "in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] dismissed the complaint as to all defendants in a memorandum opinion of July 27, 2010.[^25] The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 a letter of June 7, 1918 from one member to another stating that the skull of Geronimo had been taken from [[Fort Sill]] and was "safe inside" the society's building.[^26]
 ### The Library Project, the Research and Analysis Branch and X-2
-Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^24] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^25] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^26]
+Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^27] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^28] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^29]
-[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^27] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^28] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^29] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^30]
+[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^30] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^31] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^32] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^33]
-[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^31] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^32]
+[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^34] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^35]
-[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^33] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^34]
+[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^36] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^37]
 ### The 1958 Conference on America's Human Resources
-A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^35]
+A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^38]
 ### The Institute of Human Relations and behavioral research
-The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^36] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^37]
+The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^39] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^40]
-The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^38]
+The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^41]
-[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^39]
+[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^42]
 ### Neuroelectric research, psychoenergetics and the STARGATE file
-[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^40] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^41]
+[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^43] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^44]
-The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^42]
+The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^45]
-[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^43] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^44] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^45]
+[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^46] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^47] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^48]
-A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^46] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^47]
+A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^49] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^50]
 ### Physics, the Space Shuttle and Dimona
-[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^48] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^49]
+[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^51] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^52]
 ### Walt Rostow, Eugene Rostow and the Yale Law School
-[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^50] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^51] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^52]
+[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^53] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^54] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^55]
 ### Pharmacology and the 1979 cocaine hearings
-[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^53] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^54] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^55]
+[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^56] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^57] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^58]
 ### Yale-China
-The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^56] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^57]
+The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^59] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^60]
 ### Courts, the Law School and the executive branch
-[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^58] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^59]
+Alphonso Taft, Yale class of 1833, was a tutor at Yale from 1835 to 1837 and a member of the Yale Corporation from 1872 to 1882; Yale gave him the LL.D. in 1867.[^61] His son [[William Howard Taft]], Yale class of 1878, held the Kent Professorship of Law in Yale College and the professorship of constitutional law in the Law School from 1913 to 1921. He was a member of the Yale Corporation from 1906 to 1913 and again from 1922 to 1925.[^61]
-[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^60] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^61] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^62] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^63] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^64] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^65] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^66]
+[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^62] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^63]
-Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^67] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^68] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^69] [[Cory Booker]],[^70] [[Ro Khanna]],[^71] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^72] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^73] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^74] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^75]
+[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^64] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^65] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^66] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^67] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^68] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^69] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^70]
 Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^71] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^72] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^73] [[Cory Booker]],[^74] [[Ro Khanna]],[^75] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^76] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^77] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^78] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^79]
 ### Money, presidents and families
-The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^76] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^77] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^78] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^79] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^80]
+The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^80] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^81] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^82] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^83] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^84]
-The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^81] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^82] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^83] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^84]
+The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^85] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^86] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^87] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^88]
-Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^85] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^86] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^87]
+Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^89] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^90] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^91]
 [[Oliver Hazard Payne]], Yale B.A. 1863, left one million dollars to the university by his will; he died in New York City on June 27, 1917.[^92] In June 1916 his nephew [[Payne Whitney]], Yale 1898, formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. A Yale record of one of its members says the corps was formed that month, and that [[F. Trubee Davison]], Yale 1918, organized Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1.[^93]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: "Act for a Collegiate School," General Court of the Colony of Connecticut, October 1701 session, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from August, 1689, to May, 1706*, ed. J. Hammond Trumbull (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1868), pp. 363-364. https://archive.org/details/bwb_P9-CDP-546
 [^2]: "An Act for the more full and compleat Establishment of Yale College in New Haven, and for enlarging the Powers and Priviledges thereof," General Court, May 1745, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from May, 1744, to November, 1750*, ed. Charles J. Hoadly (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1876), pp. 113-114. https://archive.org/details/publicrecordsofc009conn
 [^3]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
-[^4]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article; the letter cites James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
+[^4]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), p. 146. https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
-[^5]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315); record "RTA INCORPORATED" (account number 0059060, registered April 14, 1961, 64 High Street, New Haven), the successor corporation. https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json
+[^5]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article; the letter cites James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
-[^6]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
+[^6]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302], [307] and [638]. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
-[^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
+[^7]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, p. 241. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
-[^8]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/
+[^8]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315); record "RTA INCORPORATED" (account number 0059060, registered April 14, 1961, 64 High Street, New Haven), the successor corporation. https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json
-[^9]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
+[^9]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
-[^10]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
+[^10]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
-[^11]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
+[^11]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/
-[^12]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
+[^12]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
-[^13]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220.
+[^13]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
-[^14]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the 1856 act incorporating the Russell Trust Association and the 1943 amending act, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
+[^14]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
-[^15]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 697 to 700; Connecticut Business Registry, account 0059060 (registered April 14, 1961). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
+[^15]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
-[^16]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021, Schedule A. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
+[^16]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220.
