vault backup: 2026-10-12 16:23:53

10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Bert Lance.md

@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ In 1976 [[Mochtar Riady]] of the [[Lippo Group]] met Jackson and [[Witt Stephens
 
 Sami's memo to Abedi of January 30, 1978, referred to "our friend" in the Financial General negotiations; Lance acknowledged to the subcommittee that the reference was to him, but testified that "the acquisition of shares were basically handled by Mr. Sami, and he was the man who was responsible. I was not involved in that." He testified that in 1978, at Abedi's suggestion, he met [[Kamal Adham]] and Sheikh [[Zayed bin Sultan AL-Nahayan|Zayed]], the latter in [[Lahore]] in "February or March, 1978," and the *[[Washington Post]]* reported that he had recently been in [[Karachi]] in connection with his dealings with Abedi; he made the trip on an official diplomatic passport although he no longer worked for the government.[^13] Of Abedi's relationship with Zayed he told the subcommittee that Abedi had "been kind and attentive to Sheikh Zayed when he was still wandering around in the desert and he had all his assets in his tent somewhere."[^14]
 
-According to the [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]], a federal judge on April 27, 1978, "permanently enjoined Lance and ten other defendants" from violating the securities laws in connection with the Financial General takeover.[^12]
+According to the [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]], a federal judge on April 27, 1978, "permanently enjoined Lance and ten other defendants" from violating the securities laws in connection with the Financial General takeover.[^12] The Securities and Exchange Commission's News Digest of March 20, 1978, headed "Lance, Others Enjoined," reported that on March 18 the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia had entered permanent injunctions, by consent, against eleven defendants including Lance (Civil Action 78-0469).[^15] On April 26, 1978 the commission and the Comptroller of the Currency filed a separate civil action in the Northern District of Georgia against The National Bank of Georgia, The Calhoun First National Bank and Lance, which ended the same day in consent judgments of permanent injunction (Civil Action 78-758).[^16]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -61,3 +61,5 @@ According to the [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]], a
 [^12]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
 [^13]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 16, "BCCI and Georgia Politicians." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/16ga.htm
 [^14]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 14, "Abu Dhabi: BCCI's Founding and Majority Stockholders." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/14abudhabi.htm
+[^15]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, March 20, 1978, "Lance, Others Enjoined" (SEC v. Bank of Credit and Commerce International S.A., et al., U.S.D.C. D.C., Civil Action No. 78-0469, LR-8336). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1978/dig032078.pdf
+[^16]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, April 28, 1978 (SEC and Comptroller of the Currency v. The National Bank of Georgia, The Calhoun First National Bank, Bertram Lance, U.S.D.C. N.D. Ga., Atlanta Division, Civil Action No. 78-758). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1978/dig042878.pdf

10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Frederick Lacey.md

@@ -23,11 +23,11 @@ relations:
   - type: investigated
     with: "[[Brent Scowcroft]]"
     start: 1992
-    fn: 3
+    fn: 5
   - type: investigated
     with: "[[Lawrence Eagleburger]]"
     start: 1992
-    fn: 3
+    fn: 5
   - type: prosecuted
     with: "[[Albert Anastasia]]"
     start: 1954
@@ -40,12 +40,15 @@ Frederick Bernard Lacey was born in Newark, [[New Jersey]], on September 9, 1920
 
 ### The BNL Investigation
 
-Attorney General [[William Barr]] declined to seek an independent counsel in the [[BNL Scandal|Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]] affair and on October 16, 1992, appointed Lacey special counsel; he reported 54 days later. He wrote: "I find Judge Shoob's specific charges against the USAO to be inaccurate," rejecting the criticisms of Judge [[Marvin Shoob]]. Of [[Brent Scowcroft]] and [[Lawrence Eagleburger]], he wrote: "It is clear that, while at [[Kissinger Associates]], Scowcroft and Eagleburger came into contact with [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro|BNL]] management. I have seen nothing, however, to suggest that they knew of BNL-Atlanta's wrongful loans to Iraq or influenced the prosecution of this matter." The second part of the report was classified.[^3] According to *The Village Voice,* the report dismissed the allegations as "arrogant nonsense," while Lacey acknowledged that he could not determine "who at Justice saw what and when" and was "unable to penetrate with any precision where responsibility lay."[^4] Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]], chairman of the [[House Banking Committee]], told the House on January 21, 1993, that "from the start it was apparent that Judge Lacey was nothing more than a lackey," called the report "the Lacey Job," and said that "at best" it was a whitewash.[^5]
+Attorney General [[William Barr]] declined to seek an independent counsel in the [[BNL Scandal|Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]] affair and on October 16, 1992, appointed Lacey as "independent counsel" under Justice Department regulations rather than under the statute. Lacey's report states that on October 27 Barr authorized a preliminary investigation and asked for a report by December 8, 1992; the Senate staff record that Lacey submitted it on December 9, 1992.[^3] He wrote: "I find Judge Shoob's specific charges against the USAO, and his concern about the interference of other agencies, to be inaccurate,"[^4] rejecting the criticisms of Judge [[Marvin Shoob]]. Of [[Brent Scowcroft]] and [[Lawrence Eagleburger]], he wrote: "It is clear that, while at [[Kissinger Associates]], Scowcroft and Eagleburger came into contact with [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro|BNL]] management. I have seen nothing, however, to suggest that they knew of BNL-Atlanta's wrongful loans to Iraq or influenced the prosecution of this matter." The second part of the report was classified.[^5] Lacey also addressed the appointment of Joseph D. Whitley, writing that Whitley became acting United States attorney on June 1, 1990, and verbally recused himself from the BNL case the same day, a recusal confirmed in writing a week later.[^6] According to *The Village Voice,* the report dismissed the allegations as "arrogant nonsense," while Lacey acknowledged that he could not determine "who at Justice saw what and when" and was "unable to penetrate with any precision where responsibility lay."[^7] Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]], chairman of the [[House Banking Committee]], told the House on January 21, 1993, that "from the start it was apparent that Judge Lacey was nothing more than a lackey," called the report "the Lacey Job," and said that "at best" it was a whitewash.[^8]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: Federal Judicial Center, "Lacey, Frederick Bernard," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/lacey-frederick-bernard
 [^2]: Historical Society of the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey, "Frederick Bernard Lacey." https://www.historynjdc.org/judges/judicial-biographies/frederick-bernard-lacey ; "'French Connection' Judge Dies at 96," Associated Press, via *Governing,* April 2017.
-[^3]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95, 1993, pp. 514-15. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
-[^4]: "Will We Ever Learn the Truth About Iraqgate?" *The Village Voice,* reprinted November 2, 2020.
-[^5]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Update on BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record,* House, January 21, 1993. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1993_cr/h930121-bnl.htm
+[^3]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair,* Committee Print S. Prt. 103-12, February 1993, pp. 4-5; Lacey, "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," printed in Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf
+[^4]: Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, printed in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95 (1994), p. 473. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
+[^5]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95, 1993, pp. 514-15. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
+[^6]: Lacey, "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," printed in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95 (1994), pp. 514-515. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
+[^7]: "Will We Ever Learn the Truth About Iraqgate?" *The Village Voice,* reprinted November 2, 2020.
+[^8]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Update on BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record,* House, January 21, 1993. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1993_cr/h930121-bnl.htm

10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/James Moore.md

@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ tags:
   - MKULTRA
   - Chemistry
   - 1950s
-summary: "James Moore was a CIA-employed chemist who ran MKULTRA Subproject 58, infiltrating East Coast mycology circles under the cover of a Geschickter Fund professor to locate and obtain psilocybin mushrooms, accompanying R. Gordon Wasson's 1956 Mexico expedition before Wasson's Life magazine article inadvertently publicized the hallucinogen."
+summary: "James Moore was a CIA-employed chemist who ran MKULTRA Subproject 58, seeking psilocybin mushrooms under a Geschickter Fund cover and accompanying R. Gordon Wasson's 1956 Mexico expedition."
 ---
 
 James Moore was a chemist who worked for the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA Subproject 58]], a classified effort to locate and mass-produce the hallucinogenic mushroom *teonanáctl* (God's flesh) for intelligence use[^1].
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ In 1956, after two years of unsuccessful efforts, Moore finally persuaded [[R. G
 
 The mission proved traumatic for Moore, who reportedly got sick and disliked the experience. At one point, he was left roadside in Mexico in the care of local Indians when the group's small airplane had to lighten its load. Despite the difficulties, Moore fulfilled his CIA mandate, returning with *teonanáctl* mushrooms for the Agency to analyze[^1].
 
-However, the CIA's desire to keep the drug a secret psychic weapon was undermined when Wasson published a twelve-page account of his experience in *Life* magazine, highlighting the mushroom's alleged ability to access and enhance [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]]. This article caused a sensation and led to pleasure seekers flocking to Mexico to consume *God's flesh*[^1].
+However, the CIA's desire to keep the drug a secret psychic weapon was undermined when Wasson published an account of his experience on pages 100 to 102 and 109 to 120 of *Life* magazine, highlighting the mushroom's alleged ability to access and enhance [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]]. This article caused a sensation and led to pleasure seekers flocking to Mexico to consume *God's flesh*[^1].
 
 ### Chemical Procurement for TSS
 

10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani.md

@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+---
+aliases:
+  - Rahim Irvani
+  - Mohammed Rahim Irvani
+  - Mohammed Irvani
+  - Irvani
+category: "Business & Finance"
+tags:
+  - Person
+  - BCCI
+  - FinancialGeneralBankshares
+  - RichardHelms
+  - Iran
+  - Safeer
+  - FrontMan
+summary: "Iranian industrialist listed in 1978 as a 5 percent shareholder of Credit and Commerce American Holdings, described by a Senate subcommittee as BCCI's lead front man and as financier of Richard Helms's firm Safeer."
+created: 2026-10-12
+updated: 2026-10-12
+relations:
+  - type: founded
+    with: "[[Melli Industrial Group]]"
+    start: 1949
+    role: "manufacturer of footwear and leather goods in Iran; 23 operating companies by 1978"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: partner_of
+    with: "[[Richard Helms]]"
+    role: "principal partner and chief financier in Safeer, Helms's international consulting firm; owned 80 percent of its capital per corporate records filed in Georgia litigation"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]]"
+    start: 1978
+    role: "listed in the original SEC filing as a 5 percent shareholder; described as BCCI's lead front man in the first takeover attempt"
+    fn: 3
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Roy P. M. Carlson]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "manager of the Melli group; later vice president of Safeer"
+    fn: 2
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1989
+    role: "BCCI financed Irvani investments in the United Kingdom and United States, including a 38 million dollar purchase of a New York office building"
+    fn: 8
+---
+Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani was an Iranian industrialist who founded the Melli Industrial Group in 1949. The 1992 Senate subcommittee report on [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] names him as BCCI's lead front man in the unsuccessful 1978 bid for [[Financial General Bankshares]] and as the principal partner and financier of former CIA director [[Richard Helms]] in the consulting firm Safeer.[^1]
+
+### Melli Industrial Group and Alwand
+
+Irvani founded the Melli Industrial Group in Iran in 1949 to manufacture footwear and leather goods and developed close ties to the government of the Shah of Iran. By 1978 the group owned 23 operating companies and had joint ventures with foreign firms including Goodyear and United Chemical. He also owned the Alwand Industrial Co., which held interests in the Iran Arab Bank. Financial documents estimated his personal net worth at over 50 million dollars and the value of his business holdings at as much as 800 million dollars.[^1] [[Agha Hasan Abedi]]'s involvement with Irvani arose from the Iran Arab Bank, according to a memorandum of BCCI's lawyers recording a November 1990 meeting with [[Roy P. M. Carlson]]. Carlson, who had advised Abedi on the formation of BCCI in 1972 while at [[Bank of America]], was introduced by Abedi to Irvani and hired by him to manage the Melli group.[^1][^2]
+
+### Safeer and Richard Helms
+
+Richard Helms was dismissed as director of central intelligence by President [[Richard Nixon]] in February 1973 and was ambassador to [[Iran]] until 1977, where he met Irvani. On October 31, 1977 Helms pleaded no contest to two charges in return for a recommendation that he not be sentenced to prison. In the fall of 1977 [[Clark Clifford]] visited a senior Justice Department official to argue against an indictment of Helms, saying that such charges could damage the intelligence community. The federal judge in the case described Helms as "in disgrace and shame."[^1]
+
+Irvani financed Safeer, an international consulting firm named for the Iranian word for "Ambassador," whose initial business was mostly supplied by Irvani and his contacts. Safeer corporate records and documents filed in civil litigation, *G&H Montage GmbH v. Irvani*, Superior Court of Gwinnett County, Georgia, No. 88-A-03571-6, show that Irvani capitalized and owned 80 percent of the company. Carlson, Irvani's former chief U.S. assistant, became its vice president and handled much of its early business. A company named North West Investment, created by Carlson, invested 120,000 dollars in Safeer in its first year and a year later sold its shares to Brockton Leather Company, which sold them to Helms for one dollar.[^1]
+
+The report records that Helms introduced Irvani to Walter J. Stoessel, Jr., the United States ambassador to Germany, in January 1979; wrote to Vice President [[George H. W. Bush]] on Irvani's behalf on October 29, 1987, forwarding a letter from Irvani; and forwarded Irvani's letters of congratulations to President-elect Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III|James Baker]] on November 28, 1988. The Irvani letters to Bush have not been located; Irvani's cover letter to Helms refers to his wish to give Bush advice on his presidential campaign. Helms also introduced a member of Irvani's family to Ambassador [[Paul Nitze]] and another to [[Raymond Close]], a former CIA station chief for Saudi Arabia who had worked for [[Kamal Adham]].[^1]
+
+### Financial General Bankshares, 1978
+
+Abedi solicited Irvani in early 1978 to serve as a nominee shareholder in the takeover of Financial General Bankshares, together with Sheikh [[Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan]] and Abdullah Darwaish. Irvani was listed in the original [[Securities and Exchange Commission|SEC]] filing in the 1978 takeover attempt as a 5 percent shareholder of [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH). The report states that several documents introduced in the Georgia civil litigation describe his recruitment by Abedi.[^3] The BCCI lawyers' memorandum quotes Carlson as saying that Abedi had invited Irvani in the mid-1970s to take a 5 percent stake, that Irvani had applied to Credit and Commerce America for a loan to buy the stake, and that he "had never been keen to make the investment at all" but had been persuaded he could do so on the basis of a loan to be made to him.[^1]
+
+Irvani's son told the [[Atlanta Constitution]] in 1992 that his father "lent his name to the 1978 takeover bid at the request of BCCI founder Agha Hasan Abedi."[^4] Helms denied the allegation in the Atlanta Constitution on February 18, 1992, calling it "totally untrue . . . absolute nonsense."[^5]
+
+An October 20, 1978 telex from Helms to Irvani, quoted in the report, states that Carlson had asked on October 19 that Helms have an independent attorney review seven documents he had telexed, and sets out the text of a letter agreement under which the undersigned would "indemnify you from any liability, loss, or damage" arising from Irvani's granting a power of attorney to any partner of the Washington law firm Clifford, Glass, McIlwain and Finney in the Financial General transaction. The report states that [[Robert Altman]] listed Irvani, within days of the telex, as an intended principal shareholder in the application filed with the Federal Reserve for CCAH, along with representatives of the Abu Dhabi royal family and [[Faisal Saud al-Fulaij]]. It states that Clifford and Altman received Irvani's power of attorney in the same period.[^1][^6]
+
+The report states that Irvani's role in the first bid ended with the Iranian revolution in January 1979, when he became an unnecessary nominee, and that Kamal Adham succeeded him as BCCI's lead front man in the First American takeover.[^1] The report's executive summary lists the relationships among former CIA personnel and the BCCI front men and nominees Adham, [[A. R. (Abdul Raouf) Khalil|Abdul Khalil]] and Irvani as requiring further investigation.[^7]
+
+### BCCI financing and the National Bank of Georgia
+
+BCCI documents show that the bank financed Irvani investments in the United Kingdom and the United States, which in 1989 amounted to 38 million dollars in a single transaction to buy a New York office building at 140 East 58th Street. The documents also show loans, typically of millions of dollars at a time, to the Irvani family, and that the family received substantial loans from the [[National Bank of Georgia]], both while [[Ghaith R. Pharaon]] owned it on behalf of BCCI and after [[First American Bankshares]] replaced him as nominal owner. After Pharaon bought the bank from [[Bert Lance]], Abedi personally selected Carlson as its head.[^1][^8]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate. December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence," section "Former CIA Director Richard Helms and BCCI Front Man Mohammed Irvani" (notes 49 to 63, citing S. Hrg. 102-350, Pt. 4, pp. 236-316). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
+[^2]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 11 (Carlson's career and his role at Safeer; note 52, staff interview with Roy Carlson, July 16, 1991; note 56). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
+[^3]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry" (Abedi's solicitation of Irvani; the original SEC filing; note 49). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
+[^4]: Peter Mantias, "BCCI: Case reveals former CIA chief's ties to bank," Atlanta Constitution, February 15, 1992, p. A1, as quoted in Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 6, note 57. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
+[^5]: "Ex-CIA chief Helms denies helping BCCI," Atlanta Constitution, February 18, 1992, as quoted in Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 11, note 60 (S. Hrg. 102-350, Pt. 4, p. 236). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
+[^6]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 13, "Clark Clifford and Robert Altman" (the October 1978 Helms telex and indemnification language; Irvani's listing in the application filed with the Federal Reserve; notes 23 and 24). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/13clifford.htm
+[^7]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 1, "Executive Summary." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/01exec.htm
+[^8]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 11 (BCCI financing of Irvani investments, including 140 East 58th Street, and loans from the National Bank of Georgia). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm

