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11
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Abraham Feinberg.md
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@ -10,13 +10,18 @@ died: 1998
location: "New York City, New York"
---
Abraham Feinberg was a wealthy New York businessman and ardent advocate of statehood for [[Israel]]. By 1947, he played a major and discreet role in fundraising and [[White House]] lobbying for [[Israel]] and the Democratic Party. He would operate at the highest levels between [[Washington, D.C.]] and [[Jerusalem]] for two decades.[^1]
Abraham Feinberg was a wealthy New York businessman and ardent advocate of statehood for [[Israel]]. By 1947, he played a major and discreet role in fundraising and [[White House]] lobbying for Israel and the Democratic Party. He would operate at the highest levels between [[Washington, D.C.]] and [[Jerusalem]] for two decades.[^1]
Feinberg was a close friend of [[Ernst David Bergmann]], and in the fall of 1947, Bergmann indiscreetly revealed to Feinberg that there was uranium in the [[Negev Desert|Negev]] desert, implying a path for [[Israel]] to develop the atomic bomb. Feinberg was astonished by this talk and "shushed him up."[^1]
Feinberg was a close friend of [[Ernst David Bergmann]], and in the fall of 1947, Bergmann indiscreetly revealed to Feinberg that there was uranium in the [[Negev Desert|Negev]] desert, implying a path for Israel to develop the atomic bomb. Feinberg was astonished by this talk and "shushed him up."[^1]
Feinberg was recruited by [[David Ben-Gurion]] in 1945 to help raise money for guerrilla operations against the British mandatory power in [[Palestine]]. He recalled that the kibbutz's administrative building, constructed near a large British military base, was a "fraud," serving as a cover for a secret underground plant producing bullets for the Hagannah. The facility was "scooped out" in twenty-seven days, with workers alternating between farming and arms production to maintain the deception.[^2]
### Truman Library oral history
Feinberg gave an oral history interview to the [[Harry S. Truman Library]], conducted by [[Richard D. McKinzie]] on August 23, 1973. He was a business executive and philanthropist active in the cause of immigration to Palestine and in the creation of the State of Israel, 1945 to 1948, and a friend of President [[Harry S. Truman]].[^3]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 2.
[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 15.
[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 15.
[^3]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Abraham Feinberg Oral History Interview," interview of August 23, 1973 by Richard D. McKinzie, biographical note. https://trumanlibrary.gov/oralhist/feinberg.htm

52
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Christopher Drogoul.md
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@ -10,46 +10,60 @@ tags:
- Banking
- Atlanta
- KissingerAssociates
summary: "Manager of the Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro who extended more than four billion dollars in unreported credit to Iraq and testified that his superiors in Rome and Kissinger Associates knew of the business."
summary: "Manager of the Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro who extended billions of dollars in unreported credit to Iraq; Judge Shoob recorded his plea testimony that his superiors should have known of it."
location: "Atlanta, Georgia"
created: 2026-09-21
updated: 2026-09-21
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]]"
role: "manager of the Atlanta branch"
start: 1985
end: 1989
fn: 2
---
Christopher P. Drogoul managed the [[Atlanta]] branch of the Italian state-owned [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]], which between 1985 and 1989 extended more than four billion dollars in unreported loans and credits to [[Iraq]], a portion of them backed by the [[Commodity Credit Corporation]] of the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]]. The FBI and the [[Federal Reserve]] raided the branch on August 4, 1989. Drogoul was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after President [[George H.W. Bush]] ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]]. He pleaded guilty, withdrew the plea, pleaded guilty again to three counts, and was sentenced in December 1993 to 37 months. The government's position throughout was that he acted without the knowledge of the bank's headquarters. The first judge assigned to the case concluded otherwise.[^1][^2][^3]
Christopher P. Drogoul managed the [[Atlanta]] branch of the Italian state-owned [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]], which between 1985 and 1989 extended more than four billion dollars in unreported loans and credits to [[Iraq]], a portion of them backed by the [[Commodity Credit Corporation]] of the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]]. FBI agents raided the branch on August 4, 1989 and seized its records.[^1] Drogoul was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after President [[George H.W. Bush]] ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]]. He pleaded guilty, withdrew the plea, pleaded guilty again to three counts, and was sentenced in December 1993 to 37 months. A Central Intelligence Agency memorandum of November 6, 1989 put the branch's unauthorized letters of credit for Iraq at $3.2 billion in 2,500 letters between February 1988 and July 1989.[^2] The government's position throughout was that he acted without the knowledge of the bank's headquarters. The first judge assigned to the case concluded otherwise.[^3][^4][^5]
### The Indictment
The indictment, No. 1:91-CR-078 in the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of Georgia|Northern District of Georgia]], charged Drogoul on 347 counts together with two branch officers, [[Therese Barden]] and [[Amedeo DeCarolis]]; the [[New York City|New York]] trading company [[Entrade International]] and its manager, [[Yavuz Tezeller]]; the Iraqi state [[Rafidain Bank]]; and four Iraqi officials, among them [[Safa al-Habobi]], who ran Iraq's front companies in [[London]]. The government's list of unindicted co-conspirators, filed by Assistant U.S. Attorney [[Gale McKenzie]] on September 12, 1991, named an employee of the [[Central Bank of Iraq]] and [[Amir al-Saadi]] of the [[Ministry of Industry and Military Industrialization]]. [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Richard Thornburgh]] said the defendants had been able "to silently pick the pockets of a major Italian bank of more than $4 billion in loans and credits, almost by the push of a button."[^1][^4]
The indictment, No. 1:91-CR-078 in the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of Georgia|Northern District of Georgia]], charged Drogoul on 347 counts together with two branch officers, [[Therese Barden]] and [[Amedeo DeCarolis]]; the [[New York City|New York]] trading company [[Entrade International]] and its manager, [[Yavuz Tezeller]]; the Iraqi state [[Rafidain Bank]]; and four Iraqi officials, among them [[Safa al-Habobi]], who ran Iraq's front companies in [[London]]. The government's list of unindicted co-conspirators, filed by Assistant U.S. Attorney [[Gale McKenzie]] on September 12, 1991, named an employee of the [[Central Bank of Iraq]] and [[Amir al-Saadi]] of the [[Ministry of Industry and Military Industrialization]]. [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Richard Thornburgh]] said the defendants had been able "to silently pick the pockets of a major Italian bank of more than $4 billion in loans and credits, almost by the push of a button."[^3][^6]
Tezeller left for [[Turkey]] after the raid and did not return. A [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] letter of January 9, 1990, said he could "provide information regarding after sales services (a fancy word for bribes, kickbacks), unearned consulting fees, and other payments to Iraqis as well as kickbacks paid by [[United States]] and multinational companies to obtain Iraqi contracts." Entrade was an affiliate of the Turkish conglomerate [[Enka]] and had handled 52 guaranteed transactions for Iraq. An Agriculture Department inquiry found no evidence that the commodities in those transactions reached Iraq. Representative [[Henry Gonzalez]], chairman of the [[House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs|House Banking Committee]], said on the House floor that the [[State Department]] had kept the Atlanta investigators from traveling to Turkey to question Tezeller, and that the Justice Department had discouraged the indictment of the Central Bank of Iraq and of [[Wafai Dajani]], a Jordanian businessman close to King [[Hussein of Jordan|Hussein]], on grounds of foreign policy.[^5]
Tezeller left for [[Turkey]] after the raid and did not return. A [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] letter of January 9, 1990, said he could "provide information regarding after sales services (a fancy word for bribes, kickbacks), unearned consulting fees, and other payments to Iraqis as well as kickbacks paid by [[United States]] and multinational companies to obtain Iraqi contracts." Entrade was an affiliate of the Turkish conglomerate [[Enka]] and had handled 52 guaranteed transactions for Iraq. An Agriculture Department inquiry found no evidence that the commodities in those transactions reached Iraq. Representative [[Henry Gonzalez]], chairman of the [[House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs|House Banking Committee]], said on the House floor that the [[State Department]] had kept the Atlanta investigators from traveling to Turkey to question Tezeller, and that the Justice Department had discouraged the indictment of the Central Bank of Iraq and of [[Wafai Dajani]], a Jordanian businessman close to King [[Hussein of Jordan|Hussein]], on grounds of foreign policy.[^7]
[[Joseph D. Whitley]] became acting United States attorney in Atlanta on June 1, 1990, and recused himself from the case the same day because his former law firm had represented [[Matrix Churchill]], the Iraqi-owned machine tool company that the branch had financed.[^6]
[[Joseph D. Whitley]] became acting United States attorney in Atlanta on June 1, 1990, and recused himself from the case the same day because his former law firm had represented [[Matrix Churchill]], the Iraqi-owned machine tool company that the branch had financed.[^8]
### Shoob
Drogoul pleaded guilty to 60 counts in June 1992. At the sentencing hearing before Judge [[Marvin Shoob]] he testified that the branch had been "a tool of the U.S. and Italian governments" and that "one has to consider it a foreign policy matter and not a banking matter." On September 14, 1992, Gonzalez announced that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] had told his committee it had good evidence that officials of the bank in [[Rome]] knew of the Atlanta lending, which contradicted what the agency's general counsel had told the prosecutors. On October 1 Shoob allowed Drogoul to withdraw the plea and removed himself from the case, stating his conclusion "that officials at BNL-Rome were aware of and approved Mr. Drogoul's activities."[^1][^2][^7]
Drogoul pleaded guilty to 60 counts in June 1992. At the sentencing hearing before Judge [[Marvin Shoob]] he testified that the branch had been "a tool of the U.S. and Italian governments" and that "one has to consider it a foreign policy matter and not a banking matter." On September 14, 1992, Gonzalez announced that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] had told his committee it had good evidence that officials of the bank in [[Rome]] knew of the Atlanta lending, which contradicted what the agency's general counsel had told the prosecutors. On October 1 Shoob allowed Drogoul to withdraw the plea and removed himself from the case, stating his conclusion "that officials at BNL-Rome were aware of and approved Mr. Drogoul's activities." The written order of October 5 records that Drogoul "testified only that his superiors should have known."[^3][^4][^9][^10]
Attorney General [[William Barr]] declined to seek an independent counsel and on October 16, 1992, appointed a retired federal judge, [[Frederick Lacey]], as special counsel. Lacey reported after 54 days. "I find Judge Shoob's specific charges against the USAO to be inaccurate," he wrote. Of the national security adviser and the deputy secretary of state, both formerly of [[Kissinger Associates]], he wrote: "It is clear that, while at Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft and Eagleburger came into contact with BNL management. I have seen nothing, however, to suggest that they knew of BNL-Atlanta's wrongful loans to Iraq or influenced the prosecution of this matter." The second part of his report was classified top secret. Gonzalez called it "the Lacey Job" and said: "At best Lacey's probe was a whitewash." In December 1992 prosecutors in [[Venice]] indicted 59 people, including executives of the bank, for financing arms sales to [[Iran]].[^6][^7]
Attorney General [[William Barr]] declined to seek an independent counsel under the statute and on October 16, 1992, appointed a retired federal judge, [[Frederick Lacey]], as "independent counsel" under Justice Department regulations. Lacey's report states that on October 27 Barr authorized a preliminary investigation and asked for a report by December 8, 1992; the Senate staff record that Lacey submitted it on December 9.[^1] "I find Judge Shoob's specific charges against the USAO, and his concern about the interference of other agencies, to be inaccurate," he wrote. Of the national security adviser and the deputy secretary of state, both formerly of [[Kissinger Associates]], he wrote: "It is clear that, while at Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft and Eagleburger came into contact with BNL management. I have seen nothing, however, to suggest that they knew of BNL-Atlanta's wrongful loans to Iraq or influenced the prosecution of this matter." The second part of his report was classified top secret. Gonzalez called it "the Lacey Job" and said: "At best Lacey's probe was a whitewash." In December 1992 prosecutors in [[Venice]] indicted 59 people, including executives of the bank, for financing arms sales to [[Iran]].[^8][^9]
The staff of the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] reported in February 1993 that the intelligence agencies and the Justice Department had coordinated poorly and that the CIA's reasoning for withholding its reports from the prosecutors had "no legal support." It did not find that information had been concealed to protect senior officials.[^8]
In written answers submitted to the House committee, Drogoul stated that his attorney, [[Robert M. Simels]], had been in contact with [[Ross Perot]], that Perot told Simels he thought Drogoul's pretrial detention was "un-American" and that if bail were set he was prepared to aid in his release, and that although bail was set after these discussions, Perot offered no assistance.[^11]
The staff of the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] reported in February 1993 that the intelligence agencies and the Justice Department had coordinated poorly and that the CIA's reasoning for withholding its reports from the prosecutors had "no legal support." It did not find that information had been concealed to protect senior officials.[^12]
### The Italian Witnesses
Drogoul's lawyer, [[Bobby Lee Cook]], named three officials in Rome, [[Giacomo Pedde]], [[Teodoro Monaco]], and [[Angelo Florio]], as the men who had authorized the loans. The government sought to depose thirteen Italian bank officers in Rome. Seven, including Pedde, Florio, and [[Nerio Nesi]], refused to testify in the United States. The defense told the court of appeals that "the testimony of these thirteen witnesses lies at the very core of the charges in the indictment, and its refutation the heart of the defense." The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit|Eleventh Circuit]] ordered the depositions on September 2, 1993, six days before the trial date. Drogoul then pleaded guilty to one count of wire fraud and two of making false statements to the Federal Reserve. A Justice Department review filed with the court on August 23 had found that six employees in Atlanta were responsible and that neither Rome nor Washington knew. "The evidence never gets on the books," Gonzalez said, "and the public will never know for certain what the Bush administration did for [[Saddam Hussein]] before the war."[^1][^2]
Drogoul's lawyer, [[Bobby Lee Cook]], named three officials in Rome, [[Giacomo Pedde]], [[Teodoro Monaco]], and [[Angelo Florio]], as the men who had authorized the loans. The government sought to depose thirteen Italian bank officers in Rome. Seven, including Pedde, Florio, and [[Nerio Nesi]], refused to testify in the United States.[^13] The defense told the court of appeals that "the testimony of these thirteen witnesses lies at the very core of the charges in the indictment, and its refutation the heart of the defense." The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit|Eleventh Circuit]] ordered the depositions on September 2, 1993, six days before the trial date. Drogoul then pleaded guilty to one count of wire fraud and two of making false statements to the Federal Reserve. A Justice Department review filed with the court on August 23 had found that six employees in Atlanta were responsible and that neither Rome nor Washington knew. "The evidence never gets on the books," Gonzalez said, "and the public will never know for certain what the Bush administration did for [[Saddam Hussein]] before the war."[^3][^4]
### Testimony on Kissinger Associates
Drogoul testified under oath to the [[House Banking Committee]] on November 9, 1993, with five other former employees of the bank. He said he learned at a business meeting in [[Italy]] in 1987 that [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] sat on the bank's international advisory board. "As we became involved in the medium-term lending," he said, "it became clear to us that the people at Kissinger and Associates were somehow assisting clients of Iraq in further developing business." He added: "By the time we moved into the 1988 period or early 1989 period, it was fairly clear to me that Kissinger and Associates' people were involved in some way in trying to enhance and develop a relationship between Iraq and the United States. I really shouldn't go farther than that, because the rest is probably speculation."[^9]
Drogoul testified under oath to the [[House Banking Committee]] on November 9, 1993, with five other former employees of the bank. He said he learned at a business meeting in [[Italy]] in 1987 that [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] sat on the bank's international advisory board. "As we became involved in the medium-term lending," he said, "it became clear to us that the people at Kissinger and Associates were somehow assisting clients of Iraq in further developing business." He added: "By the time we moved into the 1988 period or early 1989 period, it was fairly clear to me that Kissinger and Associates' people were involved in some way in trying to enhance and develop a relationship between Iraq and the United States. I really shouldn't go farther than that, because the rest is probably speculation."[^14]
### Footnotes
[^1]: "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," *United Press International,* December 9, 1993; "Was Banker Just Fall Guy in Loans to Iraq?" *Deseret News,* December 5, 1993.
[^2]: United States v. Drogoul, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993).
[^3]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record,* House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm
[^4]: "Government's Response to Defense Motions for List of Unindicted Co-Conspirators," United States v. Drogoul, No. 1:91-CR-078 (N.D. Ga. September 12, 1991), reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95, November 9, 1993.
[^5]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Efforts to Thwart Investigation of the BNL Scandal," *Congressional Record,* House, March 30, 1992. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920330g.htm
[^6]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 514-15. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^7]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Update on BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record,* House, January 21, 1993.
[^8]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair,* staff report, S. Prt. 103-12, February 1993.
[^9]: Testimony of Christopher P. Drogoul, House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95, November 9, 1993.
[^1]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair,* Committee Print S. Prt. 103-12, February 1993, pp. 4-5, 10; Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf
[^2]: Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, "Iraq-Italy: Repercussions of the BNL-Atlanta Scandal," November 6, 1989, printed in Serial No. 103-95, pp. 194-195 (the branch's letters of credit and its debt limits). https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^3]: "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," *United Press International,* December 9, 1993; "Was Banker Just Fall Guy in Loans to Iraq?" *Deseret News,* December 5, 1993.
[^4]: United States v. Drogoul, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993).
[^5]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record,* House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm
[^6]: "Government's Response to Defense Motions for List of Unindicted Co-Conspirators," United States v. Drogoul, No. 1:91-CR-078 (N.D. Ga. September 12, 1991), reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95, November 9, 1993.
[^7]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Efforts to Thwart Investigation of the BNL Scandal," *Congressional Record,* House, March 30, 1992. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920330g.htm
[^8]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 514-15. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^9]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Update on BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record,* House, January 21, 1993.
[^10]: Order of Judge Marvin H. Shoob, October 1, 1992 (dated October 5, 1992), United States v. Drogoul, printed in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95 (1994), pp. 205-206. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^11]: Answers submitted by Mr. Drogoul in response to questions on pages 20, 21 and 24 of the hearing text, printed insert in Serial No. 103-95, p. 153. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^12]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair,* staff report, S. Prt. 103-12, February 1993.
[^13]: United States v. Drogoul, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993), listing the seven who would not testify (Angelo Florio, Nerio Nesi, Giacomo Pedde, Giovanni D'Ercole, Marco Lunazzi, Francesco Bignardi and Gerardo Ruggero; the opinion spells the second name "Nero Nesi") and noting that Pedde and Florio were among them, and recording Drogoul's assertion that Pedde, Teodoro Monaco and Florio gave the authorizations. https://static.case.law/f3d/1/cases/1546-01.json
[^14]: Testimony of Christopher P. Drogoul, House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95, November 9, 1993.

58
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Clark Clifford.md
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@ -16,30 +16,30 @@ relations:
with: "[[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]]"
start: 1978
role: "American counsel"
fn: 10
fn: 12
- type: director_of
with: "[[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]]"
fn: 8
fn: 10
- type: head_of
with: "[[First American Bank]]"
role: "chairman"
fn: 10
fn: 12
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Robert Altman]]"
role: "law partner"
fn: 10
fn: 12
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Robert Morgenthau]]"
reverse: true
start: 1992-07-29
end: 1993-11-30
fn: 4
fn: 6
- type: investigated
with: "[[Federal Reserve Board]]"
reverse: true
start: 1992-07-29
end: 1998-02
fn: 8
fn: 10
---
Clark McAdams Clifford was born December 25, 1906, in Fort Scott, Kansas. He earned a B.A. from Washington University in St. Louis in 1927 and an LL.B. from Washington University School of Law in 1928, after which he practiced law in St. Louis through [[World War II]]. He served in the Navy during the war, rising to captain, and arrived at the [[White House]] in 1946 as naval aide to President Harry S. Truman. He died October 10, 1997, in Bethesda, Maryland, at age 90.[^1]
@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ In 1950, Clifford left government and founded the Washington law firm Clifford &
### Later Government Service
Clifford served as an informal advisor to President [[John F. Kennedy]] following the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion|Bay of Pigs]] failure in April 1961. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] appointed him Secretary of Defense in January 1968, replacing [[Robert S. McNamara|Robert McNamara]]. In what became his most consequential decision in public life, Clifford convened a private reassessment of Vietnam strategy and concluded the war was unwinnable at any politically acceptable cost. His recommendations shaped Johnson's March 1968 decision to seek negotiations and decline to seek re-election. Clifford later served President [[Jimmy Carter]] as a diplomatic troubleshooter, negotiating the [[Panama Canal]] Treaties and serving as special envoy to Cyprus, Greece, Turkey, and India.[^1]
Clifford served as an informal advisor to President [[John F. Kennedy]] following the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion|Bay of Pigs]] failure in April 1961. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] announced on January 19, 1968 that Clifford had accepted the post of Secretary of Defense,[^3] and Clifford was sworn in on March 1, 1968, replacing [[Robert S. McNamara|Robert McNamara]].[^4] In what became his most consequential decision in public life, Clifford convened a private reassessment of Vietnam strategy and concluded the war was unwinnable at any politically acceptable cost. His recommendations shaped Johnson's March 1968 decision to seek negotiations and decline to seek re-election. Clifford later served President [[Jimmy Carter]] as a diplomatic troubleshooter, negotiating the [[Panama Canal]] Treaties and serving as special envoy to Cyprus, Greece, Turkey, and India.[^1]
### BCCI and First American Bank
@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ In 1978, BCCI orchestrated a hostile bid for Financial General Bankshares using
The bank was subsequently renamed [[First American Bank|First American Bankshares]], Inc. Clifford became chairman of the board; Altman became president. Both men received substantial legal fees for their continued representation of BCCI's interests. In 1986, the Central Intelligence Agency issued an internal report stating that BCCI had in fact owned First American since 1982, a report that was not acted on.[^2]
In February 1988, Clifford and Altman sold a large portion of their First American stock to [[Mohammed Hammoud]], a BCCI front man, for substantial profits.[^3]
In February 1988, Clifford and Altman sold a large portion of their First American stock to [[Mohammed Hammoud]], a BCCI front man, for substantial profits.[^5]
### Indictment and Resolution
@ -71,46 +71,48 @@ In 1989, Senate investigator [[Jack Blum]] brought evidence of BCCI's operations
In July 1992, a New York state grand jury convened by Morgenthau indicted Clifford and Altman on charges of bribery, fraud, and receiving benefits from BCCI in exchange for allowing BCCI to secretly own and control First American while representing to regulators that it did not. The Federal Reserve Board simultaneously brought civil charges.
Clifford, then 85 and suffering from serious heart disease, asserted that he had been deceived by Abedi and the other BCCI principals and had no knowledge of BCCI's actual ownership of First American. New York courts severed his case from Altman's on health grounds; Clifford was never tried. Altman was acquitted by a Manhattan jury on August 14, 1993, and the charges against Clifford were dismissed on November 30, 1993.[^4][^5] In 1992, BCCI's liquidators had pleaded guilty and agreed to forfeit $550 million to settle criminal charges; the BCCI settlement fund ultimately recovered approximately $880 million, including the $225 million settlement by [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]] in December 1993.[^6][^7]
Clifford, then 85 and suffering from serious heart disease, asserted that he had been deceived by Abedi and the other BCCI principals and had no knowledge of BCCI's actual ownership of First American. New York courts severed his case from Altman's on health grounds; Clifford was never tried. Altman was acquitted by a Manhattan jury on August 14, 1993, and the charges against Clifford were dismissed on November 30, 1993.[^6][^7] In 1992, BCCI's liquidators had pleaded guilty and agreed to forfeit $550 million to settle criminal charges; the BCCI settlement fund ultimately recovered approximately $880 million, including the $225 million settlement by [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]] in December 1993.[^8][^9]
Clifford died October 10, 1997. He maintained his innocence to the end. The Federal Reserve's civil proceeding against him and Altman was settled by a consent order dated February 1998.[^8]
Clifford died October 10, 1997. He maintained his innocence to the end. The Federal Reserve's civil proceeding against him and Altman was settled by a consent order dated February 1998.[^10]
### The Sami Memo and the Legal Bills
Clifford told the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] in 1981, and the Senate on October 24, 1991, that [[Kamal Adham]]'s interest in Financial General had come "from a friend who was associated with the Saudi Arabian embassy," a man who, he testified, "looked into [FGB] in more detail and concluded that it might be an attractive acquisition. Apparently, that was one of his functions in the Saudi Arabian Embassy, to pass information of that kind back to [[Saudi Arabia]]." He and Altman told the Senate that they had not advised BCCI or its investors until the litigation with the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Middendorf group began in mid-February 1978.[^9][^10] The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] found this account contradicted by the memo of the BCCI officer [[Abdus Sami]] to Agha Hasan Abedi of January 30, 1978, found by the Federal Reserve in BCCI's files in [[Abu Dhabi]], which reported that Bert Lance had suggested retaining Clifford as chief counsel "in view of the possibility of this [takeover] contest and also for presentation of the holding company application to Fed[eral Reserve]," and that Sami had "met Clark Clifford and explained to him our strategy and goal. He was happy to know the details and has blessed the acquisition." A bill from Clifford's firm to BCCI dated May 24, 1978, dated its services from January 1978.[^9][^10]
Clifford told the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] in 1981, and the Senate on October 24, 1991, that [[Kamal Adham]]'s interest in Financial General had come "from a friend who was associated with the Saudi Arabian embassy," a man who, he testified, "looked into [FGB] in more detail and concluded that it might be an attractive acquisition. Apparently, that was one of his functions in the Saudi Arabian Embassy, to pass information of that kind back to [[Saudi Arabia]]." He and Altman told the Senate that they had not advised BCCI or its investors until the litigation with the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Middendorf group began in mid-February 1978.[^11][^12] The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] found this account contradicted by the memo of the BCCI officer [[Abdus Sami]] to Agha Hasan Abedi of January 30, 1978, found by the Federal Reserve in BCCI's files in [[Abu Dhabi]], which reported that Bert Lance had suggested retaining Clifford as chief counsel "in view of the possibility of this [takeover] contest and also for presentation of the holding company application to Fed[eral Reserve]," and that Sami had "met Clark Clifford and explained to him our strategy and goal. He was happy to know the details and has blessed the acquisition." A bill from Clifford's firm to BCCI dated May 24, 1978, dated its services from January 1978.[^11][^12]
At the Federal Reserve hearing of April 23, 1981, on the application of [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH), Clifford described BCCI's role as: "None. There is no function of any kind on the part of BCCI . . . I know of no present relationship. I know of no planned future relationship that exists." The Federal Reserve approved the application on August 25, 1981.[^9][^10]
At the Federal Reserve hearing of April 23, 1981, on the application of [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH), Clifford described BCCI's role as: "None. There is no function of any kind on the part of BCCI . . . I know of no present relationship. I know of no planned future relationship that exists." The Federal Reserve approved the application on August 25, 1981.[^11][^12]
### Fees and Stock
Clifford testified that his firm received "maybe $1 million a year" from First American. The Senate report found that Clifford & Warnke had billed First American and related entities about 11 million dollars over about eight years and BCCI about 6 million dollars over twelve years, 17 million dollars in all; the firm also led the defense of the BCCI officers indicted in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]] in 1988. As chairman of First American, Clifford said, he was paid 50,000 dollars a year.[^10] In a rights offering, the BCCI nominee Masriq waived its rights so that Clifford and Altman could buy CCAH shares at book value, 2,216 dollars a share, one day after Masriq had bought other shares at 4,044.20 dollars. In 1988 the two men sold their CCAH stock to the BCCI nominee Mohammed Hammoud at 6,800 dollars a share, "the highest price ever paid for CCAH stock," for a combined gross profit of 9.5 million dollars; the Senate report found that the price "was set not by Hammoud, and not even by BCCI, but by Clifford and Altman, who told Naqvi the amount of net profit they wanted on the sale, after all taxes had been paid."[^10]
Clifford testified that his firm received "maybe $1 million a year" from First American. The Senate report found that Clifford & Warnke had billed First American and related entities about 11 million dollars over about eight years and BCCI about 6 million dollars over twelve years, 17 million dollars in all; the firm also led the defense of the BCCI officers indicted in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]] in 1988. As chairman of First American, Clifford said, he was paid 50,000 dollars a year.[^12] In a rights offering, the BCCI nominee Masriq waived its rights so that Clifford and Altman could buy CCAH shares at book value, 2,216 dollars a share, one day after Masriq had bought other shares at 4,044.20 dollars. In 1988 the two men sold their CCAH stock to the BCCI nominee Mohammed Hammoud at 6,800 dollars a share, "the highest price ever paid for CCAH stock," for a combined gross profit of 9.5 million dollars; the Senate report found that the price "was set not by Hammoud, and not even by BCCI, but by Clifford and Altman, who told Naqvi the amount of net profit they wanted on the sale, after all taxes had been paid."[^12]
### Indictment and Dismissal
On July 29, 1992, a federal grand jury in Washington and a New York State grand jury indicted Clifford and Altman simultaneously, one year after Morgenthau opened his BCCI investigation. "We said then that BCCI was the largest bank fraud in world history," Morgenthau said. "Now we know it is also one of the biggest criminal enterprises in world history." The state indictment, which also named Abedi, [[Swaleh Naqvi]], [[Ghaith R. Pharaon]] and [[Faisal Saud al-Fulaij]], charged Clifford and Altman with receiving millions of dollars in bribes through their affiliation with BCCI, including about 10 million dollars in profits on stock they had not paid for and about 17 million dollars in legal fees; Clifford faced a maximum of eight years. The three-count federal indictment charged them with conspiring to defraud the Federal Reserve and concealing facts from investigators. Clifford's lawyer, Carl Rauh, had met Morgenthau the day before to argue that Clifford "would not be able to survive a prosecution" and that "it would kill him," according to the *New York Post* as quoted by United Press International. At his arraignment Clifford stood and said, "I plead not guilty, your honor," and Justice John Bradley released both men without bail.[^11]
On July 29, 1992, a federal grand jury in Washington and a New York State grand jury indicted Clifford and Altman simultaneously, one year after Morgenthau opened his BCCI investigation. "We said then that BCCI was the largest bank fraud in world history," Morgenthau said. "Now we know it is also one of the biggest criminal enterprises in world history." The state indictment, which also named Abedi, [[Swaleh Naqvi]], [[Ghaith R. Pharaon]] and [[Faisal Saud al-Fulaij]], charged Clifford and Altman with receiving millions of dollars in bribes through their affiliation with BCCI, including about 10 million dollars in profits on stock they had not paid for and about 17 million dollars in legal fees; Clifford faced a maximum of eight years. The three-count federal indictment charged them with conspiring to defraud the Federal Reserve and concealing facts from investigators. Clifford's lawyer, Carl Rauh, had met Morgenthau the day before to argue that Clifford "would not be able to survive a prosecution" and that "it would kill him," according to the *New York Post* as quoted by United Press International. At his arraignment Clifford stood and said, "I plead not guilty, your honor," and Justice John Bradley released both men without bail.[^13]
Clifford was too ill to stand trial with Altman, who was acquitted in Manhattan on August 14, 1993. On November 30, 1993, on a motion made jointly by Morgenthau and Clifford's lawyer, Charles Stillman, Justice Bradley dismissed the indictment against Clifford, finding that "Clifford's age and ill health prevent his being brought to trial on this indictment and will likely always do so." "In a sense, today's dismissal is the ultimate anti-climax," Stillman said.[^4][^5]
Clifford was too ill to stand trial with Altman, who was acquitted in Manhattan on August 14, 1993. On November 30, 1993, on a motion made jointly by Morgenthau and Clifford's lawyer, Charles Stillman, Justice Bradley dismissed the indictment against Clifford, finding that "Clifford's age and ill health prevent his being brought to trial on this indictment and will likely always do so." "In a sense, today's dismissal is the ultimate anti-climax," Stillman said.[^6][^7]
### Federal Reserve Consent Order
The Federal Reserve's civil proceeding, opened on July 29, 1992, continued after the criminal cases ended. Its Second Amended Notice of Intent to Prohibit of January 14, 1997, charged that Clifford and Altman, as directors of CCAH and First American, had caused CCAH to borrow from BCCI beyond the acquisition debt allowed by the 1981 order, and had breached their fiduciary duties by accepting preferential loans and stock profits from BCCI and by failing to disclose BCCI's role in the purchase of the [[National Bank of Georgia]]. The settlement recited that "Clifford has submitted medical opinions to the Board of Governors indicating that because of his advanced age and ill health, there is no reasonable prospect that he will ever participate in any manner in the conduct of the affairs of a bank holding company or insured depository institution," and the two men relinquished 1,802 (Clifford) and 895 (Altman) CCAH shares to the court-appointed trustee of First American or the fiduciaries of BCCI; the payments, the order stated, "are not fines or civil money penalties." The order is dated effective February 1998, four months after Clifford's death, and carries a signature block in his name; the document does not state when he signed it.[^8][^11]
The Federal Reserve's civil proceeding, opened on July 29, 1992, continued after the criminal cases ended. Its Second Amended Notice of Intent to Prohibit of January 14, 1997, charged that Clifford and Altman, as directors of CCAH and First American, had caused CCAH to borrow from BCCI beyond the acquisition debt allowed by the 1981 order, and had breached their fiduciary duties by accepting preferential loans and stock profits from BCCI and by failing to disclose BCCI's role in the purchase of the [[National Bank of Georgia]]. The settlement recited that "Clifford has submitted medical opinions to the Board of Governors indicating that because of his advanced age and ill health, there is no reasonable prospect that he will ever participate in any manner in the conduct of the affairs of a bank holding company or insured depository institution," and the two men relinquished 1,802 (Clifford) and 895 (Altman) CCAH shares to the court-appointed trustee of First American or the fiduciaries of BCCI; the payments, the order stated, "are not fines or civil money penalties." The order is dated effective February 1998, four months after Clifford's death, and carries a signature block in his name; the document does not state when he signed it.[^10][^13]
### USS Liberty, June 1967
Notes of the National Security Council Special Committee meeting of June 9, 1967 record Clifford saying of the attack on the [[USS Liberty Incident|USS Liberty]]: "My concern is that we're not tough enough. Handle as if Arabs or USSR had done it. Manner egregious. Inconceivable that it was accident. 3 strafing passes, 3 torpedo boats. Set forth facts. Punish Israelis responsible." The note-taker, [[Harold H. Saunders]], wrote in the margin next to Clifford's remarks: "President subscribed 100%."[^12][^13]
Notes of the National Security Council Special Committee meeting of June 9, 1967 record Clifford saying of the attack on the [[USS Liberty Incident|USS Liberty]]: "My concern is that we're not tough enough. Handle as if Arabs or USSR had done it. Manner egregious. Inconceivable that it was accident. 3 strafing passes, 3 torpedo boats. Set forth facts. Punish Israelis responsible." The note-taker, [[Harold H. Saunders]], wrote in the margin next to Clifford's remarks: "President subscribed 100%."[^14][^15]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Clifford, Clark, with Richard Holbrooke. *Counsel to the President: A Memoir.* Random House, 1991.
[^2]: Beaty, Jonathan, and S.C. Gwynne. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI.* Random House, 1993.
[^3]: Beaty, Jonathan, and S.C. Gwynne. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI.* Random House, 1993, p. 215.
[^4]: "Charges dropped against Clark Clifford in BCCI case," United Press International, November 30, 1993. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1993/11/30/Charges-dropped-against-Clark-Clifford-in-BCCI-case/6641754635600/
[^5]: "Altman Acquitted on BCCI Counts," *The Washington Post,* August 15, 1993. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/08/15/altman-acquitted-on-bcci-counts/33f3090f-0a02-4934-9c81-37f843aaead7/
[^6]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations.* 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, December 1992. (Kerry-Brown Report.)
[^7]: "Saudi to Pay $225 Million in BCCI Settlement," *The Washington Post,* December 24, 1993.
[^8]: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, *In the Matter of Clark M. Clifford and Robert A. Altman, Institution-Affiliated Parties of Credit and Commerce American Holdings, N.V.,* Docket Nos. 92-080-E-I1, 92-080-B-I1, 92-080-CMP-I1, 92-080-E-I2, 92-080-B-I2, 92-080-CMP-I2, consent order, "effective this [day, illegible in the scan] day of February, 1998," with the Second Amended Notice of Intent to Prohibit of January 14, 1997 (Federal Reserve press release of February 3, 1998). https://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/press/enforcement/1998/19980203/Attachment.pdf
[^9]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
[^10]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 13, "Clark Clifford and Robert Altman." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/13clifford.htm
[^11]: "Clifford, Altman indicted in BCCI bank fraud," United Press International, July 29, 1992. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/07/29/Clifford-Altman-indicted-in-BCCI-bank-fraud/5122712382400/
[^12]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XIX, Document 236, Notes of a Meeting of the Special Committee of the National Security Council, June 9, 1967 (Saunders's handwritten notes). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v19/d236
[^13]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 12, p. 168, footnote, quoting the same notes from the LBJ Library.
[^3]: Lyndon B. Johnson, "The President's News Conference," January 19, 1968 ("I asked Mr. Clark Clifford to serve as Secretary of Defense this morning, and he has accepted"), The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-1201
[^4]: Lyndon B. Johnson, "Remarks at the Swearing In of Clark Clifford as Secretary of Defense," March 1, 1968, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-clark-clifford-secretary-defense
[^5]: Beaty, Jonathan, and S.C. Gwynne. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI.* Random House, 1993, p. 215.
[^6]: "Charges dropped against Clark Clifford in BCCI case," United Press International, November 30, 1993. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1993/11/30/Charges-dropped-against-Clark-Clifford-in-BCCI-case/6641754635600/
[^7]: "Altman Acquitted on BCCI Counts," *The Washington Post,* August 15, 1993. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/08/15/altman-acquitted-on-bcci-counts/33f3090f-0a02-4934-9c81-37f843aaead7/
[^8]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations.* 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, December 1992. (Kerry-Brown Report.)
[^9]: "Saudi to Pay $225 Million in BCCI Settlement," *The Washington Post,* December 24, 1993.
[^10]: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, *In the Matter of Clark M. Clifford and Robert A. Altman, Institution-Affiliated Parties of Credit and Commerce American Holdings, N.V.,* Docket Nos. 92-080-E-I1, 92-080-B-I1, 92-080-CMP-I1, 92-080-E-I2, 92-080-B-I2, 92-080-CMP-I2, consent order, "effective this [day] day of February, 1998," with the Second Amended Notice of Intent to Prohibit of January 14, 1997 (Federal Reserve press release of February 3, 1998). https://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/press/enforcement/1998/19980203/Attachment.pdf
[^11]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
[^12]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 13, "Clark Clifford and Robert Altman." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/13clifford.htm
[^13]: "Clifford, Altman indicted in BCCI bank fraud," United Press International, July 29, 1992. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/07/29/Clifford-Altman-indicted-in-BCCI-bank-fraud/5122712382400/
[^14]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XIX, Document 236, Notes of a Meeting of the Special Committee of the National Security Council, June 9, 1967 (Saunders's handwritten notes). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v19/d236
[^15]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 12, p. 168, footnote, quoting the same notes from the LBJ Library.