-[^17]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06. https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
+[^17]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the 1856 act incorporating the Russell Trust Association and the 1943 amending act, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
-[^18]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
+[^18]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 697 to 700; Connecticut Business Registry, account 0059060 (registered April 14, 1961). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
-[^19]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
+[^19]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021, Schedule A. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
-[^20]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
+[^20]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06. https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
-[^21]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 7, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
+[^21]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
-[^22]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
+[^22]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
-[^23]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
+[^23]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
-[^24]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
+[^24]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 7, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
-[^25]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
+[^25]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
-[^26]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
+[^26]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
-[^27]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
+[^27]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
-[^28]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
+[^28]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
-[^29]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
+[^29]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
-[^30]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
+[^30]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
-[^31]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
+[^31]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
-[^32]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
+[^32]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
-[^33]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
+[^33]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
-[^34]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
+[^34]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
-[^35]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
+[^35]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
-[^36]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
+[^36]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
-[^37]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
+[^37]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
-[^38]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
+[^38]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
-[^39]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551
+[^39]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
-[^40]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^40]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
-[^41]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^41]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
-[^42]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^42]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551
-[^43]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017).
+[^43]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
-[^44]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/
+[^44]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
-[^45]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^45]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
-[^46]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^46]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017).
-[^47]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^47]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/
-[^48]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html
+[^48]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
-[^49]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12.
+[^49]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
-[^50]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
+[^50]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
-[^51]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america
+[^51]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html
-[^52]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
+[^52]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12.
-[^53]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
+[^53]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
-[^54]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
+[^54]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america
-[^55]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15.
+[^55]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
-[^56]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/
+[^56]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
-[^57]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365
+[^57]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
-[^58]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
+[^58]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15.
-[^59]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
+[^59]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/
-[^60]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt
+[^60]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365
-[^61]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org.
+[^61]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72, including the entry for his father ("Alphonso Taft (B A. 1833, LL.D. 1867) ... tutor at Yale 1835-37; member of Yale Corporation 1872-1882") and "Yale Corporation 1906-1913 and again 1922-25 ... Kent professor of law in Yale College and professor of constitutional law in the Law School 1913-1921." https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
-[^62]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*.
+[^62]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
-[^63]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts
+[^63]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
-[^64]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006).
+[^64]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt
-[^65]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205.
+[^65]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org.
-[^66]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page.
+[^66]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*.
-[^67]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
+[^67]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts
-[^68]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/
+[^68]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006).
-[^69]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html
+[^69]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205.
-[^70]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory
+[^70]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page.
-[^71]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
+[^71]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
-[^72]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016).
+[^72]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/
-[^73]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
+[^73]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html
-[^74]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
+[^74]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory
-[^75]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
+[^75]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
-[^76]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf
+[^76]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016).
-[^77]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/
+[^77]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
-[^78]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
+[^78]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
-[^79]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf
+[^79]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
-[^80]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025.
+[^80]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf
-[^81]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder
+[^81]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/
-[^82]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page.
+[^82]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
-[^83]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/
+[^83]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf
-[^84]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ
+[^84]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025.
-[^85]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846
+[^85]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder
-[^86]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
+[^86]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page.
-[^87]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf
+[^87]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/
 [^88]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ
 [^89]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846
 [^90]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
 [^91]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf
 [^92]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (bequests of one million dollars each to Yale, the New York Public Library and Lakeside Hospital; death June 27, 1917). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
 [^93]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916, Sheffield Scientific School ("formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916"; Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 organized by F. Trubee Davison, B.A. 1918). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
--- a/PROJECTS/HISTORICAL_PROGRAMS/Point
+++ b/PROJECTS/HISTORICAL_PROGRAMS/Point
@ -6,9 +6,9 @@ tags:
  - Development
  - ColdWar
  - Truman
-summary: "President Truman's Point Four Program (1949) was the first U.S. foreign technical assistance program aimed at the developing world, providing the institutional template that Nelson Rockefeller later built on in his International Development Advisory Board proposals."
+summary: "President Truman's Point Four Program (1949) was the first U.S. foreign technical assistance program aimed at the developing world, the template Nelson Rockefeller later built on in his International Development Advisory Board proposals."
 created: 2026-06-05
-updated: 2026-06-05
+updated: 2026-10-26
 ---
 The Point Four Program was [[Harry Truman]]'s 1949 foreign technical assistance initiative, the first comprehensive US program exporting American scientific and technological expertise to developing countries as a tool of foreign policy. Named for the fourth point of Truman's January 20, 1949 inaugural address, it established the bilateral technical assistance model that [[Nelson Rockefeller]] had pioneered through the [[CIAA]] during World War II. Rockefeller chaired Truman's International Development Advisory Board that designed the program's institutional framework, effectively transferring the CIAA model into peacetime foreign policy and creating the architecture his own [[AIA]] (American International Association) would draw on as a major contractor.