10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Richard Helms.md

@@ -23,6 +23,11 @@ summary: "Richard Helms served as Director of Central Intelligence from 1966 to
 born: 1913-03-30
 died: 2002-10-22
 location: "St. Davids, Pennsylvania"
+relations:
+  - type: partner_of
+    with: "[[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani]]"
+    role: "principal partner in Safeer, the consulting firm Helms founded; Irvani was also its chief financier"
+    fn: 22
 ---
 
 Richard McGarrah Helms (March 30, 1913 - October 22, 2002) served as [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] [[Director of Central Intelligence]] from June 30, 1966, to February 2, 1973 - the only career CIA clandestine officer ever to hold that position, and the only DCI ever convicted of a criminal offense related to his service. A professional intelligence officer who entered the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] during [[World War II]] and spent thirty years in the CIA, Helms authorized [[Operation CHAOS]] domestic surveillance, approved continuation of the [[MKULTRA]] human experimentation program, ordered the destruction of both programs' records before congressional investigators could access them, and in 1977 pleaded no contest to making false statements to Congress about CIA operations against Chilean President [[Salvador Allende]]. He simultaneously held the personal conviction, disclosed to his deputies, that [[Israel]] was using American intelligence as "an open pipeline for pumping intelligence to [[Moscow]]" - a view he never officially reported.[^1]
@@ -91,6 +96,14 @@ Nixon appointed Helms U.S. Ambassador to Iran in February 1973, effectively remo
 
 He published his memoirs, *A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency*, posthumously in 2003. The book was notably reticent about the most significant controversial episodes of his career, consistent with his lifelong orientation toward institutional protection over personal disclosure. He died in Washington on October 22, 2002.[^1]
 
+### Irvani, Safeer and the 1978 Financial General Bid
+
+Helms was dismissed as director of central intelligence by President Richard Nixon in February 1973 and was then appointed ambassador to Iran until 1977, where he met [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani]], an Iranian industrialist who had founded the Melli Industrial Group in 1949.[^21] On October 31, 1977 Helms pleaded no contest to two charges, in return for a government recommendation that he not be sentenced to prison. In the fall of 1977 [[Clark Clifford]] visited a senior Justice Department official to argue against an indictment, saying that such charges could damage the U.S. intelligence community.[^21]
+
+Helms ran an international consulting firm, Safeer, which the Senate report says was named for the Iranian word for "Ambassador." Irvani financed the firm at the time the presiding federal judge described Helms as "in disgrace and shame." According to corporate records and documents filed in civil litigation in Gwinnett County, Georgia, Irvani capitalized and owned 80 percent of Safeer, and [[Roy P. M. Carlson]], a former Bank of America officer whom [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] had introduced to Irvani, became its vice president and handled much of its early business.[^22]
+
+The original 1978 filing with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] listed Irvani as a 5 percent shareholder of [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH), and the Senate report describes him as BCCI's lead front man in the early 1978 takeover attempt against [[Financial General Bankshares]]. The report says that Helms advised Irvani on how to be protected from any liability in that role, and that several documents introduced in litigation in Georgia describe Abedi recruiting Irvani in early 1978 to act as a front man.[^23]
+
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: Powers, Thomas. *The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA.* Knopf, 1979 (the essential biography, based on extensive interviews). Church Committee (Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities). Final Report, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976.
@@ -113,3 +126,6 @@ He published his memoirs, *A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intell
 [^18]: Robarge, David S. "Getting it Right: CIA Analysis of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War." *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 1 (March 2005). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/CIA-Analysis-1967-War.pdf For the June 1 to 2 meeting Robarge relies on published accounts, among them Michael B. Oren's, which rest on Amit's interviews and writings.
 [^19]: National Security Archive, "The NUMEC Affair: Did Highly Enriched Uranium from the U.S. Aid Israel's Nuclear Weapons Program?" (November 2, 2016), Document 8, Letter from Richard Helms to Ramsey Clark, April 2, 1968 (ISCAP Appeal No. 2013-062). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-11-02/numec-affair-did-highly-enriched-uranium-us-aid-israels-nuclear-weapons-program
 [^20]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991. Chapters 11, 14, 16.
+[^21]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence" (the section on Richard Helms and Mohammed Irvani; text preceding notes 49 to 51). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
+[^22]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 11 (Safeer's name, its capitalization and the Carlson passages; text following note 51 through note 57; *G&H Montage GmbH v. Irvani*, Superior Court of Gwinnett County, Georgia, 88-A-03571-6). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
+[^23]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry" (Irvani listed in the original SEC filing as a 5 percent shareholder of CCAH; recruitment by Abedi in early 1978, note 49); ch. 11 (Helms's advice to Irvani on liability). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm

10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Robert S. McNamara.md

@@ -1,27 +1,200 @@
 ---
-updated: 2026-10-08
+updated: 2026-10-12
 aliases:
   - Robert McNamara
+  - Robert Strange McNamara
+  - McNamara
 category: "Intelligence & Government"
 tags:
   - Person
-  - Nuclear
+  - DefenseSecretary
+  - Vietnam
+  - Cuba
   - Israel
-summary: "Secretary of Defense under Kennedy and Johnson who was pressured by pro-Israel fundraiser Abraham Feinberg not to interfere with Israel's nuclear activities."
+  - WorldBank
+  - Nuclear
+  - FordMotorCompany
+summary: "Secretary of Defense under Kennedy and Johnson whose tenure includes Operation Mongoose, the Northwoods memorandum, the Gulf of Tonkin incidents and the Pentagon Papers task force, followed by the World Bank presidency."
 born: 1916-06-09
 died: 2009-07-06
 location: "San Francisco, California, USA"
+relations:
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Ford Motor Company]]"
+    start: 1946
+    end: 1961-01
+    role: "member of the postwar management group nicknamed the Whiz Kids; named president in November 1960"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: appointed
+    with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
+    start: 1961-01
+    end: 1968-02-29
+    role: "Secretary of Defense"
+    fn: 3
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[World Bank]]"
+    start: 1968-04-01
+    end: 1981-06-30
+    fn: 1
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Operation Mongoose]]"
+    start: 1962-08-10
+    role: "attended the August 10, 1962 Special Group (Augmented) meeting"
+    fn: 8
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Operation NORTHWOODS]]"
+    start: 1962-03-13
+    role: "addressee of the Joint Chiefs of Staff memorandum forwarding the pretexts paper"
+    fn: 13
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]]"
+    start: 1964-08-03
+    role: "Secretary of Defense; briefed congressional leaders on the destroyer attacks"
+    fn: 22
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Pentagon Papers]]"
+    start: 1967-06-17
+    role: "directed the formation of the OSD Vietnam Task Force"
+    fn: 28
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Six-Day War]]"
+    start: 1967-06-01
+    role: "met Israeli intelligence chief Meir Amit"
+    fn: 32
 ---
 