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10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Faisal Saud al-Fulaij.md
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@ -38,15 +38,15 @@ Faisal Saud al-Fulaij was a Kuwaiti businessman who acted as a nominee for the [
### Nominee
In his memo to Abedi of January 30, 1978, Sami wrote: "We have already given the names of Sheikh Kamal Adham and Mr. Fulaig [sic]. We want two other names immediately." Part of the money for Fulaij's share purchases was borrowed from the [[Kuwait International Finance Company]] (KIFCO), which, according to the [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]], BCCI "purportedly had a 49 percent interest in, but actually owned and controlled through its nominee, Faisal al-Fulaij." Clifford's firm represented him, with [[Bert Lance]], Abedi, BCCI and members of the [[Abu Dhabi]] ruling family, in the litigation brought by Financial General in 1978.[^1] A [[Price Waterhouse]] report to the [[Bank of England]] of June 1991 listed him among "the four investors" used "to keep individual ownership below 5% and to ensure that BCCI's name did not appear."[^3]
In his memo to Abedi of January 30, 1978, Sami wrote: "We have already given the names of Sheikh Kamal Adham and Mr. Fulaig [sic]. We want two other names immediately." Part of the money for Fulaij's share purchases was borrowed from the [[Kuwait International Finance Company]] (KIFCO), which, according to the [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]], BCCI "purportedly had a 49 percent interest in, but actually owned and controlled through its nominee, Faisal al-Fulaij." Clifford's firm represented him, with [[Bert Lance]], Abedi, BCCI and members of the [[Abu Dhabi]] ruling family, in the litigation brought by Financial General in 1978.[^1] A [[Price Waterhouse]] report to the [[Bank of England]] of June 1991 listed him among "the four investors" used "to keep individual ownership below 5% and to ensure that BCCI's name did not appear."[^3] Clark Clifford's written testimony to the Senate listed Fulaij among the defendants his firm was retained to represent, and Clifford testified that the representation began in February 1978.[^4]
### The 1981 Hearing
At the Federal Reserve hearing of April 23, 1981, Fulaij followed [[Kamal Adham]] in assuring the regulators that future relations with BCCI would be for the new management to decide. According to Robert Altman, Fulaij had asked his representatives to find investments in the [[United States]] and BCCI had brought Financial General to their attention. When the Federal Reserve's counsel, Robert Mannion, asked whether it was a coincidence that BCCI had first analysed Financial General for Adham and then advised "several of their investment clients" to invest in it, the transcript records "MR. FULAIJ: (Nods in the affirmative.)" and Adham's reply, "That is very possible. Such things happen in our parts of the world." Adham told the Federal Reserve that he had not met Fulaij for ten years; the Senate report called this false and said the two had acted together as BCCI nominees in dealings in the shares of BCCI's oil company, [[Attock Oil]].[^1]
The Federal Reserve found in 1991 that Adham, Fulaij, [[A. R. (Abdul Raouf) Khalil|Khalil]] and the other Middle Eastern nominees "had secretly done precisely what the Federal Reserve had sought to assure they would not do." After the acquisition BCCI added capital to First American partly through loans to its nominees Fulaij, Khalil and Shorafa, and in later planning for the purchase of the Eagle Bank in Florida, Naqvi and BCCI's New York manager [[Abdur Sakhia]] discussed using Fulaij as the nominee in place of Pharaon, in Altman's presence.[^1][^4][^5]
The Federal Reserve found in 1991 that Adham, Fulaij, [[A. R. (Abdul Raouf) Khalil|Khalil]] and the other Middle Eastern nominees "had secretly done precisely what the Federal Reserve had sought to assure they would not do." After the acquisition BCCI added capital to First American partly through loans to its nominees Fulaij, Khalil and Shorafa, and in later planning for the purchase of the Eagle Bank in Florida, Naqvi and BCCI's New York manager [[Abdur Sakhia]] discussed using Fulaij as the nominee in place of Pharaon, in Altman's presence.[^1][^5][^6]
The Senate report also recorded that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] did not tell the Federal Reserve that Adham and Fulaij had been the subjects of a [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] inquiry under the [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]] into arms sales to [[Saudi Arabia]] by [[Boeing]] and [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]].[^6]
The Senate report also recorded that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] did not tell the Federal Reserve that Adham and Fulaij had been the subjects of a [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] inquiry under the [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]] into arms sales to [[Saudi Arabia]] by [[Boeing]] and [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]].[^7]
### Indictment
@ -57,6 +57,7 @@ On July 29, 1992, the New York County District Attorney, [[Robert Morgenthau]],
[^1]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
[^2]: "Clifford, Altman indicted in BCCI bank fraud," United Press International, July 29, 1992. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/07/29/Clifford-Altman-indicted-in-BCCI-bank-fraud/5122712382400/
[^3]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 14, "Abu Dhabi: BCCI's Founding and Majority Stockholders." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/14abudhabi.htm
[^4]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 7, "BCCI in the United States: Later Acquisitions." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/07later.htm
[^5]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 13, "Clark Clifford and Robert Altman." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/13clifford.htm
[^6]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^4]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry" (Clifford's written testimony listing Faisal al Fulaij among the defendants his firm was retained to represent, note 44; Clifford's testimony that the representation began in February 1978, note 43). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
[^5]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 7, "BCCI in the United States: Later Acquisitions." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/07later.htm
[^6]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 13, "Clark Clifford and Robert Altman." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/13clifford.htm
[^7]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm

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10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jonathan Beaty.md
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@ -30,15 +30,17 @@ Jonathan Beaty is an American journalist who, with [[S. C. Gwynne]], wrote the *
### "The Dirtiest Bank of All"
The archived copy of the article on the Time website carries the byline "TIME Staff" and the date July 29, 1991.[^3]
The article carried the byline "Jonathan Beaty and S.C. Gwynne/New York" and a deck describing "How B.C.C.I. and its black network became a financial supermarket for crooks and spies" and "how the U.S. is trying to cover up its role." It opened with two unnamed sources. A former senior officer of the bank said: "I could tell you what you want to know, but I must worry about my wife and family," adding that "they could be killed." A Manhattan investigator said: "We better not talk about this over the phone. We've found some bugs in offices that haven't been put there by law enforcement."[^1]
The story called BCCI "the $20 billion rogue empire that regulators in 62 countries shut down early this month," and stated that "From interviews with sources close to B.C.C.I., TIME has pieced together a portrait of a clandestine division of the bank called the 'black network,'" which it described as a 1,500-employee unit "operating primarily out of the bank's offices in [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]," that used "sophisticated spy equipment and techniques, along with bribery, extortion, kidnapping and even, by some accounts, murder." It reported, citing its own earlier reporting that month, that the [[National Security Council]] had used BCCI "to funnel money for the Iran-contra deals" and that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] "maintained accounts in B.C.C.I. for covert operations," and that investigators had said the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] kept "a slush-fund account" at the bank.[^1]
A self-described former operative, given the pseudonym "Mustafa," told the magazine: "I was recruited by the black network in the early 1980s." He described training in Pakistan and an operation of April 1989 in which crates from a Colombian container ship were unloaded at Karachi and flown out aboard an unmarked 707 to [[Czechoslovakia]] and then to the [[United States]], supervised by an American the operatives believed to be a CIA agent. The article quoted the Manhattan district attorney, [[Robert Morgenthau]]: "We have had no cooperation from the Justice Department since we first asked for records in March 1990. In fact they are impeding our investigation, and Justice Department representatives are asking witnesses not to cooperate with us." It also stated that the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s main probe of BCCI was "being handled by a sole Assistant U.S. Attorney in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], who has recently been assigned another major case," and that "one of B.C.C.I.'s Washington representatives distributed millions of dollars in payoffs to U.S. officials during the past decade."[^1][^3]
A self-described former operative, given the pseudonym "Mustafa," told the magazine: "I was recruited by the black network in the early 1980s." He described training in Pakistan and an operation of April 1989 in which crates from a Colombian container ship were unloaded at Karachi and flown out aboard an unmarked 707 to [[Czechoslovakia]] and then to the [[United States]], supervised by an American the operatives believed to be a CIA agent. The article quoted the Manhattan district attorney, [[Robert Morgenthau]]: "We have had no cooperation from the Justice Department since we first asked for records in March 1990. In fact they are impeding our investigation, and Justice Department representatives are asking witnesses not to cooperate with us." It also stated that the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s main probe of BCCI was "being handled by a sole Assistant U.S. Attorney in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], who has recently been assigned another major case," and that "one of B.C.C.I.'s Washington representatives distributed millions of dollars in payoffs to U.S. officials during the past decade."[^1][^4]
### The Senate Response
The report of Senators [[John Kerry]] and [[Hank Brown]] to the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] addressed the story directly, dating it "a Time magazine cover-story on BCCI on August 15, 1991." The report stated that "None of the BCCI officers interviewed by the Senate claimed to have knowledge of a 'black network' of intelligence operatives, arms dealers, drug traffickers, burglars, or assassins employed by BCCI," and that "They declared, to a person, that they did not believe such a network existed at the bank," though several suggested that a smaller team "carrying out Abedi's most secret missions" could have existed.[^4] The former United States Attorney in Miami, [[Dexter Lehtinen]], whose request to bring BCCI-related indictments in Miami was held back by the Justice Department until November 1991, told the subcommittee, implying that the reversal was the result of Congressional and media pressure: "There had been significant, Time Magazine and New York Times articles, very critical of the Department."[^5] See [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report]].
The report of Senators [[John Kerry]] and [[Hank Brown]] to the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] addressed the story directly, dating it "a Time magazine cover-story on BCCI on August 15, 1991." The archived article is dated July 29, 1991.[^3] The report stated that "None of the BCCI officers interviewed by the Senate claimed to have knowledge of a 'black network' of intelligence operatives, arms dealers, drug traffickers, burglars, or assassins employed by BCCI," and that "They declared, to a person, that they did not believe such a network existed at the bank," though several suggested that a smaller team "carrying out Abedi's most secret missions" could have existed.[^5] The former United States Attorney in Miami, [[Dexter Lehtinen]], whose request to bring BCCI-related indictments in Miami was held back by the Justice Department until November 1991, told the subcommittee, implying that the reversal was the result of Congressional and media pressure: "There had been significant, Time Magazine and New York Times articles, very critical of the Department."[^6] See [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report]].
### The Outlaw Bank
@ -48,6 +50,7 @@ The report of Senators [[John Kerry]] and [[Hank Brown]] to the [[Senate Foreign
[^1]: Beaty, Jonathan, and S. C. Gwynne. "B.C.C.I.: The Dirtiest Bank of All," *Time,* July 29, 1991. https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,973481,00.html ; archive copy https://time.com/archive/6718229/b-c-c-i-the-dirtiest-bank-of-all/
[^2]: Beaty, Jonathan, and S. C. Gwynne. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI.* New York: Random House, 1993. Internet Archive catalogue record, identifier outlawbank00jona. https://archive.org/details/outlawbank00jona
[^3]: Beaty, Jonathan, and S. C. Gwynne. "B.C.C.I.: The Dirtiest Bank of All," *Time,* July 29, 1991, p. 8 of the online edition. https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,973481-8,00.html
[^4]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 4, "BCCI's Criminality." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/04crime.htm
[^5]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 8, "BCCI and Law Enforcement: The Justice Department and the US Customs Service." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/08just.htm
[^3]: "B.C.C.I.: The Dirtiest Bank of All," *Time*, July 29, 1991. Archive copy, time.com/archive/6718229, byline "TIME Staff." https://time.com/archive/6718229/b-c-c-i-the-dirtiest-bank-of-all/
[^4]: Beaty, Jonathan, and S. C. Gwynne. "B.C.C.I.: The Dirtiest Bank of All," *Time,* July 29, 1991, p. 8 of the online edition. https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,973481-8,00.html
[^5]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 4, "BCCI's Criminality." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/04crime.htm
[^6]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 8, "BCCI and Law Enforcement: The Justice Department and the US Customs Service." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/08just.htm

18
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Kamal Adham.md
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@ -24,7 +24,12 @@ relations:
with: "[[United States Department of Justice]]"
reverse: true
end: 1992-07-29
fn: 16
fn: 17
- type: investigated
with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
reverse: true
role: "probe under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act into Boeing and Lockheed arms sales to Saudi Arabia; Federal Reserve staff learned of it in 1981"
fn: 15
---
Kamal Adham was the former head of [[Saudi Arabian intelligence]] and brother-in-law of the late [[King Faisal]]. He was a significant shareholder in [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] and [[First American Bank]]. Adham was a shrewd and jovial figure who straddled the worlds of Middle Eastern business and politics for decades. He was considered one of the true inside power players of the [[Middle East]].[^1]
@ -54,13 +59,15 @@ Adham was one of four original investors, with [[Faisal Saud al-Fulaij]], Sheikh
In a letter to the Federal Reserve of April 10, 1991, Adham gave another account of the investment's origin: a friend, Hasan Yassin, had told him Financial General would be a good investment, and he had brought it to BCCI "as his business agent." The Senate report called this "completely inconsistent" with the accounts of [[Bert Lance]], the *[[The Washington Post|Washington Post]]* and Robert Altman, and noted that Lance had never heard of Yassin.[^12]
The Senate report states that the Federal Reserve asked the Central Intelligence Agency in 1981 whether it held derogatory information on the Middle Eastern shareholders of CCAH. The CIA replied that it had none, and did not tell the Federal Reserve that Adham and [[A. R. (Abdul Raouf) Khalil|Abdul Raouf Khalil]] were intelligence liaisons of the United States. Adham had also been the subject of a [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] probe under the [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]] into [[Boeing]] and Lockheed arms sales to Saudi Arabia. The report states that Federal Reserve staff learned of the intelligence contacts and of the commission's probe into Adham's and Faisal al-Fulaij's alleged receipt of bribes in 1981.[^15]
### Intelligence Background
The Senate report recorded that the CIA, asked about the CCAH shareholders, told the Federal Reserve it had no derogatory information on them, without telling it that Adham and [[A. R. (Abdul Raouf) Khalil|Abdul Raouf Khalil]] were "the past and then-current Saudi intelligence liaisons to the United States," or that Adham and Fulaij had been the subject of a [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] inquiry under the [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]] into arms sales to Saudi Arabia by [[Boeing]] and [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]]. Paul Volcker, who as chairman of the Federal Reserve signed the 1981 approval, testified in 1991 that he "wasn't aware" of Adham's intelligence background and that it "might send an eyebrow or two up." The Virginia bank regulator Sidney Bailey asked the [[State Department]] and the CIA for information on the shareholders and received none; "at the time," the report found, "the CIA knew precisely who Adham was."[^12][^15]
The Senate report recorded that the CIA, asked about the CCAH shareholders, told the Federal Reserve it had no derogatory information on them, without telling it that Adham and Abdul Raouf Khalil were "the past and then-current Saudi intelligence liaisons to the United States," or that Adham and Fulaij had been the subject of a Securities and Exchange Commission inquiry under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act into arms sales to Saudi Arabia by Boeing and [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]]. Paul Volcker, who as chairman of the Federal Reserve signed the 1981 approval, testified in 1991 that he "wasn't aware" of Adham's intelligence background and that it "might send an eyebrow or two up." The Virginia bank regulator Sidney Bailey asked the [[State Department]] and the CIA for information on the shareholders and received none; "at the time," the report found, "the CIA knew precisely who Adham was."[^12][^16]
### Plea
On July 29, 1992, the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] announced that Adham and his accountant, Sayed Jawhary, had pleaded guilty to charges arising from the BCCI case, and that Adham had agreed to cooperate with investigators and to pay 105 million dollars in reparations and fines.[^16]
On July 29, 1992, the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] announced that Adham and his accountant, Sayed Jawhary, had pleaded guilty to charges arising from the BCCI case, and that Adham had agreed to cooperate with investigators and to pay 105 million dollars in reparations and fines.[^17]
### Footnotes
@ -78,5 +85,6 @@ On July 29, 1992, the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]]
[^12]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
[^13]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 14, "Abu Dhabi: BCCI's Founding and Majority Stockholders." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/14abudhabi.htm
[^14]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 13, "Clark Clifford and Robert Altman." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/13clifford.htm
[^15]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^16]: "Clifford, Altman indicted in BCCI bank fraud," United Press International, July 29, 1992. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/07/29/Clifford-Altman-indicted-in-BCCI-bank-fraud/5122712382400/
[^15]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence" (the CIA's reply to the Federal Reserve; the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act probe; text following notes 10 to 12). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^16]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^17]: "Clifford, Altman indicted in BCCI bank fraud," United Press International, July 29, 1992. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/07/29/Clifford-Altman-indicted-in-BCCI-bank-fraud/5122712382400/

11
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Lawrence Eagleburger.md
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@ -21,17 +21,20 @@ Lawrence Eagleburger was president of [[Kissinger Associates]] from 1984 to 1989
The [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]] was a client of Kissinger Associates while he was its president. In 1986 he helped establish LBS, the [[New York City|New York]] subsidiary of [[Ljubljanska Banka]] of [[Yugoslavia]], and sat on its board until he returned to government. Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] quoted a [[Federal Reserve]] inspection report showing that from 1986 to 1989 the Italian bank supplied more than 20 percent of LBS's New York business. At a meeting in New York in 1987 [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]], [[Brent Scowcroft]], Eagleburger, and the firm's economist [[Alan Stoga]] advised the bank's officers. Between 1985 and 1989 its [[Atlanta]] branch lent [[Iraq]] some five billion dollars off its books.[^1][^2]
The Italian Senate commission of inquiry's final report of April 22, 1992 described Eagleburger as an adviser to the Ljubljanska Banka, and named Scowcroft and Kissinger as BNL consultants.[^3]
### The State Department
As acting secretary on May 10, 1989, Eagleburger signed the certificate that allowed the Iraqi-owned [[Matrix Churchill]] Corporation of [[Ohio]] to open a branch in [[Baghdad]]. That fall, when the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury]] and the [[Office of Management and Budget]] opposed a further billion dollars in [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program|agricultural credit guarantees]] for Iraq, he "made phone calls and sent letters to his counterparts" to overcome them.[^2][^3]
As acting secretary on May 10, 1989, Eagleburger signed the certificate that allowed the Iraqi-owned [[Matrix Churchill]] Corporation of [[Ohio]] to open a branch in [[Baghdad]]. That fall, when the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury]] and the [[Office of Management and Budget]] opposed a further billion dollars in [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program|agricultural credit guarantees]] for Iraq, he "made phone calls and sent letters to his counterparts" to overcome them.[^2][^4]
### Testimony
Before the [[House Banking Committee]] in 1992 he said: "Quite frankly, the selective disclosure, out of context, of classified documents has led, knowingly or otherwise, to distortions of the record, half-truths, and outright falsehoods, all combined into spurious conspiracy theories and charges of a cover-up." Of the bank he said: "Although the records at Kissinger Associates indicate that I may have attended one luncheon in 1986 at which two representatives of BNL Rome were present, I do not recall this luncheon nor any substantive meetings, conversations, or other contacts with anyone from BNL." Representative [[Bernie Sanders]] asked him about a transfer of American bombs from [[Saudi Arabia]] to Iraq in 1986. He answered "No, I am not aware of anything," conferred with an aide, and said he would reply in writing. "The answer, when it was eventually supplied in writing, confirmed the Saudi transfer." The special counsel [[Frederick Lacey]] reported in December 1992 that Scowcroft and Eagleburger "came into contact with BNL management" at the firm and that he had seen nothing to suggest they knew of the Atlanta loans.[^2][^4]
Before the [[House Banking Committee]] in 1992 he said: "Quite frankly, the selective disclosure, out of context, of classified documents has led, knowingly or otherwise, to distortions of the record, half-truths, and outright falsehoods, all combined into spurious conspiracy theories and charges of a cover-up." Of the bank he said: "Although the records at Kissinger Associates indicate that I may have attended one luncheon in 1986 at which two representatives of BNL Rome were present, I do not recall this luncheon nor any substantive meetings, conversations, or other contacts with anyone from BNL." Representative [[Bernie Sanders]] asked him about a transfer of American bombs from [[Saudi Arabia]] to Iraq in 1986. He answered "No, I am not aware of anything," conferred with an aide, and said he would reply in writing. "The answer, when it was eventually supplied in writing, confirmed the Saudi transfer." The special counsel [[Frederick Lacey]] reported in December 1992 that Scowcroft and Eagleburger "came into contact with BNL management" at the firm and that he had seen nothing to suggest they knew of the Atlanta loans.[^2][^5]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record,* House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701.
[^2]: Friedman, Alan. *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq*. Bantam, 1993, pp. 145, 223-225.
[^3]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Details on Iraq's Procurement Network," *Congressional Record,* House, August 10, 1992.
[^4]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 514-15.
[^3]: Senato della Repubblica, X Legislatura, Doc. XXII-bis n. 4 (Relazione conclusiva, relatore Carta), April 22, 1992, p. 23. https://www.senato.it/documenti/repository/relazioni/archiviostorico/commissioni/X%20LEG_BNL.ATLANTA_DOC_RELAZ/X_%20LEG_BNL-ATLANTA_DOC%20XXIIBIS_4_22.4.92.pdf
[^4]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Details on Iraq's Procurement Network," *Congressional Record,* House, August 10, 1992.
[^5]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 514-15.