@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ The immediate impetus came from [[White House]] assistants [[Clark Clifford]] an
 ### Legislation and Appropriations
-The program was formally authorized by Title IV of the Foreign Economic Assistance Act of 1950, signed by Truman as Public Law 535 on June 5, 1950. The legislative path was contested: [[Judge John Kee]], chairman of the [[House Foreign Affairs Committee]], introduced H.R. 5615 on July 12, 1949. Competing versions were introduced by Kee and Representative [[Christian Herter]] on January 18, 1950. [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] hearings began March 30, 1950, with Secretary of State Acheson testifying in favor. Senators [[Eugene Millikin]] and [[Robert Taft]] led opposition. The first Point Four bilateral agreements were signed with Iran, Jordan, the Philippines, and Brazil in 1950.[^3]
+The program was formally authorized by Title IV of the Foreign Economic Assistance Act of 1950, signed by Truman as Public Law 535 on June 5, 1950. The legislative path was contested: [[Judge John Kee]], chairman of the [[House Foreign Affairs Committee]], introduced H.R. 5615 on July 12, 1949. Competing versions were introduced by Kee and Representative [[Christian Herter]] on January 18, 1950. [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] hearings began March 30, 1950, with Secretary of State Acheson testifying in favor. Senators [[Eugene Millikin]] and [[Robert A. Taft]] led opposition. The first Point Four bilateral agreements were signed with Iran, Jordan, the Philippines, and Brazil in 1950.[^3]
 The administration's original request was $45,000,000 for technical assistance. The House reduced this to $25,000,000; the conference report settled on an authorized level of $35,000,000. Final appropriation for fiscal year 1951, enacted in the omnibus appropriations bill on September 6, 1950, was $34,500,000. Appropriations expanded sharply: the [[Technical Cooperation Administration]] received approximately $127,000,000 for fiscal year 1952 and $140,000,000 for fiscal year 1953, with total TCA spending for fiscal years 1952 and 1953 combined exceeding $300,000,000.[^4]
--- a/EVENTS/INTELLIGENCE_SCANDALS/Church
+++ b/EVENTS/INTELLIGENCE_SCANDALS/Church
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-05-17
-updated: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-26
 title: Church Committee
 aliases:
  - Church Committee
@ -178,13 +178,18 @@ President Ford created the Rockefeller Commission (Commission on CIA Activities
 The House Select Committee on Intelligence, known as the Pike Committee after [[Otis Pike]], ran in parallel with the Church Committee in 1975 and 1976. The House established the committee by H. Res. 138 on February 19, 1975 and reconstituted it by H. Res. 591 on July 17, 1975.[^65] The papers of Richard Ober at the [[Hoover Institution]] list Pike Committee files alongside the Church Committee and Rockefeller Commission files.[^66]
 ### CIA use of private foundations
 The committee's report on foreign and military intelligence states: "Until 1967 the Agency also maintained covert ties to American foundations in order to pass funds secretly to private groups whose work the CIA supported."[^67] It says that most of those funds "were transmitted through legitimate or 'devised' foundations," which it describes as "fictitious entities established by the CIA." Excluding the Ford, Rockefeller and Carnegie foundations, the report counts 700 grants over $10,000 made by 164 foundations in 1963 to 1966, of which at least 108 involved partial or complete CIA funding.[^67] The report quotes a 1966 CIA study describing legitimate foundations as "particularly effective for democratically-run membership organizations."[^68]
 ### Successor committees and executive order
-The Senate created the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] by S. Res. 400 of the 94th Congress, second session, introduced on March 1, 1976 and agreed to on May 19, 1976, to oversee intelligence activities and to make continuing studies of them.[^67] The [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] followed as the House counterpart.[^68]
+The Senate created the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] by S. Res. 400 of the 94th Congress, second session, introduced on March 1, 1976 and agreed to on May 19, 1976, to oversee intelligence activities and to make continuing studies of them.[^69] The [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] followed as the House counterpart.[^70]
-President Ford signed Executive Order 11905 on February 18, 1976. Section (g) provides that "No employee of the United States Government shall engage in, or conspire to engage in, political assassination."[^69] The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 created a judicial framework for domestic national security surveillance.[^70]
+President Ford signed Executive Order 11905 on February 18, 1976. Section (g) provides that "No employee of the United States Government shall engage in, or conspire to engage in, political assassination."[^71] The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 created a judicial framework for domestic national security surveillance.[^72]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, April 26, 1976. https://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book1/
 [^2]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Hearings*, vol. 1, "Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents," title page ("Senate Resolution 21"), and vols. 1 to 7 (vol. 2, "Huston Plan," September 23 to 25, 1975; vol. 3, "Internal Revenue Service"; vol. 4, "Mail Opening," October 21, 22 and 24, 1975; vol. 5, "National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights"; vol. 6, "Federal Bureau of Investigation," November and December 1975; vol. 7, "Covert Action," December 4 and 5, 1975). https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
 [^3]: United States Senate, "Church Committee Created," Senate Historical Office (final report issued April 29, 1976; 126 full committee meetings, 40 subcommittee hearings, about 800 witnesses, 110,000 documents). https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/investigations/church-committee.htm
@ -251,7 +256,9 @@ President Ford signed Executive Order 11905 on February 18, 1976. Section (g) pr
 [^64]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, February 29, 2016, Document 15 (Cheney's handwritten edits, c. June 1, 1975) and Document 19 (the 86-page section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders," June 5, 1975). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report
 [^65]: H. Res. 138, 94th Cong. (agreed to February 19, 1975); H. Res. 591, 94th Cong. (introduced July 11, 1975; agreed to July 17, 1975), "Resolution establishing a Select Committee on Intelligence." https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/94/hres138 ; https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/94/hres591
 [^66]: Richard Ober Papers, Hoover Institution Library and Archives, finding aid (Pike Committee, Church Committee and Rockefeller Commission files).