-Robert S. McNamara served as the Secretary of Defense under President [[John F. Kennedy]] and later under President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. He was involved in discussions regarding [[Israel]]'s nuclear program and the sale of advanced U.S. fighter aircraft to Israel. [[Abraham Feinberg]] directly intervened with McNamara, insisting that the [[United States]] should not interfere with Israel's nuclear activities. McNamara cryptically acknowledged the basic problem of Israel's existence as a question mark in history, which he understood as a reason for Israel's desire for a nuclear bomb.[^1]
+Robert S. McNamara (June 9, 1916 to July 6, 2009) was [[United States]] Secretary of Defense under President [[John F. Kennedy]] and then under President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], and from April 1, 1968 to June 30, 1981 president of the [[World Bank]].[^1] Before 1961 he was an Army Air Forces statistician and then an executive of the [[Ford Motor Company]].[^2] In 1967 he directed the study of [[Vietnam War]] decision-making that became the [[Pentagon Papers]], and he is named in accounts of the 1967 attack on the [[USS Liberty Incident|USS Liberty]] and in Hersh's account of Israel's nuclear program.
+
+### Statistical Control, LeMay and Ford
+
+In the 2003 film The Fog of War, McNamara said that as a Harvard Business School assistant professor during World War II he worked on a government contract to establish an officer candidate school for what the Air Force called "Statistical Control," selecting candidates by sorting a punch card for every person brought into the Air Corps through IBM machines. He said that a study of daylight bombing in Europe found that the 20 percent abort rate reflected fear of a 4 percent loss rate per sortie, and that [[Curtis LeMay]], then a colonel commanding a B-24 group, answered the report by ordering that any plane that took off would go over the target or the crew would be court-martialed. McNamara said that in March 1945 he was on Guam in LeMay's command when "we burned to death 100,000 Japanese civilians in Tokyo," that he "was part of a mechanism that in a sense recommended it" by analyzing the efficiency of B-29 operations, and quoted LeMay as saying, "If we'd lost the war, we'd all have been prosecuted as war criminals." McNamara added: "He, and I'd say I, were behaving as war criminals."[^2]
+
+After the war McNamara joined a group of former Air Forces officers at Ford, which he said had just barely broken even from 1926 to 1946. The World Bank's history records that the management techniques of McNamara and his colleagues earned them the nickname "Whiz Kids," and that in November 1960 he was named president of Ford. After about one month in that position he was called to the Kennedy administration as Secretary of Defense.[^1][^2]
+
+### The Defense Department, 1961
+
+A Joint Chiefs of Staff memorandum dated January 27, 1961 was addressed to him as Secretary of Defense.[^3]
+
+### Defense Intelligence Agency
+
+In February 1961 McNamara advised the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] of his decision to establish a [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], acting on the recommendations of the Joint Study Group that [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] had appointed in 1960. The Joint Chiefs completed the concept plan by July. DoD Directive 5105.21, "Defense Intelligence Agency," was published on August 1, 1961, effective October 1, 1961.[^4] The [[Advanced Research Projects Agency]] initiated Project Agile in 1961, a portfolio of counterinsurgency research programs in Southeast Asia that ran through 1974 and included work on small arms, communications, surveillance and vegetation-clearing chemicals.[^5]
+
+### Operation Mongoose and the Special Group (Augmented)
+
+After the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], the Kennedy administration assigned the covert campaign against the government of [[Cuba]] to [[Operation Mongoose]]. Overall control of the operation was entrusted to a new group established for the purpose, called the Special Group (Augmented), a slightly expanded version of the NSC 5412 Special Group.[^6] The [[Church Committee]] recorded that McNamara was not a formal member of that group.[^7]
+
+At the Special Group (Augmented) meeting of August 10, 1962, which [[Dean Rusk]] chaired, McNamara questioned whether building up agents in Cuba would lead to actions that "would hurt the U.S. in the eyes of world opinion." The minutes state that this concern "led to the suggestion by General Taylor that we should consider changing the overall objective" of the operation, from overthrowing the [[Fidel Castro]] regime to causing its failure.[^8]
+
+The question of assassination is where the record divides. [[William Harvey]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] officer whose Task Force W ran the Mongoose operation, testified in 1975 that McNamara raised the subject at the August 10 meeting with the words "shouldn't we consider the elimination or assassination of Fidel?" Asked whether he was guessing about the speaker, Harvey said, "No, I am not guessing . . . to the best of my recollection, it was surfaced by Robert McNamara." Harvey also testified that his recollection agreed with his memorandum of August 14, written shortly after the meeting.[^9] McNamara testified that although he did not recall assassination being discussed at the meeting, he did remember opposing any assassination attempt or plan when he spoke with [[John McCone]] several days later.[^10] McCone testified that McNamara agreed [[Edward Lansdale]]'s August 13 memorandum to Harvey should be withdrawn, and that, with no independent recollection, he could reconstruct from the documents that it was McNamara who made the suggestion.[^9][^10] The Church Committee also recorded a 1975 account by Goodwin, a White House aide, of a task force meeting at which McNamara said that "Castro's assassination was the only productive way of dealing with Cuba." Goodwin testified that he had been misquoted and did not say "it was definitely McNamara."[^11]
+
+### Operation Northwoods
+
+On March 6, 1962 Lansdale, chief of operations of Mongoose, wrote that "in response to direction" he was asking the Defense representative, General Craig, "to give me a brief but precise description of pretexts which the JCS believes desirable if a decision is ultimately made to use direct military intervention," and asked the State Department's Goodwin for a companion statement of the pretexts State considered desirable.[^12]
+
+The Joint Chiefs of Staff sent McNamara a memorandum dated March 13, 1962, signed by [[Lyman Lemnitzer]] as chairman, with the subject "Justification for US Military Intervention in Cuba (TS)." It stated that the Joint Chiefs had considered the attached memorandum for the Chief of Operations, Cuba Project, which responded to that office's request, and recommended that it be forwarded "as a preliminary submission suitable for planning purposes." The memorandum added that "it is assumed that a single agency will be given the primary responsibility for developing military and para-military aspects of the basic plan," and recommended that this responsibility "for both overt and covert military operations be assigned the Joint Chiefs of Staff."[^13] The paper is the Joint Chiefs document known as [[Operation NORTHWOODS]].
+
+The attached paper (JCS 1969/321, Top Secret, Special Handling, Noforn) stated that its suggested courses of action rested on the premise that intervention "will result from a period of heightened US-Cuban tensions which place the United States in the position of suffering justifiable grievances," and that "world opinion, and the United Nations forum should be favorably affected by developing the international image of the Cuban government as rash and irresponsible, and as an alarming and unpredictable threat to the peace of the Western Hemisphere." It stated that the premise would hold only so long as there could be reasonable certainty that intervention would not directly involve the Soviet Union, and that "all projects are suggested within the time frame of the next few months." Its recommendations were that the paper not be forwarded to commanders of unified or specified commands, to U.S. officers assigned to NATO activities, or to the chairman of the U.S. delegation to the United Nations Military Staff Committee. A draft memorandum for the Chief of Operations, Cuba Project, appended to it, stated that a plan built from the suggestions "would enable a logical build-up of incidents to be combined with other seemingly unrelated events to camouflage the ultimate objective and create the necessary impression of Cuban rashness and irresponsibility on a large scale, directed at other countries as well as the United States," and that "inasmuch as the ultimate objective is overt military intervention," primary responsibility for the military and para-military aspects should go to the Joint Chiefs.[^13]
+
+The annex, "Pretexts to Justify US Military Intervention in Cuba," listed the proposed courses of action. They included a series of "well coordinated incidents" at Guantanamo (among them rumors spread by clandestine radio, friendly Cubans in uniform landed "over-the-fence" to stage an attack, "Blow up ammunition inside the base; start fires," and "Sink ship near harbor entrance. Conduct funerals for mock-victims"); a "Remember the Maine" incident in which "We could blow up a US ship in Guantanamo Bay and blame Cuba" or blow up an unmanned vessel near Havana or Santiago; and a "Communist Cuban terror campaign in the Miami area, in other Florida cities and even in Washington," including "sink[ing] a boatload of Cubans enroute to Florida (real or simulated)." Others were a simulated "Cuban-based, Castro-supported" filibuster against a neighboring Caribbean nation; harassment of civil aircraft by U.S. pilots flying MIG-type aircraft, including "An F-86 properly painted"; and a staged shoot-down of a chartered civil airliner, in which an aircraft at Eglin Air Force Base painted as a duplicate of a registered aircraft belonging to a CIA proprietary in the Miami area would be substituted for the real one, loaded with passengers "all boarded under carefully prepared aliases," while the real aircraft, converted to a drone, flew the filed route and transmitted a "MAY DAY" message on the international distress frequency before being destroyed by radio signal. A further scenario had four or five F-101 aircraft flown toward Cuba so that a pre-briefed pilot could broadcast that he had been jumped by MIGs, after which a submarine or small surface craft would disburse F-101 parts and a parachute off the Cuban coast. A second enclosure recorded the Joint Chiefs' statement of March 7, 1962 that "determination that a credible internal revolt is impossible of attainment during the next 9-10 months will require a decision by the United States to develop a Cuban 'provocation' as justification for positive US military action."[^13]
+
+A Joint Secretariat decision note on the paper records that the Joint Chiefs approved the recommendations in its paragraph 8 and that, because the Commandant of the Marine Corps had expressed direct concern, the provisions of Title 10, U.S. Code, section 141(b) applied.[^13] The National Security Archive posted the fifteen-page document on April 30, 2001, after James Bamford described it in his book Body of Secrets.[^14]
+
+On March 16, 1962, three days after the memorandum, President Kennedy met with McCone, General [[Maxwell Taylor]], [[Roswell Gilpatric]], Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]], [[McGeorge Bundy]] and Lemnitzer to discuss the Mongoose guidelines. [[U. Alexis Johnson]]'s handwritten note records that "The President also expressed skepticism that in so far as can now be foreseen circumstances will arise that would justify and make desirable the use of American forces for overt military action," and that "no decision was expressed or implied approving the use of such forces although contingency planning would proceed."[^15] At the April 11, 1962 meeting of the Special Group (Augmented), according to McCone's notes, the "JCS paper on pretext or provocative actions was discussed" and McCone wrote that "We should have and review this paper as it is considered to be a very thoughtful and useful document." The question of manufacturing MIG-type planes was raised at the same meeting.[^16]
+
+### Cuban Missile Crisis
+
+On October 27, 1962, at the [[Executive Committee of the National Security Council]], McNamara reported on that day's daylight reconnaissance missions, one of which had aborted for mechanical reasons, with one plane overdue and several reported to have met ground fire. He again recommended night reconnaissance missions. The President delayed a decision on night flights pending a full report on the daylight mission.[^17] In The Fog of War McNamara said that LeMay, whom he had served under in World War II, was saying "Let's go in, let's totally destroy Cuba," and that after the crisis LeMay told Kennedy, "Won? Hell, we lost. We should go in and wipe 'em out today."[^2]
+
+### Diem and the 1963 Coup
+
+On October 2, 1963 McNamara and General Taylor reported to Kennedy on the military campaign and the political situation in [[Saigon]]. Their conclusions included that "there is no solid evidence of the possibility of a successful coup, although assassination of [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Diem]] or [[Ngo Dinh Nhu|Nhu]] is always a possibility."[^18]
+
+### Gulf of Tonkin
+
+On August 3, 1964 the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, [[Peter Solbert]], sent McNamara a memorandum on the aftermath of the [[USS Maddox]] engagement. It listed as possible further actions the aerial mining of North Vietnamese naval bases or harbors, further covert [[Operation 34-A]] missions against those bases, and, on the suggestion of Ambassador Maxwell Taylor in Saigon, the destruction of Swatow boats on the high seas.[^19]
+
+On the telephone at 10:30 a.m. on August 3, Johnson and McNamara discussed the congressional briefing. McNamara proposed explaining the covert naval operations to Congress: "And we're going to, and I think I should also, or we should also at that time, Mr. President, explain this Op Plan 34-A, these covert operations. There's no question but what that had bearing on."[^20] [[John Prados]] wrote that McNamara took the position in later public hearings that he was unaware of any such link.[^21]
+
+At a meeting of congressional leaders on August 4, 1964, McNamara began his briefing: "The first indication we had of another attack on the destroyers, the Maddox and Turner Joy, was received at 7:30 A.M. today."[^22] In a telephone call at 9:43 a.m. that day, Johnson and McNamara discussed retaliation. McNamara said of the destroyer: "this ship is allegedly, uh, to be attacked tonight."[^21]
+
+In February 1968 McNamara was still Secretary of Defense and again served as the administration's lead witness before the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] on the 1964 incidents. He told the committee that the question of provocation had been "fully explored" at the 1964 hearings. Prados wrote that McNamara cited [[Naval Security Group]] intercepts made aboard the Maddox, described them in general terms, and declined to leave copies with the committee.[^21]
+
+### Infiltration, the Jason study and the barrier
+
+On January 24, 1966 McNamara sent Johnson a memorandum on the military outlook in [[South Vietnam]]. It estimated that the enemy could generate in the North and infiltrate to the South "an average of 200 tons of supplies a day depending on the season," despite anti-infiltration efforts.[^23]
+
+From June 13 to June 22, 1966 more than forty scientists met in Wellesley, Massachusetts for briefings on the war organized by the JASON Division of the [[Institute for Defense Analyses]] under a Defense Department contract. In a letter to McNamara of June 23, 1966, [[George Kistiakowsky]] reported that the group had reached "a large measure of consensus on several tentative inferences." In late August the four study groups submitted reports to McNamara that, according to the editors of the Foreign Relations volume, concluded that the bombing of North Vietnam was ineffective and recommended construction of a barrier as an alternative means of checking infiltration.[^24] On September 15, 1966 McNamara wrote to the Director of the Defense Communications Agency, General Starbird, that an infiltration interdiction system "is to be designed, produced, and put in place in South Vietnam and Laos as a matter of highest priority," named him Director of Joint Task Force 728 with the objective of having the system in operation by September 15, 1967, and said that the concept came from the study "Air-Supported Anti-Infiltration Barrier" (August 1966) by the Jason Division. He told Starbird to use an advisory group of non-governmental experts, including Kistiakowsky.[^25] On November 14, 1966 he told Johnson that the ground portions of the barrier, fences, wire, mines and sensors supported by artillery, aircraft and mobile troops, would run about 30 kilometers west from the South China Sea, with intermittent ground barriers to the west and an air barrier beyond whose character had not been decided.[^26]
+
+In late 1967 McNamara sent Johnson a memorandum on pacification that set out a "five-pronged" strategy. One prong was a barrier "across the trails of [[Laos]]."[^27]
+
+### Pentagon Papers
+
+On June 17, 1967 McNamara directed that a task force be formed to study the history of United States involvement in Vietnam from World War II to the present. His guidance to the task force was that the studies be "encyclopedic and objective." Its chairman, [[Leslie Gelb]], wrote in the final report that with six full-time professionals the task force was to finish in three months, and that a year and a half later, with six times six professionals, it was done with thirty-seven studies and fifteen collections of documents in forty-three volumes. McNamara gave the task force access to Office of the Secretary of Defense files; it had access to CIA materials and some State Department cables, no access to White House files, and guidance that prohibited personal interviews with principal participants.[^28] The report was commissioned by McNamara in 1967, and portions were leaked to the press in June 1971. On the 40th anniversary of the leak the [[National Archives and Records Administration]], with the Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon presidential libraries, released the complete report without redactions, about 7,000 pages in 48 boxes, in the form in which Gelb presented it to Secretary of Defense [[Clark Clifford]] on January 15, 1969.[^29]
+
+### Departure from the Defense Department
+
+Johnson spoke at a farewell ceremony for McNamara at the Pentagon on February 29, 1968, and on March 1, 1968 swore in Clifford as Secretary of Defense.[^30][^31] The World Bank's history states that McNamara's thinking on the war gradually diverged from Johnson's and that Johnson nominated him as the next World Bank president.[^1]
+
+### Six-Day War
+
+On June 1, 1967 McNamara met Israeli intelligence chief [[Meir Amit]], the director of [[Mossad]], who was in Washington from May 31 to June 2. A memorandum for the record, written by [[Rufus Taylor]], records that Amit told McNamara he was personally going to recommend that Israel act, that Israel's mobilization could not be sustained for long, and that the Israelis could take the Sinai with about 4,000 casualties if they had air superiority. The memorandum records McNamara asking how many casualties Israel would take, and assuring Amit that the information would go no further than the top officials who needed it.[^32]
+
+In 1992 Amit recalled that the meeting lasted 40 minutes, that McNamara asked how long a war would last, and that he replied "Seven days." Amit also quoted McNamara as saying that "the president knows that you are here and I have a direct line to the president."[^32]
+
+### Israel and Abraham Feinberg
+
+[[Abraham Feinberg]], a pro-Israel fundraiser, is recorded by [[Seymour Hersh]] as intervening directly with McNamara to insist that the United States should not interfere with [[Israel]]'s nuclear activities. In Hersh's account McNamara cryptically acknowledged the basic problem of Israel's existence as a question mark in history, which Hersh read as a reason for Israel's desire for a nuclear bomb.[^33] Hersh placed McNamara in the discussions of Israel's nuclear program and of the sale of advanced U.S. fighter aircraft to Israel.[^33]
+
+Foreign Relations volumes show Feinberg as a channel in later Israeli aid business. In June 1966 [[Walt Rostow]] told Johnson that Feinberg had brought in [[Shimon Peres]], the former Israeli defense minister, and that McNamara had given formal concurrence in a June 27 memorandum to Rostow on a related loan.[^34] In April 1967 Rostow's covering memorandum on an Israeli aid package bore Johnson's handwritten note asking that it be put on his desk for when the Feinberg appointment was ready. The editorial note for the same period records that Secretaries Rusk and McNamara were asked for their views on the Israeli policy paper.[^35]
 