18
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William J. Casey.md
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@ -17,10 +17,17 @@ tags:
- OctoberSurprise
- IranContra
- DarkAllianceInvestigation
summary: "William J. Casey was Reagan's 1980 campaign manager and CIA Director from 1981 to 1987 who, among other disputed roles, is alleged to have secretly negotiated with Iranian representatives in Madrid and Paris in 1980 to delay the release of American hostages past Election Day -- the core allegation of the October Surprise -- and who died of a brain tumor in May 1987 as the Iran-Contra scandal unfolded."
summary: "Reagan's 1980 campaign manager and CIA Director from 1981 to 1987, alleged to have negotiated with Iranian representatives in 1980 to delay the release of American hostages; died in May 1987 as Iran-Contra unfolded."
born: 1913-03-13
died: 1987-05-06
location: "Elmhurst, Queens, New York"
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
role: "chairman"
start: 1971-04-14
end: 1973-02-02
fn: 16
---
William Joseph Casey was born March 13, 1913, in Elmhurst, Queens, New York. He attended [[St. John's University]] and Fordham Law School, becoming a corporate and tax attorney. During World War II he served in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) under [[William J. Donovan|William "Wild Bill" Donovan]], rising to head the OSS's Secret Intelligence operations in Europe and coordinating the infiltration of agents into Nazi-controlled territory. After the war he became a wealthy lawyer and author of tax shelter guides. President [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] appointed him Chairman of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in 1971, a post he held through 1973. He managed [[Ronald Reagan]]'s 1980 presidential campaign. Reagan appointed him [[Director of Central Intelligence]] in January 1981, and he served as DCI until resigning due to illness in January 1987. He died May 6, 1987, at a hospital in Glen Cove, New York, having suffered a seizure in December 1986 and subsequently undergone brain surgery. He was subpoenaed to testify before the Senate [[Iran-Contra Affair|Iran-Contra]] investigating committee but died before he could appear.[^1]
@ -64,6 +71,12 @@ Casey is listed on the advisory board of the [[National Intelligence Study Cente
The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, in its October 24, 1991 report on the nomination of Gates, named Casey as one of three CIA officials involved in the recruitment and selection of [[James D. Theberge]] for the Senior Review Panel, with Deputy Director [[John McMahon]] and Executive Director [[James Taylor]].[^12] The report states that "the Committee's documentary evidence makes clear that Director Casey was the CIA official most instrumental in recruiting Mr. Theberge."[^12] The report records that Theberge disclosed his consulting work for a Cardoen subsidiary in the personal history statement he submitted to the CIA in December 1985, and that he was hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^12] CIA visitor records held in the reading room list Theberge as meeting the director at headquarters in November 1984 and, as "Ambassador Theberge," calling on the director on September 23, 1985.[^13] A routing sheet of August 12, 1985 confirms a courtesy call on the director at 1100 hours on August 14, 1985, twelve days after Theberge left his post in Chile, stating that he "has completed his tour in Chile and has no particular items to discuss."[^14] In a memorandum of August 19, 1985 titled "Soviet Game Plan," Casey told the Vice Chairman of the [[National Intelligence Council]]: "You will get in touch with Theberge, talk about the project generally, see what he has to contribute and perhaps have him do some work on the Latin America phase of it."[^15]
### Securities and Exchange Commission, 1971 to 1973
Casey served as chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission from April 14, 1971 to February 2, 1973.[^16] During his chairmanship the commission was investigating the 1970 takeover of [[Investors Overseas Services]] by [[International Controls Corporation]]. The complaint filed in November 1972 described transfers of International Controls assets to entities controlled by [[Robert Vesco]].[^17]
The New Jersey Supreme Court's disciplinary opinion on [[Harry L. Sears]], a former majority leader of the New Jersey Senate, records that Sears conveyed Vesco's requests to [[John N. Mitchell]], then attorney general, in two letters and three meetings, and that Vesco hoped Mitchell could induce Casey "to monitor and limit the investigation." The opinion records that Mitchell telephoned Casey and arranged a meeting between Sears and the chairman. At that meeting Casey gave assurances that International Controls could respond to the investigation, and that he would personally review its claims of SEC harassment.[^18]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Persico, Joseph E. *Casey: From the OSS to the CIA*. Viking, 1990.
@ -81,3 +94,6 @@ The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, in its October 24, 1991 report on t
[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, "American Ambassadors" visitor log, November 1984 (1045), CREST document CIA-RDP93-00415R000100040012-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp93-00415r000100040012-4; visitor record, September 23, 1985 (1645), CREST document CIA-RDP93-00415R000200230005-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp93-00415r000200230005-0.
[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, "DCI 14 August 1985 Meeting with Mr. James D. Theberge, Former U.S. Ambassador to Chile," August 12, 1985, CREST document CIA-RDP87M00539R000801050023-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp87m00539r000801050023-0
[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Soviet Game Plan," memorandum from the Director of Central Intelligence to the Vice Chairman, National Intelligence Council, August 19, 1985, signed William J. Casey, CREST document CIA-RDP97M00248R000500220030-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp97m00248r000500220030-9
[^16]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Historical Summary of Chairmen and Commissioners" (William Casey, Chairman, April 14, 1971 to February 2, 1973). https://www.sec.gov/about/sec-commissioners/sec-historical-summary-chairmen-commissioners
[^17]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, November 28, 1972 (complaint of November 27, 1972 against Robert L. Vesco and 41 other defendants; transfers from International Controls Corp.; purchase in early 1971 of 6,000,000 shares of Investors Overseas Services). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1972/dig112872.pdf
[^18]: In re Sears, 71 N.J. 175 (1976) (Supreme Court of New Jersey, disciplinary opinion; the requests conveyed by Sears to Mitchell, and the meeting Mitchell arranged between Sears and Casey). https://static.case.law/nj/71/cases/0175-01.json

4
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Bert Lance.md
View file

@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ In 1976 [[Mochtar Riady]] of the [[Lippo Group]] met Jackson and [[Witt Stephens
Sami's memo to Abedi of January 30, 1978, referred to "our friend" in the Financial General negotiations; Lance acknowledged to the subcommittee that the reference was to him, but testified that "the acquisition of shares were basically handled by Mr. Sami, and he was the man who was responsible. I was not involved in that." He testified that in 1978, at Abedi's suggestion, he met [[Kamal Adham]] and Sheikh [[Zayed bin Sultan AL-Nahayan|Zayed]], the latter in [[Lahore]] in "February or March, 1978," and the *[[Washington Post]]* reported that he had recently been in [[Karachi]] in connection with his dealings with Abedi; he made the trip on an official diplomatic passport although he no longer worked for the government.[^13] Of Abedi's relationship with Zayed he told the subcommittee that Abedi had "been kind and attentive to Sheikh Zayed when he was still wandering around in the desert and he had all his assets in his tent somewhere."[^14]
According to the [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]], a federal judge on April 27, 1978, "permanently enjoined Lance and ten other defendants" from violating the securities laws in connection with the Financial General takeover.[^12]
According to the [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]], a federal judge on April 27, 1978, "permanently enjoined Lance and ten other defendants" from violating the securities laws in connection with the Financial General takeover.[^12] The Securities and Exchange Commission's News Digest of March 20, 1978, headed "Lance, Others Enjoined," reported that on March 18 the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia had entered permanent injunctions, by consent, against eleven defendants including Lance (Civil Action 78-0469).[^15] On April 26, 1978 the commission and the Comptroller of the Currency filed a separate civil action in the Northern District of Georgia against The National Bank of Georgia, The Calhoun First National Bank and Lance, which ended the same day in consent judgments of permanent injunction (Civil Action 78-758).[^16]
### Footnotes
@ -61,3 +61,5 @@ According to the [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]], a
[^12]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
[^13]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 16, "BCCI and Georgia Politicians." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/16ga.htm
[^14]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 14, "Abu Dhabi: BCCI's Founding and Majority Stockholders." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/14abudhabi.htm
[^15]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, March 20, 1978, "Lance, Others Enjoined" (SEC v. Bank of Credit and Commerce International S.A., et al., U.S.D.C. D.C., Civil Action No. 78-0469, LR-8336). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1978/dig032078.pdf
[^16]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, April 28, 1978 (SEC and Comptroller of the Currency v. The National Bank of Georgia, The Calhoun First National Bank, Bertram Lance, U.S.D.C. N.D. Ga., Atlanta Division, Civil Action No. 78-758). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1978/dig042878.pdf

15
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Frederick Lacey.md
View file

@ -23,11 +23,11 @@ relations:
- type: investigated
with: "[[Brent Scowcroft]]"
start: 1992
fn: 3
fn: 5
- type: investigated
with: "[[Lawrence Eagleburger]]"
start: 1992
fn: 3
fn: 5
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Albert Anastasia]]"
start: 1954
@ -40,12 +40,15 @@ Frederick Bernard Lacey was born in Newark, [[New Jersey]], on September 9, 1920
### The BNL Investigation
Attorney General [[William Barr]] declined to seek an independent counsel in the [[BNL Scandal|Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]] affair and on October 16, 1992, appointed Lacey special counsel; he reported 54 days later. He wrote: "I find Judge Shoob's specific charges against the USAO to be inaccurate," rejecting the criticisms of Judge [[Marvin Shoob]]. Of [[Brent Scowcroft]] and [[Lawrence Eagleburger]], he wrote: "It is clear that, while at [[Kissinger Associates]], Scowcroft and Eagleburger came into contact with [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro|BNL]] management. I have seen nothing, however, to suggest that they knew of BNL-Atlanta's wrongful loans to Iraq or influenced the prosecution of this matter." The second part of the report was classified.[^3] According to *The Village Voice,* the report dismissed the allegations as "arrogant nonsense," while Lacey acknowledged that he could not determine "who at Justice saw what and when" and was "unable to penetrate with any precision where responsibility lay."[^4] Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]], chairman of the [[House Banking Committee]], told the House on January 21, 1993, that "from the start it was apparent that Judge Lacey was nothing more than a lackey," called the report "the Lacey Job," and said that "at best" it was a whitewash.[^5]
Attorney General [[William Barr]] declined to seek an independent counsel in the [[BNL Scandal|Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]] affair and on October 16, 1992, appointed Lacey as "independent counsel" under Justice Department regulations rather than under the statute. Lacey's report states that on October 27 Barr authorized a preliminary investigation and asked for a report by December 8, 1992; the Senate staff record that Lacey submitted it on December 9, 1992.[^3] He wrote: "I find Judge Shoob's specific charges against the USAO, and his concern about the interference of other agencies, to be inaccurate,"[^4] rejecting the criticisms of Judge [[Marvin Shoob]]. Of [[Brent Scowcroft]] and [[Lawrence Eagleburger]], he wrote: "It is clear that, while at [[Kissinger Associates]], Scowcroft and Eagleburger came into contact with [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro|BNL]] management. I have seen nothing, however, to suggest that they knew of BNL-Atlanta's wrongful loans to Iraq or influenced the prosecution of this matter." The second part of the report was classified.[^5] Lacey also addressed the appointment of Joseph D. Whitley, writing that Whitley became acting United States attorney on June 1, 1990, and verbally recused himself from the BNL case the same day, a recusal confirmed in writing a week later.[^6] According to *The Village Voice,* the report dismissed the allegations as "arrogant nonsense," while Lacey acknowledged that he could not determine "who at Justice saw what and when" and was "unable to penetrate with any precision where responsibility lay."[^7] Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]], chairman of the [[House Banking Committee]], told the House on January 21, 1993, that "from the start it was apparent that Judge Lacey was nothing more than a lackey," called the report "the Lacey Job," and said that "at best" it was a whitewash.[^8]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Federal Judicial Center, "Lacey, Frederick Bernard," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/lacey-frederick-bernard
[^2]: Historical Society of the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey, "Frederick Bernard Lacey." https://www.historynjdc.org/judges/judicial-biographies/frederick-bernard-lacey ; "'French Connection' Judge Dies at 96," Associated Press, via *Governing,* April 2017.
[^3]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95, 1993, pp. 514-15. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^4]: "Will We Ever Learn the Truth About Iraqgate?" *The Village Voice,* reprinted November 2, 2020.
[^5]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Update on BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record,* House, January 21, 1993. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1993_cr/h930121-bnl.htm
[^3]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair,* Committee Print S. Prt. 103-12, February 1993, pp. 4-5; Lacey, "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," printed in Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf
[^4]: Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, printed in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95 (1994), p. 473. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^5]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95, 1993, pp. 514-15. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^6]: Lacey, "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," printed in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95 (1994), pp. 514-515. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^7]: "Will We Ever Learn the Truth About Iraqgate?" *The Village Voice,* reprinted November 2, 2020.
[^8]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Update on BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record,* House, January 21, 1993. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1993_cr/h930121-bnl.htm

4
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/James Moore.md
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@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ tags:
- MKULTRA
- Chemistry
- 1950s
summary: "James Moore was a CIA-employed chemist who ran MKULTRA Subproject 58, infiltrating East Coast mycology circles under the cover of a Geschickter Fund professor to locate and obtain psilocybin mushrooms, accompanying R. Gordon Wasson's 1956 Mexico expedition before Wasson's Life magazine article inadvertently publicized the hallucinogen."
summary: "James Moore was a CIA-employed chemist who ran MKULTRA Subproject 58, seeking psilocybin mushrooms under a Geschickter Fund cover and accompanying R. Gordon Wasson's 1956 Mexico expedition."
---
James Moore was a chemist who worked for the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA Subproject 58]], a classified effort to locate and mass-produce the hallucinogenic mushroom *teonanáctl* (God's flesh) for intelligence use[^1].
@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ In 1956, after two years of unsuccessful efforts, Moore finally persuaded [[R. G
The mission proved traumatic for Moore, who reportedly got sick and disliked the experience. At one point, he was left roadside in Mexico in the care of local Indians when the group's small airplane had to lighten its load. Despite the difficulties, Moore fulfilled his CIA mandate, returning with *teonanáctl* mushrooms for the Agency to analyze[^1].
However, the CIA's desire to keep the drug a secret psychic weapon was undermined when Wasson published a twelve-page account of his experience in *Life* magazine, highlighting the mushroom's alleged ability to access and enhance [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]]. This article caused a sensation and led to pleasure seekers flocking to Mexico to consume *God's flesh*[^1].
However, the CIA's desire to keep the drug a secret psychic weapon was undermined when Wasson published an account of his experience on pages 100 to 102 and 109 to 120 of *Life* magazine, highlighting the mushroom's alleged ability to access and enhance [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]]. This article caused a sensation and led to pleasure seekers flocking to Mexico to consume *God's flesh*[^1].
### Chemical Procurement for TSS

83
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani.md Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
---
aliases:
- Rahim Irvani
- Mohammed Rahim Irvani
- Mohammed Irvani
- Irvani
category: "Business & Finance"
tags:
- Person
- BCCI
- FinancialGeneralBankshares
- RichardHelms
- Iran
- Safeer
- FrontMan
summary: "Iranian industrialist listed in 1978 as a 5 percent shareholder of Credit and Commerce American Holdings, described by a Senate subcommittee as BCCI's lead front man and as financier of Richard Helms's firm Safeer."
created: 2026-10-12
updated: 2026-10-12
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Melli Industrial Group]]"
start: 1949
role: "manufacturer of footwear and leather goods in Iran; 23 operating companies by 1978"
fn: 1
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Richard Helms]]"
role: "principal partner and chief financier in Safeer, Helms's international consulting firm; owned 80 percent of its capital per corporate records filed in Georgia litigation"
fn: 1
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]]"
start: 1978
role: "listed in the original SEC filing as a 5 percent shareholder; described as BCCI's lead front man in the first takeover attempt"
fn: 3
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Roy P. M. Carlson]]"
reverse: true
role: "manager of the Melli group; later vice president of Safeer"
fn: 2
- type: funded
with: "[[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]]"
reverse: true
start: 1989
role: "BCCI financed Irvani investments in the United Kingdom and United States, including a 38 million dollar purchase of a New York office building"
fn: 8
---
Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani was an Iranian industrialist who founded the Melli Industrial Group in 1949. The 1992 Senate subcommittee report on [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] names him as BCCI's lead front man in the unsuccessful 1978 bid for [[Financial General Bankshares]] and as the principal partner and financier of former CIA director [[Richard Helms]] in the consulting firm Safeer.[^1]
### Melli Industrial Group and Alwand
Irvani founded the Melli Industrial Group in Iran in 1949 to manufacture footwear and leather goods and developed close ties to the government of the Shah of Iran. By 1978 the group owned 23 operating companies and had joint ventures with foreign firms including Goodyear and United Chemical. He also owned the Alwand Industrial Co., which held interests in the Iran Arab Bank. Financial documents estimated his personal net worth at over 50 million dollars and the value of his business holdings at as much as 800 million dollars.[^1] [[Agha Hasan Abedi]]'s involvement with Irvani arose from the Iran Arab Bank, according to a memorandum of BCCI's lawyers recording a November 1990 meeting with [[Roy P. M. Carlson]]. Carlson, who had advised Abedi on the formation of BCCI in 1972 while at [[Bank of America]], was introduced by Abedi to Irvani and hired by him to manage the Melli group.[^1][^2]
### Safeer and Richard Helms
Richard Helms was dismissed as director of central intelligence by President [[Richard Nixon]] in February 1973 and was ambassador to [[Iran]] until 1977, where he met Irvani. On October 31, 1977 Helms pleaded no contest to two charges in return for a recommendation that he not be sentenced to prison. In the fall of 1977 [[Clark Clifford]] visited a senior Justice Department official to argue against an indictment of Helms, saying that such charges could damage the intelligence community. The federal judge in the case described Helms as "in disgrace and shame."[^1]
Irvani financed Safeer, an international consulting firm named for the Iranian word for "Ambassador," whose initial business was mostly supplied by Irvani and his contacts. Safeer corporate records and documents filed in civil litigation, *G&H Montage GmbH v. Irvani*, Superior Court of Gwinnett County, Georgia, No. 88-A-03571-6, show that Irvani capitalized and owned 80 percent of the company. Carlson, Irvani's former chief U.S. assistant, became its vice president and handled much of its early business. A company named North West Investment, created by Carlson, invested 120,000 dollars in Safeer in its first year and a year later sold its shares to Brockton Leather Company, which sold them to Helms for one dollar.[^1]
The report records that Helms introduced Irvani to Walter J. Stoessel, Jr., the United States ambassador to Germany, in January 1979; wrote to Vice President [[George H. W. Bush]] on Irvani's behalf on October 29, 1987, forwarding a letter from Irvani; and forwarded Irvani's letters of congratulations to President-elect Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III|James Baker]] on November 28, 1988. The Irvani letters to Bush have not been located; Irvani's cover letter to Helms refers to his wish to give Bush advice on his presidential campaign. Helms also introduced a member of Irvani's family to Ambassador [[Paul Nitze]] and another to [[Raymond Close]], a former CIA station chief for Saudi Arabia who had worked for [[Kamal Adham]].[^1]
### Financial General Bankshares, 1978
Abedi solicited Irvani in early 1978 to serve as a nominee shareholder in the takeover of Financial General Bankshares, together with Sheikh [[Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan]] and Abdullah Darwaish. Irvani was listed in the original [[Securities and Exchange Commission|SEC]] filing in the 1978 takeover attempt as a 5 percent shareholder of [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH). The report states that several documents introduced in the Georgia civil litigation describe his recruitment by Abedi.[^3] The BCCI lawyers' memorandum quotes Carlson as saying that Abedi had invited Irvani in the mid-1970s to take a 5 percent stake, that Irvani had applied to Credit and Commerce America for a loan to buy the stake, and that he "had never been keen to make the investment at all" but had been persuaded he could do so on the basis of a loan to be made to him.[^1]
Irvani's son told the [[Atlanta Constitution]] in 1992 that his father "lent his name to the 1978 takeover bid at the request of BCCI founder Agha Hasan Abedi."[^4] Helms denied the allegation in the Atlanta Constitution on February 18, 1992, calling it "totally untrue . . . absolute nonsense."[^5]
An October 20, 1978 telex from Helms to Irvani, quoted in the report, states that Carlson had asked on October 19 that Helms have an independent attorney review seven documents he had telexed, and sets out the text of a letter agreement under which the undersigned would "indemnify you from any liability, loss, or damage" arising from Irvani's granting a power of attorney to any partner of the Washington law firm Clifford, Glass, McIlwain and Finney in the Financial General transaction. The report states that [[Robert Altman]] listed Irvani, within days of the telex, as an intended principal shareholder in the application filed with the Federal Reserve for CCAH, along with representatives of the Abu Dhabi royal family and [[Faisal Saud al-Fulaij]]. It states that Clifford and Altman received Irvani's power of attorney in the same period.[^1][^6]
The report states that Irvani's role in the first bid ended with the Iranian revolution in January 1979, when he became an unnecessary nominee, and that Kamal Adham succeeded him as BCCI's lead front man in the First American takeover.[^1] The report's executive summary lists the relationships among former CIA personnel and the BCCI front men and nominees Adham, [[A. R. (Abdul Raouf) Khalil|Abdul Khalil]] and Irvani as requiring further investigation.[^7]
### BCCI financing and the National Bank of Georgia
BCCI documents show that the bank financed Irvani investments in the United Kingdom and the United States, which in 1989 amounted to 38 million dollars in a single transaction to buy a New York office building at 140 East 58th Street. The documents also show loans, typically of millions of dollars at a time, to the Irvani family, and that the family received substantial loans from the [[National Bank of Georgia]], both while [[Ghaith R. Pharaon]] owned it on behalf of BCCI and after [[First American Bankshares]] replaced him as nominal owner. After Pharaon bought the bank from [[Bert Lance]], Abedi personally selected Carlson as its head.[^1][^8]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate. December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence," section "Former CIA Director Richard Helms and BCCI Front Man Mohammed Irvani" (notes 49 to 63, citing S. Hrg. 102-350, Pt. 4, pp. 236-316). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^2]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 11 (Carlson's career and his role at Safeer; note 52, staff interview with Roy Carlson, July 16, 1991; note 56). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^3]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry" (Abedi's solicitation of Irvani; the original SEC filing; note 49). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
[^4]: Peter Mantias, "BCCI: Case reveals former CIA chief's ties to bank," Atlanta Constitution, February 15, 1992, p. A1, as quoted in Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 6, note 57. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
[^5]: "Ex-CIA chief Helms denies helping BCCI," Atlanta Constitution, February 18, 1992, as quoted in Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 11, note 60 (S. Hrg. 102-350, Pt. 4, p. 236). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^6]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 13, "Clark Clifford and Robert Altman" (the October 1978 Helms telex and indemnification language; Irvani's listing in the application filed with the Federal Reserve; notes 23 and 24). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/13clifford.htm
[^7]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 1, "Executive Summary." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/01exec.htm
[^8]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 11 (BCCI financing of Irvani investments, including 140 East 58th Street, and loans from the National Bank of Georgia). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm

16
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Richard Helms.md
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@ -23,6 +23,11 @@ summary: "Richard Helms served as Director of Central Intelligence from 1966 to
born: 1913-03-30
died: 2002-10-22
location: "St. Davids, Pennsylvania"
relations:
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani]]"
role: "principal partner in Safeer, the consulting firm Helms founded; Irvani was also its chief financier"
fn: 22
---
Richard McGarrah Helms (March 30, 1913 - October 22, 2002) served as [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] [[Director of Central Intelligence]] from June 30, 1966, to February 2, 1973 - the only career CIA clandestine officer ever to hold that position, and the only DCI ever convicted of a criminal offense related to his service. A professional intelligence officer who entered the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] during [[World War II]] and spent thirty years in the CIA, Helms authorized [[Operation CHAOS]] domestic surveillance, approved continuation of the [[MKULTRA]] human experimentation program, ordered the destruction of both programs' records before congressional investigators could access them, and in 1977 pleaded no contest to making false statements to Congress about CIA operations against Chilean President [[Salvador Allende]]. He simultaneously held the personal conviction, disclosed to his deputies, that [[Israel]] was using American intelligence as "an open pipeline for pumping intelligence to [[Moscow]]" - a view he never officially reported.[^1]
@ -91,6 +96,14 @@ Nixon appointed Helms U.S. Ambassador to Iran in February 1973, effectively remo
He published his memoirs, *A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency*, posthumously in 2003. The book was notably reticent about the most significant controversial episodes of his career, consistent with his lifelong orientation toward institutional protection over personal disclosure. He died in Washington on October 22, 2002.[^1]
### Irvani, Safeer and the 1978 Financial General Bid
Helms was dismissed as director of central intelligence by President Richard Nixon in February 1973 and was then appointed ambassador to Iran until 1977, where he met [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani]], an Iranian industrialist who had founded the Melli Industrial Group in 1949.[^21] On October 31, 1977 Helms pleaded no contest to two charges, in return for a government recommendation that he not be sentenced to prison. In the fall of 1977 [[Clark Clifford]] visited a senior Justice Department official to argue against an indictment, saying that such charges could damage the U.S. intelligence community.[^21]
Helms ran an international consulting firm, Safeer, which the Senate report says was named for the Iranian word for "Ambassador." Irvani financed the firm at the time the presiding federal judge described Helms as "in disgrace and shame." According to corporate records and documents filed in civil litigation in Gwinnett County, Georgia, Irvani capitalized and owned 80 percent of Safeer, and [[Roy P. M. Carlson]], a former Bank of America officer whom [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] had introduced to Irvani, became its vice president and handled much of its early business.[^22]
The original 1978 filing with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] listed Irvani as a 5 percent shareholder of [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH), and the Senate report describes him as BCCI's lead front man in the early 1978 takeover attempt against [[Financial General Bankshares]]. The report says that Helms advised Irvani on how to be protected from any liability in that role, and that several documents introduced in litigation in Georgia describe Abedi recruiting Irvani in early 1978 to act as a front man.[^23]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Powers, Thomas. *The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA.* Knopf, 1979 (the essential biography, based on extensive interviews). Church Committee (Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities). Final Report, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976.
@ -113,3 +126,6 @@ He published his memoirs, *A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intell
[^18]: Robarge, David S. "Getting it Right: CIA Analysis of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War." *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 1 (March 2005). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/CIA-Analysis-1967-War.pdf For the June 1 to 2 meeting Robarge relies on published accounts, among them Michael B. Oren's, which rest on Amit's interviews and writings.
[^19]: National Security Archive, "The NUMEC Affair: Did Highly Enriched Uranium from the U.S. Aid Israel's Nuclear Weapons Program?" (November 2, 2016), Document 8, Letter from Richard Helms to Ramsey Clark, April 2, 1968 (ISCAP Appeal No. 2013-062). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-11-02/numec-affair-did-highly-enriched-uranium-us-aid-israels-nuclear-weapons-program
[^20]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991. Chapters 11, 14, 16.
[^21]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence" (the section on Richard Helms and Mohammed Irvani; text preceding notes 49 to 51). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^22]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 11 (Safeer's name, its capitalization and the Carlson passages; text following note 51 through note 57; *G&H Montage GmbH v. Irvani*, Superior Court of Gwinnett County, Georgia, 88-A-03571-6). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^23]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry" (Irvani listed in the original SEC filing as a 5 percent shareholder of CCAH; recruitment by Abedi in early 1978, note 49); ch. 11 (Helms's advice to Irvani on liability). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm

191
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Robert S. McNamara.md
View file