-[^67]: S. Res. 400, 94th Cong., 2d Sess. (introduced March 1, 1976; agreed to May 19, 1976), "A resolution to establish a Standing Committee of the Senate on Intelligence Activities." https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/94/sres400 ; Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, text of the resolution. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/about-the-committee/s-res-400/
+[^67]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), pp. 182 to 183. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
-[^68]: House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, committee history. https://intelligence.house.gov/
+[^68]: The same, p. 183 (the 1966 CIA study passage).
-[^69]: Executive Order 11905, "United States Foreign Intelligence Activities," February 18, 1976, sec. (g), "Prohibition of Assassination." https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11905-united-states-foreign-intelligence-activities
+[^69]: S. Res. 400, 94th Cong., 2d Sess. (introduced March 1, 1976; agreed to May 19, 1976), "A resolution to establish a Standing Committee of the Senate on Intelligence Activities." https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/94/sres400 ; Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, text of the resolution. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/about-the-committee/s-res-400/
-[^70]: Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, Pub. L. 95-511, 92 Stat. 1783.
+[^70]: House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, committee history. https://intelligence.house.gov/
 [^71]: Executive Order 11905, "United States Foreign Intelligence Activities," February 18, 1976, sec. (g), "Prohibition of Assassination." https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11905-united-states-foreign-intelligence-activities
 [^72]: Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, Pub. L. 95-511, 92 Stat. 1783.
--- a/EVENTS/MAJOR_CONFLICTS/Cuban
+++ b/EVENTS/MAJOR_CONFLICTS/Cuban
@ -16,6 +16,15 @@ summary: "Thirteen-day nuclear confrontation of October 1962, resolved when the
 start: 1962-10-16
 end: 1962-10-28
 location: "Cuba / Caribbean"
 updated: 2026-10-26
 relations:
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Robert A. Lovett]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "listed among others present at the National Security Council meeting of October 21, 1962; attended a planning meeting on October 24, 1962"
    start: 1962-10-21
    end: 1962-10-24
    fn: 2
 ---
 The Cuban Missile Crisis was a thirteen-day confrontation between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] in October 1962, precipitated by American aerial reconnaissance revealing the construction of Soviet nuclear missile launch sites in [[Cuba]]. The crisis began on October 16, 1962, when President [[John F. Kennedy]] was informed of the installations, and ended on October 28, when Soviet Premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]] announced the withdrawal of Soviet missiles from Cuba in exchange for American security guarantees and a secret agreement on American missiles in Turkey.[^1]
@ -30,9 +39,11 @@ Khrushchev's decision to deploy medium and intermediate-range ballistic missiles
 Kennedy's inner circle, the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (ExComm), debated responses ranging from an immediate air strike to diplomatic negotiations. Kennedy chose a naval quarantine - designated a "quarantine" rather than a "blockade" for legal reasons - requiring Soviet ships approaching Cuba to submit to inspection. Soviet ships initially appeared to be approaching and then turned back.
 Former Secretary of Defense [[Robert A. Lovett]] attended the meeting of October 21, 1962, the 506th meeting of the National Security Council, where the minutes list him among the others present, and on October 24, 1962 he took part in a meeting that [[Walt Rostow|Walt Whitman Rostow]] described as the planning subcommittee of the Executive Committee of the National Security Council.[^2][^3] The planning meeting, with representatives of State and Defense and the Attorney General, considered how to handle Soviet vessels that had altered course and those still bound for Cuba.[^3]
 The most dangerous days came when U-2 reconnaissance aircraft were shot down over Cuba and Soviet submarines were depth-charged by American forces. Back-channel negotiations, including communication through Soviet intelligence officer Aleksandr Feklisov, helped establish the terms of resolution. The final agreement involved the public Soviet pledge to remove missiles, the American public pledge not to invade Cuba, and a secret American undertaking - revealed only decades later - to remove Jupiter missiles from Turkey within several months.[^1]
-The CIA's role during the crisis included the aerial reconnaissance that discovered the missiles and operational planning for responses including an air strike that ExComm ultimately rejected. CIA officer [[William Harvey|Bill Harvey]] ordered agent teams into Cuba during the crisis to support any conventional U.S. military operation that might occur. Harvey testified that [[Robert Kennedy]] "took a great deal of exception" to the order, and that CIA Director [[John McCone]] then ordered the agent operations stopped.[^2] McCone's executive assistant, [[Walter Elder]], described the episode as Harvey having "earned another black mark as not being fully under control," and said Harvey had attempted to get guidance from top officials during the crisis.[^2] Harvey was appointed chief of station at [[Rome]] effective on or about June 30, 1963.[^3]
+The CIA's role during the crisis included the aerial reconnaissance that discovered the missiles and operational planning for responses including an air strike that ExComm ultimately rejected. CIA officer [[William Harvey|Bill Harvey]] ordered agent teams into Cuba during the crisis to support any conventional U.S. military operation that might occur. Harvey testified that [[Robert Kennedy]] "took a great deal of exception" to the order, and that CIA Director [[John McCone]] then ordered the agent operations stopped.[^4] McCone's executive assistant, [[Walter Elder]], described the episode as Harvey having "earned another black mark as not being fully under control," and said Harvey had attempted to get guidance from top officials during the crisis.[^4] Harvey was appointed chief of station at [[Rome]] effective on or about June 30, 1963.[^5]
 ### Aftermath
@ -41,5 +52,7 @@ The crisis produced the Moscow-Washington hotline (the "red phone"), a direct co
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: Kennedy, Robert F. *Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis.* W.W. Norton, 1969 (Kennedy's account as Attorney General and ExComm member). Fursenko, Aleksandr, and Timothy Naftali. *One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, 1958-1964.* W.W. Norton, 1997 (uses Soviet and Cuban archives). Blight, James, and David Welch. *On the Brink: Americans and Soviets Reexamine the Cuban Missile Crisis.* Hill and Wang, 1989.