 ### The USS Liberty attack
 
-In an affidavit released in October 2003, [[Ward Boston]] states that the president of the Navy's 1967 Court of Inquiry into the attack on the [[USS Liberty Incident|USS Liberty]], Admiral [[Isaac C. Kidd Jr.]], told him that McNamara and President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered the court to conclude that the attack was a case of mistaken identity.[^2] [[A. Jay Cristol]] quotes McNamara's July 1967 statement to the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] that "it was the conclusion of the investigatory body headed by an Admiral of the Navy [Isaac C. Kidd, Jr.] in whom we have great confidence that the attack was not intentional. I read the record of investigation and I support that conclusion."[^3] The Chicago Tribune reported in 2007 that J. Q. Hart, a chief petty officer at a Navy relay station in Morocco, recalled hearing McNamara order Rear Admiral Lawrence Geis to recall the carrier aircraft sent toward the Liberty, and quoted Hart as recalling McNamara's words: "President [Lyndon] Johnson is not going to go to war or embarrass an American ally over a few sailors." McNamara, then 91, told the Tribune he had "absolutely no recollection of what I did that day."[^4]
+In an affidavit released in October 2003, [[Ward Boston]] states that the president of the Navy's 1967 Court of Inquiry into the attack on the USS Liberty, Admiral [[Isaac C. Kidd Jr.]], told him that McNamara and President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered the court to conclude that the attack was a case of mistaken identity.[^36] [[A. Jay Cristol]] quotes McNamara's July 1967 statement to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee: "it was the conclusion of the investigatory body headed by an Admiral of the Navy [Isaac C. Kidd, Jr.] in whom we have great confidence that the attack was not intentional. I read the record of investigation and I support that conclusion."[^37]
+
+The [[Chicago Tribune]] reported in 2007 that J. Q. Hart, a chief petty officer at a Navy relay station in [[Morocco]], recalled hearing McNamara order Rear Admiral [[Lawrence Geis]] to recall the carrier aircraft sent toward the Liberty. Hart quoted McNamara as saying: "President [Lyndon] Johnson is not going to go to war or embarrass an American ally over a few sailors." McNamara, then 91, told the Tribune he had "absolutely no recollection of what I did that day."[^38]
+
+### World Bank presidency
+
+McNamara took office as president of the World Bank on April 1, 1968. Commitments rose from about $1 billion in 1968 to more than $13 billion in fiscal 1981.[^1] McNamara coined the term "absolute poverty" in his 1973 Annual Meeting speech, and the Bank's history credits him with first setting out its twin goals of accelerating economic growth and reducing poverty.[^39]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
-[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 8.
-[^2]: Ward Boston Jr., affidavit as printed in the Congressional Record, Extensions of Remarks, October 11, 2004, pp. E1886-E1889, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CREC-2004-10-11/html/CREC-2004-10-11-pt1-PgE1886-3.htm; the same sentence is paragraph 16 of the declaration dated January 8, 2004, https://archive.org/download/boston-declaration/BostonDeclaration.pdf.
-[^3]: A. Jay Cristol, History News Network, June 12, 2007. Cristol quotes the testimony with ellipses and cites it as released by the U.S. Government Printing Office in 1967. https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/why-you-shouldnt-pay-attention-to-the-claims-that-
-[^4]: "New revelations in attack on American spy ship," *Chicago Tribune*, October 2, 2007. Hart's and McNamara's statements are as the Tribune reported them. https://www.chicagotribune.com/2007/10/02/new-revelations-in-attack-on-american-spy-ship/
+[^1]: World Bank Group Archives, "Robert Strange McNamara, 1916-2009," Past Presidents (Ford, "Whiz Kids," November 1960; president of the World Bank Group April 1, 1968 to June 30, 1981; commitment figures). https://www.worldbank.org/en/archive/history/past-presidents/robert-strange-mcnamara
+[^2]: Errol Morris, The Fog of War (2003), transcript, Errol Morris website (McNamara on Statistical Control, LeMay, the March 1945 Tokyo raid, Ford and the Cuban Missile Crisis, in his own words). https://www.errolmorris.com/film/fow_transcript.html
+[^3]: Joint Chiefs of Staff, memorandum to Secretary of Defense McNamara, January 27, 1961, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. X, Document 28. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d28
+[^4]: Defense Intelligence Agency, "Defense Intelligence Agency: A Brief History," pp. 1-2 (announcement August 2, 1961; DoD Directive 5105.21 issued August 1, effective October 1, 1961). https://irp.fas.org/dia/dia_history.pdf
+[^5]: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, "Project Agile," innovation timeline. https://www.darpa.mil/about/innovation-timeline/project-agile
+[^6]: Office of the Historian, editorial note preceding Document 270, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. X. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d270
+[^7]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 140. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf
+[^8]: Alleged Assassination Plots, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 162-163, quoting the Special Group (Augmented) minutes of August 10, 1962, p. 2.
+[^9]: Alleged Assassination Plots, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 164 (Harvey and McCone testimony) and the Additional Views of Senator Howard H. Baker Jr., pp. 320-321, quoting Harvey, July 11, 1975, pp. 29-30 and 86, and McCone, June 6, 1975, pp. 33 and 38-39.
+[^10]: Alleged Assassination Plots, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 164-165, citing McNamara testimony, July 11, 1975, pp. 7-8, and McCone testimony, June 6, 1975, p. 39.
+[^11]: Alleged Assassination Plots, S. Rept. 94-465, Additional Views of Senator Baker, p. 322, citing Goodwin testimony, July 18, 1975, pp. 33 and 35, and the 1975 article by Taylor Branch and George Crile III in which Goodwin is quoted.
+[^12]: Lansdale to Goodwin, March 6, 1962 (Top Secret; Sensitive), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. X, Document 310. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d310
+[^13]: Joint Chiefs of Staff, memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, "Justification for US Military Intervention in Cuba (TS)," March 13, 1962, signed by L. L. Lemnitzer, Chairman, with Enclosure A, its appendix and annex, Enclosure B, and the Joint Secretariat decision note, from JCS 1969/321 (Top Secret, Special Handling, Noforn; declassified 1997), pp. 1-15 of the National Security Archive copy; Enclosure A appendix paras. 3 and 5 and the annex at pp. 5-11, Enclosure B para. 2 at p. 12. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/20010430/northwoods.pdf
+[^14]: National Security Archive, "Pentagon Proposed Pretexts for Cuba Invasion in 1962," April 30, 2001. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/20010430/
+[^15]: Guidelines for Operation Mongoose and editorial note quoting U. Alexis Johnson's handwritten covering memorandum of March 16, 1962, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. X, Document 314. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d314
+[^16]: Memorandum by Director of Central Intelligence McCone on the April 11, 1962 meeting of the Special Group (Augmented), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. X, Document 325. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d325
+[^17]: Office of the Historian, Document 94, Summary Record of the Eighth Meeting of the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, October 27, 1962, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. XI. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d94
+[^18]: Memorandum from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Taylor) and the Secretary of Defense (McNamara) to President Kennedy, October 2, 1963, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Vol. IV, Document 167. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d167
+[^19]: Peter Solbert, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, memorandum to Secretary of Defense McNamara, August 3, 1964 (Top Secret; Sensitive), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. I, Document 268. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d268
+[^20]: Telephone conversation, Lyndon B. Johnson and Robert S. McNamara, August 3, 1964, 10:30 a.m., transcript, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 132. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB132/tapes.htm
+[^21]: John Prados, "The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, 40 Years Later," National Security Archive, posted August 4, 2004, citing the telephone conversation of August 4, 1964, 9:43 a.m. (Prados, ed., The White House Tapes, p. 193) and the McNamara testimony excerpts of February 20, 1968 (Lyndon Baines Johnson Library, National Security File, NSC Histories, box 39). https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB132/essay.htm
+[^22]: Notes of the Leadership Meeting, White House, August 4, 1964, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. I, Document 280 (notes by Walter Jenkins). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d280
+[^23]: Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson, "The Military Outlook in South Vietnam," January 24, 1966, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. IV, Document 36. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v04/d36
+[^24]: Letter from George B. Kistiakowsky to Secretary of Defense McNamara, June 23, 1966, with the editors' note on the JASON study groups, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. IV, Document 163. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v04/d163
+[^25]: Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to the Director of the Defense Communications Agency (Starbird), "Infiltration Interdiction System for Vietnam," September 15, 1966, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. IV, Document 233. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v04/d233
+[^26]: Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson, "Anti-infiltration barrier between North and South Vietnam," November 14, 1966, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. IV, Document 307. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v04/d307
+[^27]: "Pacification" study, Pentagon Papers, Part IV.C.8, printed page 99. https://nara-media-001.s3.amazonaws.com/arcmedia/research/pentagon-papers/Pentagon-Papers-Part-IV-C-8.pdf
+[^28]: Leslie H. Gelb, Final Report, OSD Vietnam Task Force (transmittal text; June 17, 1967 directive; "encyclopedic and objective"; thirty-seven studies, fifteen collections of documents in forty-three volumes), in the Pentagon Papers index volume. https://nara-media-001.s3.amazonaws.com/arcmedia/research/pentagon-papers/Pentagon-Papers-Index.pdf
+[^29]: National Archives and Records Administration, "The Pentagon Papers." https://www.archives.gov/research/pentagon-papers
+[^30]: Lyndon B. Johnson, "Remarks at a Farewell Ceremony at the Pentagon Honoring Secretary McNamara," February 29, 1968, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-farewell-ceremony-the-pentagon-honoring-secretary-mcnamara
+[^31]: Lyndon B. Johnson, "Remarks at the Swearing In of Clark Clifford as Secretary of Defense," March 1, 1968, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-clark-clifford-secretary-defense
+[^32]: Memorandum for the Record by Rufus Taylor, conversation between Major General Meir Amit and Secretary McNamara, June 1, 1967, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. XIX, Document 124, including the source note quoting Amit's 1992 remarks (Richard B. Parker, ed., The Six-Day War: A Retrospective, University Press of Florida, 1996, pp. 139-140). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v19/d124
+[^33]: Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (Random House, 1991), chapter 8.
+[^34]: Walt W. Rostow, memorandum to President Johnson, June 21, 1966, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. XVIII, Document 304. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v18/d304
+[^35]: Rostow to Johnson, April 18, 1967 (Document 406), and editorial note on the Israeli aid agenda (Document 410), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Vol. XVIII. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v18/d410
+[^36]: Ward Boston Jr., affidavit as printed in the Congressional Record, Extensions of Remarks, October 11, 2004, pp. E1886-E1889, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CREC-2004-10-11/html/CREC-2004-10-11-pt1-PgE1886-3.htm; the same sentence is paragraph 16 of the declaration dated January 8, 2004, https://archive.org/download/boston-declaration/BostonDeclaration.pdf.
+[^37]: A. Jay Cristol, History News Network, June 12, 2007. Cristol quotes the testimony with ellipses and cites it as released by the U.S. Government Printing Office in 1967. https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/why-you-shouldnt-pay-attention-to-the-claims-that-
+[^38]: "New revelations in attack on American spy ship," Chicago Tribune, October 2, 2007. Hart's and McNamara's statements are as the Tribune reported them. https://www.chicagotribune.com/2007/10/02/new-revelations-in-attack-on-american-spy-ship/
+[^39]: World Bank, "History," statement on the 1973 Annual Meeting speech and the Bank's twin goals. https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/history

10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Stephen Kosslyn.md

@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ A December 1988 [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI International]] final report o
 
 Harvard's Office of the General Counsel found that Epstein gave Harvard two gifts, in 1998 and 2002, totaling $200,000, "to support Kosslyn's research." Its May 2020 report, [[Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University]], states that Epstein first provided support for Harvard faculty members in 1998, and that between 1998 and 2002 he had given $200,000 "to support Kosslyn's work."[^26]
 