@ -1,27 +1,200 @@
---
updated: 2026-10-08
updated: 2026-10-12
aliases:
- Robert McNamara
- Robert Strange McNamara
- McNamara
category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags:
- Person
- Nuclear
- DefenseSecretary
- Vietnam
- Cuba
- Israel
summary: "Secretary of Defense under Kennedy and Johnson who was pressured by pro-Israel fundraiser Abraham Feinberg not to interfere with Israel's nuclear activities."
- WorldBank
- Nuclear
- FordMotorCompany
summary: "Secretary of Defense under Kennedy and Johnson whose tenure includes Operation Mongoose, the Northwoods memorandum, the Gulf of Tonkin incidents and the Pentagon Papers task force, followed by the World Bank presidency."
born: 1916-06-09
died: 2009-07-06
location: "San Francisco, California, USA"
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Ford Motor Company]]"
start: 1946
end: 1961-01
role: "member of the postwar management group nicknamed the Whiz Kids; named president in November 1960"
fn: 1
- type: appointed
with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
start: 1961-01
end: 1968-02-29
role: "Secretary of Defense"
fn: 3
- type: head_of
with: "[[World Bank]]"
start: 1968-04-01
end: 1981-06-30
fn: 1
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Operation Mongoose]]"
start: 1962-08-10
role: "attended the August 10, 1962 Special Group (Augmented) meeting"
fn: 8
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Operation NORTHWOODS]]"
start: 1962-03-13
role: "addressee of the Joint Chiefs of Staff memorandum forwarding the pretexts paper"
fn: 13
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]]"
start: 1964-08-03
role: "Secretary of Defense; briefed congressional leaders on the destroyer attacks"
fn: 22
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Pentagon Papers]]"
start: 1967-06-17
role: "directed the formation of the OSD Vietnam Task Force"
fn: 28
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Six-Day War]]"
start: 1967-06-01
role: "met Israeli intelligence chief Meir Amit"
fn: 32
---
Robert S. McNamara served as the Secretary of Defense under President [[John F. Kennedy]] and later under President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. He was involved in discussions regarding [[Israel]]'s nuclear program and the sale of advanced U.S. fighter aircraft to Israel. [[Abraham Feinberg]] directly intervened with McNamara, insisting that the [[United States]] should not interfere with Israel's nuclear activities. McNamara cryptically acknowledged the basic problem of Israel's existence as a question mark in history, which he understood as a reason for Israel's desire for a nuclear bomb.[^1]
Robert S. McNamara (June 9, 1916 to July 6, 2009) was [[United States]] Secretary of Defense under President [[John F. Kennedy]] and then under President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], and from April 1, 1968 to June 30, 1981 president of the [[World Bank]].[^1] Before 1961 he was an Army Air Forces statistician and then an executive of the [[Ford Motor Company]].[^2] In 1967 he directed the study of [[Vietnam War]] decision-making that became the [[Pentagon Papers]], and he is named in accounts of the 1967 attack on the [[USS Liberty Incident|USS Liberty]] and in Hersh's account of Israel's nuclear program.
### Statistical Control, LeMay and Ford
In the 2003 film The Fog of War, McNamara said that as a Harvard Business School assistant professor during World War II he worked on a government contract to establish an officer candidate school for what the Air Force called "Statistical Control," selecting candidates by sorting a punch card for every person brought into the Air Corps through IBM machines. He said that a study of daylight bombing in Europe found that the 20 percent abort rate reflected fear of a 4 percent loss rate per sortie, and that [[Curtis LeMay]], then a colonel commanding a B-24 group, answered the report by ordering that any plane that took off would go over the target or the crew would be court-martialed. McNamara said that in March 1945 he was on Guam in LeMay's command when "we burned to death 100,000 Japanese civilians in Tokyo," that he "was part of a mechanism that in a sense recommended it" by analyzing the efficiency of B-29 operations, and quoted LeMay as saying, "If we'd lost the war, we'd all have been prosecuted as war criminals." McNamara added: "He, and I'd say I, were behaving as war criminals."[^2]
After the war McNamara joined a group of former Air Forces officers at Ford, which he said had just barely broken even from 1926 to 1946. The World Bank's history records that the management techniques of McNamara and his colleagues earned them the nickname "Whiz Kids," and that in November 1960 he was named president of Ford. After about one month in that position he was called to the Kennedy administration as Secretary of Defense.[^1][^2]
### The Defense Department, 1961
A Joint Chiefs of Staff memorandum dated January 27, 1961 was addressed to him as Secretary of Defense.[^3]
### Defense Intelligence Agency
In February 1961 McNamara advised the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] of his decision to establish a [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], acting on the recommendations of the Joint Study Group that [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] had appointed in 1960. The Joint Chiefs completed the concept plan by July. DoD Directive 5105.21, "Defense Intelligence Agency," was published on August 1, 1961, effective October 1, 1961.[^4] The [[Advanced Research Projects Agency]] initiated Project Agile in 1961, a portfolio of counterinsurgency research programs in Southeast Asia that ran through 1974 and included work on small arms, communications, surveillance and vegetation-clearing chemicals.[^5]
### Operation Mongoose and the Special Group (Augmented)
After the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], the Kennedy administration assigned the covert campaign against the government of [[Cuba]] to [[Operation Mongoose]]. Overall control of the operation was entrusted to a new group established for the purpose, called the Special Group (Augmented), a slightly expanded version of the NSC 5412 Special Group.[^6] The [[Church Committee]] recorded that McNamara was not a formal member of that group.[^7]
At the Special Group (Augmented) meeting of August 10, 1962, which [[Dean Rusk]] chaired, McNamara questioned whether building up agents in Cuba would lead to actions that "would hurt the U.S. in the eyes of world opinion." The minutes state that this concern "led to the suggestion by General Taylor that we should consider changing the overall objective" of the operation, from overthrowing the [[Fidel Castro]] regime to causing its failure.[^8]
The question of assassination is where the record divides. [[William Harvey]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] officer whose Task Force W ran the Mongoose operation, testified in 1975 that McNamara raised the subject at the August 10 meeting with the words "shouldn't we consider the elimination or assassination of Fidel?" Asked whether he was guessing about the speaker, Harvey said, "No, I am not guessing . . . to the best of my recollection, it was surfaced by Robert McNamara." Harvey also testified that his recollection agreed with his memorandum of August 14, written shortly after the meeting.[^9] McNamara testified that although he did not recall assassination being discussed at the meeting, he did remember opposing any assassination attempt or plan when he spoke with [[John McCone]] several days later.[^10] McCone testified that McNamara agreed [[Edward Lansdale]]'s August 13 memorandum to Harvey should be withdrawn, and that, with no independent recollection, he could reconstruct from the documents that it was McNamara who made the suggestion.[^9][^10] The Church Committee also recorded a 1975 account by Goodwin, a White House aide, of a task force meeting at which McNamara said that "Castro's assassination was the only productive way of dealing with Cuba." Goodwin testified that he had been misquoted and did not say "it was definitely McNamara."[^11]
### Operation Northwoods
On March 6, 1962 Lansdale, chief of operations of Mongoose, wrote that "in response to direction" he was asking the Defense representative, General Craig, "to give me a brief but precise description of pretexts which the JCS believes desirable if a decision is ultimately made to use direct military intervention," and asked the State Department's Goodwin for a companion statement of the pretexts State considered desirable.[^12]
The Joint Chiefs of Staff sent McNamara a memorandum dated March 13, 1962, signed by [[Lyman Lemnitzer]] as chairman, with the subject "Justification for US Military Intervention in Cuba (TS)." It stated that the Joint Chiefs had considered the attached memorandum for the Chief of Operations, Cuba Project, which responded to that office's request, and recommended that it be forwarded "as a preliminary submission suitable for planning purposes." The memorandum added that "it is assumed that a single agency will be given the primary responsibility for developing military and para-military aspects of the basic plan," and recommended that this responsibility "for both overt and covert military operations be assigned the Joint Chiefs of Staff."[^13] The paper is the Joint Chiefs document known as [[Operation NORTHWOODS]].
The attached paper (JCS 1969/321, Top Secret, Special Handling, Noforn) stated that its suggested courses of action rested on the premise that intervention "will result from a period of heightened US-Cuban tensions which place the United States in the position of suffering justifiable grievances," and that "world opinion, and the United Nations forum should be favorably affected by developing the international image of the Cuban government as rash and irresponsible, and as an alarming and unpredictable threat to the peace of the Western Hemisphere." It stated that the premise would hold only so long as there could be reasonable certainty that intervention would not directly involve the Soviet Union, and that "all projects are suggested within the time frame of the next few months." Its recommendations were that the paper not be forwarded to commanders of unified or specified commands, to U.S. officers assigned to NATO activities, or to the chairman of the U.S. delegation to the United Nations Military Staff Committee. A draft memorandum for the Chief of Operations, Cuba Project, appended to it, stated that a plan built from the suggestions "would enable a logical build-up of incidents to be combined with other seemingly unrelated events to camouflage the ultimate objective and create the necessary impression of Cuban rashness and irresponsibility on a large scale, directed at other countries as well as the United States," and that "inasmuch as the ultimate objective is overt military intervention," primary responsibility for the military and para-military aspects should go to the Joint Chiefs.[^13]
The annex, "Pretexts to Justify US Military Intervention in Cuba," listed the proposed courses of action. They included a series of "well coordinated incidents" at Guantanamo (among them rumors spread by clandestine radio, friendly Cubans in uniform landed "over-the-fence" to stage an attack, "Blow up ammunition inside the base; start fires," and "Sink ship near harbor entrance. Conduct funerals for mock-victims"); a "Remember the Maine" incident in which "We could blow up a US ship in Guantanamo Bay and blame Cuba" or blow up an unmanned vessel near Havana or Santiago; and a "Communist Cuban terror campaign in the Miami area, in other Florida cities and even in Washington," including "sink[ing] a boatload of Cubans enroute to Florida (real or simulated)." Others were a simulated "Cuban-based, Castro-supported" filibuster against a neighboring Caribbean nation; harassment of civil aircraft by U.S. pilots flying MIG-type aircraft, including "An F-86 properly painted"; and a staged shoot-down of a chartered civil airliner, in which an aircraft at Eglin Air Force Base painted as a duplicate of a registered aircraft belonging to a CIA proprietary in the Miami area would be substituted for the real one, loaded with passengers "all boarded under carefully prepared aliases," while the real aircraft, converted to a drone, flew the filed route and transmitted a "MAY DAY" message on the international distress frequency before being destroyed by radio signal. A further scenario had four or five F-101 aircraft flown toward Cuba so that a pre-briefed pilot could broadcast that he had been jumped by MIGs, after which a submarine or small surface craft would disburse F-101 parts and a parachute off the Cuban coast. A second enclosure recorded the Joint Chiefs' statement of March 7, 1962 that "determination that a credible internal revolt is impossible of attainment during the next 9-10 months will require a decision by the United States to develop a Cuban 'provocation' as justification for positive US military action."[^13]
A Joint Secretariat decision note on the paper records that the Joint Chiefs approved the recommendations in its paragraph 8 and that, because the Commandant of the Marine Corps had expressed direct concern, the provisions of Title 10, U.S. Code, section 141(b) applied.[^13] The National Security Archive posted the fifteen-page document on April 30, 2001, after James Bamford described it in his book Body of Secrets.[^14]
On March 16, 1962, three days after the memorandum, President Kennedy met with McCone, General [[Maxwell Taylor]], [[Roswell Gilpatric]], Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]], [[McGeorge Bundy]] and Lemnitzer to discuss the Mongoose guidelines. [[U. Alexis Johnson]]'s handwritten note records that "The President also expressed skepticism that in so far as can now be foreseen circumstances will arise that would justify and make desirable the use of American forces for overt military action," and that "no decision was expressed or implied approving the use of such forces although contingency planning would proceed."[^15] At the April 11, 1962 meeting of the Special Group (Augmented), according to McCone's notes, the "JCS paper on pretext or provocative actions was discussed" and McCone wrote that "We should have and review this paper as it is considered to be a very thoughtful and useful document." The question of manufacturing MIG-type planes was raised at the same meeting.[^16]
### Cuban Missile Crisis
On October 27, 1962, at the [[Executive Committee of the National Security Council]], McNamara reported on that day's daylight reconnaissance missions, one of which had aborted for mechanical reasons, with one plane overdue and several reported to have met ground fire. He again recommended night reconnaissance missions. The President delayed a decision on night flights pending a full report on the daylight mission.[^17] In The Fog of War McNamara said that LeMay, whom he had served under in World War II, was saying "Let's go in, let's totally destroy Cuba," and that after the crisis LeMay told Kennedy, "Won? Hell, we lost. We should go in and wipe 'em out today."[^2]
### Diem and the 1963 Coup
On October 2, 1963 McNamara and General Taylor reported to Kennedy on the military campaign and the political situation in [[Saigon]]. Their conclusions included that "there is no solid evidence of the possibility of a successful coup, although assassination of [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Diem]] or [[Ngo Dinh Nhu|Nhu]] is always a possibility."[^18]
### Gulf of Tonkin
On August 3, 1964 the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, [[Peter Solbert]], sent McNamara a memorandum on the aftermath of the [[USS Maddox]] engagement. It listed as possible further actions the aerial mining of North Vietnamese naval bases or harbors, further covert [[Operation 34-A]] missions against those bases, and, on the suggestion of Ambassador Maxwell Taylor in Saigon, the destruction of Swatow boats on the high seas.[^19]
On the telephone at 10:30 a.m. on August 3, Johnson and McNamara discussed the congressional briefing. McNamara proposed explaining the covert naval operations to Congress: "And we're going to, and I think I should also, or we should also at that time, Mr. President, explain this Op Plan 34-A, these covert operations. There's no question but what that had bearing on."[^20] [[John Prados]] wrote that McNamara took the position in later public hearings that he was unaware of any such link.[^21]
At a meeting of congressional leaders on August 4, 1964, McNamara began his briefing: "The first indication we had of another attack on the destroyers, the Maddox and Turner Joy, was received at 7:30 A.M. today."[^22] In a telephone call at 9:43 a.m. that day, Johnson and McNamara discussed retaliation. McNamara said of the destroyer: "this ship is allegedly, uh, to be attacked tonight."[^21]
In February 1968 McNamara was still Secretary of Defense and again served as the administration's lead witness before the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] on the 1964 incidents. He told the committee that the question of provocation had been "fully explored" at the 1964 hearings. Prados wrote that McNamara cited [[Naval Security Group]] intercepts made aboard the Maddox, described them in general terms, and declined to leave copies with the committee.[^21]
### Infiltration, the Jason study and the barrier
On January 24, 1966 McNamara sent Johnson a memorandum on the military outlook in [[South Vietnam]]. It estimated that the enemy could generate in the North and infiltrate to the South "an average of 200 tons of supplies a day depending on the season," despite anti-infiltration efforts.[^23]
From June 13 to June 22, 1966 more than forty scientists met in Wellesley, Massachusetts for briefings on the war organized by the JASON Division of the [[Institute for Defense Analyses]] under a Defense Department contract. In a letter to McNamara of June 23, 1966, [[George Kistiakowsky]] reported that the group had reached "a large measure of consensus on several tentative inferences." In late August the four study groups submitted reports to McNamara that, according to the editors of the Foreign Relations volume, concluded that the bombing of North Vietnam was ineffective and recommended construction of a barrier as an alternative means of checking infiltration.[^24] On September 15, 1966 McNamara wrote to the Director of the Defense Communications Agency, General Starbird, that an infiltration interdiction system "is to be designed, produced, and put in place in South Vietnam and Laos as a matter of highest priority," named him Director of Joint Task Force 728 with the objective of having the system in operation by September 15, 1967, and said that the concept came from the study "Air-Supported Anti-Infiltration Barrier" (August 1966) by the Jason Division. He told Starbird to use an advisory group of non-governmental experts, including Kistiakowsky.[^25] On November 14, 1966 he told Johnson that the ground portions of the barrier, fences, wire, mines and sensors supported by artillery, aircraft and mobile troops, would run about 30 kilometers west from the South China Sea, with intermittent ground barriers to the west and an air barrier beyond whose character had not been decided.[^26]
In late 1967 McNamara sent Johnson a memorandum on pacification that set out a "five-pronged" strategy. One prong was a barrier "across the trails of [[Laos]]."[^27]
### Pentagon Papers
On June 17, 1967 McNamara directed that a task force be formed to study the history of United States involvement in Vietnam from World War II to the present. His guidance to the task force was that the studies be "encyclopedic and objective." Its chairman, [[Leslie Gelb]], wrote in the final report that with six full-time professionals the task force was to finish in three months, and that a year and a half later, with six times six professionals, it was done with thirty-seven studies and fifteen collections of documents in forty-three volumes. McNamara gave the task force access to Office of the Secretary of Defense files; it had access to CIA materials and some State Department cables, no access to White House files, and guidance that prohibited personal interviews with principal participants.[^28] The report was commissioned by McNamara in 1967, and portions were leaked to the press in June 1971. On the 40th anniversary of the leak the [[National Archives and Records Administration]], with the Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon presidential libraries, released the complete report without redactions, about 7,000 pages in 48 boxes, in the form in which Gelb presented it to Secretary of Defense [[Clark Clifford]] on January 15, 1969.[^29]
### Departure from the Defense Department
Johnson spoke at a farewell ceremony for McNamara at the Pentagon on February 29, 1968, and on March 1, 1968 swore in Clifford as Secretary of Defense.[^30][^31] The World Bank's history states that McNamara's thinking on the war gradually diverged from Johnson's and that Johnson nominated him as the next World Bank president.[^1]
### Six-Day War
On June 1, 1967 McNamara met Israeli intelligence chief [[Meir Amit]], the director of [[Mossad]], who was in Washington from May 31 to June 2. A memorandum for the record, written by [[Rufus Taylor]], records that Amit told McNamara he was personally going to recommend that Israel act, that Israel's mobilization could not be sustained for long, and that the Israelis could take the Sinai with about 4,000 casualties if they had air superiority. The memorandum records McNamara asking how many casualties Israel would take, and assuring Amit that the information would go no further than the top officials who needed it.[^32]
In 1992 Amit recalled that the meeting lasted 40 minutes, that McNamara asked how long a war would last, and that he replied "Seven days." Amit also quoted McNamara as saying that "the president knows that you are here and I have a direct line to the president."[^32]
### Israel and Abraham Feinberg
[[Abraham Feinberg]], a pro-Israel fundraiser, is recorded by [[Seymour Hersh]] as intervening directly with McNamara to insist that the United States should not interfere with [[Israel]]'s nuclear activities. In Hersh's account McNamara cryptically acknowledged the basic problem of Israel's existence as a question mark in history, which Hersh read as a reason for Israel's desire for a nuclear bomb.[^33] Hersh placed McNamara in the discussions of Israel's nuclear program and of the sale of advanced U.S. fighter aircraft to Israel.[^33]
Foreign Relations volumes show Feinberg as a channel in later Israeli aid business. In June 1966 [[Walt Rostow]] told Johnson that Feinberg had brought in [[Shimon Peres]], the former Israeli defense minister, and that McNamara had given formal concurrence in a June 27 memorandum to Rostow on a related loan.[^34] In April 1967 Rostow's covering memorandum on an Israeli aid package bore Johnson's handwritten note asking that it be put on his desk for when the Feinberg appointment was ready. The editorial note for the same period records that Secretaries Rusk and McNamara were asked for their views on the Israeli policy paper.[^35]
### The USS Liberty attack
In an affidavit released in October 2003, [[Ward Boston]] states that the president of the Navy's 1967 Court of Inquiry into the attack on the [[USS Liberty Incident|USS Liberty]], Admiral [[Isaac C. Kidd Jr.]], told him that McNamara and President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered the court to conclude that the attack was a case of mistaken identity.[^2] [[A. Jay Cristol]] quotes McNamara's July 1967 statement to the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] that "it was the conclusion of the investigatory body headed by an Admiral of the Navy [Isaac C. Kidd, Jr.] in whom we have great confidence that the attack was not intentional. I read the record of investigation and I support that conclusion."[^3] The Chicago Tribune reported in 2007 that J. Q. Hart, a chief petty officer at a Navy relay station in Morocco, recalled hearing McNamara order Rear Admiral Lawrence Geis to recall the carrier aircraft sent toward the Liberty, and quoted Hart as recalling McNamara's words: "President [Lyndon] Johnson is not going to go to war or embarrass an American ally over a few sailors." McNamara, then 91, told the Tribune he had "absolutely no recollection of what I did that day."[^4]
In an affidavit released in October 2003, [[Ward Boston]] states that the president of the Navy's 1967 Court of Inquiry into the attack on the USS Liberty, Admiral [[Isaac C. Kidd Jr.]], told him that McNamara and President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered the court to conclude that the attack was a case of mistaken identity.[^36] [[A. Jay Cristol]] quotes McNamara's July 1967 statement to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee: "it was the conclusion of the investigatory body headed by an Admiral of the Navy [Isaac C. Kidd, Jr.] in whom we have great confidence that the attack was not intentional. I read the record of investigation and I support that conclusion."[^37]
The [[Chicago Tribune]] reported in 2007 that J. Q. Hart, a chief petty officer at a Navy relay station in [[Morocco]], recalled hearing McNamara order Rear Admiral [[Lawrence Geis]] to recall the carrier aircraft sent toward the Liberty. Hart quoted McNamara as saying: "President [Lyndon] Johnson is not going to go to war or embarrass an American ally over a few sailors." McNamara, then 91, told the Tribune he had "absolutely no recollection of what I did that day."[^38]
### World Bank presidency
McNamara took office as president of the World Bank on April 1, 1968. Commitments rose from about $1 billion in 1968 to more than $13 billion in fiscal 1981.[^1] McNamara coined the term "absolute poverty" in his 1973 Annual Meeting speech, and the Bank's history credits him with first setting out its twin goals of accelerating economic growth and reducing poverty.[^39]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 8.
[^2]: Ward Boston Jr., affidavit as printed in the Congressional Record, Extensions of Remarks, October 11, 2004, pp. E1886-E1889, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CREC-2004-10-11/html/CREC-2004-10-11-pt1-PgE1886-3.htm; the same sentence is paragraph 16 of the declaration dated January 8, 2004, https://archive.org/download/boston-declaration/BostonDeclaration.pdf.
[^3]: A. Jay Cristol, History News Network, June 12, 2007. Cristol quotes the testimony with ellipses and cites it as released by the U.S. Government Printing Office in 1967. https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/why-you-shouldnt-pay-attention-to-the-claims-that-
[^4]: "New revelations in attack on American spy ship," *Chicago Tribune*, October 2, 2007. Hart's and McNamara's statements are as the Tribune reported them. https://www.chicagotribune.com/2007/10/02/new-revelations-in-attack-on-american-spy-ship/
[^1]: World Bank Group Archives, "Robert Strange McNamara, 1916-2009," Past Presidents (Ford, "Whiz Kids," November 1960; president of the World Bank Group April 1, 1968 to June 30, 1981; commitment figures). https://www.worldbank.org/en/archive/history/past-presidents/robert-strange-mcnamara
[^2]: Errol Morris, The Fog of War (2003), transcript, Errol Morris website (McNamara on Statistical Control, LeMay, the March 1945 Tokyo raid, Ford and the Cuban Missile Crisis, in his own words). https://www.errolmorris.com/film/fow_transcript.html
[^3]: Joint Chiefs of Staff, memorandum to Secretary of Defense McNamara, January 27, 1961, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. X, Document 28. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d28
[^4]: Defense Intelligence Agency, "Defense Intelligence Agency: A Brief History," pp. 1-2 (announcement August 2, 1961; DoD Directive 5105.21 issued August 1, effective October 1, 1961). https://irp.fas.org/dia/dia_history.pdf
[^5]: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, "Project Agile," innovation timeline. https://www.darpa.mil/about/innovation-timeline/project-agile
[^6]: Office of the Historian, editorial note preceding Document 270, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. X. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d270
[^7]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 140. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf
[^8]: Alleged Assassination Plots, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 162-163, quoting the Special Group (Augmented) minutes of August 10, 1962, p. 2.
[^9]: Alleged Assassination Plots, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 164 (Harvey and McCone testimony) and the Additional Views of Senator Howard H. Baker Jr., pp. 320-321, quoting Harvey, July 11, 1975, pp. 29-30 and 86, and McCone, June 6, 1975, pp. 33 and 38-39.
[^10]: Alleged Assassination Plots, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 164-165, citing McNamara testimony, July 11, 1975, pp. 7-8, and McCone testimony, June 6, 1975, p. 39.
[^11]: Alleged Assassination Plots, S. Rept. 94-465, Additional Views of Senator Baker, p. 322, citing Goodwin testimony, July 18, 1975, pp. 33 and 35, and the 1975 article by Taylor Branch and George Crile III in which Goodwin is quoted.
[^12]: Lansdale to Goodwin, March 6, 1962 (Top Secret; Sensitive), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. X, Document 310. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d310
[^13]: Joint Chiefs of Staff, memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, "Justification for US Military Intervention in Cuba (TS)," March 13, 1962, signed by L. L. Lemnitzer, Chairman, with Enclosure A, its appendix and annex, Enclosure B, and the Joint Secretariat decision note, from JCS 1969/321 (Top Secret, Special Handling, Noforn; declassified 1997), pp. 1-15 of the National Security Archive copy; Enclosure A appendix paras. 3 and 5 and the annex at pp. 5-11, Enclosure B para. 2 at p. 12. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/20010430/northwoods.pdf
[^14]: National Security Archive, "Pentagon Proposed Pretexts for Cuba Invasion in 1962," April 30, 2001. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/20010430/
[^15]: Guidelines for Operation Mongoose and editorial note quoting U. Alexis Johnson's handwritten covering memorandum of March 16, 1962, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. X, Document 314. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d314
[^16]: Memorandum by Director of Central Intelligence McCone on the April 11, 1962 meeting of the Special Group (Augmented), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. X, Document 325. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d325
[^17]: Office of the Historian, Document 94, Summary Record of the Eighth Meeting of the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, October 27, 1962, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. XI. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d94
[^18]: Memorandum from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Taylor) and the Secretary of Defense (McNamara) to President Kennedy, October 2, 1963, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. IV, Document 167. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d167
[^19]: Peter Solbert, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, memorandum to Secretary of Defense McNamara, August 3, 1964 (Top Secret; Sensitive), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. I, Document 268. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d268
[^20]: Telephone conversation, Lyndon B. Johnson and Robert S. McNamara, August 3, 1964, 10:30 a.m., transcript, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 132. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB132/tapes.htm
[^21]: John Prados, "The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, 40 Years Later," National Security Archive, posted August 4, 2004, citing the telephone conversation of August 4, 1964, 9:43 a.m. (Prados, ed., The White House Tapes, p. 193) and the McNamara testimony excerpts of February 20, 1968 (Lyndon Baines Johnson Library, National Security File, NSC Histories, box 39). https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB132/essay.htm
[^22]: Notes of the Leadership Meeting, White House, August 4, 1964, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. I, Document 280 (notes by Walter Jenkins). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d280
[^23]: Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson, "The Military Outlook in South Vietnam," January 24, 1966, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. IV, Document 36. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v04/d36
[^24]: Letter from George B. Kistiakowsky to Secretary of Defense McNamara, June 23, 1966, with the editors' note on the JASON study groups, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. IV, Document 163. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v04/d163
[^25]: Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to the Director of the Defense Communications Agency (Starbird), "Infiltration Interdiction System for Vietnam," September 15, 1966, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. IV, Document 233. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v04/d233
[^26]: Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson, "Anti-infiltration barrier between North and South Vietnam," November 14, 1966, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. IV, Document 307. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v04/d307
[^27]: "Pacification" study, Pentagon Papers, Part IV.C.8, printed page 99. https://nara-media-001.s3.amazonaws.com/arcmedia/research/pentagon-papers/Pentagon-Papers-Part-IV-C-8.pdf
[^28]: Leslie H. Gelb, Final Report, OSD Vietnam Task Force (transmittal text; June 17, 1967 directive; "encyclopedic and objective"; thirty-seven studies, fifteen collections of documents in forty-three volumes), in the Pentagon Papers index volume. https://nara-media-001.s3.amazonaws.com/arcmedia/research/pentagon-papers/Pentagon-Papers-Index.pdf
[^29]: National Archives and Records Administration, "The Pentagon Papers." https://www.archives.gov/research/pentagon-papers
[^30]: Lyndon B. Johnson, "Remarks at a Farewell Ceremony at the Pentagon Honoring Secretary McNamara," February 29, 1968, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-farewell-ceremony-the-pentagon-honoring-secretary-mcnamara
[^31]: Lyndon B. Johnson, "Remarks at the Swearing In of Clark Clifford as Secretary of Defense," March 1, 1968, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-clark-clifford-secretary-defense
[^32]: Memorandum for the Record by Rufus Taylor, conversation between Major General Meir Amit and Secretary McNamara, June 1, 1967, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. XIX, Document 124, including the source note quoting Amit's 1992 remarks (Richard B. Parker, ed., The Six-Day War: A Retrospective, University Press of Florida, 1996, pp. 139-140). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v19/d124
[^33]: Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (Random House, 1991), chapter 8.
[^34]: Walt W. Rostow, memorandum to President Johnson, June 21, 1966, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. XVIII, Document 304. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v18/d304
[^35]: Rostow to Johnson, April 18, 1967 (Document 406), and editorial note on the Israeli aid agenda (Document 410), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. XVIII. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v18/d410
[^36]: Ward Boston Jr., affidavit as printed in the Congressional Record, Extensions of Remarks, October 11, 2004, pp. E1886-E1889, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CREC-2004-10-11/html/CREC-2004-10-11-pt1-PgE1886-3.htm; the same sentence is paragraph 16 of the declaration dated January 8, 2004, https://archive.org/download/boston-declaration/BostonDeclaration.pdf.
[^37]: A. Jay Cristol, History News Network, June 12, 2007. Cristol quotes the testimony with ellipses and cites it as released by the U.S. Government Printing Office in 1967. https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/why-you-shouldnt-pay-attention-to-the-claims-that-
[^38]: "New revelations in attack on American spy ship," Chicago Tribune, October 2, 2007. Hart's and McNamara's statements are as the Tribune reported them. https://www.chicagotribune.com/2007/10/02/new-revelations-in-attack-on-american-spy-ship/
[^39]: World Bank, "History," statement on the 1973 Annual Meeting speech and the Bank's twin goals. https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/history

6
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Stephen Kosslyn.md
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@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ A December 1988 [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI International]] final report o
Harvard's Office of the General Counsel found that Epstein gave Harvard two gifts, in 1998 and 2002, totaling $200,000, "to support Kosslyn's research." Its May 2020 report, [[Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University]], states that Epstein first provided support for Harvard faculty members in 1998, and that between 1998 and 2002 he had given $200,000 "to support Kosslyn's work."[^26]
The report found that Epstein applied on September 1, 2005 to be admitted as a Visiting Fellow, that his application stated he had learned of the status from Kosslyn, and that Kosslyn recommended him in a letter dated September 2, 2005. The letter reads "I have known Jeffrey for about nine years" and "He has been my only collaborator on this project (for some five years now, I believe)." Harvard admitted Epstein for the 2005 to 2006 academic year on September 3, 2005, with tuition and fees of $10,072, and approved a second year on April 21, 2006.[^26] The report says that Kosslyn acknowledged Epstein was not qualified to conduct aspects of his proposed research, particularly the MRI testing, and that in Kosslyn's recollection Epstein "was barely ever around."[^26] The report also states that the Visiting Fellow application form did not require Kosslyn to disclose Epstein's financial support when he endorsed him, and that because Kosslyn was a department chair, his recommendation "proved sufficient to carry the day."[^26] In a November 2008 email, Kosslyn, then divisional dean, noted that he had discussed "Martin [Nowak]'s situation" with [[Benedict Gross]], the chair of the mathematics department, according to the report.[^26]
The report found that Epstein applied on September 1, 2005 to be admitted as a Visiting Fellow, that his application stated he had learned of the status from Kosslyn, and that Kosslyn recommended him in a letter dated September 2, 2005. The letter reads "I have known Jeffrey for about nine years" and "He has been my only collaborator on this project (for some five years now, I believe)." Harvard admitted Epstein for the 2005 to 2006 academic year on September 3, 2005, with tuition and fees of $10,072, and approved a second year on April 21, 2006.[^26] The report says that Kosslyn acknowledged Epstein was not qualified to conduct aspects of his proposed research, particularly the MRI testing, and that in Kosslyn's recollection Epstein "was barely ever around."[^26] The report also states that the Visiting Fellow application form did not require Kosslyn to disclose Epstein's financial support when he endorsed him, and that because Kosslyn was a department chair, his recommendation "proved sufficient to carry the day."[^26] In a November 2008 email, Kosslyn, then divisional dean, noted that he had discussed "Martin [Nowak]'s situation" with [[Benedict Gross]], the chair of the mathematics department, according to the report. The email, which the report quotes, continues: "If [President] Drew [Faust] weren't opposed to taking JEE's money, there wouldn't be a problem . . . but she is." The report states that Epstein was readmitted in February 2006 for 2006 to 2007 and withdrew in September 2006 after his arrest.[^26]
### Palm Beach County Jail visits
@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ The Stanford spokesperson told the Daily that the university "[does] not have ad
[^1]: Minerva Project, "Minerva Project Names Dr. Stephen M. Kosslyn as Founding Dean," March 12, 2013. https://s3.minervaproject.com/press-releases/Minerva_Project_Annouces_Stephen_M._Kosslyn.pdf
[^2]: National Science Foundation award records 7616987 (Johns Hopkins University, September 1, 1976 to February 28, 1978), 7721782 (Harvard University, 1977 to 1980), 8240259 (Brandeis University, October 13, 1981 to August 31, 1983) and 8318452 (Harvard University, December 1, 1983 to May 31, 1985), "Visual Images As Memory Structures." https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=8240259
[^3]: Aadi Kucheria and Ashton Dolce, "Former Stanford academic Stephen Kosslyn Ph.D. '74 visited Epstein in jail, faced allegation of sexual assault," The Stanford Daily, February 5, 2026. https://stanforddaily.com/2026/02/05/sexual-assault-epstein-kosslyn/
[^4]: Diane E. Lopez, Ara B. Gershengorn and Martin F. Murphy, Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University, Harvard University Office of the General Counsel and Foley Hoag LLP, May 2020, pp. 3 and 5. https://ogc.harvard.edu/files/ogc/files/report_concerning_jeffrey_e._epsteins_connections_to_harvard_university.pdf
[^4]: Diane E. Lopez, Ara B. Gershengorn and Martin F. Murphy, Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University, Harvard University Office of the General Counsel and Foley Hoag LLP, May 2020, pp. 3 and 5. https://ogc.harvard.edu/file_url/208
[^5]: "Stephen Kosslyn named divisional dean for the social sciences," Harvard Gazette, April 24, 2008. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2008/04/stephen-kosslyn-named-divisional-dean-for-the-social-sciences
[^6]: "Kosslyn appointed director of CASBS," The Stanford Daily, July 29, 2010. https://stanforddaily.com/2010/07/29/kosslyn-appointed-director-of-casbs/
[^7]: Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, "Leadership History," listing Stephen M. Kosslyn as Director, 2011 to 2013. https://casbs.stanford.edu/about/leadership-history
@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ The Stanford spokesperson told the Daily that the university "[does] not have ad
[^23]: National Science Foundation award search, awards 7616987, 7712345, 7721782, 8240259, 8318452, 9009619, 0106760, 0322611 and 0411725, retrieved through the NSF awards API. https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=0411725 and https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=0322611
[^24]: National Institutes of Health RePORTER, project search for principal investigator Stephen M. Kosslyn, including projects R01MH039478, R01AG012675, P01NS017778, P01NS027950, 1F06TW002247, R01MH060734 and T32MH070328. https://reporter.nih.gov/
[^25]: Edwin C. May and Virginia V. Trask, "Forced-Choice Remote Viewing," Final Report, Objective E, Task 4, SRI Project 1291, December 1988, CIA-RDP96-00787R000300010001-9, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200290001-6 and CIA-RDP96-00789R002200280001-7 (the last a copy marked SECRET), and the same report within the "Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, Volume 2 of 2" compilation, CIA-RDP96-00789R003200160001-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r002200290001-6
[^26]: Lopez, Gershengorn and Murphy, Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University, May 2020, pp. 3 and 5 (the gifts), 5 to 8 (the Visiting Fellow application, the September 2, 2005 letter, the approvals and Kosslyn's account), 10 (the November 2008 email) and 26 (the recommendation). https://ogc.harvard.edu/files/ogc/files/report_concerning_jeffrey_e._epsteins_connections_to_harvard_university.pdf
[^26]: Lopez, Gershengorn and Murphy, Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University, May 2020, pp. 3 and 5 (the gifts), 5 to 8 (the Visiting Fellow application, the September 2, 2005 letter, the approvals and Kosslyn's account), 10 (the November 2008 email) and 26 (the recommendation). https://ogc.harvard.edu/file_url/208
[^27]: Kucheria and Dolce, "Former Stanford academic Stephen Kosslyn Ph.D. '74 visited Epstein in jail, faced allegation of sexual assault," The Stanford Daily, February 5, 2026, reporting the Palm Beach County Jail visitor log (page 45, September 20 and 21, 2008), the 2,145 mentions, the 2003 birthday book and the 2004 to 2005 contact book. https://stanforddaily.com/2026/02/05/sexual-assault-epstein-kosslyn/
[^28]: Plaintiff Doe's witness list, Doe v. Epstein, No. 08-CV-80893-CIV-MARRA/JOHNSON (S.D. Fla.), entry 102, EFTA00725731 (witness list continuation, page stamped EFTA00725736), U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725731.pdf
[^29]: Jeffrey Epstein and Stephen Kosslyn emails, July 22, 2009, EFTA01816448, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 10; the Daily reports the exchange in Kucheria and Dolce, The Stanford Daily, February 5 and February 18, 2026. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01816448.pdf

63
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Timothy Leary.md
View file