-[^2]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, November 20, 1975, p. 149 n. 1, citing Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 80-81, and Walter Elder testimony of August 13, 1975, pp. 34-35. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^2]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, volume XI, Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath, document 38, minutes of the 506th meeting of the National Security Council, October 21, 1962 (Oval Room; "Others: Mr. Robert Lovett"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d38
-[^3]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Appointment of Mr. William K. Harvey Chief of Station, Rome, Italy," June 12, 1963. Reading room document 01228805, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01228805
+[^3]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, volume XI, document 57, memorandum from Walt W. Rostow, chairman of the Planning Subcommittee of the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, to President Kennedy, October 24, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d57
 [^4]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, November 20, 1975, p. 149 n. 1, citing Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 80-81, and Walter Elder testimony of August 13, 1975, pp. 34-35. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^5]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Appointment of Mr. William K. Harvey Chief of Station, Rome, Italy," June 12, 1963. Reading room document 01228805, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01228805
--- a/TECHNOLOGY/Eugenics.md
+++ b/TECHNOLOGY/Eugenics.md
@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ tags:
  - HumanBiodiversity
  - Transhumanism
  - TESCREAL
-summary: "Eugenics is the project of improving the human species through controlled reproduction, named by Francis Galton in 1883, which drove sterilization and immigration laws and the Holocaust, was repackaged after the war as race-and-intelligence research, and is identified by critics as a root of the transhumanist and longtermist worldview."
+summary: "Project of improving the species through controlled reproduction, named by Francis Galton in 1883, which drove sterilization laws and the Holocaust, was repackaged as race science, and is tied by critics to longtermism."
 location: "United Kingdom; United States"
 created: 2026-06-20
 updated: 2026-10-26
@ -19,27 +19,27 @@ Eugenics is the project of improving the genetic quality of the human population
 Galton set out the idea in *Hereditary Genius* (1869), arguing that talent and character are inherited and that the human stock could be improved by encouraging the able to have more children. The movement he founded split into "positive" eugenics, promoting reproduction among the favored, and "negative" eugenics, preventing it among the unfit, and it spread rapidly through the British and American professional classes in the early twentieth century. In Britain the [[Eugenics Society]], founded in 1907 as the Eugenics Education Society, gathered scientists and reformers, and Galton endowed a chair and laboratory at [[University College London]].[^1][^3]
-In the United States the movement acquired the machinery of the state. The biologist [[Charles Davenport]] established the Eugenics Record Office at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] in 1910, funded by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, widow of the railroad financier [[E. H. Harriman]] and mother of [[W. Averell Harriman]], and later maintained by the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], which accepted the office from her as a gift,[^4][^5] to catalog American family pedigrees for "defective" traits. Eugenic argument shaped the [[Immigration Act of 1924]], which set national-origin quotas to limit southern and eastern European and Asian immigration, and underwrote compulsory-sterilization laws in more than thirty states. In *Buck v. Bell* (1927) the Supreme Court upheld the sterilization of Carrie Buck, with Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] writing "three generations of imbeciles are enough"; an estimated sixty thousand Americans were sterilized under such laws.[^2][^6]
+In the United States the movement acquired the machinery of the state. The biologist [[Charles Davenport]] established the Eugenics Record Office at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] in 1910, funded by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, widow of the railroad financier [[E. H. Harriman]] and mother of [[W. Averell Harriman]], and later maintained by the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], which accepted the office from her as a gift,[^4][^5] to catalog American family pedigrees for "defective" traits. Eugenic argument shaped the [[Immigration Act of 1924]], which set national-origin quotas to limit southern and eastern European and Asian immigration, and underwrote compulsory-sterilization laws in more than thirty states. In *Buck v. Bell* (1927) the Supreme Court upheld the sterilization of Carrie Buck, with Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] writing "three generations of imbeciles are enough"; an estimated sixty thousand Americans were sterilized under such laws.[^2][^6] The Third International Congress of Eugenics was held in the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in New York from August 21 to 23, 1932, during the presidency of [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]].[^7]