-The report found that Epstein applied on September 1, 2005 to be admitted as a Visiting Fellow, that his application stated he had learned of the status from Kosslyn, and that Kosslyn recommended him in a letter dated September 2, 2005. The letter reads "I have known Jeffrey for about nine years" and "He has been my only collaborator on this project (for some five years now, I believe)." Harvard admitted Epstein for the 2005 to 2006 academic year on September 3, 2005, with tuition and fees of $10,072, and approved a second year on April 21, 2006.[^26] The report says that Kosslyn acknowledged Epstein was not qualified to conduct aspects of his proposed research, particularly the MRI testing, and that in Kosslyn's recollection Epstein "was barely ever around."[^26] The report also states that the Visiting Fellow application form did not require Kosslyn to disclose Epstein's financial support when he endorsed him, and that because Kosslyn was a department chair, his recommendation "proved sufficient to carry the day."[^26] In a November 2008 email, Kosslyn, then divisional dean, noted that he had discussed "Martin [Nowak]'s situation" with [[Benedict Gross]], the chair of the mathematics department, according to the report.[^26]
+The report found that Epstein applied on September 1, 2005 to be admitted as a Visiting Fellow, that his application stated he had learned of the status from Kosslyn, and that Kosslyn recommended him in a letter dated September 2, 2005. The letter reads "I have known Jeffrey for about nine years" and "He has been my only collaborator on this project (for some five years now, I believe)." Harvard admitted Epstein for the 2005 to 2006 academic year on September 3, 2005, with tuition and fees of $10,072, and approved a second year on April 21, 2006.[^26] The report says that Kosslyn acknowledged Epstein was not qualified to conduct aspects of his proposed research, particularly the MRI testing, and that in Kosslyn's recollection Epstein "was barely ever around."[^26] The report also states that the Visiting Fellow application form did not require Kosslyn to disclose Epstein's financial support when he endorsed him, and that because Kosslyn was a department chair, his recommendation "proved sufficient to carry the day."[^26] In a November 2008 email, Kosslyn, then divisional dean, noted that he had discussed "Martin [Nowak]'s situation" with [[Benedict Gross]], the chair of the mathematics department, according to the report. The email, which the report quotes, continues: "If [President] Drew [Faust] weren't opposed to taking JEE's money, there wouldn't be a problem . . . but she is." The report states that Epstein was readmitted in February 2006 for 2006 to 2007 and withdrew in September 2006 after his arrest.[^26]
 
 ### Palm Beach County Jail visits
 
@@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ The Stanford spokesperson told the Daily that the university "[does] not have ad
 [^1]: Minerva Project, "Minerva Project Names Dr. Stephen M. Kosslyn as Founding Dean," March 12, 2013. https://s3.minervaproject.com/press-releases/Minerva_Project_Annouces_Stephen_M._Kosslyn.pdf
 [^2]: National Science Foundation award records 7616987 (Johns Hopkins University, September 1, 1976 to February 28, 1978), 7721782 (Harvard University, 1977 to 1980), 8240259 (Brandeis University, October 13, 1981 to August 31, 1983) and 8318452 (Harvard University, December 1, 1983 to May 31, 1985), "Visual Images As Memory Structures." https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=8240259
 [^3]: Aadi Kucheria and Ashton Dolce, "Former Stanford academic Stephen Kosslyn Ph.D. '74 visited Epstein in jail, faced allegation of sexual assault," The Stanford Daily, February 5, 2026. https://stanforddaily.com/2026/02/05/sexual-assault-epstein-kosslyn/
-[^4]: Diane E. Lopez, Ara B. Gershengorn and Martin F. Murphy, Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University, Harvard University Office of the General Counsel and Foley Hoag LLP, May 2020, pp. 3 and 5. https://ogc.harvard.edu/files/ogc/files/report_concerning_jeffrey_e._epsteins_connections_to_harvard_university.pdf
+[^4]: Diane E. Lopez, Ara B. Gershengorn and Martin F. Murphy, Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University, Harvard University Office of the General Counsel and Foley Hoag LLP, May 2020, pp. 3 and 5. https://ogc.harvard.edu/file_url/208
 [^5]: "Stephen Kosslyn named divisional dean for the social sciences," Harvard Gazette, April 24, 2008. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2008/04/stephen-kosslyn-named-divisional-dean-for-the-social-sciences
 [^6]: "Kosslyn appointed director of CASBS," The Stanford Daily, July 29, 2010. https://stanforddaily.com/2010/07/29/kosslyn-appointed-director-of-casbs/
 [^7]: Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, "Leadership History," listing Stephen M. Kosslyn as Director, 2011 to 2013. https://casbs.stanford.edu/about/leadership-history
@@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ The Stanford spokesperson told the Daily that the university "[does] not have ad
 [^23]: National Science Foundation award search, awards 7616987, 7712345, 7721782, 8240259, 8318452, 9009619, 0106760, 0322611 and 0411725, retrieved through the NSF awards API. https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=0411725 and https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=0322611
 [^24]: National Institutes of Health RePORTER, project search for principal investigator Stephen M. Kosslyn, including projects R01MH039478, R01AG012675, P01NS017778, P01NS027950, 1F06TW002247, R01MH060734 and T32MH070328. https://reporter.nih.gov/
 [^25]: Edwin C. May and Virginia V. Trask, "Forced-Choice Remote Viewing," Final Report, Objective E, Task 4, SRI Project 1291, December 1988, CIA-RDP96-00787R000300010001-9, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200290001-6 and CIA-RDP96-00789R002200280001-7 (the last a copy marked SECRET), and the same report within the "Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, Volume 2 of 2" compilation, CIA-RDP96-00789R003200160001-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r002200290001-6
-[^26]: Lopez, Gershengorn and Murphy, Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University, May 2020, pp. 3 and 5 (the gifts), 5 to 8 (the Visiting Fellow application, the September 2, 2005 letter, the approvals and Kosslyn's account), 10 (the November 2008 email) and 26 (the recommendation). https://ogc.harvard.edu/files/ogc/files/report_concerning_jeffrey_e._epsteins_connections_to_harvard_university.pdf
+[^26]: Lopez, Gershengorn and Murphy, Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University, May 2020, pp. 3 and 5 (the gifts), 5 to 8 (the Visiting Fellow application, the September 2, 2005 letter, the approvals and Kosslyn's account), 10 (the November 2008 email) and 26 (the recommendation). https://ogc.harvard.edu/file_url/208
 [^27]: Kucheria and Dolce, "Former Stanford academic Stephen Kosslyn Ph.D. '74 visited Epstein in jail, faced allegation of sexual assault," The Stanford Daily, February 5, 2026, reporting the Palm Beach County Jail visitor log (page 45, September 20 and 21, 2008), the 2,145 mentions, the 2003 birthday book and the 2004 to 2005 contact book. https://stanforddaily.com/2026/02/05/sexual-assault-epstein-kosslyn/
 [^28]: Plaintiff Doe's witness list, Doe v. Epstein, No. 08-CV-80893-CIV-MARRA/JOHNSON (S.D. Fla.), entry 102, EFTA00725731 (witness list continuation, page stamped EFTA00725736), U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725731.pdf
 [^29]: Jeffrey Epstein and Stephen Kosslyn emails, July 22, 2009, EFTA01816448, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 10; the Daily reports the exchange in Kucheria and Dolce, The Stanford Daily, February 5 and February 18, 2026. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01816448.pdf

10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Timothy Leary.md

@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ tags:
   - Counterculture
   - Cyberculture
   - Transhumanism
-summary: "Timothy Leary was the Harvard psychologist turned psychedelic evangelist who ran the Harvard Psilocybin Project, coined 'turn on, tune in, drop out,' operated under documented CIA surveillance while drawing on research networks whose funding traced to MKULTRA, and in his final decades became a champion of personal computers, space migration, and life extension."
+summary: "Harvard psychologist who ran the Harvard Psilocybin Project, coined 'turn on, tune in, drop out,' was under documented CIA surveillance, and later promoted personal computers, space migration and life extension."
 born: 1920-10-22
 died: 1996-05-31
 location: "Springfield, Massachusetts; Beverly Hills, California"
@@ -23,75 +23,76 @@ created: 2026-06-03
 updated: 2026-06-20
 ---
 
-Timothy Francis Leary (October 22, 1920 to May 31, 1996) was an American psychologist who became the most prominent public advocate of psychedelic drugs in the 1960s and, in his final decades, a promoter of personal computers, space colonization, and radical life extension. Trained as a research psychologist and briefly a respected figure in personality theory, he ran the [[Harvard Psilocybin Project]] from 1960 until his dismissal in 1963, popularized the slogan "turn on, tune in, drop out," and was described by [[Richard Nixon]], according to widely repeated accounts, as "the most dangerous man in America." He drew, often unknowingly, on drug-research networks whose funding traced back to the CIA's [[MKULTRA]] program, and was himself placed under documented [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] surveillance. In his final decades he promoted the personal computer as a tool of consciousness expansion and became a celebrated figure in the [[Transhumanism|transhumanist]] and cyberculture scenes of the 1980s and 1990s.[^1][^2][^12]
+Timothy Francis Leary (October 22, 1920 to May 31, 1996) was an American psychologist who became the most prominent public advocate of psychedelic drugs in the 1960s and, in his final decades, a promoter of personal computers, space colonization, and radical life extension. Trained as a research psychologist and briefly a respected figure in personality theory, he ran the [[Harvard Psilocybin Project]] from 1960 until his dismissal in 1963, popularized the slogan "turn on, tune in, drop out," and was described by [[Richard Nixon]], according to widely repeated accounts, as "the most dangerous man in America." He drew, often unknowingly, on drug-research networks whose funding traced back to the CIA's [[MKULTRA]] program, and was himself placed under documented [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] surveillance. In his final decades he promoted the personal computer as a tool of consciousness expansion and became a celebrated figure in the [[Transhumanism|transhumanist]] and cyberculture scenes of the 1980s and 1990s.[^1][^2][^3]
 
 ### From Personality Psychology to Harvard
 
-Leary was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, the only child of a Catholic family, attended the College of the Holy Cross, was expelled from the United States Military Academy at West Point after a cheating-and-honor dispute, and finished his bachelor's degree at the [[University of Alabama]]. He took a doctorate in psychology at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1950, and his early academic work was conventional and well regarded: he directed clinical research at the Kaiser Foundation Hospital in [[Oakland]] from 1954 to 1959 and published *The Interpersonal Diagnosis of Personality* (1957), whose circular model of personality, the "interpersonal circumplex," remained influential in clinical assessment and became the basis for personality-assessment tools later used by the CIA and the military. He joined the faculty of [[Harvard University]]'s Center for Research in Personality in 1959.[^1][^3][^11]
+Leary was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, the only child of a Catholic family, attended the College of the Holy Cross, was expelled from the United States Military Academy at West Point after a cheating-and-honor dispute, and finished his bachelor's degree at the [[University of Alabama]]. He took a doctorate in psychology at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1950, and his early academic work was conventional and well regarded: he directed clinical research at the Kaiser Foundation Hospital in [[Oakland]] from 1954 to 1959 and published *The Interpersonal Diagnosis of Personality* (1957), whose circular model of personality, the "interpersonal circumplex," remained influential in clinical assessment and became the basis for personality-assessment tools later used by the CIA and the military. He joined the faculty of [[Harvard University]]'s Center for Research in Personality in 1959.[^1][^4][^5]
 
-The turn came in the summer of 1960, when Leary ate psilocybin mushrooms in Cuernavaca, Mexico, an experience he later called more profound than anything in his prior training. Back at Harvard he and his colleague [[Richard Alpert]], later known as Ram Dass, founded a research program to study the psychological effects of psilocybin, which the Swiss firm [[Sandoz]] supplied in synthesized form.[^3][^4]
+The turn came in the summer of 1960, when Leary ate psilocybin mushrooms in Cuernavaca, Mexico, an experience he later called more profound than anything in his prior training. Back at Harvard he and his colleague [[Richard Alpert]], later known as Ram Dass, founded a research program to study the psychological effects of psilocybin, which the Swiss firm [[Sandoz]] supplied in synthesized form.[^4][^6]
 
 ### The Harvard Psilocybin Project
 
-Leary established the project in the fall of 1960, obtaining psilocybin free from Sandoz and running sessions in both formal research settings and informal apartment gatherings with music and candlelight. The studies, by later methodological standards, blurred the line between researcher and subject, with the experimenters frequently taking the drugs alongside their volunteers. [[The Concord Prison Experiment]] (1961 to 1963) administered psilocybin to inmates to test whether the experience reduced recidivism, and the [[Marsh Chapel Experiment]], or "Good Friday Experiment," run by the graduate student [[Walter Pahnke]] in 1962, tested whether the drug could induce genuine mystical experience.[^4][^5]
+Leary established the project in the fall of 1960, obtaining psilocybin free from Sandoz and running sessions in both formal research settings and informal apartment gatherings with music and candlelight. The studies, by later methodological standards, blurred the line between researcher and subject, with the experimenters frequently taking the drugs alongside their volunteers. [[The Concord Prison Experiment]] (1961 to 1963) administered psilocybin to inmates to test whether the experience reduced recidivism, and the [[Marsh Chapel Experiment]], or "Good Friday Experiment," run by the graduate student [[Walter Pahnke]] in 1962, tested whether the drug could induce genuine mystical experience.[^6][^7]
 
-The project's advisers and broader circle traced, in several cases, to networks the CIA had funded. [[Aldous Huxley]], then a visiting lecturer at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], urged Leary to offer the experience to "talented, well-born, intelligent rich" people and to work discreetly within institutions rather than provoke public controversy; the poet [[Allen Ginsberg]] and [[Peter Orlovsky]], who visited Leary's house in Newton, Massachusetts in December 1960, pressed the opposite case, that the drugs should be distributed as widely as possible. [[Henry Murray]], chairman of Harvard's Department of Social Relations, who had run the personality-assessment section of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] during World War II, approved the project and volunteered for it. Leary's own interest had been stimulated by [[R. Gordon Wasson|Gordon Wasson]]'s 1957 *Life* article on Mexican psilocybin mushrooms, an expedition partly facilitated by the CIA contractor [[James Moore]], and he cited in his published work the research of the CIA contractor [[Harold Abramson]] and others brought together for drug conferences by the [[Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation]], a sometime Agency conduit.[^11][^12]
+The project's advisers and broader circle traced, in several cases, to networks the CIA had funded. [[Aldous Huxley]], then a visiting lecturer at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], urged Leary to offer the experience to "talented, well-born, intelligent rich" people and to work discreetly within institutions rather than provoke public controversy; the poet [[Allen Ginsberg]] and [[Peter Orlovsky]], who visited Leary's house in Newton, Massachusetts in December 1960, pressed the opposite case, that the drugs should be distributed as widely as possible. [[Henry Murray]], chairman of Harvard's Department of Social Relations, who had run the personality-assessment section of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] during World War II, approved the project and volunteered for it. Leary's own interest had been stimulated by [[R. Gordon Wasson|Gordon Wasson]]'s 1957 *Life* article on Mexican psilocybin mushrooms, an expedition partly facilitated by the CIA contractor [[James Moore]], and he cited in his published work the research of the CIA contractor [[Harold Abramson]] and others brought together for drug conferences by the [[Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation]], a sometime Agency conduit.[^3][^5]
 