@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ tags:
- Counterculture
- Cyberculture
- Transhumanism
summary: "Timothy Leary was the Harvard psychologist turned psychedelic evangelist who ran the Harvard Psilocybin Project, coined 'turn on, tune in, drop out,' operated under documented CIA surveillance while drawing on research networks whose funding traced to MKULTRA, and in his final decades became a champion of personal computers, space migration, and life extension."
summary: "Harvard psychologist who ran the Harvard Psilocybin Project, coined 'turn on, tune in, drop out,' was under documented CIA surveillance, and later promoted personal computers, space migration and life extension."
born: 1920-10-22
died: 1996-05-31
location: "Springfield, Massachusetts; Beverly Hills, California"
@ -23,75 +23,76 @@ created: 2026-06-03
updated: 2026-06-20
---
Timothy Francis Leary (October 22, 1920 to May 31, 1996) was an American psychologist who became the most prominent public advocate of psychedelic drugs in the 1960s and, in his final decades, a promoter of personal computers, space colonization, and radical life extension. Trained as a research psychologist and briefly a respected figure in personality theory, he ran the [[Harvard Psilocybin Project]] from 1960 until his dismissal in 1963, popularized the slogan "turn on, tune in, drop out," and was described by [[Richard Nixon]], according to widely repeated accounts, as "the most dangerous man in America." He drew, often unknowingly, on drug-research networks whose funding traced back to the CIA's [[MKULTRA]] program, and was himself placed under documented [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] surveillance. In his final decades he promoted the personal computer as a tool of consciousness expansion and became a celebrated figure in the [[Transhumanism|transhumanist]] and cyberculture scenes of the 1980s and 1990s.[^1][^2][^12]
Timothy Francis Leary (October 22, 1920 to May 31, 1996) was an American psychologist who became the most prominent public advocate of psychedelic drugs in the 1960s and, in his final decades, a promoter of personal computers, space colonization, and radical life extension. Trained as a research psychologist and briefly a respected figure in personality theory, he ran the [[Harvard Psilocybin Project]] from 1960 until his dismissal in 1963, popularized the slogan "turn on, tune in, drop out," and was described by [[Richard Nixon]], according to widely repeated accounts, as "the most dangerous man in America." He drew, often unknowingly, on drug-research networks whose funding traced back to the CIA's [[MKULTRA]] program, and was himself placed under documented [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] surveillance. In his final decades he promoted the personal computer as a tool of consciousness expansion and became a celebrated figure in the [[Transhumanism|transhumanist]] and cyberculture scenes of the 1980s and 1990s.[^1][^2][^3]
### From Personality Psychology to Harvard
Leary was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, the only child of a Catholic family, attended the College of the Holy Cross, was expelled from the United States Military Academy at West Point after a cheating-and-honor dispute, and finished his bachelor's degree at the [[University of Alabama]]. He took a doctorate in psychology at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1950, and his early academic work was conventional and well regarded: he directed clinical research at the Kaiser Foundation Hospital in [[Oakland]] from 1954 to 1959 and published *The Interpersonal Diagnosis of Personality* (1957), whose circular model of personality, the "interpersonal circumplex," remained influential in clinical assessment and became the basis for personality-assessment tools later used by the CIA and the military. He joined the faculty of [[Harvard University]]'s Center for Research in Personality in 1959.[^1][^3][^11]
Leary was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, the only child of a Catholic family, attended the College of the Holy Cross, was expelled from the United States Military Academy at West Point after a cheating-and-honor dispute, and finished his bachelor's degree at the [[University of Alabama]]. He took a doctorate in psychology at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1950, and his early academic work was conventional and well regarded: he directed clinical research at the Kaiser Foundation Hospital in [[Oakland]] from 1954 to 1959 and published *The Interpersonal Diagnosis of Personality* (1957), whose circular model of personality, the "interpersonal circumplex," remained influential in clinical assessment and became the basis for personality-assessment tools later used by the CIA and the military. He joined the faculty of [[Harvard University]]'s Center for Research in Personality in 1959.[^1][^4][^5]
The turn came in the summer of 1960, when Leary ate psilocybin mushrooms in Cuernavaca, Mexico, an experience he later called more profound than anything in his prior training. Back at Harvard he and his colleague [[Richard Alpert]], later known as Ram Dass, founded a research program to study the psychological effects of psilocybin, which the Swiss firm [[Sandoz]] supplied in synthesized form.[^3][^4]
The turn came in the summer of 1960, when Leary ate psilocybin mushrooms in Cuernavaca, Mexico, an experience he later called more profound than anything in his prior training. Back at Harvard he and his colleague [[Richard Alpert]], later known as Ram Dass, founded a research program to study the psychological effects of psilocybin, which the Swiss firm [[Sandoz]] supplied in synthesized form.[^4][^6]
### The Harvard Psilocybin Project
Leary established the project in the fall of 1960, obtaining psilocybin free from Sandoz and running sessions in both formal research settings and informal apartment gatherings with music and candlelight. The studies, by later methodological standards, blurred the line between researcher and subject, with the experimenters frequently taking the drugs alongside their volunteers. [[The Concord Prison Experiment]] (1961 to 1963) administered psilocybin to inmates to test whether the experience reduced recidivism, and the [[Marsh Chapel Experiment]], or "Good Friday Experiment," run by the graduate student [[Walter Pahnke]] in 1962, tested whether the drug could induce genuine mystical experience.[^4][^5]
Leary established the project in the fall of 1960, obtaining psilocybin free from Sandoz and running sessions in both formal research settings and informal apartment gatherings with music and candlelight. The studies, by later methodological standards, blurred the line between researcher and subject, with the experimenters frequently taking the drugs alongside their volunteers. [[The Concord Prison Experiment]] (1961 to 1963) administered psilocybin to inmates to test whether the experience reduced recidivism, and the [[Marsh Chapel Experiment]], or "Good Friday Experiment," run by the graduate student [[Walter Pahnke]] in 1962, tested whether the drug could induce genuine mystical experience.[^6][^7]
The project's advisers and broader circle traced, in several cases, to networks the CIA had funded. [[Aldous Huxley]], then a visiting lecturer at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], urged Leary to offer the experience to "talented, well-born, intelligent rich" people and to work discreetly within institutions rather than provoke public controversy; the poet [[Allen Ginsberg]] and [[Peter Orlovsky]], who visited Leary's house in Newton, Massachusetts in December 1960, pressed the opposite case, that the drugs should be distributed as widely as possible. [[Henry Murray]], chairman of Harvard's Department of Social Relations, who had run the personality-assessment section of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] during World War II, approved the project and volunteered for it. Leary's own interest had been stimulated by [[R. Gordon Wasson|Gordon Wasson]]'s 1957 *Life* article on Mexican psilocybin mushrooms, an expedition partly facilitated by the CIA contractor [[James Moore]], and he cited in his published work the research of the CIA contractor [[Harold Abramson]] and others brought together for drug conferences by the [[Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation]], a sometime Agency conduit.[^11][^12]
The project's advisers and broader circle traced, in several cases, to networks the CIA had funded. [[Aldous Huxley]], then a visiting lecturer at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], urged Leary to offer the experience to "talented, well-born, intelligent rich" people and to work discreetly within institutions rather than provoke public controversy; the poet [[Allen Ginsberg]] and [[Peter Orlovsky]], who visited Leary's house in Newton, Massachusetts in December 1960, pressed the opposite case, that the drugs should be distributed as widely as possible. [[Henry Murray]], chairman of Harvard's Department of Social Relations, who had run the personality-assessment section of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] during World War II, approved the project and volunteered for it. Leary's own interest had been stimulated by [[R. Gordon Wasson|Gordon Wasson]]'s 1957 *Life* article on Mexican psilocybin mushrooms, an expedition partly facilitated by the CIA contractor [[James Moore]], and he cited in his published work the research of the CIA contractor [[Harold Abramson]] and others brought together for drug conferences by the [[Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation]], a sometime Agency conduit.[^3][^5]
### The Good Friday Experiment
In collaboration with the doctoral candidate Walter Pahnke, Leary administered psilocybin double-blind to ten theology students and professors during a Good Friday service at Marsh Chapel at [[Boston University]] in 1962, with ten others receiving a placebo. Nine of the ten psilocybin recipients reported intense religious experiences, and Pahnke's dissertation concluded that the experiences were "indistinguishable from, if not identical with," classical mystical experience.[^5][^11]
In collaboration with the doctoral candidate Walter Pahnke, Leary administered psilocybin double-blind to ten theology students and professors during a Good Friday service at Marsh Chapel at [[Boston University]] in 1962, with ten others receiving a placebo. Nine of the ten psilocybin recipients reported intense religious experiences, and Pahnke's dissertation concluded that the experiences were "indistinguishable from, if not identical with," classical mystical experience.[^5][^7]
The experiment became one of the most cited studies in the psychology of religion, and a long-term follow-up decades later found that most of the original subjects still regarded it as among the most meaningful experiences of their lives. It also exemplified the methodological looseness that alarmed Harvard, since the researchers themselves participated and the setting was a working religious service rather than a laboratory.[^5]
The experiment became one of the most cited studies in the psychology of religion, and a long-term follow-up decades later found that most of the original subjects still regarded it as among the most meaningful experiences of their lives. It also exemplified the methodological looseness that alarmed Harvard, since the researchers themselves participated and the setting was a working religious service rather than a laboratory.[^7]
### The Harvard Firing
Tension with Harvard administrators escalated through 1962, triggered in part by a sensationalized *Harvard Crimson* account of a faculty meeting that prompted a [[Food and Drug Administration]] investigation. On May 6, 1963, the Harvard Corporation voted to relieve Leary of his teaching duties and terminate his salary on the grounds that he had failed to keep classroom appointments. Alpert was separately dismissed on May 27, 1963, for giving psilocybin to an undergraduate in an off-campus apartment, making the two the first Harvard faculty fired in the twentieth century for such reasons. By then federal regulators were tightening control of the drugs, and Leary's work moved outside the university entirely.[^1][^4][^11]
Faculty concern began in March 1962, when members of the [[Center for Research in Personality]] charged at a closed meeting that the drug experiments were being conducted in an unscientific and irresponsible manner.[^8] Tension with Harvard administrators escalated through 1962, triggered in part by a sensationalized *Harvard Crimson* account of a faculty meeting that prompted a [[Food and Drug Administration]] investigation. On May 6, 1963, the Harvard Corporation voted to relieve Leary of his teaching duties and terminate his salary. One account gives the ground as a failure to keep classroom appointments.[^1][^5][^6] The Crimson reported on July 9, 1963 that the Corporation relieved Leary of his teaching duties and suspended his salary for absenting himself from the University without permission.[^8] Alpert was separately dismissed on May 27, 1963, for giving psilocybin to an undergraduate in an off-campus apartment, making the two the first Harvard faculty fired in the twentieth century for such reasons. By then federal regulators were tightening control of the drugs, and Leary's work moved outside the university entirely.[^1][^5][^6]
### IFIF, Millbrook, and the League for Spiritual Discovery
After leaving Harvard, Leary and Alpert founded the International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF), which attracted roughly 3,000 dues-paying members, and attempted a summer session in Zihuatanejo, Mexico, that the Mexican government shut down after about six weeks following negative press. The community then settled at a large estate in Millbrook, New York, lent by Billy Hitchcock, an heir to the Mellon and Gulf Oil fortune, who provided the roughly 4,000-acre property in Dutchess County for about 500 dollars a month. There Leary ran the [[Castalia Foundation]], named for the intellectual colony in Hermann Hesse's *The Glass Bead Game*, published *The Psychedelic Review*, hosted high-dose group sessions and a wide circle of visitors including Charles Mingus, [[Alan Watts]], R.D. Laing, and the journalist Paul Krassner, and in 1966 founded a quasi-religion, the [[League for Spiritual Discovery]], whose initials spelled [[LSD]] and which he used to argue for the sacramental, constitutionally protected use of psychedelics.[^3][^11]
After leaving Harvard, Leary and Alpert founded the International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF), which attracted roughly 3,000 dues-paying members, and attempted a summer session in Zihuatanejo, Mexico, that the Mexican government shut down after about six weeks following negative press. The community then settled at a large estate in Millbrook, New York, lent by Billy Hitchcock, an heir to the Mellon and Gulf Oil fortune, who provided the roughly 4,000-acre property in Dutchess County for about 500 dollars a month. There Leary ran the [[Castalia Foundation]], named for the intellectual colony in Hermann Hesse's *The Glass Bead Game*, published *The Psychedelic Review*, hosted high-dose group sessions and a wide circle of visitors including Charles Mingus, [[Alan Watts]], R.D. Laing, and the journalist Paul Krassner, and in 1966 founded a quasi-religion, the [[League for Spiritual Discovery]], whose initials spelled [[LSD]] and which he used to argue for the sacramental, constitutionally protected use of psychedelics.[^4][^5]
With [[Ralph Metzner]] and Alpert he adapted the *Tibetan Book of the Dead* into *The Psychedelic Experience* (1964), a manual for guiding drug sessions that [[John Lennon]] later cited as the source for the song "Tomorrow Never Knows." The Millbrook period coincided with the criminalization of LSD, banned in California in 1966 and federally soon after, and with mounting legal pressure: in April 1966 the Dutchess County assistant district attorney [[G. Gordon Liddy]], later of [[Watergate]], led an early-morning raid on the estate that turned up only a small amount of marijuana, a charge later dismissed. Leary's public role hardened into that of a movement figurehead, the "high priest" of the psychedelic movement, a role he both cultivated and was assigned by a hostile press.[^6][^11]
With [[Ralph Metzner]] and Alpert he adapted the *Tibetan Book of the Dead* into *The Psychedelic Experience* (1964), a manual for guiding drug sessions that [[John Lennon]] later cited as the source for the song "Tomorrow Never Knows." The Millbrook period coincided with the criminalization of LSD, banned in California in 1966 and federally soon after, and with mounting legal pressure: in April 1966 the Dutchess County assistant district attorney [[G. Gordon Liddy]], later of [[Watergate]], led an early-morning raid on the estate that turned up only a small amount of marijuana, a charge later dismissed. Leary's public role hardened into that of a movement figurehead, the "high priest" of the psychedelic movement, a role he both cultivated and was assigned by a hostile press.[^5][^9]
### Turn On, Tune In, Drop Out
Leary gave the counterculture its best-known slogan at the Human Be-In held in Golden Gate Park in San Francisco on January 14, 1967, where he told a crowd of tens of thousands to "turn on, tune in, drop out." He later complained that the phrase was widely misunderstood as a call to passive disengagement, explaining that he meant by it to activate one's neural equipment, to interact harmoniously with the world, and to detach from involuntary commitments, not to drop out of school or society. The line nonetheless became a shorthand for the era and fixed Leary's image as an apostle of dropping out.[^2][^7]
Leary gave the counterculture its best-known slogan at the Human Be-In held in Golden Gate Park in San Francisco on January 14, 1967, where he told a crowd of tens of thousands to "turn on, tune in, drop out." He later complained that the phrase was widely misunderstood as a call to passive disengagement, explaining that he meant by it to activate one's neural equipment, to interact harmoniously with the world, and to detach from involuntary commitments, not to drop out of school or society. The line nonetheless became a shorthand for the era and fixed Leary's image as an apostle of dropping out.[^2][^10]
### Legal Troubles, Prison, Escape, and Exile
Leary was first arrested in December 1965 at the Laredo, Texas border crossing on a marijuana charge that carried a potential thirty-year sentence; he fought it to the Supreme Court, which in *Leary v. United States* (1969) struck down the Marihuana Tax Act on self-incrimination grounds. A second arrest followed in Laguna Beach, California, in December 1968, and in February 1970 he was convicted on both the Laredo and California charges and given a combined twenty-year term at the California Men's Colony near San Luis Obispo. On September 12, 1970, he escaped over a highwire across the prison fence in an extraction arranged through the radical [[Weather Underground]], who were paid by the psychedelic-dealing [[Brotherhood of Eternal Love]].[^1][^11]
Leary was first arrested in December 1965 at the Laredo, Texas border crossing on a marijuana charge that carried a potential thirty-year sentence; he fought it to the Supreme Court, which in *Leary v. United States* (1969) struck down the Marihuana Tax Act on self-incrimination grounds. A second arrest followed in Laguna Beach, California, in December 1968, and in February 1970 he was convicted on both the Laredo and California charges and given a combined twenty-year term at the California Men's Colony near San Luis Obispo. On September 12, 1970, he escaped over a highwire across the prison fence in an extraction arranged through the radical [[Weather Underground]], who were paid by the psychedelic-dealing [[Brotherhood of Eternal Love]].[^1][^5]
He fled abroad, first to [[Algeria]], where the exiled [[Black Panther]] leader [[Eldridge Cleaver]] briefly held him under a kind of house arrest over his LSD advocacy, then to [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]], and [[Afghanistan]], where American agents seized him in Kabul in 1973 and returned him to Los Angeles, where bail was set at five million dollars, then the highest ever set for an American citizen. Facing decades of confinement, he provided information to federal investigators about the radicals and lawyers who had aided his escape, a cooperation that drew lasting bitterness from former allies, though prosecutors said it led to no convictions. He was paroled in 1976 by Governor [[Jerry Brown]]. The prison years produced a body of idiosyncratic writing in which Leary recast his ideas in the language of neurology and futurism, most notably the "eight-circuit model of consciousness," set out in *Exo-Psychology* (1977, later revised as *Info-Psychology*).[^1][^3][^8]
He fled abroad, first to [[Algeria]], where the exiled [[Black Panther]] leader [[Eldridge Cleaver]] briefly held him under a kind of house arrest over his LSD advocacy, then to [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]], and [[Afghanistan]], where American agents seized him in Kabul in 1973 and returned him to Los Angeles, where bail was set at five million dollars, then the highest ever set for an American citizen. Facing decades of confinement, he provided information to federal investigators about the radicals and lawyers who had aided his escape, a cooperation that drew lasting bitterness from former allies, though prosecutors said it led to no convictions. He was paroled in 1976 by Governor [[Jerry Brown]]. The prison years produced a body of idiosyncratic writing in which Leary recast his ideas in the language of neurology and futurism, most notably the "eight-circuit model of consciousness," set out in *Exo-Psychology* (1977, later revised as *Info-Psychology*).[^1][^4][^11]
### CIA Surveillance
On November 1, 1963, the CIA issued a memorandum ordering all domestic field offices to report immediately on any involvement with Leary, Alpert, or the International Federation for Internal Freedom. The monitoring preceded Leary's public emergence as an LSD spokesman by several years, covering the period when his research was still primarily academic. Neither the specific content of any CIA reporting on Leary nor any operational use of surveillance findings has been declassified.[^12][^13]
On November 1, 1963, the CIA issued a memorandum ordering all domestic field offices to report immediately on any involvement with Leary, Alpert, or the International Federation for Internal Freedom. The monitoring preceded Leary's public emergence as an LSD spokesman by several years, covering the period when his research was still primarily academic. Neither the specific content of any CIA reporting on Leary nor any operational use of surveillance findings has been declassified.[^3][^12]
Leary's research network traced back to CIA-funded programs in ways he likely did not know at the time. The anthropologist [[Gregory Bateson]], introduced to LSD by Harold Abramson, arranged Ginsberg's first LSD experience through a federally funded research program, and Ginsberg carried that experience to Leary's house. The Macy Foundation, which had served as a CIA conduit for behavioral-research conferences, hosted the scholars whose published work Leary cited, and the Geschickter Fund, another CIA front, financed related research at overlapping institutions.[^12]
Leary's research network traced back to CIA-funded programs in ways he likely did not know at the time. The anthropologist [[Gregory Bateson]], introduced to LSD by Harold Abramson, arranged Ginsberg's first LSD experience through a federally funded research program, and Ginsberg carried that experience to Leary's house. The Macy Foundation, which had served as a CIA conduit for behavioral-research conferences, hosted the scholars whose published work Leary cited, and the Geschickter Fund, another CIA front, financed related research at overlapping institutions.[^3]
### The Cyberdelic Turn
From the late 1970s Leary promoted a futurist program he summarized with the acronym SMI2LE, for Space Migration, Intelligence Increase, and Life Extension, holding that humanity's next evolutionary step lay in leaving the planet, raising intelligence by technological means, and defeating death. In the 1980s and 1990s he recast the personal computer as the successor to the psychedelic drug, telling interviewers that "the PC is the LSD of the 1990s" and adopting "think for yourself, question authority" as a personal motto. He designed early interactive software, performed spoken-word and multimedia shows, appeared at technology conferences, and became a fixture of the "cyberdelic" scene around *Mondo 2000* magazine and the emerging digital culture of the San Francisco Bay Area.[^2][^9]
From the late 1970s Leary promoted a futurist program he summarized with the acronym SMI2LE, for Space Migration, Intelligence Increase, and Life Extension, holding that humanity's next evolutionary step lay in leaving the planet, raising intelligence by technological means, and defeating death. In the 1980s and 1990s he recast the personal computer as the successor to the psychedelic drug, telling interviewers that "the PC is the LSD of the 1990s" and adopting "think for yourself, question authority" as a personal motto. He designed early interactive software, performed spoken-word and multimedia shows, appeared at technology conferences, and became a fixture of the "cyberdelic" scene around *Mondo 2000* magazine and the emerging digital culture of the San Francisco Bay Area.[^2][^13]
Leary was associated with the [[Extropianism|extropian]] movement around [[Max More]], shared its interest in cryonics and human enhancement, and at one point planned to have his body or head cryonically preserved. Diagnosed with inoperable prostate cancer, he made his dying a public performance, documenting his decline on an early website and declaring his intent to script his own death; he ultimately decided against cryonic suspension after a falling-out with the provider, and after his death on May 31, 1996, a portion of his ashes was launched into orbit in April 1997 aboard a Celestis rocket that also carried remains of the *Star Trek* creator Gene Roddenberry.[^9][^10]
Leary was associated with the [[Extropianism|extropian]] movement around [[Max More]], shared its interest in cryonics and human enhancement, and at one point planned to have his body or head cryonically preserved. Diagnosed with inoperable prostate cancer, he made his dying a public performance, documenting his decline on an early website and declaring his intent to script his own death; he ultimately decided against cryonic suspension after a falling-out with the provider, and after his death on May 31, 1996, a portion of his ashes was launched into orbit in April 1997 aboard a Celestis rocket that also carried remains of the *Star Trek* creator Gene Roddenberry.[^13][^14]
### The Finders
[[Marion David Pettie]], the founder of [[The Finders]], stated that he and Leary had a close connection during the 1960s. According to Pettie, when Leary was based in New York he would send people down to Pettie's communal property in [[Virginia]], and when people at Pettie's place grew tired of something they would go up to Leary's. Leary gave Pettie LSD, which Pettie claimed he never took, keeping it in his refrigerator until a person connected with Leary accidentally burned down a house on the property while installing a sauna, destroying the LSD in the process.[^14]
[[Marion David Pettie]], the founder of [[The Finders]], stated that he and Leary had a close connection during the 1960s. According to Pettie, when Leary was based in New York he would send people down to Pettie's communal property in [[Virginia]], and when people at Pettie's place grew tired of something they would go up to Leary's. Leary gave Pettie LSD, which Pettie claimed he never took, keeping it in his refrigerator until a person connected with Leary accidentally burned down a house on the property while installing a sauna, destroying the LSD in the process.[^15]
### Footnotes
[^1]: "Timothy Leary," *Encyclopædia Britannica,* on the 1920 birth, the Berkeley doctorate, the Harvard appointment and 1963 dismissal, the legal battles, and the death. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Timothy-Leary
[^2]: "Timothy Leary, Pied Piper Of Psychedelic 60's, Dies at 75," *The New York Times,* June 1, 1996, on "turn on, tune in, drop out," the Nixon characterization, and the later computer advocacy. https://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/01/us/timothy-leary-pied-piper-of-psychedelic-60-s-dies-at-75.html
[^3]: Greenfield, Robert. *Timothy Leary: A Biography.* Harcourt, 2006, on the early life, the Millbrook years, the escape and exile, and the cooperation with investigators.
[^4]: "The Harvard Psilocybin Project," on the 1960 to 1963 studies, the Concord Prison and Marsh Chapel experiments, and the 1963 firings; see also Leary, Timothy. *High Priest.* World Publishing, 1968.
[^5]: Pahnke, Walter N. "Drugs and Mysticism: An Analysis of the Relationship between Psychedelic Drugs and the Mystical Consciousness," doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1963, on the Good Friday Experiment.
[^6]: Leary, Timothy, Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert. *The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead.* University Books, 1964.
[^7]: *Leary v. United States,* 395 U.S. 6 (1969); and Leary, Timothy. *Flashbacks: A Personal and Cultural History of an Era.* Tarcher, 1983, on the Human Be-In and the meaning of the slogan.
[^8]: Leary, Timothy. *Exo-Psychology: A Manual on the Use of the Human Nervous System According to the Instructions of the Manufacturers* (1977), revised as *Info-Psychology* (1987), on the eight-circuit model.
[^9]: "Timothy Leary's Last Trip," *Wired,* and Leary, Timothy. *Chaos and Cyber Culture.* Ronin Publishing, 1994, on SMI2LE, "the PC is the LSD of the 1990s," and the cyberdelic period. https://www.wired.com/1996/05/leary-2/
[^10]: "A Send-Off Into Space for Leary and Others," *The New York Times,* April 22, 1997, on the Celestis launch carrying the ashes of Leary and Gene Roddenberry. https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/22/us/a-send-off-into-space-for-leary-and-others.html
[^11]: Lee, Martin A., and Bruce Shlain. *Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond.* Grove Press, 1985, chapters 3 and 4, on the Kaiser research and personality tools, Huxley's advice, Henry Murray's OSS role, IFIF and the Zihuatanejo session, the Millbrook estate, the visitors, and the Liddy raid.
[^12]: Marks, John D. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control.* Times Books, 1979, chapter 7, on the Wasson and James Moore expedition, Harold Abramson and the Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation, the CIA surveillance of Leary, Bateson and Ginsberg's first LSD experience, and the Geschickter Fund.
[^13]: CIA memorandum, "International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF), ALPERT, Richard, LEARY, Timothy," November 1, 1963, obtained via FOIA by John Marks, August 1977.
[^14]: Thomas, Kenn, and Len Bracken. "The Finders' Keeper," *Steamshovel Press* no. 16, 1998, on Marion David Pettie's account of his connection with Leary.
[^3]: Marks, John D. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control.* Times Books, 1979, chapter 7, on the Wasson and James Moore expedition, Harold Abramson and the Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation, the CIA surveillance of Leary, Bateson and Ginsberg's first LSD experience, and the Geschickter Fund.
[^4]: Greenfield, Robert. *Timothy Leary: A Biography.* Harcourt, 2006, on the early life, the Millbrook years, the escape and exile, and the cooperation with investigators.
[^5]: Lee, Martin A., and Bruce Shlain. *Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond.* Grove Press, 1985, chapters 3 and 4, on the Kaiser research and personality tools, Huxley's advice, Henry Murray's OSS role, IFIF and the Zihuatanejo session, the Millbrook estate, the visitors, and the Liddy raid.
[^6]: "The Harvard Psilocybin Project," on the 1960 to 1963 studies, the Concord Prison and Marsh Chapel experiments, and the 1963 firings; see also Leary, Timothy. *High Priest.* World Publishing, 1968.
[^7]: Pahnke, Walter N. "Drugs and Mysticism: An Analysis of the Relationship between Psychedelic Drugs and the Mystical Consciousness," doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1963, on the Good Friday Experiment.
[^8]: "Psilocybin, Senate Race Highlight Harvard Year," *The Harvard Crimson*, July 9, 1963. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1963/7/9/psilocybin-senate-race-highlight-harvard-year/
[^9]: Leary, Timothy, Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert. *The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead.* University Books, 1964.
[^10]: *Leary v. United States,* 395 U.S. 6 (1969); and Leary, Timothy. *Flashbacks: A Personal and Cultural History of an Era.* Tarcher, 1983, on the Human Be-In and the meaning of the slogan.
[^11]: Leary, Timothy. *Exo-Psychology: A Manual on the Use of the Human Nervous System According to the Instructions of the Manufacturers* (1977), revised as *Info-Psychology* (1987), on the eight-circuit model.
[^12]: CIA memorandum, "International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF), ALPERT, Richard, LEARY, Timothy," November 1, 1963, obtained via FOIA by John Marks, August 1977.
[^13]: "Timothy Leary's Last Trip," *Wired,* and Leary, Timothy. *Chaos and Cyber Culture.* Ronin Publishing, 1994, on SMI2LE, "the PC is the LSD of the 1990s," and the cyberdelic period. https://www.wired.com/1996/05/leary-2/
[^14]: "A Send-Off Into Space for Leary and Others," *The New York Times,* April 22, 1997, on the Celestis launch carrying the ashes of Leary and Gene Roddenberry. https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/22/us/a-send-off-into-space-for-leary-and-others.html
[^15]: Thomas, Kenn, and Len Bracken. "The Finders' Keeper," *Steamshovel Press* no. 16, 1998, on Marion David Pettie's account of his connection with Leary.