 ### Nazi Germany and the Postwar Discrediting
-Germany's eugenicists drew directly on the American model. The 1933 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring, which authorized the sterilization of some four hundred thousand people, was modeled in part on the California statute, and American eugenicists praised the German program before the war. The Nazi regime escalated from sterilization to the "T4" murder of disabled people and then to the racial extermination of the Holocaust, carried out in the name of racial hygiene.[^2][^7]
+Germany's eugenicists drew directly on the American model. The 1933 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring, which authorized the sterilization of some four hundred thousand people, was modeled in part on the California statute, and American eugenicists praised the German program before the war. The Nazi regime escalated from sterilization to the "T4" murder of disabled people and then to the racial extermination of the Holocaust, carried out in the name of racial hygiene.[^2][^8]
-The association with Nazi crimes discredited open eugenics after 1945, and the field publicly dissolved: the American Eugenics Society renamed itself the Society for the Study of Social Biology in 1972, and the British Eugenics Society became the Galton Institute. [[Julian Huxley]], who served as president of the British Eugenics Society from 1959 to 1962, argued for a reformed "evolutionary humanist" eugenics and, in 1957, coined the modern usage of "transhumanism" for the project of the species transcending itself through deliberate effort.[^3][^8]
+The association with Nazi crimes discredited open eugenics after 1945, and the field publicly dissolved: the American Eugenics Society renamed itself the Society for the Study of Social Biology in 1972, and the British Eugenics Society became the Galton Institute. [[Julian Huxley]], who served as president of the British Eugenics Society from 1959 to 1962, argued for a reformed "evolutionary humanist" eugenics and, in 1957, coined the modern usage of "transhumanism" for the project of the species transcending itself through deliberate effort.[^3][^9]
 ### Postwar Repackaging as Race Science
-The hereditarian study of race and intelligence continued through a small, well-funded network. The [[Pioneer Fund]], established in 1937 to promote "race betterment," financed researchers including [[Arthur Jensen]], whose 1969 article argued that the black-white IQ gap was substantially genetic, the physicist [[William Shockley]], who advocated paying low-IQ people to be sterilized, and later [[Richard Lynn]] and [[J. Philippe Rushton]], and it supported the journal [[Mankind Quarterly]]. [[Charles Murray]] and [[Richard Herrnstein]]'s *[[The Bell Curve]]* (1994) brought the race-and-IQ thesis to a mass audience, citing thirteen Pioneer Fund-funded scholars.[^9][^10]
+The hereditarian study of race and intelligence continued through a small, well-funded network. The [[Pioneer Fund]], established in 1937 to promote "race betterment," financed researchers including [[Arthur Jensen]], whose 1969 article argued that the black-white IQ gap was substantially genetic, the physicist [[William Shockley]], who advocated paying low-IQ people to be sterilized, and later [[Richard Lynn]] and [[J. Philippe Rushton]], and it supported the journal [[Mankind Quarterly]]. [[Charles Murray]] and [[Richard Herrnstein]]'s *[[The Bell Curve]]* (1994) brought the race-and-IQ thesis to a mass audience, citing thirteen Pioneer Fund-funded scholars.[^10][^11]
-The same claims circulated under the euphemism [[Human Biodiversity|human biodiversity]], popularized by [[Steve Sailer]], and through the secret [[London Conference on Intelligence]] held at University College London from 2014 to 2017. Mainstream genetics and psychology reject the genetic-gap thesis, holding that race is not a valid biological category for the claims made and that group differences in test scores reflect environmental and social factors.[^10][^11]
+The same claims circulated under the euphemism [[Human Biodiversity|human biodiversity]], popularized by [[Steve Sailer]], and through the secret [[London Conference on Intelligence]] held at University College London from 2014 to 2017. Mainstream genetics and psychology reject the genetic-gap thesis, holding that race is not a valid biological category for the claims made and that group differences in test scores reflect environmental and social factors.[^11][^12]
 ### The New Eugenics
-A "liberal eugenics" reappeared in academic bioethics, framed as private parental choice rather than state coercion. The Oxford bioethicist [[Julian Savulescu]] argued in 2001 for "procreative beneficence," the claim that parents using in-vitro fertilization have a moral reason to select the embryo expected to have the best life, including for non-disease traits. Companies such as [[Genomic Prediction]] began offering polygenic-score screening of embryos for traits including predicted intelligence, and in 2018 the Chinese scientist [[He Jiankui]] announced the birth of the first gene-edited human babies, made with CRISPR, drawing global condemnation.[^12][^13]
+A "liberal eugenics" reappeared in academic bioethics, framed as private parental choice rather than state coercion. The Oxford bioethicist [[Julian Savulescu]] argued in 2001 for "procreative beneficence," the claim that parents using in-vitro fertilization have a moral reason to select the embryo expected to have the best life, including for non-disease traits. Companies such as [[Genomic Prediction]] began offering polygenic-score screening of embryos for traits including predicted intelligence, and in 2018 the Chinese scientist [[He Jiankui]] announced the birth of the first gene-edited human babies, made with CRISPR, drawing global condemnation.[^13][^14]