 ### The Good Friday Experiment
 
-In collaboration with the doctoral candidate Walter Pahnke, Leary administered psilocybin double-blind to ten theology students and professors during a Good Friday service at Marsh Chapel at [[Boston University]] in 1962, with ten others receiving a placebo. Nine of the ten psilocybin recipients reported intense religious experiences, and Pahnke's dissertation concluded that the experiences were "indistinguishable from, if not identical with," classical mystical experience.[^5][^11]
+In collaboration with the doctoral candidate Walter Pahnke, Leary administered psilocybin double-blind to ten theology students and professors during a Good Friday service at Marsh Chapel at [[Boston University]] in 1962, with ten others receiving a placebo. Nine of the ten psilocybin recipients reported intense religious experiences, and Pahnke's dissertation concluded that the experiences were "indistinguishable from, if not identical with," classical mystical experience.[^5][^7]
 
-The experiment became one of the most cited studies in the psychology of religion, and a long-term follow-up decades later found that most of the original subjects still regarded it as among the most meaningful experiences of their lives. It also exemplified the methodological looseness that alarmed Harvard, since the researchers themselves participated and the setting was a working religious service rather than a laboratory.[^5]
+The experiment became one of the most cited studies in the psychology of religion, and a long-term follow-up decades later found that most of the original subjects still regarded it as among the most meaningful experiences of their lives. It also exemplified the methodological looseness that alarmed Harvard, since the researchers themselves participated and the setting was a working religious service rather than a laboratory.[^7]
 
 ### The Harvard Firing
 
-Tension with Harvard administrators escalated through 1962, triggered in part by a sensationalized *Harvard Crimson* account of a faculty meeting that prompted a [[Food and Drug Administration]] investigation. On May 6, 1963, the Harvard Corporation voted to relieve Leary of his teaching duties and terminate his salary on the grounds that he had failed to keep classroom appointments. Alpert was separately dismissed on May 27, 1963, for giving psilocybin to an undergraduate in an off-campus apartment, making the two the first Harvard faculty fired in the twentieth century for such reasons. By then federal regulators were tightening control of the drugs, and Leary's work moved outside the university entirely.[^1][^4][^11]
+Faculty concern began in March 1962, when members of the [[Center for Research in Personality]] charged at a closed meeting that the drug experiments were being conducted in an unscientific and irresponsible manner.[^8] Tension with Harvard administrators escalated through 1962, triggered in part by a sensationalized *Harvard Crimson* account of a faculty meeting that prompted a [[Food and Drug Administration]] investigation. On May 6, 1963, the Harvard Corporation voted to relieve Leary of his teaching duties and terminate his salary. One account gives the ground as a failure to keep classroom appointments.[^1][^5][^6] The Crimson reported on July 9, 1963 that the Corporation relieved Leary of his teaching duties and suspended his salary for absenting himself from the University without permission.[^8] Alpert was separately dismissed on May 27, 1963, for giving psilocybin to an undergraduate in an off-campus apartment, making the two the first Harvard faculty fired in the twentieth century for such reasons. By then federal regulators were tightening control of the drugs, and Leary's work moved outside the university entirely.[^1][^5][^6]
 
 ### IFIF, Millbrook, and the League for Spiritual Discovery
 
-After leaving Harvard, Leary and Alpert founded the International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF), which attracted roughly 3,000 dues-paying members, and attempted a summer session in Zihuatanejo, Mexico, that the Mexican government shut down after about six weeks following negative press. The community then settled at a large estate in Millbrook, New York, lent by Billy Hitchcock, an heir to the Mellon and Gulf Oil fortune, who provided the roughly 4,000-acre property in Dutchess County for about 500 dollars a month. There Leary ran the [[Castalia Foundation]], named for the intellectual colony in Hermann Hesse's *The Glass Bead Game*, published *The Psychedelic Review*, hosted high-dose group sessions and a wide circle of visitors including Charles Mingus, [[Alan Watts]], R.D. Laing, and the journalist Paul Krassner, and in 1966 founded a quasi-religion, the [[League for Spiritual Discovery]], whose initials spelled [[LSD]] and which he used to argue for the sacramental, constitutionally protected use of psychedelics.[^3][^11]
+After leaving Harvard, Leary and Alpert founded the International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF), which attracted roughly 3,000 dues-paying members, and attempted a summer session in Zihuatanejo, Mexico, that the Mexican government shut down after about six weeks following negative press. The community then settled at a large estate in Millbrook, New York, lent by Billy Hitchcock, an heir to the Mellon and Gulf Oil fortune, who provided the roughly 4,000-acre property in Dutchess County for about 500 dollars a month. There Leary ran the [[Castalia Foundation]], named for the intellectual colony in Hermann Hesse's *The Glass Bead Game*, published *The Psychedelic Review*, hosted high-dose group sessions and a wide circle of visitors including Charles Mingus, [[Alan Watts]], R.D. Laing, and the journalist Paul Krassner, and in 1966 founded a quasi-religion, the [[League for Spiritual Discovery]], whose initials spelled [[LSD]] and which he used to argue for the sacramental, constitutionally protected use of psychedelics.[^4][^5]
 
-With [[Ralph Metzner]] and Alpert he adapted the *Tibetan Book of the Dead* into *The Psychedelic Experience* (1964), a manual for guiding drug sessions that [[John Lennon]] later cited as the source for the song "Tomorrow Never Knows." The Millbrook period coincided with the criminalization of LSD, banned in California in 1966 and federally soon after, and with mounting legal pressure: in April 1966 the Dutchess County assistant district attorney [[G. Gordon Liddy]], later of [[Watergate]], led an early-morning raid on the estate that turned up only a small amount of marijuana, a charge later dismissed. Leary's public role hardened into that of a movement figurehead, the "high priest" of the psychedelic movement, a role he both cultivated and was assigned by a hostile press.[^6][^11]
+With [[Ralph Metzner]] and Alpert he adapted the *Tibetan Book of the Dead* into *The Psychedelic Experience* (1964), a manual for guiding drug sessions that [[John Lennon]] later cited as the source for the song "Tomorrow Never Knows." The Millbrook period coincided with the criminalization of LSD, banned in California in 1966 and federally soon after, and with mounting legal pressure: in April 1966 the Dutchess County assistant district attorney [[G. Gordon Liddy]], later of [[Watergate]], led an early-morning raid on the estate that turned up only a small amount of marijuana, a charge later dismissed. Leary's public role hardened into that of a movement figurehead, the "high priest" of the psychedelic movement, a role he both cultivated and was assigned by a hostile press.[^5][^9]
 
 ### Turn On, Tune In, Drop Out
 
-Leary gave the counterculture its best-known slogan at the Human Be-In held in Golden Gate Park in San Francisco on January 14, 1967, where he told a crowd of tens of thousands to "turn on, tune in, drop out." He later complained that the phrase was widely misunderstood as a call to passive disengagement, explaining that he meant by it to activate one's neural equipment, to interact harmoniously with the world, and to detach from involuntary commitments, not to drop out of school or society. The line nonetheless became a shorthand for the era and fixed Leary's image as an apostle of dropping out.[^2][^7]
+Leary gave the counterculture its best-known slogan at the Human Be-In held in Golden Gate Park in San Francisco on January 14, 1967, where he told a crowd of tens of thousands to "turn on, tune in, drop out." He later complained that the phrase was widely misunderstood as a call to passive disengagement, explaining that he meant by it to activate one's neural equipment, to interact harmoniously with the world, and to detach from involuntary commitments, not to drop out of school or society. The line nonetheless became a shorthand for the era and fixed Leary's image as an apostle of dropping out.[^2][^10]
 
 ### Legal Troubles, Prison, Escape, and Exile
 
-Leary was first arrested in December 1965 at the Laredo, Texas border crossing on a marijuana charge that carried a potential thirty-year sentence; he fought it to the Supreme Court, which in *Leary v. United States* (1969) struck down the Marihuana Tax Act on self-incrimination grounds. A second arrest followed in Laguna Beach, California, in December 1968, and in February 1970 he was convicted on both the Laredo and California charges and given a combined twenty-year term at the California Men's Colony near San Luis Obispo. On September 12, 1970, he escaped over a highwire across the prison fence in an extraction arranged through the radical [[Weather Underground]], who were paid by the psychedelic-dealing [[Brotherhood of Eternal Love]].[^1][^11]
+Leary was first arrested in December 1965 at the Laredo, Texas border crossing on a marijuana charge that carried a potential thirty-year sentence; he fought it to the Supreme Court, which in *Leary v. United States* (1969) struck down the Marihuana Tax Act on self-incrimination grounds. A second arrest followed in Laguna Beach, California, in December 1968, and in February 1970 he was convicted on both the Laredo and California charges and given a combined twenty-year term at the California Men's Colony near San Luis Obispo. On September 12, 1970, he escaped over a highwire across the prison fence in an extraction arranged through the radical [[Weather Underground]], who were paid by the psychedelic-dealing [[Brotherhood of Eternal Love]].[^1][^5]
 
-He fled abroad, first to [[Algeria]], where the exiled [[Black Panther]] leader [[Eldridge Cleaver]] briefly held him under a kind of house arrest over his LSD advocacy, then to [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]], and [[Afghanistan]], where American agents seized him in Kabul in 1973 and returned him to Los Angeles, where bail was set at five million dollars, then the highest ever set for an American citizen. Facing decades of confinement, he provided information to federal investigators about the radicals and lawyers who had aided his escape, a cooperation that drew lasting bitterness from former allies, though prosecutors said it led to no convictions. He was paroled in 1976 by Governor [[Jerry Brown]]. The prison years produced a body of idiosyncratic writing in which Leary recast his ideas in the language of neurology and futurism, most notably the "eight-circuit model of consciousness," set out in *Exo-Psychology* (1977, later revised as *Info-Psychology*).[^1][^3][^8]
+He fled abroad, first to [[Algeria]], where the exiled [[Black Panther]] leader [[Eldridge Cleaver]] briefly held him under a kind of house arrest over his LSD advocacy, then to [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]], and [[Afghanistan]], where American agents seized him in Kabul in 1973 and returned him to Los Angeles, where bail was set at five million dollars, then the highest ever set for an American citizen. Facing decades of confinement, he provided information to federal investigators about the radicals and lawyers who had aided his escape, a cooperation that drew lasting bitterness from former allies, though prosecutors said it led to no convictions. He was paroled in 1976 by Governor [[Jerry Brown]]. The prison years produced a body of idiosyncratic writing in which Leary recast his ideas in the language of neurology and futurism, most notably the "eight-circuit model of consciousness," set out in *Exo-Psychology* (1977, later revised as *Info-Psychology*).[^1][^4][^11]
 
 ### CIA Surveillance
 
-On November 1, 1963, the CIA issued a memorandum ordering all domestic field offices to report immediately on any involvement with Leary, Alpert, or the International Federation for Internal Freedom. The monitoring preceded Leary's public emergence as an LSD spokesman by several years, covering the period when his research was still primarily academic. Neither the specific content of any CIA reporting on Leary nor any operational use of surveillance findings has been declassified.[^12][^13]
+On November 1, 1963, the CIA issued a memorandum ordering all domestic field offices to report immediately on any involvement with Leary, Alpert, or the International Federation for Internal Freedom. The monitoring preceded Leary's public emergence as an LSD spokesman by several years, covering the period when his research was still primarily academic. Neither the specific content of any CIA reporting on Leary nor any operational use of surveillance findings has been declassified.[^3][^12]
 
-Leary's research network traced back to CIA-funded programs in ways he likely did not know at the time. The anthropologist [[Gregory Bateson]], introduced to LSD by Harold Abramson, arranged Ginsberg's first LSD experience through a federally funded research program, and Ginsberg carried that experience to Leary's house. The Macy Foundation, which had served as a CIA conduit for behavioral-research conferences, hosted the scholars whose published work Leary cited, and the Geschickter Fund, another CIA front, financed related research at overlapping institutions.[^12]
+Leary's research network traced back to CIA-funded programs in ways he likely did not know at the time. The anthropologist [[Gregory Bateson]], introduced to LSD by Harold Abramson, arranged Ginsberg's first LSD experience through a federally funded research program, and Ginsberg carried that experience to Leary's house. The Macy Foundation, which had served as a CIA conduit for behavioral-research conferences, hosted the scholars whose published work Leary cited, and the Geschickter Fund, another CIA front, financed related research at overlapping institutions.[^3]
 
 ### The Cyberdelic Turn
 
-From the late 1970s Leary promoted a futurist program he summarized with the acronym SMI2LE, for Space Migration, Intelligence Increase, and Life Extension, holding that humanity's next evolutionary step lay in leaving the planet, raising intelligence by technological means, and defeating death. In the 1980s and 1990s he recast the personal computer as the successor to the psychedelic drug, telling interviewers that "the PC is the LSD of the 1990s" and adopting "think for yourself, question authority" as a personal motto. He designed early interactive software, performed spoken-word and multimedia shows, appeared at technology conferences, and became a fixture of the "cyberdelic" scene around *Mondo 2000* magazine and the emerging digital culture of the San Francisco Bay Area.[^2][^9]
+From the late 1970s Leary promoted a futurist program he summarized with the acronym SMI2LE, for Space Migration, Intelligence Increase, and Life Extension, holding that humanity's next evolutionary step lay in leaving the planet, raising intelligence by technological means, and defeating death. In the 1980s and 1990s he recast the personal computer as the successor to the psychedelic drug, telling interviewers that "the PC is the LSD of the 1990s" and adopting "think for yourself, question authority" as a personal motto. He designed early interactive software, performed spoken-word and multimedia shows, appeared at technology conferences, and became a fixture of the "cyberdelic" scene around *Mondo 2000* magazine and the emerging digital culture of the San Francisco Bay Area.[^2][^13]
 