79
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/William Harvey.md
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@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ relations:
with: "[[CIA Rome Station]]"
role: "chief of station"
start: 1963
fn: 35
fn: 36
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Operation Gold]]"
role: "Berlin base chief running the tunnel with MI6"
@ -136,61 +136,61 @@ In a memorandum of July 24, 1962 written as the CIA operations officer for Mongo
On October 8, 1962, Harvey, as CIA project officer for Mongoose, asked Edward Lansdale to put before the Special Group a request for policy approval to sabotage Cuban-owned vessels "wherever and whenever secure access to them can be attained," normally in non-Bloc ports, as "targets of opportunity."[^23]
Martin wrote that Lansdale told the Senate committee that [[John F. Kennedy]] had remarked to him that he was the American James Bond, that Lansdale suggested the real 007 was Harvey, and that Harvey and Lansdale then waited outside the Oval Office; Harvey testified that the conversation with the President was brief and contained no mention of assassination.[^5] At the August 10, 1962 meeting of the Special Group, Harvey recalled that [[Robert McNamara]] had raised the question of assassination, and that "the consensus of the Group was to sweep that particular proposal or suggestion or question or consideration off the record and under the rug as rapidly as possible."[^24]
Martin wrote that Lansdale told the Senate committee that [[John F. Kennedy]] had remarked to him that he was the American James Bond, that Lansdale suggested the real 007 was Harvey, and that Harvey and Lansdale then waited outside the Oval Office; Harvey testified that the conversation with the President was brief and contained no mention of assassination.[^5] At the August 10, 1962 meeting of the Special Group, Harvey recalled that [[Robert McNamara]] had raised the question of assassination, and that "the consensus of the Group was to sweep that particular proposal or suggestion or question or consideration off the record and under the rug as rapidly as possible."[^24] Harvey testified that McNamara raised the subject with the words "shouldn't we consider the elimination or assassination of Fidel?" Asked whether he was guessing, Harvey said "it was surfaced by Robert McNamara," and that his recollection matched his memorandum of August 14.[^25] McNamara testified that he did not recall assassination being discussed at the meeting but remembered opposing any such plan when he spoke with McCone several days later.[^24]
On August 13, 1962 Lansdale directed Harvey to include an option for the "liquidation of leaders" in a proposed Phase II plan for Mongoose.[^24] Harvey's memorandum of August 14 to Richard Helms attached Lansdale's memorandum with the words excised, and stated that the Special Group (Augmented) "is not expecting any written comments or study on this point."[^24] McCone said that McNamara agreed Lansdale's memorandum should be withdrawn.[^24] Harvey's August 14 memorandum to Helms recorded: "It was the obvious consensus at that meeting, in answer to a comment by Mr. Ed Murrow, that this is not a subject which has been made a matter of official record." McCone's April 14, 1967 memorandum to Helms states that McCone took immediate exception to a suggestion to liquidate top people in the Castro regime, including Castro.[^25] [[Walter Elder]], McCone's executive assistant, testified that he had personally told Helms of McCone's opposition to assassination after the August 10 meeting.[^26]
On August 13, 1962 Lansdale directed Harvey to include an option for the "liquidation of leaders" in a proposed Phase II plan for Mongoose.[^24] Harvey's memorandum of August 14 to Richard Helms attached Lansdale's memorandum with the words excised, and stated that the Special Group (Augmented) "is not expecting any written comments or study on this point."[^24] McCone said that McNamara agreed Lansdale's memorandum should be withdrawn.[^24] Harvey's August 14 memorandum to Helms recorded: "It was the obvious consensus at that meeting, in answer to a comment by Mr. Ed Murrow, that this is not a subject which has been made a matter of official record." McCone's April 14, 1967 memorandum to Helms states that McCone took immediate exception to a suggestion to liquidate top people in the Castro regime, including Castro.[^26] [[Walter Elder]], McCone's executive assistant, testified that he had personally told Helms of McCone's opposition to assassination after the August 10 meeting.[^27]
### Roselli and the Poison Pills
On November 16, 1961, Bissell asked Harvey to take over the gambling-syndicate operation from [[Sheffield Edwards]], and they discussed the "application of ZR/RIFLE program to Cuba."[^27] Bissell testified that the operation was not reactivated until after he left the agency in February 1962.[^27]
On November 16, 1961, Bissell asked Harvey to take over the gambling-syndicate operation from [[Sheffield Edwards]], and they discussed the "application of ZR/RIFLE program to Cuba."[^28] Bissell testified that the operation was not reactivated until after he left the agency in February 1962.[^28]
In early April 1962 Harvey, who testified that he was acting on "explicit orders" from Helms, asked Edwards to put him in touch with [[Johnny Roselli]]. A 1976 CIA memorandum dates Harvey's taking over as case officer to May 1962.[^28] Harvey told Roselli to stop dealing with [[Robert Maheu]] and [[Sam Giancana]], whom Harvey had decided were "untrustworthy" and "surplus."[^27]
In early April 1962 Harvey, who testified that he was acting on "explicit orders" from Helms, asked Edwards to put him in touch with [[Johnny Roselli]]. A 1976 CIA memorandum dates Harvey's taking over as case officer to May 1962.[^29] Harvey told Roselli to stop dealing with [[Robert Maheu]] and [[Sam Giancana]], whom Harvey had decided were "untrustworthy" and "surplus."[^28]
Four poison pills were given to the support chief on April 18, 1962. Harvey arrived in [[Miami]] on April 21 and gave them to Roselli, who was already in touch with the same Cuban who had been involved in the pill passage before the [[Bay of Pigs invasion|Bay of Pigs]].[^27] Harvey procured explosives, detonators, rifles, handguns, radios and boat radar costing about $5,000. Harvey and the chief of the JM/WAVE station rented a truck under an assumed name and delivered the equipment to a parking lot, where the keys were given to Roselli.[^27]
Four poison pills were given to the support chief on April 18, 1962. Harvey arrived in [[Miami]] on April 21 and gave them to Roselli, who was already in touch with the same Cuban who had been involved in the pill passage before the [[Bay of Pigs invasion|Bay of Pigs]].[^28] Harvey procured explosives, detonators, rifles, handguns, radios and boat radar costing about $5,000. Harvey and the chief of the JM/WAVE station rented a truck under an assumed name and delivered the equipment to a parking lot, where the keys were given to Roselli.[^28]
Harvey met Roselli in Miami on September 7 and 11, 1962. Harvey testified that by then he had grave doubts that the operation would take place. In early January 1963 he paid Roselli $2,700 to defray the Cuban's expenses. The second three-man team never left for Cuba, the reason given being that "conditions" in Cuba were not right.[^27] Harvey ended the operation in mid-February 1963 at a meeting with Roselli in [[Los Angeles]].[^27]
Harvey met Roselli in Miami on September 7 and 11, 1962. Harvey testified that by then he had grave doubts that the operation would take place. In early January 1963 he paid Roselli $2,700 to defray the Cuban's expenses. The second three-man team never left for Cuba, the reason given being that "conditions" in Cuba were not right.[^28] Harvey ended the operation in mid-February 1963 at a meeting with Roselli in [[Los Angeles]].[^28]
In early 1963 Harvey told his underworld contacts that the CIA was no longer interested in assassinating Castro. The FBI learned of this in June 1963.[^29]
In early 1963 Harvey told his underworld contacts that the CIA was no longer interested in assassinating Castro. The FBI learned of this in June 1963.[^30]
Harvey's operations involving Roselli began in early 1962 and ended in February 1963. Harvey, and to a lesser extent [[James O'Connell]], remained in contact with Roselli from 1964 to about 1970.[^28]
Harvey's operations involving Roselli began in early 1962 and ended in February 1963. Harvey, and to a lesser extent [[James O'Connell]], remained in contact with Roselli from 1964 to about 1970.[^29]
In June 1963, before Harvey went on another assignment, he and Roselli had a farewell dinner. The FBI observed the meeting, and [[Sam Papich]], the FBI liaison with the CIA, told Harvey that Hoover would be informed. Harvey told Helms of the incident, and Helms agreed that McCone need not be briefed unless a call from Hoover was expected.[^30]
In June 1963, before Harvey went on another assignment, he and Roselli had a farewell dinner. The FBI observed the meeting, and [[Sam Papich]], the FBI liaison with the CIA, told Harvey that Hoover would be informed. Harvey told Helms of the incident, and Helms agreed that McCone need not be briefed unless a call from Hoover was expected.[^31]
The [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]], which described Harvey in June 1963 as "chief of the CIA's Cuban Task Force," found it "unable to accept" the conclusion that the CIA-Mafia plots were irrelevant because they ended in February 1963, and reported that CIA files show Roselli continued to maintain direct contact with Harvey at least until 1967.[^31]
The [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]], which described Harvey in June 1963 as "chief of the CIA's Cuban Task Force," found it "unable to accept" the conclusion that the CIA-Mafia plots were irrelevant because they ended in February 1963, and reported that CIA files show Roselli continued to maintain direct contact with Harvey at least until 1967.[^32]
In 1967 Roselli was arrested for fraudulent gambling at the [[Friars Club]] in [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]]. He asked Harvey, who had left the agency, to represent him. Harvey contacted the agency and suggested that it prevent the prosecution, according to a December 11, 1967 memorandum by [[Howard Osborn]].[^32]
In 1967 Roselli was arrested for fraudulent gambling at the [[Friars Club]] in [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]]. He asked Harvey, who had left the agency, to represent him. Harvey contacted the agency and suggested that it prevent the prosecution, according to a December 11, 1967 memorandum by [[Howard Osborn]].[^33]
### The Clash with Robert Kennedy and the Missile Crisis
Harvey and [[Robert Kennedy]] were openly at odds over Mongoose. Thomas wrote that Harvey regarded Kennedy's micromanagement of the operations as incompetent and dangerous, and that Kennedy regarded Harvey as insubordinate and unreliable.[^1] Harvey testified that during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] he gave an order sending agent teams into Cuba to support any conventional U.S. military operation that might occur. He said that Robert Kennedy "took a great deal of exception" to the order, and that McCone then ordered the agent operations stopped.[^33] Walter Elder, McCone's assistant at the time, described the episode as Harvey having "earned another black mark as not being fully under control," and said that Harvey had attempted to get guidance from top officials during the crisis.[^33]
Harvey and [[Robert Kennedy]] were openly at odds over Mongoose. Thomas wrote that Harvey regarded Kennedy's micromanagement of the operations as incompetent and dangerous, and that Kennedy regarded Harvey as insubordinate and unreliable.[^1] Harvey testified that during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] he gave an order sending agent teams into Cuba to support any conventional U.S. military operation that might occur. He said that Robert Kennedy "took a great deal of exception" to the order, and that McCone then ordered the agent operations stopped.[^34] Walter Elder, McCone's assistant at the time, described the episode as Harvey having "earned another black mark as not being fully under control," and said that Harvey had attempted to get guidance from top officials during the crisis.[^34]
Martin wrote that Kennedy tied off a series of questions to Harvey with "and I've got 10 minutes to hear the answer," and that when Harvey exceeded his time limit Kennedy walked out and Harvey kept talking.[^5] Martin quoted McCone: "When you take a plant supervisor and make him president of the company, it doesn't always work out," and wrote that Dulles is said to have remarked, "That fellow Harvey is a conspiratorial cop."[^5] Thomas wrote that Robert Kennedy demanded Harvey's removal.[^1]
### Rome and the End of Task Force W
[[Desmond FitzGerald]] replaced Harvey as chief of Task Force W in January 1963.[^34] It is unclear whether Harvey or FitzGerald conceived the plan to present Fidel Castro with a contaminated diving suit.[^34]
[[Desmond FitzGerald]] replaced Harvey as chief of Task Force W in January 1963.[^35] It is unclear whether Harvey or FitzGerald conceived the plan to present Fidel Castro with a contaminated diving suit.[^35]
Harvey was appointed chief of station at Rome, effective on or about June 30, 1963, to replace [[Francis I. G. Coleman]], who was scheduled to attend the [[National War College]].[^35] He took up the Rome post before the November 1963 assassination of John F. Kennedy. Thomas wrote that Robert Kennedy had exiled Harvey to Rome.[^1] Martin wrote in The Washington Post that some attributed the appointment to a wish to keep Harvey out of the country and others to the Rome station's need of a shakeup, that Harvey was hospitalized, that Desmond FitzGerald cabled a report to Helms, that Helms ordered Harvey relieved, that an aide sent to carry out the order sat seven hours across from Harvey, who held a loaded revolver in his lap, and that Harvey was then placed in a unit studying countermeasures against electronic surveillance.[^5]
Harvey was appointed chief of station at Rome, effective on or about June 30, 1963, to replace [[Francis I. G. Coleman]], who was scheduled to attend the [[National War College]].[^36] He took up the Rome post before the November 1963 assassination of John F. Kennedy. Thomas wrote that Robert Kennedy had exiled Harvey to Rome.[^1] Martin wrote in The Washington Post that some attributed the appointment to a wish to keep Harvey out of the country and others to the Rome station's need of a shakeup, that Harvey was hospitalized, that Desmond FitzGerald cabled a report to Helms, that Helms ordered Harvey relieved, that an aide sent to carry out the order sat seven hours across from Harvey, who held a loaded revolver in his lap, and that Harvey was then placed in a unit studying countermeasures against electronic surveillance.[^5]
### Testimony Before the Senate
Harvey testified before the Church Committee in executive session on June 25, 1975 and again on July 11, 1975. He signed an affidavit dated September 14, 1975.[^27] He told the committee that he had acted on explicit orders from Helms, and that he believed the 1962 assassination activity carried over from the period when Allen Dulles was Director, a belief he based on what Bissell had told him.[^18]
Harvey testified before the Church Committee in executive session on June 25, 1975 and again on July 11, 1975. He signed an affidavit dated September 14, 1975.[^28] He told the committee that he had acted on explicit orders from Helms, and that he believed the 1962 assassination activity carried over from the period when Allen Dulles was Director, a belief he based on what Bissell had told him.[^18]
Harvey said he had not informed the Special Group, or anyone outside the agency, that he had given the poison pills to Roselli. He said he did not brief McCone on the pills because he did not believe it was necessary.[^18]
### Retirement, Death and Aftermath
In April 1967 Harvey was to be transferred from the [[European Division]] to the Office of Personnel, where he would be carried in casual status until his final retirement, and his sick leave required a physician's monthly certification.[^36] By October 30, 1967 he had not yet set a retirement date, and retirement was expected on November 30.[^37] He retired from the agency in 1967.[^28]
In April 1967 Harvey was to be transferred from the [[European Division]] to the Office of Personnel, where he would be carried in casual status until his final retirement, and his sick leave required a physician's monthly certification.[^37] By October 30, 1967 he had not yet set a retirement date, and retirement was expected on November 30.[^38] He retired from the agency in 1967.[^29]
In November 1967, while leaving the agency to practice law, Harvey asked Sam Papich for reputable private investigators. Papich suggested [[Wackenhut Corporation]] or the [[Fidelifax]] Company, as Howard Osborn recorded in a memorandum of November 8, 1967.[^38]
In November 1967, while leaving the agency to practice law, Harvey asked Sam Papich for reputable private investigators. Papich suggested [[Wackenhut Corporation]] or the [[Fidelifax]] Company, as Howard Osborn recorded in a memorandum of November 8, 1967.[^39]
Roselli died in August 1976. On August 11, 1976 [[George H. W. Bush|George Bush]], then Director of Central Intelligence, wrote that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked [[Edward Levi]] to bring the FBI into the case.[^39]
Roselli died in August 1976. On August 11, 1976 [[George H. W. Bush|George Bush]], then Director of Central Intelligence, wrote that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked [[Edward Levi]] to bring the FBI into the case.[^40]
According to the 1976 obituary, Harvey moved to [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] in 1969 after leaving the agency, and was law editor for [[Bobbs-Merrill]] at the time of his death.[^3]
Harvey died of a heart attack at an Indianapolis hospital on June 9, 1976, at the age of 60. He was buried at South Cemetery in Danville, Indiana, and was survived by his wife, Clara Grace, a daughter and a son.[^3] A CIA memorandum of August 9, 1976 gives the same date, "9 June 1976."[^28] Martin wrote that surgeons had worked four hours to implant an artificial valve and that Harvey died, holding his wife's hand, at ten minutes past two in the afternoon of June 9.[^2] A June 1976 press report named Harvey among ten agents whose identities the Senate committee had disclosed, and said that [[William Colby]] had argued that disclosure endangered agents.[^3] A CIA routing memorandum of June 16, 1976 records that the agency's information on his death came from the press reports.[^40] Martin wrote that Harvey's wife told him reporters were trying to link his death to Roselli's murder, that there had been two attempted break-ins, and that people were "after his papers," to which she said she had "burned everything."[^5]
Harvey died of a heart attack at an Indianapolis hospital on June 9, 1976, at the age of 60. He was buried at South Cemetery in Danville, Indiana, and was survived by his wife, Clara Grace, a daughter and a son.[^3] A CIA memorandum of August 9, 1976 gives the same date, "9 June 1976."[^29] Martin wrote that surgeons had worked four hours to implant an artificial valve and that Harvey died, holding his wife's hand, at ten minutes past two in the afternoon of June 9.[^2] A June 1976 press report named Harvey among ten agents whose identities the Senate committee had disclosed, and said that [[William Colby]] had argued that disclosure endangered agents.[^3] A CIA routing memorandum of June 16, 1976 records that the agency's information on his death came from the press reports.[^41] Martin wrote that Harvey's wife told him reporters were trying to link his death to Roselli's murder, that there had been two attempted break-ins, and that people were "after his papers," to which she said she had "burned everything."[^5]
In June 1977 Martin, an [[Associated Press]] correspondent, asked a retired agency employee for cooperation with a book about Harvey. The employee was irritated and believed that a retired CIA officer had given Martin his name.[^41]
In June 1977 Martin, an [[Associated Press]] correspondent, asked a retired agency employee for cooperation with a book about Harvey. The employee was irritated and believed that a retired CIA officer had given Martin his name.[^42]
### Footnotes
@ -217,21 +217,22 @@ In June 1977 Martin, an [[Associated Press]] correspondent, asked a retired agen
[^21]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 365, Memorandum From the Central Intelligence Agency Operations Officer for Operation Mongoose (Harvey) to the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale), August 6, 1962, "Gusano Libre, Symbol of Cuban Resistance." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d365
[^22]: National Security Archive, document 14, William K. Harvey, "Covert Activities," CIA memorandum, August 7, 1962. https://archive.org/details/6434690-National-Security-Archive-Doc-14-CIA-William
[^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. XI, doc. 10, Memorandum From the Central Intelligence Agency Project Officer for Operation Mongoose (Harvey) to the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale), October 8, 1962, "Sabotage of Cuban-Owned Ship." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d10
[^24]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 161-167 (the August 10, 1962 meeting; Lansdale memorandum of August 13; Harvey memorandum to Helms of August 14; McCone's account of McNamara; Elder's recollection of the meeting), and pp. 165-166 for Harvey's recollection of the meeting, citing Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, p. 30. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 371, Editorial Note on the August 10, 1962 meeting of the Special Group (Augmented), quoting Harvey's memorandum of August 14, 1962 and McCone's memorandum of April 14, 1967. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d371
[^26]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 107 (Walter Elder, McCone's Executive Assistant, on telling Helms of McCone's opposition after the August 10 meeting). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^27]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 83-85 (the 1961 assignment and the November 16, 1961 notes; the April 1962 reactivation and "explicit orders"; the poison pills of April 18 and 21, 1962; the $5,000 equipment and the rented truck; the September 1962 meetings; the $2,700 payment; the second team; the February 1963 termination), citing Harvey testimony of June 25 and July 11, 1975, and the affidavit of September 14, 1975. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^28]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Johnny Roselli," August 9, 1976. Reading room document 00508811, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00508811 (Harvey's operations from early 1962 to February 1963; Harvey as case officer from May 1962; Harvey and O'Connell in contact from 1964 to about 1970; Harvey retired in 1967).
[^29]: Church Committee, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Final Report Book V, S. Rept. 94-755, April 23, 1976, pp. 69, 72. https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
[^30]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 105, citing Inspector General's report p. 54 (the June 1963 farewell dinner; FBI observation; Papich's notice to Harvey; Harvey's report to Helms). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^31]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report of the Select Committee on Assassinations*, H. Rept. 95-1828, 1979, p. 117 (the committee's finding that the plots were not shown to be irrelevant; CIA files on contact with Harvey until 1967). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^32]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 86-87 (Osborn memorandum for the record, December 11, 1967). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^33]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 149 n. 1, citing Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 80-81, and Walter Elder testimony of August 13, 1975, pp. 34-35. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^34]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 86-87 (FitzGerald replacing Harvey in January 1963; the diving-suit plan), citing Inspector General's report p. 75. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^35]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Appointment of Mr. William K. Harvey Chief of Station, Rome, Italy," June 12, 1963. Reading room document 01228805, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01228805
[^36]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record "William K. Harvey," April 5, 1967. Reading room document 0001228917, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001228917
[^37]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record "William K. Harvey," October 30, 1967. Reading room document 0001228965, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001228965
[^38]: Osborn, Howard J. Memorandum for the record, November 8, 1967, JFK record 104-10133-10076. National Archives, JFK Assassination Records Collection.
[^39]: Bush, George, memorandum "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. Reading room document 00508811, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00508811
[^40]: Central Intelligence Agency, routing and record memorandum, June 16, 1976, filed with the reading room copy of the June 1976 press report, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-00498a000600020001-2
[^41]: Central Intelligence Agency, routing and record sheet, "Mr. David Martin, Associated Press Correspondent's Interest in Writing a Book About Mr. William King Harvey," June 27, 1977. Reading room document 0001229025, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001229025
[^24]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 161-167 (the August 10, 1962 meeting; Lansdale memorandum of August 13; Harvey memorandum to Helms of August 14; McCone's account of McNamara; Elder's recollection of the meeting), and pp. 164-165 for Harvey's recollection of the meeting and McNamara's testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 7-8, citing Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, p. 30. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^25]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 164, and Additional Views of Senator Howard H. Baker Jr., p. 321, quoting Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 29-30 and 86. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf
[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 371, Editorial Note on the August 10, 1962 meeting of the Special Group (Augmented), quoting Harvey's memorandum of August 14, 1962 and McCone's memorandum of April 14, 1967. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d371
[^27]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 107 (Walter Elder, McCone's Executive Assistant, on telling Helms of McCone's opposition after the August 10 meeting). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^28]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 83-85 (the 1961 assignment and the November 16, 1961 notes; the April 1962 reactivation and "explicit orders"; the poison pills of April 18 and 21, 1962; the $5,000 equipment and the rented truck; the September 1962 meetings; the $2,700 payment; the second team; the February 1963 termination), citing Harvey testimony of June 25 and July 11, 1975, and the affidavit of September 14, 1975. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^29]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Johnny Roselli," August 9, 1976. Reading room document 00508811, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00508811 (Harvey's operations from early 1962 to February 1963; Harvey as case officer from May 1962; Harvey and O'Connell in contact from 1964 to about 1970; Harvey retired in 1967).
[^30]: Church Committee, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Final Report Book V, S. Rept. 94-755, April 23, 1976, pp. 69, 72. https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
[^31]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 105, citing Inspector General's report p. 54 (the June 1963 farewell dinner; FBI observation; Papich's notice to Harvey; Harvey's report to Helms). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^32]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report of the Select Committee on Assassinations*, H. Rept. 95-1828, 1979, p. 117 (the committee's finding that the plots were not shown to be irrelevant; CIA files on contact with Harvey until 1967). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^33]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 86-87 (Osborn memorandum for the record, December 11, 1967). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^34]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 149 n. 1, citing Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 80-81, and Walter Elder testimony of August 13, 1975, pp. 34-35. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^35]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 86-87 (FitzGerald replacing Harvey in January 1963; the diving-suit plan), citing Inspector General's report p. 75. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^36]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Appointment of Mr. William K. Harvey Chief of Station, Rome, Italy," June 12, 1963. Reading room document 01228805, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01228805
[^37]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record "William K. Harvey," April 5, 1967. Reading room document 0001228917, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001228917
[^38]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record "William K. Harvey," October 30, 1967. Reading room document 0001228965, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001228965
[^39]: Osborn, Howard J. Memorandum for the record, November 8, 1967, JFK record 104-10133-10076. National Archives, JFK Assassination Records Collection.
[^40]: Bush, George, memorandum "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. Reading room document 00508811, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00508811
[^41]: Central Intelligence Agency, routing and record memorandum, June 16, 1976, filed with the reading room copy of the June 1976 press report, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-00498a000600020001-2
[^42]: Central Intelligence Agency, routing and record sheet, "Mr. David Martin, Associated Press Correspondent's Interest in Writing a Book About Mr. William King Harvey," June 27, 1977. Reading room document 0001229025, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001229025