 ### The TESCREAL Argument
-The philosopher [[Émile P. Torres]] and the computer scientist [[Timnit Gebru]] argue that the bundle of ideologies they label [[TESCREAL]], spanning transhumanism, [[Extropianism|extropianism]], singularitarianism, cosmism, rationalism, [[Effective Altruism|effective altruism]], and longtermism, descends from the same Anglo-American eugenics tradition and reproduces its logic of ranking and improving human cognitive capacity. They point to the recurrence of hereditarian and race-science claims among prominent figures in the movement, including the 1996 email in which [[Nick Bostrom]] asserted that black people are less intelligent than white people, and to the project, common across the bundle, of engineering a superior posthuman successor to current humanity.[^14][^15]
+The philosopher [[Émile P. Torres]] and the computer scientist [[Timnit Gebru]] argue that the bundle of ideologies they label [[TESCREAL]], spanning transhumanism, [[Extropianism|extropianism]], singularitarianism, cosmism, rationalism, [[Effective Altruism|effective altruism]], and longtermism, descends from the same Anglo-American eugenics tradition and reproduces its logic of ranking and improving human cognitive capacity. They point to the recurrence of hereditarian and race-science claims among prominent figures in the movement, including the 1996 email in which [[Nick Bostrom]] asserted that black people are less intelligent than white people, and to the project, common across the bundle, of engineering a superior posthuman successor to current humanity.[^15][^16]
 ### Footnotes
@ -49,12 +49,13 @@ The philosopher [[Émile P. Torres]] and the computer scientist [[Timnit Gebru]]
 [^4]: "Harriman philanthropy to have a board of scientific directors," *The New York Times*, Sunday issue, as transcribed by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory DNA Learning Center: the office "was established at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., in October, 1910, by Mrs. E. H. Harriman"; her contributions over an eight-year period "amounted to more than $500,000"; "additional assistance of John D. Rockefeller and others." https://dnalc.cshl.edu/view/10495-%2DHarriman-philanthropy-to-have-a-board-of-scientific-directors-The-New-York-Times.html
 [^5]: Image Archive on the American Eugenics Movement, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, ERO theme: Davenport persuaded "the widow of railroad baron E.H Harriman to donate $10,000" in 1910; items "Charles Davenport letter to Mrs. E.H. Harriman" and "Transfer of ERO," *Eugenical News* vol. 3 (Carnegie Institution accepts gift of the office from Mrs. E.H. Harriman). https://www.eugenicsarchive.org/html/eugenics/static/themes/20.html
 [^6]: *Buck v. Bell,* 274 U.S. 200 (1927), Holmes, J.; and "Three Generations, No Imbeciles," Paul A. Lombardo, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008.
-[^7]: Black, Edwin. *War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race.* Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003, on the American model for the 1933 German sterilization law.
+[^7]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1932*, reports on the Third International Congress of Eugenics held in the Museum, August 21 to 23, 1932. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/4c320241-c3ab-4722-b36b-e0e13566adab
-[^8]: Huxley, Julian. *New Bottles for New Wine.* Chatto and Windus, 1957, on "transhumanism"; and his presidency of the British Eugenics Society, 1959 to 1962.
+[^8]: Black, Edwin. *War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race.* Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003, on the American model for the 1933 German sterilization law.
-[^9]: "Pioneer Fund," Southern Poverty Law Center, on the 1937 founding, the "race betterment" mission, and the funding of Jensen, Shockley, Lynn, and Rushton. https://www.splcenter.org/resources/extremist-files/pioneer-fund/
+[^9]: Huxley, Julian. *New Bottles for New Wine.* Chatto and Windus, 1957, on "transhumanism"; and his presidency of the British Eugenics Society, 1959 to 1962.
-[^10]: Herrnstein, Richard J., and Charles Murray. *The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life.* Free Press, 1994, with the afterword acknowledging the Pioneer Fund-funded sources.
+[^10]: "Pioneer Fund," Southern Poverty Law Center, on the 1937 founding, the "race betterment" mission, and the funding of Jensen, Shockley, Lynn, and Rushton. https://www.splcenter.org/resources/extremist-files/pioneer-fund/
-[^11]: "Bad Science Revisited: 'The Bell Curve' Turns 30," *Mad in America,* March 2024, on the scientific rejection of the hereditarian race-IQ thesis. https://www.madinamerica.com/2024/03/bad-science-bell-curve/
+[^11]: Herrnstein, Richard J., and Charles Murray. *The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life.* Free Press, 1994, with the afterword acknowledging the Pioneer Fund-funded sources.
-[^12]: Savulescu, Julian. "Procreative Beneficence: Why We Should Select the Best Children." *Bioethics,* vol. 15, no. 5-6, 2001.
+[^12]: "Bad Science Revisited: 'The Bell Curve' Turns 30," *Mad in America,* March 2024, on the scientific rejection of the hereditarian race-IQ thesis. https://www.madinamerica.com/2024/03/bad-science-bell-curve/
-[^13]: "Chinese scientist who edited babies' genes jailed for three years," *The Guardian,* December 30, 2019, on He Jiankui and the 2018 CRISPR births. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/30/gene-editing-chinese-scientist-he-jiankui-jailed-three-years
+[^13]: Savulescu, Julian. "Procreative Beneficence: Why We Should Select the Best Children." *Bioethics,* vol. 15, no. 5-6, 2001.