-Leary was associated with the [[Extropianism|extropian]] movement around [[Max More]], shared its interest in cryonics and human enhancement, and at one point planned to have his body or head cryonically preserved. Diagnosed with inoperable prostate cancer, he made his dying a public performance, documenting his decline on an early website and declaring his intent to script his own death; he ultimately decided against cryonic suspension after a falling-out with the provider, and after his death on May 31, 1996, a portion of his ashes was launched into orbit in April 1997 aboard a Celestis rocket that also carried remains of the *Star Trek* creator Gene Roddenberry.[^9][^10]
+Leary was associated with the [[Extropianism|extropian]] movement around [[Max More]], shared its interest in cryonics and human enhancement, and at one point planned to have his body or head cryonically preserved. Diagnosed with inoperable prostate cancer, he made his dying a public performance, documenting his decline on an early website and declaring his intent to script his own death; he ultimately decided against cryonic suspension after a falling-out with the provider, and after his death on May 31, 1996, a portion of his ashes was launched into orbit in April 1997 aboard a Celestis rocket that also carried remains of the *Star Trek* creator Gene Roddenberry.[^13][^14]
 
 ### The Finders
 
-[[Marion David Pettie]], the founder of [[The Finders]], stated that he and Leary had a close connection during the 1960s. According to Pettie, when Leary was based in New York he would send people down to Pettie's communal property in [[Virginia]], and when people at Pettie's place grew tired of something they would go up to Leary's. Leary gave Pettie LSD, which Pettie claimed he never took, keeping it in his refrigerator until a person connected with Leary accidentally burned down a house on the property while installing a sauna, destroying the LSD in the process.[^14]
+[[Marion David Pettie]], the founder of [[The Finders]], stated that he and Leary had a close connection during the 1960s. According to Pettie, when Leary was based in New York he would send people down to Pettie's communal property in [[Virginia]], and when people at Pettie's place grew tired of something they would go up to Leary's. Leary gave Pettie LSD, which Pettie claimed he never took, keeping it in his refrigerator until a person connected with Leary accidentally burned down a house on the property while installing a sauna, destroying the LSD in the process.[^15]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: "Timothy Leary," *Encyclopædia Britannica,* on the 1920 birth, the Berkeley doctorate, the Harvard appointment and 1963 dismissal, the legal battles, and the death. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Timothy-Leary
 [^2]: "Timothy Leary, Pied Piper Of Psychedelic 60's, Dies at 75," *The New York Times,* June 1, 1996, on "turn on, tune in, drop out," the Nixon characterization, and the later computer advocacy. https://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/01/us/timothy-leary-pied-piper-of-psychedelic-60-s-dies-at-75.html
-[^3]: Greenfield, Robert. *Timothy Leary: A Biography.* Harcourt, 2006, on the early life, the Millbrook years, the escape and exile, and the cooperation with investigators.
-[^4]: "The Harvard Psilocybin Project," on the 1960 to 1963 studies, the Concord Prison and Marsh Chapel experiments, and the 1963 firings; see also Leary, Timothy. *High Priest.* World Publishing, 1968.
-[^5]: Pahnke, Walter N. "Drugs and Mysticism: An Analysis of the Relationship between Psychedelic Drugs and the Mystical Consciousness," doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1963, on the Good Friday Experiment.
-[^6]: Leary, Timothy, Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert. *The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead.* University Books, 1964.
-[^7]: *Leary v. United States,* 395 U.S. 6 (1969); and Leary, Timothy. *Flashbacks: A Personal and Cultural History of an Era.* Tarcher, 1983, on the Human Be-In and the meaning of the slogan.
-[^8]: Leary, Timothy. *Exo-Psychology: A Manual on the Use of the Human Nervous System According to the Instructions of the Manufacturers* (1977), revised as *Info-Psychology* (1987), on the eight-circuit model.
-[^9]: "Timothy Leary's Last Trip," *Wired,* and Leary, Timothy. *Chaos and Cyber Culture.* Ronin Publishing, 1994, on SMI2LE, "the PC is the LSD of the 1990s," and the cyberdelic period. https://www.wired.com/1996/05/leary-2/
-[^10]: "A Send-Off Into Space for Leary and Others," *The New York Times,* April 22, 1997, on the Celestis launch carrying the ashes of Leary and Gene Roddenberry. https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/22/us/a-send-off-into-space-for-leary-and-others.html
-[^11]: Lee, Martin A., and Bruce Shlain. *Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond.* Grove Press, 1985, chapters 3 and 4, on the Kaiser research and personality tools, Huxley's advice, Henry Murray's OSS role, IFIF and the Zihuatanejo session, the Millbrook estate, the visitors, and the Liddy raid.
-[^12]: Marks, John D. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control.* Times Books, 1979, chapter 7, on the Wasson and James Moore expedition, Harold Abramson and the Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation, the CIA surveillance of Leary, Bateson and Ginsberg's first LSD experience, and the Geschickter Fund.
-[^13]: CIA memorandum, "International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF), ALPERT, Richard, LEARY, Timothy," November 1, 1963, obtained via FOIA by John Marks, August 1977.
-[^14]: Thomas, Kenn, and Len Bracken. "The Finders' Keeper," *Steamshovel Press* no. 16, 1998, on Marion David Pettie's account of his connection with Leary.
+[^3]: Marks, John D. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control.* Times Books, 1979, chapter 7, on the Wasson and James Moore expedition, Harold Abramson and the Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation, the CIA surveillance of Leary, Bateson and Ginsberg's first LSD experience, and the Geschickter Fund.
+[^4]: Greenfield, Robert. *Timothy Leary: A Biography.* Harcourt, 2006, on the early life, the Millbrook years, the escape and exile, and the cooperation with investigators.
+[^5]: Lee, Martin A., and Bruce Shlain. *Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond.* Grove Press, 1985, chapters 3 and 4, on the Kaiser research and personality tools, Huxley's advice, Henry Murray's OSS role, IFIF and the Zihuatanejo session, the Millbrook estate, the visitors, and the Liddy raid.
+[^6]: "The Harvard Psilocybin Project," on the 1960 to 1963 studies, the Concord Prison and Marsh Chapel experiments, and the 1963 firings; see also Leary, Timothy. *High Priest.* World Publishing, 1968.
+[^7]: Pahnke, Walter N. "Drugs and Mysticism: An Analysis of the Relationship between Psychedelic Drugs and the Mystical Consciousness," doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1963, on the Good Friday Experiment.
+[^8]: "Psilocybin, Senate Race Highlight Harvard Year," *The Harvard Crimson*, July 9, 1963. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1963/7/9/psilocybin-senate-race-highlight-harvard-year/
+[^9]: Leary, Timothy, Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert. *The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead.* University Books, 1964.
+[^10]: *Leary v. United States,* 395 U.S. 6 (1969); and Leary, Timothy. *Flashbacks: A Personal and Cultural History of an Era.* Tarcher, 1983, on the Human Be-In and the meaning of the slogan.
+[^11]: Leary, Timothy. *Exo-Psychology: A Manual on the Use of the Human Nervous System According to the Instructions of the Manufacturers* (1977), revised as *Info-Psychology* (1987), on the eight-circuit model.
+[^12]: CIA memorandum, "International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF), ALPERT, Richard, LEARY, Timothy," November 1, 1963, obtained via FOIA by John Marks, August 1977.
+[^13]: "Timothy Leary's Last Trip," *Wired,* and Leary, Timothy. *Chaos and Cyber Culture.* Ronin Publishing, 1994, on SMI2LE, "the PC is the LSD of the 1990s," and the cyberdelic period. https://www.wired.com/1996/05/leary-2/
+[^14]: "A Send-Off Into Space for Leary and Others," *The New York Times,* April 22, 1997, on the Celestis launch carrying the ashes of Leary and Gene Roddenberry. https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/22/us/a-send-off-into-space-for-leary-and-others.html
+[^15]: Thomas, Kenn, and Len Bracken. "The Finders' Keeper," *Steamshovel Press* no. 16, 1998, on Marion David Pettie's account of his connection with Leary.

10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/William Harvey.md

@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ relations:
     with: "[[CIA Rome Station]]"
     role: "chief of station"
     start: 1963
-    fn: 35
+    fn: 36
   - type: participant_in
     with: "[[Operation Gold]]"
     role: "Berlin base chief running the tunnel with MI6"
@@ -136,61 +136,61 @@ In a memorandum of July 24, 1962 written as the CIA operations officer for Mongo
 
 On October 8, 1962, Harvey, as CIA project officer for Mongoose, asked Edward Lansdale to put before the Special Group a request for policy approval to sabotage Cuban-owned vessels "wherever and whenever secure access to them can be attained," normally in non-Bloc ports, as "targets of opportunity."[^23]
 
-Martin wrote that Lansdale told the Senate committee that [[John F. Kennedy]] had remarked to him that he was the American James Bond, that Lansdale suggested the real 007 was Harvey, and that Harvey and Lansdale then waited outside the Oval Office; Harvey testified that the conversation with the President was brief and contained no mention of assassination.[^5] At the August 10, 1962 meeting of the Special Group, Harvey recalled that [[Robert McNamara]] had raised the question of assassination, and that "the consensus of the Group was to sweep that particular proposal or suggestion or question or consideration off the record and under the rug as rapidly as possible."[^24]
+Martin wrote that Lansdale told the Senate committee that [[John F. Kennedy]] had remarked to him that he was the American James Bond, that Lansdale suggested the real 007 was Harvey, and that Harvey and Lansdale then waited outside the Oval Office; Harvey testified that the conversation with the President was brief and contained no mention of assassination.[^5] At the August 10, 1962 meeting of the Special Group, Harvey recalled that [[Robert McNamara]] had raised the question of assassination, and that "the consensus of the Group was to sweep that particular proposal or suggestion or question or consideration off the record and under the rug as rapidly as possible."[^24] Harvey testified that McNamara raised the subject with the words "shouldn't we consider the elimination or assassination of Fidel?" Asked whether he was guessing, Harvey said "it was surfaced by Robert McNamara," and that his recollection matched his memorandum of August 14.[^25] McNamara testified that he did not recall assassination being discussed at the meeting but remembered opposing any such plan when he spoke with McCone several days later.[^24]
 
-On August 13, 1962 Lansdale directed Harvey to include an option for the "liquidation of leaders" in a proposed Phase II plan for Mongoose.[^24] Harvey's memorandum of August 14 to Richard Helms attached Lansdale's memorandum with the words excised, and stated that the Special Group (Augmented) "is not expecting any written comments or study on this point."[^24] McCone said that McNamara agreed Lansdale's memorandum should be withdrawn.[^24] Harvey's August 14 memorandum to Helms recorded: "It was the obvious consensus at that meeting, in answer to a comment by Mr. Ed Murrow, that this is not a subject which has been made a matter of official record." McCone's April 14, 1967 memorandum to Helms states that McCone took immediate exception to a suggestion to liquidate top people in the Castro regime, including Castro.[^25] [[Walter Elder]], McCone's executive assistant, testified that he had personally told Helms of McCone's opposition to assassination after the August 10 meeting.[^26]
+On August 13, 1962 Lansdale directed Harvey to include an option for the "liquidation of leaders" in a proposed Phase II plan for Mongoose.[^24] Harvey's memorandum of August 14 to Richard Helms attached Lansdale's memorandum with the words excised, and stated that the Special Group (Augmented) "is not expecting any written comments or study on this point."[^24] McCone said that McNamara agreed Lansdale's memorandum should be withdrawn.[^24] Harvey's August 14 memorandum to Helms recorded: "It was the obvious consensus at that meeting, in answer to a comment by Mr. Ed Murrow, that this is not a subject which has been made a matter of official record." McCone's April 14, 1967 memorandum to Helms states that McCone took immediate exception to a suggestion to liquidate top people in the Castro regime, including Castro.[^26] [[Walter Elder]], McCone's executive assistant, testified that he had personally told Helms of McCone's opposition to assassination after the August 10 meeting.[^27]
 
 ### Roselli and the Poison Pills
 
-On November 16, 1961, Bissell asked Harvey to take over the gambling-syndicate operation from [[Sheffield Edwards]], and they discussed the "application of ZR/RIFLE program to Cuba."[^27] Bissell testified that the operation was not reactivated until after he left the agency in February 1962.[^27]
+On November 16, 1961, Bissell asked Harvey to take over the gambling-syndicate operation from [[Sheffield Edwards]], and they discussed the "application of ZR/RIFLE program to Cuba."[^28] Bissell testified that the operation was not reactivated until after he left the agency in February 1962.[^28]
 
-In early April 1962 Harvey, who testified that he was acting on "explicit orders" from Helms, asked Edwards to put him in touch with [[Johnny Roselli]]. A 1976 CIA memorandum dates Harvey's taking over as case officer to May 1962.[^28] Harvey told Roselli to stop dealing with [[Robert Maheu]] and [[Sam Giancana]], whom Harvey had decided were "untrustworthy" and "surplus."[^27]
+In early April 1962 Harvey, who testified that he was acting on "explicit orders" from Helms, asked Edwards to put him in touch with [[Johnny Roselli]]. A 1976 CIA memorandum dates Harvey's taking over as case officer to May 1962.[^29] Harvey told Roselli to stop dealing with [[Robert Maheu]] and [[Sam Giancana]], whom Harvey had decided were "untrustworthy" and "surplus."[^28]
 