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@ -24,22 +24,22 @@ relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Institute for Advanced Study]]"
end: 2003
fn: 9
fn: 10
- type: investigated
with: "[[Harvard University]]"
reverse: true
role: "OGC review, 2021 sanctions, 2026 leave"
start: 2019-09
end: 2026-02-25
fn: 10
fn: 11
- type: member_of
with: "[[John Templeton Foundation]]"
role: "Board of Advisors"
fn: 9
fn: 10
- type: member_of
with: "[[Austrian Academy of Sciences]]"
end: 2026-04
fn: 14
fn: 15
---
Martin A. Nowak (born April 7, 1965) is an Austrian-born mathematical biologist at [[Harvard University]] who directed the [[Program for Evolutionary Dynamics]] (PED) from its founding in 2003. The program was established with help from a $6.5 million gift from [[Jeffrey Epstein]], the largest single donation Epstein made to Harvard, and a 2020 university report found that Nowak gave Epstein an office and campus access used for more than forty visits after Epstein's 2008 sex-crimes conviction. Harvard sanctioned Nowak in 2021.[^1][^2]
@ -54,55 +54,55 @@ The Program for Evolutionary Dynamics was created in 2003 under Harvard Presiden
### Epstein's Donations and Campus Access
A review of Harvard's ties to Epstein, commissioned by President [[Lawrence Bacow]] in September 2019 and released on May 1, 2020, found that Epstein gave Harvard $9,179,000 across 22 gifts between 1998 and 2008, of which the $6.5 million for the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics in 2003 was the largest. The review was conducted by the Office of the General Counsel under [[Diane Lopez]] with the law firm [[Foley Hoag]], drew on more than 250,000 pages of documents, and interviewed over forty people. It found that Harvard stopped accepting Epstein gifts after his 2008 conviction for soliciting a minor for prostitution, with the decision to halt gifts made under President [[Drew Faust]] between 2007 and 2008, though Epstein gave $736,000 after his 2006 arrest but before the conviction.[^2][^7]
A review of Harvard's ties to Epstein, commissioned by President [[Lawrence Bacow]] in September 2019 and released on May 1, 2020, found that Epstein gave Harvard $9,179,000 across 22 gifts between 1998 and 2007, of which the $6.5 million for the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics in 2003 was the largest. The review was conducted by the Office of the General Counsel under [[Diane Lopez]] with the law firm [[Foley Hoag]], drew on more than 250,000 pages of documents, and interviewed over forty people. It found that Harvard stopped accepting Epstein gifts after his 2008 conviction for soliciting a minor for prostitution, with the decision to halt gifts made under President [[Drew Faust]] between 2007 and 2008, though Epstein gave $736,000 after his 2006 arrest but before the conviction.[^2][^7]
Epstein held a formal Harvard appointment as a visiting fellow in the psychology department for the 2005 to 2006 academic year, secured through department chair [[Stephen Kosslyn]] despite Epstein's lacking the doctoral degree the position normally required; Epstein reapplied for 2006 to 2007 but withdrew after his September 2006 arrest. The report found that Epstein retained a dedicated office at PED, identified as Office 610 and known internally as "Jeffrey's Office," to which he brought his own rug and hung his own photographs, with keycard and passcode access and a Harvard telephone line that remained until 2017.[^2][^7]
Epstein held a formal Harvard appointment as a visiting fellow in the psychology department for the 2005 to 2006 academic year, recommended by department chair [[Stephen Kosslyn]], to whom he had given $200,000 between 1998 and 2002, and paid $10,072 in tuition and fees; the report found no evidence that he engaged with Harvard students as a visiting fellow. The appointment was made despite Epstein's lacking the doctoral degree the position normally required; Epstein reapplied for 2006 to 2007 but withdrew after his September 2006 arrest. The report found that Epstein retained a dedicated office at PED, identified as Office 610 and known internally as "Jeffrey's Office," to which he brought his own rug and hung his own photographs, with keycard and passcode access and a Harvard telephone line that remained until 2017.[^2][^7]
The report found that Epstein visited the program more than forty times between 2010 and 2018, including six visits in 2018, often accompanied by young women in their twenties described as assistants. It found that Nowak approved posting on the PED website in 2014 a webpage featuring Epstein's photograph, biography, and charitable links under a tab labeled "Friends," on which Epstein was the only entry, and that the review described the program's account of Epstein's support as "flattering and false." Summers, former Faculty of Arts and Sciences dean [[Henry Rosovsky]], and law professor [[Alan Dershowitz]] were among those recorded as attending PED events.[^2][^8]
The report found that Epstein visited the program more than forty times between 2010 and 2018, including six visits in 2018 (the report's table of visits by year for 2010 through 2018 reads 4, 5, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 5 and 6, 46 in all), often accompanied by young women in their twenties described as assistants. It found that Nowak approved posting on the PED website in 2014 a webpage featuring Epstein's photograph, biography, and charitable links under a tab labeled "Friends," on which Epstein was the only entry, and that the review described the program's account of Epstein's support as "flattering and false." The report found that Epstein attended one of Nowak's undergraduate mathematics classes, that the program kept an office for his use with keycard and passcode access, and that his visits ended after a number of program researchers complained to Nowak.[^7] Summers, former Faculty of Arts and Sciences dean [[Henry Rosovsky]], and law professor [[Alan Dershowitz]] were among those recorded as attending PED events.[^2][^8]
### Sanctions and Aftermath
On March 26, 2021, Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences [[Claudine Gay]] announced that Nowak had violated several university policies and imposed sanctions: he was barred for two years from serving as principal investigator on new grants, prohibited for two years from taking on new undergraduate, graduate, or doctoral advisees, and allowed to continue teaching undergraduate courses. Harvard announced that the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics would be closed and that Nowak's research would move into the mathematics department. Nowak had been placed on paid administrative leave in May 2020.[^1][^8] The closure followed the review's finding that PED's administrator, "with Professor Nowak on notice," had sent Epstein's assistant unassigned access cards in 2017 so that Epstein could avoid the photograph and attestation required for a guest identification.[^9]
On March 26, 2021, Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences [[Claudine Gay]] announced that Nowak had violated several university policies and imposed sanctions: he was barred for two years from serving as principal investigator on new grants, prohibited for two years from taking on new undergraduate, graduate, or doctoral advisees, and allowed to continue teaching undergraduate courses. Harvard announced that the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics would be closed and that Nowak's research would move into the mathematics department. Nowak had been placed on paid administrative leave in May 2020.[^1][^8] The leave began on May 1, 2020, the day the Harvard review of the University's ties to Epstein was released. The review found that Nowak approved the posting of flattering and false descriptions of Epstein's philanthropy and support of Harvard on the program's website. Gay's email of the same day said the Faculty of Arts and Sciences "fully supports" the recommendations of the General Counsel's report.[^9] The closure followed the review's finding that PED's administrator, "with Professor Nowak on notice," had sent Epstein's assistant unassigned access cards in 2017 so that Epstein could avoid the photograph and attestation required for a guest identification.[^10]
Harvard reported that it had identified $200,937 in unspent Epstein funds, which it pledged to direct to organizations supporting victims of human trafficking, and stated it would not accept future gifts from Epstein or his estate. The Faculty of Arts and Sciences lifted the sanctions in 2023, restoring Nowak's research and advising privileges in March of that year.[^2][^10]
Harvard reported that it had identified $200,937 in unspent Epstein funds, which it pledged to direct to organizations supporting victims of human trafficking, and stated it would not accept future gifts from Epstein or his estate. The Faculty of Arts and Sciences lifted the sanctions in 2023, restoring Nowak's research and advising privileges in March of that year.[^2][^11]
### The 2026 Files and Renewed Leave
In February 2026 the journal *Nature* reported, drawing on [[Department of Justice|U.S. Department of Justice]] files, that Epstein's involvement with Nowak's work ran deeper than the 2020 review had described, including that Epstein reviewed page proofs of the 2010 eusociality paper and gave advice on responding to its critics. Nowak's name appears more than 8,000 times in the released files. *Nature* also reported that in 2009 Epstein routed scholarship money through Corina Tarnita, then Nowak's PhD student, to two young women studying mathematics at the University of Iași in Romania; Tarnita, by then at [[Princeton University]], told *Nature* the payments were legitimate scholarships and that she wished she had never known Epstein.[^11][^12]
In February 2026 the journal *Nature* reported, drawing on [[Department of Justice|U.S. Department of Justice]] files, that Epstein's involvement with Nowak's work ran deeper than the 2020 review had described, including that Epstein reviewed page proofs of the 2010 eusociality paper and gave advice on responding to its critics. Nowak's name appears more than 8,000 times in the released files. *Nature* also reported that in 2009 Epstein routed scholarship money through Corina Tarnita, then Nowak's PhD student, to two young women studying mathematics at the University of Iași in Romania; Tarnita, by then at [[Princeton University]], told *Nature* the payments were legitimate scholarships and that she wished she had never known Epstein.[^12][^13]
A March 10, 2014 email chain published from the files showed Nowak writing to Epstein that "our spy was captured after completing her mission," to which Epstein replied "did you torture her." Nowak later said on his website that the line came from the video game *Civilization II*, where the response signals a successful operation. The files also showed that an Epstein assistant arranged 2014 travel for Nowak and a female Harvard graduate student to Epstein's Caribbean island.[^12][^13]
A March 10, 2014 email chain published from the files showed Nowak writing to Epstein that "our spy was captured after completing her mission," to which Epstein replied "did you torture her." Nowak later said on his website that the line came from the video game *Civilization II*, where the response signals a successful operation. The files also showed that an Epstein assistant arranged 2014 travel for Nowak and a female Harvard graduate student to Epstein's Caribbean island.[^13][^14]
On February 25, 2026, Harvard placed Nowak on paid administrative leave a second time, with FAS Dean [[Hopi Hoekstra]] citing new information from the released Department of Justice documents. In April 2026 Nowak resigned from the [[Austrian Academy of Sciences]] amid the renewed scrutiny.[^10][^14]
On February 25, 2026, Harvard placed Nowak on paid administrative leave a second time, with FAS Dean [[Hopi Hoekstra]] citing new information from the released Department of Justice documents. In April 2026 Nowak resigned from the [[Austrian Academy of Sciences]] amid the renewed scrutiny.[^11][^15]
### Before Harvard
Nowak's relationship with Epstein began in the late 1990s, while Nowak was at the Institute for Advanced Study and lecturing at Princeton, and Epstein supported his work at the institute before Harvard recruited him. Emails released in 2026 show that Nowak had use of Epstein's New York apartments and his Jaguar and made frequent trips to Epstein's homes in [[New Mexico]] and the Virgin Islands. After a 2002 trip Nowak wrote to [[Ghislaine Maxwell]]: "I would love to ride out with you for a whole day. Just you and me. both of us dressed as cowboys." Maxwell replied, "Riding off into the sunset w/ you sounds very dangerous - we might not come back," and signed off, "Be bad." A 2002 *[[New York (magazine)|New York]]* magazine profile reported that Nowak spoke with Epstein weekly and was flown to his homes to lecture, and quoted him: "Jeffrey has the mind of a physicist. It's like talking to a colleague in your field. . . . He has changed my life. Because of his support, I feel I can do anything I want." In September 2004 the photographer Rick Friedman photographed a Harvard dinner hosted by Epstein at which Nowak appeared with Epstein, Summers, Alan Dershowitz and the evolutionary biologist [[Robert Trivers]].[^7][^15][^16]
Nowak's relationship with Epstein began in the late 1990s, while Nowak was at the Institute for Advanced Study and lecturing at Princeton, and Epstein supported his work at the institute before Harvard recruited him. Emails released in 2026 show that Nowak had use of Epstein's New York apartments and his Jaguar and made frequent trips to Epstein's homes in [[New Mexico]] and the Virgin Islands. After a 2002 trip Nowak wrote to [[Ghislaine Maxwell]]: "I would love to ride out with you for a whole day. Just you and me. both of us dressed as cowboys." Maxwell replied, "Riding off into the sunset w/ you sounds very dangerous - we might not come back," and signed off, "Be bad." A 2002 *[[New York (magazine)|New York]]* magazine profile reported that Nowak spoke with Epstein weekly and was flown to his homes to lecture, and quoted him: "Jeffrey has the mind of a physicist. It's like talking to a colleague in your field. . . . He has changed my life. Because of his support, I feel I can do anything I want." In September 2004 the photographer Rick Friedman photographed a Harvard dinner hosted by Epstein at which Nowak appeared with Epstein, Summers, Alan Dershowitz and the evolutionary biologist [[Robert Trivers]].[^7][^16][^17]
### After the Conviction
Soon after Epstein's 2009 release from the Palm Beach County jail, Nowak and his graduate student Corina Tarnita traveled to visit him. Nowak later told *[[The Boston Globe]]* that a spiritual adviser had told him he was "morally obligated to forgive someone who has served a prison sentence." Harvard's review found that Nowak understood from 2008 that President Drew Faust opposed taking Epstein's money but regarded the question as "unclear"; a January 2010 email described him as "trying to figure out a way to have Epstein give PED funds," and in December 2014 he asked the mathematics chair "confidentially" whether there was "an update concerning Jeffrey being an acceptable donor for Harvard?" Meanwhile donors Epstein introduced, [[Leon Black]] and the [[Falconwood Foundation]], paid 7.5 million dollars toward the program's rent, and Nowak, who sat on the [[John Templeton Foundation]]'s Board of Advisors, approved a 2015 letter falsely telling Templeton that an Epstein foundation had "established a gift" to the program in 2003. The review found that Nowak "knowingly approved PED's supplying false information" and that he "had no explanation" for it.[^9][^15]
Soon after Epstein's 2009 release from the Palm Beach County jail, Nowak and his graduate student Corina Tarnita traveled to visit him. Nowak later told *[[The Boston Globe]]* that a spiritual adviser had told him he was "morally obligated to forgive someone who has served a prison sentence." Harvard's review found that Nowak understood from 2008 that President Drew Faust opposed taking Epstein's money but regarded the question as "unclear" (a November 2008 email from Kosslyn, then Divisional Dean for Social Sciences, put the position as "If [President] Drew [Faust] weren't opposed to taking JEE's money, there wouldn't be a problem . . . but she is"); a January 2010 email described him as "trying to figure out a way to have Epstein give PED funds," and in December 2014 he asked the mathematics chair "confidentially" whether there was "an update concerning Jeffrey being an acceptable donor for Harvard?" Meanwhile donors Epstein introduced, [[Leon Black]] and the [[Falconwood Foundation]], gave 7.5 million dollars, itemized in the report's table of unrestricted gifts Nowak said Epstein helped obtain as $500,000 from the Falconwood Foundation on September 10, 2010, $2,000,000 from Leon and Debra Black on November 22, 2011, $4,000,000 from Leon and Debra Black on December 29, 2014 and $1,000,000 from the [[Black Family Foundation]] on October 30, 2015, with Nowak acknowledging that Epstein "played a role in helping" obtain them, and Nowak, who sat on the [[John Templeton Foundation]]'s Board of Advisors, approved a 2015 letter falsely telling Templeton that an Epstein foundation had "established a gift" to the program in 2003. The review found that Nowak "knowingly approved PED's supplying false information" and that he "had no explanation" for it.[^10][^16]
When *[[Newsweek]]* prepared a 2011 story on Epstein, Epstein asked Nowak and another Harvard friend for character references, explaining that the story's focus was "on why do so many people want to talk to me and seem to ignore . . . their words . . . my crime." Nowak thanked Epstein for financial support in *SuperCooperators* (2011) and in at least six papers published between 2009 and 2012 on subjects including the spread of cancer and the evolution of HIV. In July 2019 he told *[[BuzzFeed News]]*: "The only donation from Epstein was received in 2003. The money was spent by about 2007," adding that "most research projects take many years from first idea until publication." Harvard's review, a year later, recorded Epstein's more than forty visits to Nowak's program between 2010 and 2018, his office and keycards, and the 2010 to 2015 gifts from donors he introduced.[^2][^15][^16][^17]
When *[[Newsweek]]* prepared a 2011 story on Epstein, Epstein asked Nowak and another Harvard friend for character references, explaining that the story's focus was "on why do so many people want to talk to me and seem to ignore . . . their words . . . my crime." Nowak thanked Epstein for financial support in *SuperCooperators* (2011) and in at least six papers published between 2009 and 2012 on subjects including the spread of cancer and the evolution of HIV. In July 2019 he told *[[BuzzFeed News]]*: "The only donation from Epstein was received in 2003. The money was spent by about 2007," adding that "most research projects take many years from first idea until publication." Harvard's review, a year later, recorded Epstein's more than forty visits to Nowak's program between 2010 and 2018, his office and keycards, and the 2010 to 2015 gifts from donors he introduced.[^2][^16][^17][^18]
Nowak's lab administrator arranged Epstein's visits, food and building access. In 2010, when her sister was job-hunting in New York, Nowak suggested Epstein hire her, listing among her credentials that she had provided "legal advice on how to fire models who became fat"; Epstein arranged an interview. Tarnita, who thanked Epstein in her 2009 dissertation "for allowing me to participate in his tireless pursuit of knowledge," later had an Epstein assistant arrange a salon appointment for her, was offered payment for a medical procedure, and in 2011 was referred by Epstein to a lawyer who resolved a visa problem; when she told him of her Princeton job talks, he wrote, "i only wish you well." Tarnita told the *Globe*: "I never saw Epstein behave inappropriately. I am revolted by his depravity and wish I had never met him." The Harvard lecturer [[Moshe Hoffman]], who met Epstein at Nowak's lab in 2013, was taken to a Broadway show by an Epstein assistant at Epstein's expense and in February 2019 asked to stay at one of Epstein's apartments.[^15]
Nowak's lab administrator arranged Epstein's visits, food and building access. In 2010, when her sister was job-hunting in New York, Nowak suggested Epstein hire her, listing among her credentials that she had provided "legal advice on how to fire models who became fat"; Epstein arranged an interview. Tarnita, who thanked Epstein in her 2009 dissertation "for allowing me to participate in his tireless pursuit of knowledge," later had an Epstein assistant arrange a salon appointment for her, was offered payment for a medical procedure, and in 2011 was referred by Epstein to a lawyer who resolved a visa problem; when she told him of her Princeton job talks, he wrote, "i only wish you well." Tarnita told the *Globe*: "I never saw Epstein behave inappropriately. I am revolted by his depravity and wish I had never met him." The Harvard lecturer [[Moshe Hoffman]], who met Epstein at Nowak's lab in 2013, was taken to a Broadway show by an Epstein assistant at Epstein's expense and in February 2019 asked to stay at one of Epstein's apartments.[^16]
### Chomsky, Hillis, and Bin Sulayem
On October 28, 2015, Epstein wrote jointly to Nowak, the linguist [[Noam Chomsky]], and the computer scientist [[Danny Hillis]]: "would sat the 14th work? cambridge."[^18] On December 23, 2015, he wrote to Nowak and Chomsky together: "animals dream . the mouse is not really there when the cat is chasing it in its dream. if dreams represent a language with no memory or grammar, they could be the precursor to language."[^19]
On October 28, 2015, Epstein wrote jointly to Nowak, the linguist [[Noam Chomsky]], and the computer scientist [[Danny Hillis]]: "would sat the 14th work? cambridge."[^19] On December 23, 2015, he wrote to Nowak and Chomsky together: "animals dream . the mouse is not really there when the cat is chasing it in its dream. if dreams represent a language with no memory or grammar, they could be the precursor to language."[^20]
In November 2016 Epstein arranged for [[Sultan Ahmed bin Sulayem]], chairman of [[DP World]], to visit the [[MIT Media Lab]] and then Nowak's office. On November 29 Epstein's assistant [[Lesley Groff]] asked [[Joi Ito]] about his timing for meeting Epstein on November 30 "up at Harvard," adding, "Also, this will be at Martin Nowak's office at 1 Brattle Square?" Ito replied that bin Sulayem would be with him at the Media Lab and "I can take Sultan to Martin's place," and that Epstein had planned to "leave the Lab or Martin's at 11:30AM."[^20]
In November 2016 Epstein arranged for [[Sultan Ahmed bin Sulayem]], chairman of [[DP World]], to visit the [[MIT Media Lab]] and then Nowak's office. On November 29 Epstein's assistant [[Lesley Groff]] asked [[Joi Ito]] about his timing for meeting Epstein on November 30 "up at Harvard," adding, "Also, this will be at Martin Nowak's office at 1 Brattle Square?" Ito replied that bin Sulayem would be with him at the Media Lab and "I can take Sultan to Martin's place," and that Epstein had planned to "leave the Lab or Martin's at 11:30AM."[^21]
### The Island and the Women
Nowak, who was married, twice asked Epstein by email about bringing women to Epstein's island, and at least once Epstein paid for Nowak and a guest to fly in premium seats and stay two nights. In January 2014 Epstein arranged for Nowak to speak by telephone with a woman; Nowak wrote that he was "nervous like a schoolboy" and added: "I love life! she sounds really nice on the phone. did you ever bring her to harvard? do i know her?" Nowak told the *Globe* he never had a "relationship" with anyone Epstein introduced him to. A photograph released by the Justice Department purports to show Nowak and [[George Church]] on Epstein's island.[^15][^21]
Nowak, who was married, twice asked Epstein by email about bringing women to Epstein's island, and at least once Epstein paid for Nowak and a guest to fly in premium seats and stay two nights. In January 2014 Epstein arranged for Nowak to speak by telephone with a woman; Nowak wrote that he was "nervous like a schoolboy" and added: "I love life! she sounds really nice on the phone. did you ever bring her to harvard? do i know her?" Nowak told the *Globe* he never had a "relationship" with anyone Epstein introduced him to. A photograph released by the Justice Department purports to show Nowak and [[George Church]] on Epstein's island.[^16][^22]
The *Globe* documented Nowak's contact with two young Eastern European women whom Epstein groomed and exploited and whose names the Justice Department redacted as victims; the newspaper identified them only as "the musician" and "the artist." In 2015 Epstein asked Nowak, who was traveling in Austria, to meet the musician there and advance her tuition for a music program; Nowak wrote that he was "investigating how to help her," their schedules did not overlap, and Epstein reimbursed her. Nowak told the *Globe* he never met her and does not recall her. Epstein introduced Nowak to the artist in 2018. In spring 2019, while the *[[Miami Herald]]* series was prompting renewed scrutiny, Nowak sent Epstein photographs of her with her artwork and wrote that she was working on her "master piece"; when Epstein paid for her to travel to New York, he texted her, "I understand you are going to see martin?" She replied, "Martin sayed [sic] that I can come to see him in Boston." Nowak and the artist, through her lawyer, said the visit did not happen; her lawyer said their contact, several emails and one call at Nowak's prompting, which she believes came at Epstein's suggestion, was not sexual. Nowak said he did not know she was being exploited and believed he was "merely supporting her career."[^15]
The *Globe* documented Nowak's contact with two young Eastern European women whom Epstein groomed and exploited and whose names the Justice Department redacted as victims; the newspaper identified them only as "the musician" and "the artist." In 2015 Epstein asked Nowak, who was traveling in Austria, to meet the musician there and advance her tuition for a music program; Nowak wrote that he was "investigating how to help her," their schedules did not overlap, and Epstein reimbursed her. Nowak told the *Globe* he never met her and does not recall her. Epstein introduced Nowak to the artist in 2018. In spring 2019, while the *[[Miami Herald]]* series was prompting renewed scrutiny, Nowak sent Epstein photographs of her with her artwork and wrote that she was working on her "master piece"; when Epstein paid for her to travel to New York, he texted her, "I understand you are going to see martin?" She replied, "Martin sayed [sic] that I can come to see him in Boston." Nowak and the artist, through her lawyer, said the visit did not happen; her lawyer said their contact, several emails and one call at Nowak's prompting, which she believes came at Epstein's suggestion, was not sexual. Nowak said he did not know she was being exploited and believed he was "merely supporting her career."[^16]
In May 2019 Nowak asked Epstein's assistant to remove all references to his lab from Epstein's website: "The sooner the better please. . . . Things are getting very strange here."[^15]
In May 2019 Nowak asked Epstein's assistant to remove all references to his lab from Epstein's website: "The sooner the better please. . . . Things are getting very strange here."[^16]
### The Bequest
Epstein's will, dated August 8, 2019, two days before his death, left Nowak 5 million dollars. Nowak said the bequest "came as a surprise" and that he has received no payment. In February 2026 he told the *Globe*: "I had no knowledge of his crimes. I was urged to cultivate Mr. Epstein to continue his financial support of academic endeavors." The *Globe* sent Harvard its questions on February 24, 2026; the next day Harvard announced that Summers had resigned and placed Nowak on leave.[^15][^21]
Epstein's will, dated August 8, 2019, two days before his death, left Nowak 5 million dollars. Nowak said the bequest "came as a surprise" and that he has received no payment. In February 2026 he told the *Globe*: "I had no knowledge of his crimes. I was urged to cultivate Mr. Epstein to continue his financial support of academic endeavors." The *Globe* sent Harvard its questions on February 24, 2026; the next day Harvard announced that Summers had resigned and placed Nowak on leave.[^16][^22]
### Footnotes
@ -112,18 +112,19 @@ Epstein's will, dated August 8, 2019, two days before his death, left Nowak 5 mi
[^4]: Nowak, Martin A. "Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation," *Science* 314, no. 5805 (2006): 1560-1563, on kin selection, direct and indirect reciprocity, network reciprocity, and group selection. https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1133755
[^5]: Nowak, Martin A., Corina E. Tarnita, and Edward O. Wilson. "The Evolution of Eusociality," *Nature* 466 (2010): 1057-1062, the paper that drew a rebuttal signed by more than 130 biologists.
[^6]: "Why did Jeffrey Epstein cultivate famous scientists?," *Scientific American,* 2019, on the establishment of PED under Summers and Epstein's account to Vanity Fair. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-did-jeffrey-epstein-cultivate-famous-scientists/
[^7]: "Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University," Harvard University Office of the General Counsel, May 2020, on the donation totals, the establishment of PED, and the gift policy. https://ogc.harvard.edu/files/ogc/files/report_concerning_jeffrey_e._epsteins_connections_to_harvard_university.pdf
[^7]: "Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University," Harvard University Office of the General Counsel, May 2020, on the donation totals, the establishment of PED, and the gift policy. https://ogc.harvard.edu/file_url/208
[^8]: "Martin Nowak Sanctioned for Jeffrey Epstein Involvement," *Harvard Magazine,* March 2021, on the policy violations, the website descriptions, and the terms of the sanctions. https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2021/03/martin-nowak-sanctioned-for-jeffrey-epstein-involvement
[^9]: Lopez, Diane E., Ara B. Gershengorn, and Martin F. Murphy. *Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University.* Harvard OGC and Foley Hoag LLP, May 2020, pp. 5, 10-17, 26-27, on Nowak's prior support at the Institute for Advanced Study, his understanding of Faust's decision, the 2010 and 2014 emails, the Black and Falconwood gifts, his Templeton advisory role, and the false-information finding. https://ogc.harvard.edu/files/ogc/files/report_concerning_jeffrey_e._epsteins_connections_to_harvard_university.pdf ; mirror: https://archive.org/download/epstein-docs_20240108/1.%20Harvard%20Epstein%20Report.pdf
[^10]: "Harvard Places Math Professor Martin Nowak on Paid Administrative Leave Over Epstein Ties," *The Harvard Crimson,* February 25, 2026, on the 2023 restoration and the renewed leave. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2026/2/25/nowak-leave-epstein/
[^11]: "Martin Nowak Placed on Leave a Second Time," *Harvard Magazine,* February 2026, on the Nature reporting, the page-proof advice on the eusociality paper, the 2014 island travel, and the second leave announced February 27, 2026. https://www.harvardmagazine.com/university-news/martin-nowak-harvard-administrative-leave-epstein
[^12]: "Professor Corina Tarnita on the Epstein Files: 'I Wish I Had Never Known Him'," *Princeton Alumni Weekly,* 2026, on the March 10, 2014 "spy"/"torture" email exchange, Nowak's Civilization II explanation, and Tarnita's account of the scholarships. https://paw.princeton.edu/article/professor-corina-tarnita-epstein-files-i-wish-i-had-never-known-him
[^13]: Fernandes, Deirdre, and Tricia L. Nadolny. "Introductions to women. Free flights. Business deals," *The Boston Globe,* February 25, 2026, on Epstein's payment for premium travel and two nights' stay for Nowak and a guest; see also "Did you torture her?: Emails of Jeffrey Epstein and Martin Nowak reveal shocking details," *WION,* February 2026. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2026/02/25/metro/jeffrey-epstein-harvard-spotlight-report/
[^14]: "Harvard Professor Martin Nowak Resigns From Austrian Academy Amid Epstein Scrutiny," *The Harvard Crimson,* April 2, 2026, on Nowak's resignation from the Austrian Academy of Sciences. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2026/4/2/nowak-austrian-academy-resignation/
[^15]: Fernandes, Deirdre, and Tricia L. Nadolny. "Introductions to women. Free flights. Business deals. Jeffrey Epstein's ties to Harvard run deeper than previously known," *The Boston Globe,* February 25, 2026, on the late-1990s origins, the apartments and car, the Maxwell messages, the 2004 dinner photograph, the 2009 visit, the Newsweek references, the lab administrator, Tarnita, Hoffman, the island travel, the January 2014 introduction, the musician and the artist, the May 2019 email, the bequest, and Nowak's statements. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2026/02/25/metro/jeffrey-epstein-harvard-spotlight-report/
[^16]: Aldhous, Peter. "Jeffrey Epstein Called Himself A 'Science Philanthropist' And Donated Millions To These Researchers," *BuzzFeed News,* July 11, 2019, quoting the 2002 *New York* magazine profile. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/peteraldhous/jeffrey-epstein-sex-trafficking-science-donations
[^17]: Aldhous, Peter. "Jeffrey Epstein's Links To Scientists Are Even More Extensive Than We Thought," *BuzzFeed News,* August 27, 2019, on Nowak's statement, the *SuperCooperators* and journal acknowledgments, and the 2012 lunch at his institute. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/peteraldhous/jeffrey-epstein-science-donations-apologies-statements
[^18]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00842252, DataSet 9, email from Jeffrey Epstein to Noam Chomsky, Martin Nowak and Danny Hillis, October 28, 2015. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00842252.pdf
[^19]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00838191, DataSet 9, email from Jeffrey Epstein to Noam Chomsky and Martin Nowak, December 23, 2015. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00838191.pdf
[^20]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00439714, DataSet 9, email chain among Lesley Groff, Joichi Ito, the MIT Media Lab director's office and DP World staff, "Re: Jeffrey Epstein," November 29, 2016. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00439714.pdf
[^21]: Owermohle, Sarah, and Austin Culpepper. "How Epstein enlisted Harvard scientists to burnish his reputation, and try to make a profit," *CNN,* February 19, 2026, on the island photograph and the will dated August 8, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2026/02/19/politics/harvard-epstein-donations-influence-exclusive
[^9]: "FAS Places Prof. Nowak On Leave After Report Finds Epstein Used His Program to Rehabilitate Image," *The Harvard Crimson*, May 2, 2020. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2020/5/2/epstein-review-nowak-leave/
[^10]: Lopez, Diane E., Ara B. Gershengorn, and Martin F. Murphy. *Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University.* Harvard OGC and Foley Hoag LLP, May 2020, pp. 5, 10-17, 26-27, on Nowak's prior support at the Institute for Advanced Study, his understanding of Faust's decision, the 2010 and 2014 emails, the Black and Falconwood gifts, his Templeton advisory role, and the false-information finding. https://ogc.harvard.edu/file_url/208 ; also at https://archive.org/download/epstein-docs_20240108/1.%20Harvard%20Epstein%20Report.pdf
[^11]: "Harvard Places Math Professor Martin Nowak on Paid Administrative Leave Over Epstein Ties," *The Harvard Crimson,* February 25, 2026, on the 2023 restoration and the renewed leave. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2026/2/25/nowak-leave-epstein/
[^12]: "Martin Nowak Placed on Leave a Second Time," *Harvard Magazine,* February 2026, on the Nature reporting, the page-proof advice on the eusociality paper, the 2014 island travel, and the second leave announced February 27, 2026. https://www.harvardmagazine.com/university-news/martin-nowak-harvard-administrative-leave-epstein
[^13]: "Professor Corina Tarnita on the Epstein Files: 'I Wish I Had Never Known Him'," *Princeton Alumni Weekly,* 2026, on the March 10, 2014 "spy"/"torture" email exchange, Nowak's Civilization II explanation, and Tarnita's account of the scholarships. https://paw.princeton.edu/article/professor-corina-tarnita-epstein-files-i-wish-i-had-never-known-him
[^14]: Fernandes, Deirdre, and Tricia L. Nadolny. "Introductions to women. Free flights. Business deals," *The Boston Globe,* February 25, 2026, on Epstein's payment for premium travel and two nights' stay for Nowak and a guest; see also "Did you torture her?: Emails of Jeffrey Epstein and Martin Nowak reveal shocking details," *WION,* February 2026. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2026/02/25/metro/jeffrey-epstein-harvard-spotlight-report/
[^15]: "Harvard Professor Martin Nowak Resigns From Austrian Academy Amid Epstein Scrutiny," *The Harvard Crimson,* April 2, 2026, on Nowak's resignation from the Austrian Academy of Sciences. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2026/4/2/nowak-austrian-academy-resignation/
[^16]: Fernandes, Deirdre, and Tricia L. Nadolny. "Introductions to women. Free flights. Business deals. Jeffrey Epstein's ties to Harvard run deeper than previously known," *The Boston Globe,* February 25, 2026, on the late-1990s origins, the apartments and car, the Maxwell messages, the 2004 dinner photograph, the 2009 visit, the Newsweek references, the lab administrator, Tarnita, Hoffman, the island travel, the January 2014 introduction, the musician and the artist, the May 2019 email, the bequest, and Nowak's statements. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2026/02/25/metro/jeffrey-epstein-harvard-spotlight-report/
[^17]: Aldhous, Peter. "Jeffrey Epstein Called Himself A 'Science Philanthropist' And Donated Millions To These Researchers," *BuzzFeed News,* July 11, 2019, quoting the 2002 *New York* magazine profile. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/peteraldhous/jeffrey-epstein-sex-trafficking-science-donations
[^18]: Aldhous, Peter. "Jeffrey Epstein's Links To Scientists Are Even More Extensive Than We Thought," *BuzzFeed News,* August 27, 2019, on Nowak's statement, the *SuperCooperators* and journal acknowledgments, and the 2012 lunch at his institute. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/peteraldhous/jeffrey-epstein-science-donations-apologies-statements
[^19]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00842252, DataSet 9, email from Jeffrey Epstein to Noam Chomsky, Martin Nowak and Danny Hillis, October 28, 2015. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00842252.pdf
[^20]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00838191, DataSet 9, email from Jeffrey Epstein to Noam Chomsky and Martin Nowak, December 23, 2015. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00838191.pdf
[^21]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00439714, DataSet 9, email chain among Lesley Groff, Joichi Ito, the MIT Media Lab director's office and DP World staff, "Re: Jeffrey Epstein," November 29, 2016. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00439714.pdf
[^22]: Owermohle, Sarah, and Austin Culpepper. "How Epstein enlisted Harvard scientists to burnish his reputation, and try to make a profit," *CNN,* February 19, 2026, on the island photograph and the will dated August 8, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2026/02/19/politics/harvard-epstein-donations-influence-exclusive

15
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Marvin Shoob.md
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@ -23,16 +23,21 @@ Marvin Herman Shoob (February 23, 1923 to June 12, 2017) was a judge of the [[Un
### The BNL Case
The indictment of [[Christopher Drogoul]], manager of the [[Atlanta]] branch of the [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]], for lending some five billion dollars to [[Iraq]] without the knowledge of his superiors, came before Shoob in 1991. Drogoul pleaded guilty to 60 counts in June 1992. At the sentencing hearing that September he testified that the branch had been "a tool of the U.S. and Italian governments." On September 14 Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] announced that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] had told his committee it had good evidence that the bank's officers in [[Rome]] knew of the lending, contrary to what its general counsel had told the prosecutors. On October 1, 1992, Shoob allowed Drogoul to withdraw the plea and removed himself from the case, recording his conclusion "that officials at BNL-Rome were aware of and approved Mr. Drogoul's activities." He called Drogoul and his Atlanta colleagues "pawns and bit-players in a far more wide-ranging conspiracy."[^2][^3]
The indictment of [[Christopher Drogoul]], manager of the [[Atlanta]] branch of the [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]], for lending some five billion dollars to [[Iraq]] without the knowledge of his superiors, came before Shoob in 1991. Drogoul pleaded guilty to 60 counts in June 1992. At the sentencing hearing that September he testified that the branch had been "a tool of the U.S. and Italian governments." On September 14 Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] announced that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] had told his committee it had good evidence that the bank's officers in [[Rome]] knew of the lending, contrary to what its general counsel had told the prosecutors. On October 1, 1992, Shoob allowed Drogoul to withdraw the plea and removed himself from the case, recording his conclusion "that officials at BNL-Rome were aware of and approved Mr. Drogoul's activities." He called Drogoul and his Atlanta colleagues "pawns and bit-players in a far more wide-ranging conspiracy."[^2][^3] In the written order dated October 5, 1992 (the plea withdrawal and recusal were announced orally on October 1), Shoob wrote: "The Court concludes that officials at BNL-Rome were aware of and approved Mr. Drogoul's activities. At the very least, BNL-Rome chose to ignore what were obvious signs of Mr. Drogoul's extraordinary relationship with Iraq and his unusual lending practices." The order also recorded that Drogoul "testified only that his superiors should have known."[^4]
Drogoul's public defender, [[Sheila Tyler]], told the court: "It is clear to me that my client was merely a small fish in a larger operation." Shoob said to Drogoul in open court: "I don't believe for a minute that you were able to do all of this on your own." "You're right," Drogoul answered. "I do not want to be in a position where I have to sentence Mr. Drogoul, where he takes the fall when there are other people involved who are equally culpable," the judge said. "A special prosecutor ought to get into this entire matter." During the hearings a federal marshal came to his chambers concerned for the prisoner's safety. Shoob asked who might threaten him. "Would you believe the CIA?" the marshal said. The judge said he would not. That night the Shoobs slept with their floodlights on. Their house had been vandalized in the early 1980s after he ordered the release of Cuban detainees from the [[Mariel boatlift]], when Attorney General [[Edwin Meese]] told him "we think it would be a good idea to just put them all on C-5 cargo aircraft and drop them over [[Cuba]] with parachutes."[^4]
On September 23, 1992, at the sentencing hearing, Shoob asked to see the intelligence underlying the Gonzalez summary of CIA reporting. Gerrilyn Brill, the acting United States attorney in Atlanta, offered to discuss the material with him ex parte; Shoob declined and asked that the documents be brought to his chambers. He took them home intending to read them and read one that evening, concluding that the report did not support the analytical comment in the Gonzalez summary.[^5]
Attorney General [[William Barr]] declined to seek an independent counsel and named a retired judge, [[Frederick Lacey]], who reported after 54 days: "I find Judge Shoob's specific charges against the USAO to be inaccurate." A second [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] review, the Hogan report of August 1993, found that an officer of the bank in Rome might have known of the lending but that the evidence would not support a prosecution. Officials of the CIA said that the head of the department's fraud section, [[Lawrence Urgenson]], had urged the agency to withhold information on Drogoul, which Urgenson denied. Drogoul pleaded guilty to three counts before another judge in September 1993.[^3][^5]
Drogoul's public defender, [[Sheila Tyler]], told the court: "It is clear to me that my client was merely a small fish in a larger operation." Shoob said to Drogoul in open court: "I don't believe for a minute that you were able to do all of this on your own." "You're right," Drogoul answered. "I do not want to be in a position where I have to sentence Mr. Drogoul, where he takes the fall when there are other people involved who are equally culpable," the judge said. "A special prosecutor ought to get into this entire matter." During the hearings a federal marshal came to his chambers concerned for the prisoner's safety. Shoob asked who might threaten him. "Would you believe the CIA?" the marshal said. The judge said he would not. That night the Shoobs slept with their floodlights on. Their house had been vandalized in the early 1980s after he ordered the release of Cuban detainees from the [[Mariel boatlift]], when Attorney General [[Edwin Meese]] told him "we think it would be a good idea to just put them all on C-5 cargo aircraft and drop them over [[Cuba]] with parachutes."[^6]
Attorney General [[William Barr]] declined to seek an independent counsel and named a retired judge, [[Frederick Lacey]], who reported after 54 days: "I find Judge Shoob's specific charges against the USAO, and his concern about the interference of other agencies, to be inaccurate."[^7] A second [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] review, the Hogan report of August 1993, found that an officer of the bank in Rome might have known of the lending but that the evidence would not support a prosecution. Officials of the CIA said that the head of the department's fraud section, [[Lawrence Urgenson]], had urged the agency to withhold information on Drogoul, which Urgenson denied. Drogoul pleaded guilty to three counts before another judge in September 1993.[^3][^8]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Federal Judicial Center, *Biographical Directory of Federal Judges,* "Shoob, Marvin Herman"; obituary, *The Atlanta Journal-Constitution,* June 2017.
[^2]: United States v. Drogoul, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993); Gonzalez, Henry B. "Update on BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record,* House, January 21, 1993.
[^3]: "Justice probe finds no 'Iraqgate' conspiracy," Associated Press, in the *San Francisco Chronicle* archive. https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/justice-probe-finds-no-iraqgate-conspiracy-3160242.php
[^4]: Friedman, Alan. *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq*. Bantam, 1993, pp. 228-231.
[^5]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95.
[^4]: Order of Judge Marvin H. Shoob, dated October 5, 1992 (the text refers to the October 1 oral ruling), United States v. Drogoul, printed in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95 (1994), pp. 205-206. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^5]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair,* Committee Print S. Prt. 103-12, February 1993, p. 24. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf
[^6]: Friedman, Alan. *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq*. Bantam, 1993, pp. 228-231.
[^7]: Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, p. 473. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^8]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95.

7
10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Frank Wisner.md
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@ -40,13 +40,15 @@ Political action: In Italy and France, the OPC organized substantial programs to
In 1950 Wisner approved a 50,000-dollar project for a Berlin conference of non-Communist intellectuals, the event that became the [[Congress for Cultural Freedom]]. The project outline, which essentially reiterated a December proposal by [[Michael Josselson]], was approved on April 7, 1950 on the condition, in Wisner's words, "that Lasky would not be permitted to figure publicly in this operation": he wanted the project's initiator, the former Army historian [[Melvin J. Lasky|Melvin Lasky]], and [[James Burnham]] kept out of sight in Berlin.[^2] Josselson defended Lasky when the request reached him, cabling that "No other person here, certainly no German, could have achieved such success."[^3] On August 4, 1950 a memorandum from Louis Glaser to Frank Lindsay recorded Lasky's activities in connection with the congress under the project name PDQUICK.[^4] On August 8, 1950 Wisner wrote to C. D. G. Breckinridge that he remained "very disturbed" at the non-observance of his April memorandum, called Lasky's conduct "a major blunder," and stated: "unless means can be found to sanitize this operation by the removal of Lasky, Burnham and other persons of known or traceable official significance from overt roles in the proposed continuing organization, then I am unwilling to have OPC continue its backing." A postscript recorded that General Magruder had shown a report on the congress to Secretary Johnson, who showed it to the President, "who expressed himself as being very well pleased."[^5] The CIA history states that Burnham was happy to step aside, that Wisner described Lasky's visibility as "a major blunder," recognized as such "by our best friends in the Department of State," and that "Lasky had to go, and OPC contrived to have him removed from the project and canceled his operational clearance." The steering committee made the congress a permanent body on November 27, 1950.[^6]
The minutes of the CIA Deputies' Meeting of July 21, 1952 record Wisner as having "Noted that we were prepared to talk to Mr. Luce's representative any time he came to Washington and that we had sufficient material on hand which would allow TIME and/or LIFE to publish an exclusive story on the Duclos affair over and above the information already made public." In response to a query from the Director, [[Walter Bedell Smith]], on authenticity, Wisner stated that "(1) we were 90% positive that the information in question was authentic; (2) he would, however, pass this along to the TIME and/or LIFE representative; (3) we now have in our possession a photostat copy of Duclos' diary which was written in longhand; (4) he believed we were on safe ground in our '90% estimate' since the Communists had already vociferously decried publicity given so far to the Duclos papers."[^7]
### Hungary and Breakdown
The Hungarian Revolution of October-November 1956 was the defining catastrophe of Wisner's career. Radio Free Europe, which the OPC had established and which operated under CIA direction, had broadcast material encouraging Hungarian resistance with language that could reasonably have been interpreted as implying the United States would provide military support if Hungarians revolted. When Soviet tanks crushed the revolution in November 1956, the United States did not intervene.
Wisner had traveled to Europe to observe the situation and was in Budapest as the uprising was crushed. The experience - watching Soviet armor destroy a popular uprising that American broadcasts had encouraged while the United States did nothing - produced a psychological breakdown from which he never fully recovered. He was diagnosed with manic-depressive illness (bipolar disorder) and hospitalized. He returned to the CIA but never regained his operational authority.
He was assigned as London station chief in 1959, a posting that reflected his diminished status within the agency hierarchy. He resigned in 1962.[^7]
He was assigned as London station chief in 1959, a posting that reflected his diminished status within the agency hierarchy. He resigned in 1962.[^8]
### Death
@ -62,4 +64,5 @@ Evan Thomas's 1995 account *The Very Best Men* placed Wisner alongside [[Richard
[^4]: Louis Glaser to Frank Lindsay, "Activities of Mr. Melvin Lasky in connection with Congress for Cultural Freedom (Project PDQUICK)," August 4, 1950, Political and Psychological Staff Job 78-016R, box 1, folder 4, as cited in ISCAP 2014-090, Doc. 1, pt. 3.
[^5]: Memorandum for Mr. Breckinridge, "Berlin Congress for Cultural Freedom; activities of Melvin Lasky," signed F.G.W., August 8, 1950, with postscript, CIA reading room copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001318530
[^6]: ISCAP 2014-090, Doc. 1, pt. 3 of 12 (Burnham stepping aside, the August memorandum, "Lasky had to go," the November 27, 1950 establishment of the congress). https://www.archives.gov/files/declassification/iscap/pdf/2014-090-doc-1-part-3.pdf
[^7]: Thomas, Evan. *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA.* Simon & Schuster, 1995. Pisani, Sallie. *The CIA and the Marshall Plan.* University Press of Kansas, 1991.
[^7]: Central Intelligence Agency, Deputies' Meeting, July 21, 1952, p. 1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/1952-07-21.pdf
[^8]: Thomas, Evan. *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA.* Simon & Schuster, 1995. Pisani, Sallie. *The CIA and the Marshall Plan.* University Press of Kansas, 1991.