-[^14]: Gebru, Timnit, and Émile P. Torres. "The TESCREAL bundle: Eugenics and the promise of utopia through artificial general intelligence." *First Monday,* April 2024. https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/13636
+[^14]: "Chinese scientist who edited babies' genes jailed for three years," *The Guardian,* December 30, 2019, on He Jiankui and the 2018 CRISPR births. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/30/gene-editing-chinese-scientist-he-jiankui-jailed-three-years
-[^15]: "Prominent AI Philosopher and 'Father' of Longtermism Sent Very Racist Email to a 90s Philosophy Listserv," *Vice,* January 2023, on the Bostrom email. https://www.vice.com/en/article/prominent-ai-philosopher-and-father-of-longtermism-sent-very-racist-email-to-a-90s-philosophy-listserv/
+[^15]: Gebru, Timnit, and Émile P. Torres. "The TESCREAL bundle: Eugenics and the promise of utopia through artificial general intelligence." *First Monday,* April 2024. https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/13636
 [^16]: "Prominent AI Philosopher and 'Father' of Longtermism Sent Very Racist Email to a 90s Philosophy Listserv," *Vice,* January 2023, on the Bostrom email. https://www.vice.com/en/article/prominent-ai-philosopher-and-father-of-longtermism-sent-very-racist-email-to-a-90s-philosophy-listserv/
--- a/PLACES/COUNTRIES/Nicaragua.md
+++ b/PLACES/COUNTRIES/Nicaragua.md
@ -19,7 +19,9 @@ Nicaragua is a [[Central America|Central American]] nation that was ruled by the
 ### Customs Loans, 1911 to 1912
-[[Brown Brothers Harriman|Brown Brothers & Co.]] and J. & W. Seligman & Co. made a temporary loan of $1,500,000 to the Republic under an agreement of September 1, 1911, nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]] as Collector General of Customs, and on August 2, 1912 wrote the Secretary of State that the entire capital stock of the National Bank of Nicaragua was pledged to them and that "the Bank is under our management and control."[^3] A 1914 Senate Committee on Foreign Relations hearing printed a list of five agreements between the Republic and the two houses, the National Bank of Nicaragua, the Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua and the United States Mortgage and Trust Company.[^4] James Brown, senior partner of Brown Brothers & Co., signed 1912 Nicaraguan banknotes as "Presidente" of the Banco Nacional de Nicaragua; Thatcher M. Brown wrote that the loans were paid off, principal and interest, in 1924.[^5]
+[[Brown Brothers Harriman|Brown Brothers & Co.]] and J. & W. Seligman & Co. made a temporary loan of $1,500,000 to the Republic under an agreement of September 1, 1911, nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]] as Collector General of Customs, and on August 2, 1912 wrote the Secretary of State that the entire capital stock of the National Bank of Nicaragua was pledged to them and that "the Bank is under our management and control."[^3] At the time of the nomination, Ham was Surveyor of the Port of [[Manila]], in the Philippine Islands. The bankers wrote that he had been "recommended to us as a person qualified for the position and worthy of our confidence."[^4] Secretary of State [[Philander C. Knox]] approved the nomination on November 11, 1911 and stated that the approval "must not in any wise be understood as indicating that the Government of the United States will lend any other or further good offices in the protection of the American citizens parties to this contract than it would accord to any legitimate American enterprise abroad."[^5] A 1914 Senate Committee on Foreign Relations hearing printed a list of five agreements between the Republic and the two houses, the National Bank of Nicaragua, the Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua and the United States Mortgage and Trust Company.[^6] James Brown, senior partner of Brown Brothers & Co., signed 1912 Nicaraguan banknotes as "Presidente" of the Banco Nacional de Nicaragua; Thatcher M. Brown wrote that the loans were paid off, principal and interest, in 1924.[^7]
 In his annual message of December 3, 1912, [[William Howard Taft]] said that "it became necessary to land over 2,000 marines and bluejackets in Nicaragua" during the revolution of that summer, and he recorded "with sorrow the death of seven American marines and bluejackets."[^8] The same message said that the Nicaraguan government had asked the United States to assume the office of protecting American life and property, and that the Senate had not acted on the loan convention of June 1911.[^8]
 ### Somoza Era
@ -44,5 +46,8 @@ The journalist Gary Webb described Norwin Meneses as the [[Cali Drug Cartel|Cali
 [^1]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 1: "A Pretty secret kind of thing"
 [^2]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue: "It was like they didn't want to know"
 [^3]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, documents 1482 and 1512. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482 and https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1512
-[^4]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 63d Cong., 2d sess. (1914). https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
+[^4]: Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, New York, November 2, 1911, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1482. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482
-[^5]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (Doubleday, 1968), pp. 189 to 190. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
+[^5]: Secretary of State P. C. Knox to Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company, November 11, 1911, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1484. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1484
 [^6]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 63d Cong., 2d sess. (1914). https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
 [^7]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (Doubleday, 1968), pp. 189 to 190. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
 [^8]: Taft, annual message to Congress, December 3, 1912, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, "Message of the President," pp. XI to XIII. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912