187
10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Harry S. Truman.md
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@ -1,25 +1,198 @@
---
aliases:
- Harry Truman
- Harry S Truman
- President Truman
category: "Political Figure"
tags:
- Person
- Politician
- President
- Israel
summary: "33rd U.S. President who declined Israeli military offers during the Korean War, reportedly fearing a binding security arrangement with Israel."
- Pendergast
- NationalSecurityAct
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
- PsychologicalStrategyBoard
- OperationPaperclip
- KoreanWar
- CampaignOfTruth
- ColdWar
- UAP
born: 1884-05-08
died: 1972-12-26
summary: "33rd U.S. President who recognized Israel on May 14, 1948, approved the National Security Act of 1947 that created the Central Intelligence Agency, and relieved General Douglas MacArthur in April 1951."
location: "Lamar, Missouri"
created: 2026-05-27
updated: 2026-10-12
relations:
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Eddie Jacobson]]"
start: 1919
role: "haberdashery partner, Kansas City"
fn: 5
- type: founded
with: "[[Central Intelligence Group]]"
start: 1946-01-22
fn: 17
- type: appointed
with: "[[Sidney W. Souers]]"
start: 1946-01
role: "first Director of Central Intelligence"
fn: 18
- type: appointed
with: "[[Hoyt Vandenberg]]"
start: 1946
role: "Director of Central Intelligence"
fn: 19
- type: founded
with: "[[Psychological Strategy Board]]"
start: 1951-04-04
fn: 22
- type: founded
with: "[[NSA]]"
start: 1952-10-24
role: "memorandum on communications intelligence; NSA established November 4, 1952"
fn: 36
- type: appointed
with: "[[Matthew B. Ridgway]]"
start: 1951-04-11
role: "successor to Douglas MacArthur as Far East commander"
fn: 29
---
Harry S. Truman was the 33rd President of the [[United States]], serving from 1945 to 1953. He declined [[David Ben-Gurion]]'s offer to send Israeli troops to fight alongside [[United Nations]] forces in South Korea, reportedly fearing it would back him into a security arrangement with [[Israel]].[^1]
Harry S. Truman was the 33rd President of the [[United States]], serving from 1945 to 1953. He entered public office in [[Jackson County, Missouri|Jackson County]], as a candidate of the [[Thomas Pendergast|Pendergast]] machine in Kansas City. His administration approved the [[National Security Act of 1947]], which created the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], established the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] and the [[NSA|National Security Agency]], and recognized [[Israel]].[^1]
### Sarnoff committee and the Campaign of Truth, 1950
### Pendergast machine and the Jackson County court
On March 1, 1950 Truman wrote to Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] after a conversation with [[David Sarnoff]], chairman of the Radio Corporation of America, who had suggested a committee to examine the [[Voice of America]]. Truman asked Acheson to consider the proposal, adding "I wish you would consider that, and we will discuss it when you come over tomorrow."[^2] Barrett's memorandum of March 6 proposed a new high-level committee of Sarnoff and others to look for added means of getting the truth behind the Iron Curtain, and said that the committee should not confine itself to radio.[^2] Barrett later claimed that he had helped Truman prepare the Campaign of Truth speech of April 20, 1950, partly with reference to the conclusions of the April 1950 symposium. In that speech Truman framed the Cold War as "a struggle, above all else, for the minds of men."[^3]
In 1922 Truman won election as eastern Jackson County judge as a candidate of the Pendergast faction of the Democratic party. He lost his reelection bid in 1924. In 1926 he won the presiding judgeship, a post he held for eight years, dividing his time between the county courthouses in [[Independence, Missouri|Independence]] and [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]].[^1]
Pendergast was found guilty of income tax evasion in 1939. The court commitment record in his [[Leavenworth Penitentiary|Leavenworth]] inmate file (No. 55295) is dated May 29, 1939 and records a sentence of 15 months and an early release in May 1940.[^2] [[Otto P. Higgins]], the former director of the Kansas City Police Department, entered a plea of guilty to counts 3 and 4 of an income tax indictment and was sentenced to two years at Leavenworth on count 3 and five years probation on count 4.[^3]
In the Democratic primary of August 1946 for Missouri's Fifth Congressional District, Truman backed [[Enos Axtell]] against the incumbent [[Roger C. Slaughter]], a critic of the administration. A [[Tampa Daily Times]] article of July 17, 1947, inserted in the Congressional Record, reported that Truman entered the campaign personally, that the revived Pendergast machine lined up behind Axtell, that four Kansas City wards gave Axtell 12,104 votes to 2,072 for Slaughter, that a grand jury indicted 71 persons for election irregularities and stated that Slaughter was deprived of the nomination by a fraudulent miscount of votes and other types of fraud, and that the vault holding the ballots was blown open on May 28 and the ballots removed. The same insertion quoted Senator [[James P. Kem]] of Missouri as charging that Attorney General [[Tom C. Clark]] "limited the scope of the (original FBI) inquiry to a field in which no evidence of conspiracy could be detected, and then closed the files because no evidence of conspiracy was found," and recorded that Clark had written Kem on January 27 that the FBI had "conducted a full investigation into the charges of fraud in this primary."[^4]
### Eddie Jacobson and the recognition of Israel
Truman's friendship with [[Eddie Jacobson]] began in Kansas City when both were young men. The two served together in the 129th Field Artillery during [[World War I]] and ran the regimental canteen at [[Camp Doniphan]] in [[Oklahoma]]. After returning from Europe following the Armistice, they decided to go into business together, and opened a haberdashery in Kansas City under the name Truman & Jacobson. The business failed. The Truman Library's finding aid to Jacobson's papers describes the friendship as surviving the failure and continuing through the 1930s and 1940s, and records that Truman once wrote that Jacobson was "as fine a man as ever walked."[^5]
The papers describe Jacobson as a Kansas City haberdasher who lobbied the President to support a Jewish homeland in [[Palestine]] as a refuge for survivors of the Nazi Holocaust in Europe.[^6] A handwritten chronology in his personal file describes his role in events surrounding the recognition of Israel. Jacobson visited the new state in 1949.[^7] [[A. J. Granoff]], a Kansas City lawyer, worked with Jacobson in the effort to persuade Truman to support the partition of Palestine and to recognize Israel. The Truman Library holds an oral history interview with Granoff, conducted in 1969.[^8]
On May 14, 1948 Truman issued a statement on recognition. It reads in full: "THIS GOVERNMENT has been informed that a Jewish state has been proclaimed in Palestine, and recognition has been requested by the provisional government thereof. The United States recognizes the provisional government as the de facto authority of the new State of Israel."[^9] The Library's online recognition collection covers documents from 1943 through 1974. It includes a January 31, 1949 item filed under the [[Department of State]] file Palestine, Israel - Jewish State, 1948-1949, OF 204-D.[^10]
[[Abraham Feinberg]], a business executive and philanthropist, is described in the Truman Library's catalogue of his 1973 oral history interview as active in immigration to Palestine and in the creation of the State of Israel, 1945 to 1948, and as a friend of the President. The interview was conducted by [[Richard D. McKinzie]] on August 23, 1973.[^11]
[[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that [[David Ben-Gurion]] secretly offered to send Israeli troops to fight alongside [[United Nations]] forces in [[South Korea]], and that Truman declined the offer, reportedly fearing it would back him into a security arrangement with Israel.[^12] A State Department telegram of December 8, 1951 to the embassy in France reported that the Israeli ambassador [[Abba Eban]], calling on [[John D. Hickerson]] of the State Department on December 6, referred to the representations of the American ambassador, Davis, to the Israeli foreign office on a possible offer of troops for Korea, listed Israel's difficulties (hostile surrounding Arab states, delicate relations with the [[Soviet Union]], and the economic cost of sustaining such a contingent) and said Israel had not decided whether to make an offer. The telegram added that [[Teddy Kollek]], counselor at the Israeli embassy, had indicated informally on December 5 that Ben-Gurion was disposed to consider an offer of troops providing a number of other countries also offered troops and the United Nations made a public appeal, and that Hickerson told Eban that troops were definitely needed for a long time to come and that the Department hoped other countries would contribute.[^13]
### Office of Strategic Services, Central Intelligence Group and the Directors of Central Intelligence
On September 19, 1945 the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] asked the Secretaries of War and the Navy to forward to the President a memorandum on the establishment of a central intelligence service upon the liquidation of the [[Office of Strategic Services]].[^14] Truman's Executive Order 9621 of September 20, 1945 transferred the functions of the Research and Analysis Branch and the Presentation Branch of the OSS to an [[Interim Research and Intelligence Service]] in the Department of State, to be abolished at the close of business December 31, 1945. All other OSS functions, personnel, records and funds went to the Department of War, and the Office, including the Office of the Director of Strategic Services, was terminated. The order took effect October 1, 1945.[^15] A Bureau of the Budget memorandum to Truman of October 31, 1945 described the readjustment of the Government's intelligence activities to a post-war basis.[^16]
On January 22, 1946 Truman addressed a directive to the Secretaries of State, War and the Navy designating them, with a personal representative of the President, as the [[National Intelligence Authority]]. Under it the departments assigned persons and facilities to form a [[Central Intelligence Group]] under a [[Director of Central Intelligence]], who was to be designated by the President, to be responsible to the Authority and to sit as a non-voting member. Paragraph 4 reads: "No police, law enforcement or internal security functions shall be exercised under this directive."[^17]
[[Sidney W. Souers]], the first Director of Central Intelligence, wrote Truman on April 17, 1946 that a three million dollar item in the Federal Bureau of Investigation appropriation had been eliminated because the congressional committee believed it did not meet the President's desire that the FBI not engage in activities beyond the continental limits.[^18] [[Hoyt Vandenberg]] was Director by July 3, 1946, when he wrote to [[J. Edgar Hoover]] on cooperation; on August 12, 1946 Truman's chief of staff [[William D. Leahy]] sent Vandenberg a memorandum on relieving FBI agents then serving in Latin America, recording that the Attorney General wished the provision of replacements expedited and that the President wished the Group to comply.[^19]
Truman approved the National Security Act of 1947 on July 26, 1947, as Public Law 80-253. Section 101 established the [[National Security Council]]. Section 102 established the Central Intelligence Agency under the council, headed by a Director of Central Intelligence.[^20]
On December 17, 1947 the National Security Council issued NSC 4-A, directing the Director of Central Intelligence, then [[Roscoe Hillenkoetter]], to conduct covert psychological operations within available funds against Soviet and Soviet-inspired activities.[^21]
### Psychological Strategy Board
On April 4, 1951 Truman addressed a directive to the Secretaries of State and Defense and to the Director of Central Intelligence establishing the Psychological Strategy Board. The directive's stated goal was "more effective" planning, coordination and conduct of psychological operations within approved national policies. [[Gordon Gray]] served as the board's first director.[^22]
### Campaign of Truth, 1950
On March 1, 1950 Truman wrote to [[Dean Acheson]] after a conversation with [[David Sarnoff]], chairman of the [[Radio Corporation of America]], who had suggested a committee to examine the [[Voice of America]]. Truman asked Acheson to consider the proposal: "I wish you would consider that, and we will discuss it when you come over tomorrow."[^23]
On March 6 [[Edward W. Barrett]] proposed "a new high-level committee of Sarnoff, etc., to look for added means of getting the truth behind the Iron Curtain." His memorandum added that the committee "would not confine itself to radio but would look into such proposals as the hardy perennial of utilizing balloons to drop leaflets."[^24] [[Daniel Bessner]] wrote that Barrett later claimed to have helped Truman prepare the speech of April 20, 1950 that became known as the Campaign of Truth, drawing in part on the conclusions of an April 1950 symposium.[^25]
In the April 20 address to the [[American Society of Newspaper Editors]], Truman described the challenge posed by "imperialistic communism" as "a struggle, above all else, for the minds of men." He called for "a great campaign of truth" to make the United States heard around the world.[^26]
### Point Four and NSC 68
In his inaugural address of January 20, 1949 Truman set out as his fourth point: "we must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas." The program became known as [[Point Four Program|Point Four]].[^27]
On January 31, 1950 Truman directed the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense to undertake a reexamination of the objectives of the United States in peace and war and their effect on strategic plans, in light of the probable fission bomb capability and possible thermonuclear bomb capability of the Soviet Union. The resulting report to the President, dated April 7, 1950, was transmitted to the National Security Council on April 14, 1950 as [[NSC-68]], with a covering letter from Truman stating his desire that no publicity be given to the report or its contents without his approval.[^28]
### Korean War and the relief of MacArthur
On April 11, 1951 Truman relieved General [[Douglas MacArthur]] of his commands in the Far East. The statement issued with the order read in part: "With deep regret I have concluded that General of the Army Douglas MacArthur is unable to give his wholehearted support to the policies of the United States Government and of the United Nations in matters pertaining to his official duties."[^29] The order named [[Matthew B. Ridgway]] as his successor: "You will turn over your commands, effective at once, to Lt. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway."[^29]
The White House released the same day a Presidential memorandum dated December 5, 1950, transmitted to MacArthur by a Joint Chiefs message of December 6. The memorandum directed that no speech, press release or other public statement concerning foreign or military policy be released until cleared by the [[State Department]] or the [[Department of Defense]]. A Joint Chiefs message of March 20, 1951, also released that day, told MacArthur that the President was about to announce that the United Nations was prepared to discuss conditions of settlement in Korea.[^29]
### Hiroshima and the Soviet test
On August 6, 1945 Truman's statement opened: "SIXTEEN HOURS AGO an American airplane dropped one bomb on Hiroshima, an important Japanese Army base." It described the atomic bomb as "a harnessing of the basic power of the universe."[^30] On September 23, 1949 he announced: "We have evidence that within recent weeks an atomic explosion occurred in the U.S.S.R."[^31]
### Operation Paperclip
On August 30, 1946 Acting Secretary of State Acheson sent Truman a memorandum, "Interim Exploitation of German and Austrian Specialists in the United States," presenting a statement of policy on the exploitation of selected German and Austrian specialists. It stated that since shortly after V-E Day the War Department had operated a project known as "Paperclip," under which selected German scientists had been brought to the United States under military custody, and that the statement provided for expanding Paperclip to include up to 1,000 specialists. It stated: "The War Department would be responsible for custody and for excluding from the program persons with Nazi or militaristic records." Truman initialed the memorandum with the notation "approved 9/3/46."[^32] A War Department memorandum to the President dated September 4, 1946 urged approval of the policy, citing contracts of specialists already in the United States that were expiring that month.[^33]
The set of Truman Library documents released in 2009 also includes the screening terms of [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee|SWNCC]] 257/22, Appendix B, under which German specialists were to be brought to the United States. The commanding general of the [[United States Forces European Theater]] was to screen candidates on the basis of available records. A person found to have been a member of the [[Nazi Party]] and more than a nominal participant in its activities, or an active supporter of Nazism or militarism, could not be brought over under the terms. Position or honors awarded under the Nazi regime solely on account of scientific or technical ability did not by themselves disqualify a specialist. In doubtful cases the commanding general could transport the specialist to the United States for further interrogation and screening.[^34]
[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote in 2014 that the [[Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency]] altered the records of scientists whose backgrounds disqualified them, including Nazi Party or SS membership and wartime conduct, before the State Department and other agencies reviewed them for clearance. Jacobsen also wrote that Truman's initial directive barred the recruitment of ardent Nazis.[^35]
### National Security Agency
On October 24, 1952 Truman sent a memorandum to the Secretaries of State and Defense under the subject "Communications Intelligence Activities."[^36] It designated the two secretaries as a special committee of the National Security Council for communications intelligence, and designated the Department of Defense as executive agent of the government for producing communications intelligence information. It replaced the provisions of National Security Council Intelligence Directive No. 9 on the composition, responsibilities and procedures of the [[United States Communications Intelligence Board]] and reconstituted the board as a body acting for the special committee. The board's membership included the Director of the National Security Agency and a representative of the Central Intelligence Agency.[^36] The National Security Archive's index to the memorandum states that it, together with a Department of Defense directive, established NSA and that a revised NSCID 9 implementing it is dated December 29, 1952.[^37] The National Security Agency's history of its origins states that the President and the National Security Council issued a revised version of NSCID 9 on October 24, 1952 and that Major General [[Ralph J. Canine]] became the first Director of NSA on November 4, 1952.[^38]
### Washington sightings, July 1952
[[Gerald K. Haines]], a CIA historian, wrote that a buildup of sightings over the United States in 1952, especially in July, "alarmed the Truman administration." Radar scopes at [[Washington National Airport]] and [[Andrews Air Force Base]] tracked unidentified blips on July 19 and 20, and the blips reappeared on July 27, when interceptor aircraft were scrambled and found nothing.[^39] Haines wrote: "The White House wanted to know what was happening, and the Air Force quickly offered the explanation that the radar blips might be the result of "temperature inversions."" He added that a later Civil Aeronautics Administration investigation confirmed that such radar blips were quite common and were caused by temperature inversions.[^39]
[[Edward J. Ruppelt]], the head of the Air Force's [[Project Blue Book]], wrote that after the first Washington sighting he flew to Washington and that on the following day, about 10:00 A.M., the President's air aide, Brigadier General [[Robert B. Landry]], called Air Force intelligence at President Truman's request to find out what was going on. Ruppelt took the call and told Landry that the radar target could have been caused by weather but that there was no proof.[^40][^41] Ruppelt wrote that on Tuesday, July 29, Major General [[John A. Samford]], Director of Air Force Intelligence, held a press conference at 4:00 P.M., the largest and longest the Air Force had held since World War II; that a captain's answers on the possibility of temperature inversions were construed by the press as the Air Force's answer "even though today the twin sightings are still carried as unknowns"; and that on each night of a Washington sighting there was a temperature inversion, "but it was never strong enough to affect the radar the way inversions normally do."[^39][^42]
Haines recorded that the Central Intelligence Agency formed a special study group within its [[Office of Scientific Intelligence]] and [[Office of Current Intelligence]] in response, and that [[H. Marshall Chadwell]] briefed [[Walter Bedell Smith]], the Director of Central Intelligence, in December 1952.[^39] The sequence led to the [[Robertson Panel]] of January 1953.
Haines also addressed documents that surfaced around 1984 and that some UFOlogists said proved Truman created a top secret committee in 1947, [[Majestic-12]]. He wrote: "Most if not all of these documents have proved to be fabrications." He added: "Yet the controversy persists."[^43]
### Limit CIA Role to Intelligence, 1963
On December 22, 1963 the [[Washington Post]] published "Limit CIA Role to Intelligence," an article by Truman datelined Independence, Missouri, December 21; the syndicated article also appeared in [[The Detroit News]] on December 22, 1963 and in the Lafayette, Indiana, *Journal and Courier* on December 21, 1963.[^44] In it Truman wrote: "For some time I have been disturbed by the way the CIA has been diverted from its original assignment. It has become an operational and at times a policy-making arm of the government." He wrote: "I never had any thought when I set up the CIA that it would be injected into peacetime cloak and dagger operations." He asked that the agency "be restored to its original assignment as the intelligence arm of the President" and that "its operational duties be terminated or properly used elsewhere."[^44]
The former CIA analyst [[Ray McGovern]] wrote in 2013 that the article named "the first temporary director of the CIA, Adm. Souers, and the later permanent directors of the CIA, Gen. Hoyt Vandenberg and Allen Dulles" as men of "the highest character, patriotism and integrity"; he also wrote that the Post ran the article in its early edition of December 22 and removed it from later editions; that Truman's handwritten notes in the Truman Library, made nine days after the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], recorded that the CIA had worked as he intended only "when I had control"; and that on December 27, 1963 Souers sent Truman a "Dear Boss" letter blaming [[Allen Dulles]] for making the CIA "a different animal than the one I tried to set up for you" and criticizing the invasion of Cuba at the [[Bay of Pigs]]. McGovern also wrote that Dulles visited Truman in Independence on the afternoon of April 17, 1964 and asked him to retract the article; that Dulles's memorandum of the conversation, written four days later for CIA general counsel [[Lawrence Houston]], recorded Truman as saying the Post article was "all wrong" and that he "seemed quite astounded at it"; and that Truman's letter of June 10, 1964 to the managing editor of [[Look]] magazine restated his criticism, saying he never intended the CIA to be involved in "strange activities."[^45]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 2.
[^2]: FRUS 1950, volume IV, Document 127 (Truman to Acheson, March 1, 1950) and Document 131 (Barrett to Acheson, March 6, 1950). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v04/d127
[^3]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 229 (Truman's address to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 20, 1950), and p. 237 and note 38 (Barrett's later claim).
[^1]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Jackson County Courthouse, Independence," place record. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/places/in21-22.htm
[^2]: National Archives at College Park, "Tom Pendergast Inmate File: Record of Court Commitment" (Notorious Offenders Files, NARA ID 580698, Leavenworth inmate no. 55295, created May 29, 1939), Pendergast Years collection, Kansas City Public Library. https://pendergastkc.org/collection/national-archives-college-park-maryland/naracp-580698-0004-0003/tom-pendergast-inmate-file-record-court-commitment
[^3]: National Archives at College Park, "U.S. vs. Otto P. Higgins: Judgment and Commitment," Criminal Case No. 14653, Pendergast Years collection, Kansas City Public Library. https://pendergastkc.org/owning-organization/national-archives-college-park-maryland
[^4]: Congressional Record, July 21, 1947, p. 9516, reprinting "Justice Department's Kansas City Brush White?," Tampa (Fla.) Daily Times, July 17, 1947, and remarks on the charges of Senator Kem. https://www.congress.gov/80/crecb/1947/07/21/GPO-CRECB-1947-pt8-1-2.pdf
[^5]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Jacobson, Edward Papers," finding aid, summary and Correspondence File description. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/hstpaper/jacobson.htm
[^6]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Jacobson, Edward Papers," finding aid, summary. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/hstpaper/jacobson.htm
[^7]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Jacobson, Edward Papers," finding aid, Personal File series description (autobiographical sketch and handwritten chronology of Jacobson's role in the recognition of Israel). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/hstpaper/jacobson.htm
[^8]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Granoff, A. J. Papers," finding aid, including the reference to the Granoff oral history, OH #68, conducted in 1969. https://trumanlibrary.gov/granoff.htm
[^9]: Harry S. Truman, "Statement by the President Announcing Recognition of the State of Israel," May 14, 1948, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/100/statement-president-announcing-recognition-state-israel
[^10]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Recognition of the State of Israel," online collection, document listing for Palestine, Israel - Jewish State, 1948-1949, OF 204-D (item dated January 31, 1949). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/online-collections/recognition-of-state-of-israel
[^11]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Abraham Feinberg Oral History Interview," interview of August 23, 1973 by Richard D. McKinzie, biographical note. https://trumanlibrary.gov/oralhist/feinberg.htm
[^12]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 2.
[^13]: Telegram from the Acting Secretary of State to the Embassy in France (Gadel 391), December 8, 1951, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951*, volume V, The Near East and Africa, document 546 (file 320/12-851). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v05/d546
[^14]: Memorandum from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of War Stimson and Secretary of the Navy Forrestal, September 19, 1945, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, document 13. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d13
[^15]: Executive Order 9621, "Termination of the Office of Strategic Services and Disposition of Its Functions," September 20, 1945, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, document 14, paragraphs 1, 2, 3 and 6. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d14
[^16]: Memorandum from the Director of the Bureau of the Budget (Smith) to President Truman, October 31, 1945, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, document 38. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d38
[^17]: Presidential Directive on Coordination of Foreign Intelligence Activities, January 22, 1946, paragraphs 1, 2 and 4, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, document 71 (printed from *Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1946*, pp. 88-89). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d71
[^18]: Memorandum from the Director of Central Intelligence (Souers) to President Truman, April 17, 1946, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, document 109. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d109
[^19]: Letter from the Director of Central Intelligence (Vandenberg) to the Director of the FBI (Hoover), July 3, 1946, document 113; Memorandum from the President's Chief of Staff (Leahy) to the Director of Central Intelligence (Vandenberg), August 12, 1946, document 125, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d125
[^20]: National Security Act of July 26, 1947, Public Law 80-253, 61 Stat. 495, sections 101 and 102. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-61/pdf/STATUTE-61-Pg495.pdf
[^21]: Memorandum from the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council (Souers) to Director of Central Intelligence Hillenkoetter, December 17, 1947 (editorial note on NSC 4-A), *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, document 257. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d257
[^22]: Editorial note on the directive of April 4, 1951 establishing the Psychological Strategy Board, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 60. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d60
[^23]: Truman to Acheson, March 1, 1950, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950*, volume IV, document 127. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v04/d127
[^24]: Barrett to Acheson, March 6, 1950, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950*, volume IV, document 131. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v04/d131
[^25]: Daniel Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 229 and 237 with note 38 (Barrett's later claim).
[^26]: Harry S. Truman, "Address on Foreign Policy at a Luncheon of the American Society of Newspaper Editors," April 20, 1950, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/92/address-foreign-policy-luncheon-american-society-newspaper-editors
[^27]: Harry S. Truman, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1949, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/19/inaugural-address
[^28]: Report to the National Security Council by the Executive Secretary (Lay), NSC 68, April 14, 1950, enclosing the President's letter and the Report to the President pursuant to the Presidential directive of January 31, 1950 (April 7, 1950), *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950*, volume I, document 85. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v01/d85
[^29]: Harry S. Truman, "Statement and Order by the President on Relieving General MacArthur of His Commands," April 11, 1951, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library, including the note listing the Presidential memorandum of December 5, 1950 and the Joint Chiefs message of March 20, 1951. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/77/statement-and-order-president-relieving-general-macarthur-his-commands
[^30]: Harry S. Truman, "Statement by the President Announcing the Use of the A-Bomb at Hiroshima," August 6, 1945, American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/231158
[^31]: Harry S. Truman, "Statement by the President Announcing the First Atomic Explosion in the U.S.S.R.," September 23, 1949, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/216/statement-president-announcing-first-atomic-explosion-ussr
[^32]: Memorandum for the President from Acting Secretary of State Dean Acheson, "Interim Exploitation of German and Austrian Specialists in the United States," received August 30, 1946, with the notation "approved 9/3/46," Harry S. Truman Library document set on Operation Paperclip (FOIA release printed April 21, 2009), page 6 of 10 of the second group. https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/trumanlibrary-paperclip.pdf
[^33]: Memorandum for the President, War Department, September 4, 1946, Harry S. Truman Library document set on Operation Paperclip (FOIA release printed April 21, 2009), page 5 of 10 of the second group. https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/trumanlibrary-paperclip.pdf
[^34]: Harry S. Truman Library document set on Operation Paperclip (FOIA release printed April 21, 2009), SWNCC 257/22, Appendix B, paragraph 5, copy hosted by The Black Vault. https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/trumanlibrary-paperclip.pdf
[^35]: Annie Jacobsen, *Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program That Brought Nazi Scientists to America* (Little, Brown, 2014).
[^36]: Memorandum to the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense, "Communications Intelligence Activities," October 24, 1952, National Security Agency declassified documents, National Security Archive copy. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB23/docs/doc02.pdf
[^37]: National Security Archive, "Declassified - The National Security Agency," Electronic Briefing Book 23, entries for Documents 2a (Truman memorandum, October 24, 1952) and 2b (NSCID No. 9, December 29, 1952). https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB23/
[^38]: National Security Agency, "Origins of NSA" (history adapted from the Senate Select Committee on Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, Book I, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, April 26, 1976). https://irp.fas.org/nsa/oldind.html
[^39]: Gerald K. Haines, "CIA's Role in the Study of UFOs, 1947-90," *Studies in Intelligence* (1997), sections "Early CIA Concerns, 1947-52" and "The Robertson Panel, 1952-53." https://sgp.fas.org/library/ciaufo.html
[^40]: Edward J. Ruppelt, *The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects* (Doubleday, 1956), chapter 12, "The Washington Merry-Go-Round." https://nicap.org/rufo/rufo-12.htm
[^41]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Landry, Robert B. Papers," finding aid (Landry as Air Force Aide to the President, 1948-1953). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/personal-papers/robert-b-landry-papers
[^42]: Edward J. Ruppelt, *The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects* (Doubleday, 1956), chapter 12. https://nicap.org/rufo/rufo-12.htm
[^43]: Gerald K. Haines, "CIA's Role in the Study of UFOs, 1947-90," *Studies in Intelligence* (1997), section "The 1980s." https://sgp.fas.org/library/ciaufo.html
[^44]: Harry S. Truman, "Limit CIA Role to Intelligence," *Washington Post*, December 22, 1963, datelined Independence, Missouri, December 21. The syndicated article was printed in *The Detroit News*, December 22, 1963, p. 16, under the subhead "CIA Diverted" (https://www.newspapers.com/image/1382512360/), and in the *Journal and Courier* (Lafayette, Indiana), December 21, 1963, p. 8.
[^45]: Ray McGovern, "Truman's True Warning on the CIA," *Consortium News*, December 22, 2013. https://consortiumnews.com/2013/12/22/trumans-true-warning-on-the-cia/

10
10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/R. Gordon Wasson.md
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@ -20,16 +20,18 @@ In August 1954, Wasson shared his information with Puharich, who then briefed hi
In June 1955, Wasson, accompanied by photographer Allan Richardson, arrived in Huautla de Jiménez, Oaxaca, and became the first white men in recorded history to eat the divine mushrooms. Wasson reported intense hallucinations but no divinatory powers. Upon his return, he sent a cache of mushrooms to Puharich for chemical analysis[^1].
Wasson's work gained widespread public attention when he struck a publishing deal with *Life* magazine and authored a twelve-page account of his experience titled "Seeking the Magic Mushroom." While he omitted any mention of the CIA's involvement, he highlighted the mushroom's alleged ability to access and enhance [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]]. The article caused a sensation, effectively undermining the CIA's desire to keep the drug a secret psychic weapon under military intelligence control, as pleasure seekers flocked to Mexico to consume *God's flesh*[^1].
Wasson's work gained widespread public attention when he struck a publishing deal with *Life* magazine and authored an account of his experience titled "Seeking the Magic Mushroom," published on pages 100 to 102 and 109 to 120 of the May 13, 1957 issue.[^2] While he omitted any mention of the CIA's involvement, he highlighted the mushroom's alleged ability to access and enhance [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]]. The article caused a sensation, effectively undermining the CIA's desire to keep the drug a secret psychic weapon under military intelligence control, as pleasure seekers flocked to Mexico to consume *God's flesh*[^1].
### Mushrooms, Russia and History
Decades before the Mexican expeditions, Wasson and Valentina had become fascinated by how different societies treat mushrooms, finding whole nationalities (Russians, Catalans) to be mycophiles and others (Anglo-Saxons) mycophobes; their limited-edition *Mushrooms, Russia and History* (1957, $125 new) catalogued the legends and photographs of nearly every known species.[^2]
Decades before the Mexican expeditions, Wasson and Valentina had become fascinated by how different societies treat mushrooms, finding whole nationalities (Russians, Catalans) to be mycophiles and others (Anglo-Saxons) mycophobes; their limited-edition *Mushrooms, Russia and History* (1957, $125 new) catalogued the legends and photographs of nearly every known species.[^3]
### The 1955 Velada and the 1956 Expedition
On June 29, 1955 Wasson and photographer Allan Richardson reached the town hall at Huautla de Jiménez and were led to [[Maria Sabina|María Sabina]], a curandera Wasson called a *señora sin mancha*; that night the two men each ate twelve mushrooms, and Wasson recorded "a fission of the spirit, a split in the person." On the 1956 return trip, joined by James Moore and the French mycologist [[Roger Heim]] with a $2,000 contribution from the [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research|Geschickter Fund]], Heim later grew the mushrooms from spore prints in [[Paris]] and sent samples to [[Albert Hofmann]] at [[Sandoz]], who isolated the active compound and named it [[Psilocybin]], beating the CIA to "God's flesh." Wasson's 1957 *Life* account ran 17 pages and lured waves of Americans to Mexico, among them a young Harvard psychologist named [[Timothy Leary]], who ate his first mushrooms in 1959.[^2]
On June 29, 1955 Wasson and photographer Allan Richardson reached the town hall at Huautla de Jiménez and were led to [[Maria Sabina|María Sabina]], a curandera Wasson called a *señora sin mancha*; that night the two men each ate twelve mushrooms, and Wasson recorded "a fission of the spirit, a split in the person." On the 1956 return trip, joined by James Moore and the French mycologist [[Roger Heim]] with a $2,000 contribution from the [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research|Geschickter Fund]], Heim later grew the mushrooms from spore prints in [[Paris]] and sent samples to [[Albert Hofmann]] at [[Sandoz]], who isolated the active compound and named it [[Psilocybin]], beating the CIA to "God's flesh." Wasson's 1957 *Life* account ran 17 pages and lured waves of Americans to Mexico, among them a young Harvard psychologist named [[Timothy Leary]], who ate his first mushrooms in 1959.[^3]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^2]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*, Chapter 7.
[^2]: Wasson, R. Gordon. "Seeking the Magic Mushroom," *Life*, vol. 42, no. 19, May 13, 1957, pp. 100-102, 109-120. https://archive.org/details/Life-1957-05-13-Vol-42-No-19
[^3]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*, Chapter 7.