-Four poison pills were given to the support chief on April 18, 1962. Harvey arrived in [[Miami]] on April 21 and gave them to Roselli, who was already in touch with the same Cuban who had been involved in the pill passage before the [[Bay of Pigs invasion|Bay of Pigs]].[^27] Harvey procured explosives, detonators, rifles, handguns, radios and boat radar costing about $5,000. Harvey and the chief of the JM/WAVE station rented a truck under an assumed name and delivered the equipment to a parking lot, where the keys were given to Roselli.[^27]
+Four poison pills were given to the support chief on April 18, 1962. Harvey arrived in [[Miami]] on April 21 and gave them to Roselli, who was already in touch with the same Cuban who had been involved in the pill passage before the [[Bay of Pigs invasion|Bay of Pigs]].[^28] Harvey procured explosives, detonators, rifles, handguns, radios and boat radar costing about $5,000. Harvey and the chief of the JM/WAVE station rented a truck under an assumed name and delivered the equipment to a parking lot, where the keys were given to Roselli.[^28]
 
-Harvey met Roselli in Miami on September 7 and 11, 1962. Harvey testified that by then he had grave doubts that the operation would take place. In early January 1963 he paid Roselli $2,700 to defray the Cuban's expenses. The second three-man team never left for Cuba, the reason given being that "conditions" in Cuba were not right.[^27] Harvey ended the operation in mid-February 1963 at a meeting with Roselli in [[Los Angeles]].[^27]
+Harvey met Roselli in Miami on September 7 and 11, 1962. Harvey testified that by then he had grave doubts that the operation would take place. In early January 1963 he paid Roselli $2,700 to defray the Cuban's expenses. The second three-man team never left for Cuba, the reason given being that "conditions" in Cuba were not right.[^28] Harvey ended the operation in mid-February 1963 at a meeting with Roselli in [[Los Angeles]].[^28]
 
-In early 1963 Harvey told his underworld contacts that the CIA was no longer interested in assassinating Castro. The FBI learned of this in June 1963.[^29]
+In early 1963 Harvey told his underworld contacts that the CIA was no longer interested in assassinating Castro. The FBI learned of this in June 1963.[^30]
 
-Harvey's operations involving Roselli began in early 1962 and ended in February 1963. Harvey, and to a lesser extent [[James O'Connell]], remained in contact with Roselli from 1964 to about 1970.[^28]
+Harvey's operations involving Roselli began in early 1962 and ended in February 1963. Harvey, and to a lesser extent [[James O'Connell]], remained in contact with Roselli from 1964 to about 1970.[^29]
 
-In June 1963, before Harvey went on another assignment, he and Roselli had a farewell dinner. The FBI observed the meeting, and [[Sam Papich]], the FBI liaison with the CIA, told Harvey that Hoover would be informed. Harvey told Helms of the incident, and Helms agreed that McCone need not be briefed unless a call from Hoover was expected.[^30]
+In June 1963, before Harvey went on another assignment, he and Roselli had a farewell dinner. The FBI observed the meeting, and [[Sam Papich]], the FBI liaison with the CIA, told Harvey that Hoover would be informed. Harvey told Helms of the incident, and Helms agreed that McCone need not be briefed unless a call from Hoover was expected.[^31]
 
-The [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]], which described Harvey in June 1963 as "chief of the CIA's Cuban Task Force," found it "unable to accept" the conclusion that the CIA-Mafia plots were irrelevant because they ended in February 1963, and reported that CIA files show Roselli continued to maintain direct contact with Harvey at least until 1967.[^31]
+The [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]], which described Harvey in June 1963 as "chief of the CIA's Cuban Task Force," found it "unable to accept" the conclusion that the CIA-Mafia plots were irrelevant because they ended in February 1963, and reported that CIA files show Roselli continued to maintain direct contact with Harvey at least until 1967.[^32]
 
-In 1967 Roselli was arrested for fraudulent gambling at the [[Friars Club]] in [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]]. He asked Harvey, who had left the agency, to represent him. Harvey contacted the agency and suggested that it prevent the prosecution, according to a December 11, 1967 memorandum by [[Howard Osborn]].[^32]
+In 1967 Roselli was arrested for fraudulent gambling at the [[Friars Club]] in [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]]. He asked Harvey, who had left the agency, to represent him. Harvey contacted the agency and suggested that it prevent the prosecution, according to a December 11, 1967 memorandum by [[Howard Osborn]].[^33]
 
 ### The Clash with Robert Kennedy and the Missile Crisis
 
-Harvey and [[Robert Kennedy]] were openly at odds over Mongoose. Thomas wrote that Harvey regarded Kennedy's micromanagement of the operations as incompetent and dangerous, and that Kennedy regarded Harvey as insubordinate and unreliable.[^1] Harvey testified that during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] he gave an order sending agent teams into Cuba to support any conventional U.S. military operation that might occur. He said that Robert Kennedy "took a great deal of exception" to the order, and that McCone then ordered the agent operations stopped.[^33] Walter Elder, McCone's assistant at the time, described the episode as Harvey having "earned another black mark as not being fully under control," and said that Harvey had attempted to get guidance from top officials during the crisis.[^33]
+Harvey and [[Robert Kennedy]] were openly at odds over Mongoose. Thomas wrote that Harvey regarded Kennedy's micromanagement of the operations as incompetent and dangerous, and that Kennedy regarded Harvey as insubordinate and unreliable.[^1] Harvey testified that during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] he gave an order sending agent teams into Cuba to support any conventional U.S. military operation that might occur. He said that Robert Kennedy "took a great deal of exception" to the order, and that McCone then ordered the agent operations stopped.[^34] Walter Elder, McCone's assistant at the time, described the episode as Harvey having "earned another black mark as not being fully under control," and said that Harvey had attempted to get guidance from top officials during the crisis.[^34]
 
 Martin wrote that Kennedy tied off a series of questions to Harvey with "and I've got 10 minutes to hear the answer," and that when Harvey exceeded his time limit Kennedy walked out and Harvey kept talking.[^5] Martin quoted McCone: "When you take a plant supervisor and make him president of the company, it doesn't always work out," and wrote that Dulles is said to have remarked, "That fellow Harvey is a conspiratorial cop."[^5] Thomas wrote that Robert Kennedy demanded Harvey's removal.[^1]
 
 ### Rome and the End of Task Force W
 
-[[Desmond FitzGerald]] replaced Harvey as chief of Task Force W in January 1963.[^34] It is unclear whether Harvey or FitzGerald conceived the plan to present Fidel Castro with a contaminated diving suit.[^34]
+[[Desmond FitzGerald]] replaced Harvey as chief of Task Force W in January 1963.[^35] It is unclear whether Harvey or FitzGerald conceived the plan to present Fidel Castro with a contaminated diving suit.[^35]
 
-Harvey was appointed chief of station at Rome, effective on or about June 30, 1963, to replace [[Francis I. G. Coleman]], who was scheduled to attend the [[National War College]].[^35] He took up the Rome post before the November 1963 assassination of John F. Kennedy. Thomas wrote that Robert Kennedy had exiled Harvey to Rome.[^1] Martin wrote in The Washington Post that some attributed the appointment to a wish to keep Harvey out of the country and others to the Rome station's need of a shakeup, that Harvey was hospitalized, that Desmond FitzGerald cabled a report to Helms, that Helms ordered Harvey relieved, that an aide sent to carry out the order sat seven hours across from Harvey, who held a loaded revolver in his lap, and that Harvey was then placed in a unit studying countermeasures against electronic surveillance.[^5]
+Harvey was appointed chief of station at Rome, effective on or about June 30, 1963, to replace [[Francis I. G. Coleman]], who was scheduled to attend the [[National War College]].[^36] He took up the Rome post before the November 1963 assassination of John F. Kennedy. Thomas wrote that Robert Kennedy had exiled Harvey to Rome.[^1] Martin wrote in The Washington Post that some attributed the appointment to a wish to keep Harvey out of the country and others to the Rome station's need of a shakeup, that Harvey was hospitalized, that Desmond FitzGerald cabled a report to Helms, that Helms ordered Harvey relieved, that an aide sent to carry out the order sat seven hours across from Harvey, who held a loaded revolver in his lap, and that Harvey was then placed in a unit studying countermeasures against electronic surveillance.[^5]
 
 ### Testimony Before the Senate
 
-Harvey testified before the Church Committee in executive session on June 25, 1975 and again on July 11, 1975. He signed an affidavit dated September 14, 1975.[^27] He told the committee that he had acted on explicit orders from Helms, and that he believed the 1962 assassination activity carried over from the period when Allen Dulles was Director, a belief he based on what Bissell had told him.[^18]
+Harvey testified before the Church Committee in executive session on June 25, 1975 and again on July 11, 1975. He signed an affidavit dated September 14, 1975.[^28] He told the committee that he had acted on explicit orders from Helms, and that he believed the 1962 assassination activity carried over from the period when Allen Dulles was Director, a belief he based on what Bissell had told him.[^18]
 
 Harvey said he had not informed the Special Group, or anyone outside the agency, that he had given the poison pills to Roselli. He said he did not brief McCone on the pills because he did not believe it was necessary.[^18]
 
 ### Retirement, Death and Aftermath
 
-In April 1967 Harvey was to be transferred from the [[European Division]] to the Office of Personnel, where he would be carried in casual status until his final retirement, and his sick leave required a physician's monthly certification.[^36] By October 30, 1967 he had not yet set a retirement date, and retirement was expected on November 30.[^37] He retired from the agency in 1967.[^28]
+In April 1967 Harvey was to be transferred from the [[European Division]] to the Office of Personnel, where he would be carried in casual status until his final retirement, and his sick leave required a physician's monthly certification.[^37] By October 30, 1967 he had not yet set a retirement date, and retirement was expected on November 30.[^38] He retired from the agency in 1967.[^29]
 
-In November 1967, while leaving the agency to practice law, Harvey asked Sam Papich for reputable private investigators. Papich suggested [[Wackenhut Corporation]] or the [[Fidelifax]] Company, as Howard Osborn recorded in a memorandum of November 8, 1967.[^38]
+In November 1967, while leaving the agency to practice law, Harvey asked Sam Papich for reputable private investigators. Papich suggested [[Wackenhut Corporation]] or the [[Fidelifax]] Company, as Howard Osborn recorded in a memorandum of November 8, 1967.[^39]
 
-Roselli died in August 1976. On August 11, 1976 [[George H. W. Bush|George Bush]], then Director of Central Intelligence, wrote that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked [[Edward Levi]] to bring the FBI into the case.[^39]
+Roselli died in August 1976. On August 11, 1976 [[George H. W. Bush|George Bush]], then Director of Central Intelligence, wrote that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked [[Edward Levi]] to bring the FBI into the case.[^40]
 
 According to the 1976 obituary, Harvey moved to [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] in 1969 after leaving the agency, and was law editor for [[Bobbs-Merrill]] at the time of his death.[^3]
 
-Harvey died of a heart attack at an Indianapolis hospital on June 9, 1976, at the age of 60. He was buried at South Cemetery in Danville, Indiana, and was survived by his wife, Clara Grace, a daughter and a son.[^3] A CIA memorandum of August 9, 1976 gives the same date, "9 June 1976."[^28] Martin wrote that surgeons had worked four hours to implant an artificial valve and that Harvey died, holding his wife's hand, at ten minutes past two in the afternoon of June 9.[^2] A June 1976 press report named Harvey among ten agents whose identities the Senate committee had disclosed, and said that [[William Colby]] had argued that disclosure endangered agents.[^3] A CIA routing memorandum of June 16, 1976 records that the agency's information on his death came from the press reports.[^40] Martin wrote that Harvey's wife told him reporters were trying to link his death to Roselli's murder, that there had been two attempted break-ins, and that people were "after his papers," to which she said she had "burned everything."[^5]
+Harvey died of a heart attack at an Indianapolis hospital on June 9, 1976, at the age of 60. He was buried at South Cemetery in Danville, Indiana, and was survived by his wife, Clara Grace, a daughter and a son.[^3] A CIA memorandum of August 9, 1976 gives the same date, "9 June 1976."[^29] Martin wrote that surgeons had worked four hours to implant an artificial valve and that Harvey died, holding his wife's hand, at ten minutes past two in the afternoon of June 9.[^2] A June 1976 press report named Harvey among ten agents whose identities the Senate committee had disclosed, and said that [[William Colby]] had argued that disclosure endangered agents.[^3] A CIA routing memorandum of June 16, 1976 records that the agency's information on his death came from the press reports.[^41] Martin wrote that Harvey's wife told him reporters were trying to link his death to Roselli's murder, that there had been two attempted break-ins, and that people were "after his papers," to which she said she had "burned everything."[^5]
 
-In June 1977 Martin, an [[Associated Press]] correspondent, asked a retired agency employee for cooperation with a book about Harvey. The employee was irritated and believed that a retired CIA officer had given Martin his name.[^41]
+In June 1977 Martin, an [[Associated Press]] correspondent, asked a retired agency employee for cooperation with a book about Harvey. The employee was irritated and believed that a retired CIA officer had given Martin his name.[^42]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -217,21 +217,22 @@ In June 1977 Martin, an [[Associated Press]] correspondent, asked a retired agen
 [^21]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 365, Memorandum From the Central Intelligence Agency Operations Officer for Operation Mongoose (Harvey) to the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale), August 6, 1962, "Gusano Libre, Symbol of Cuban Resistance." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d365
 [^22]: National Security Archive, document 14, William K. Harvey, "Covert Activities," CIA memorandum, August 7, 1962. https://archive.org/details/6434690-National-Security-Archive-Doc-14-CIA-William
 [^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. XI, doc. 10, Memorandum From the Central Intelligence Agency Project Officer for Operation Mongoose (Harvey) to the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale), October 8, 1962, "Sabotage of Cuban-Owned Ship." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d10
-[^24]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 161-167 (the August 10, 1962 meeting; Lansdale memorandum of August 13; Harvey memorandum to Helms of August 14; McCone's account of McNamara; Elder's recollection of the meeting), and pp. 165-166 for Harvey's recollection of the meeting, citing Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, p. 30. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
-[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 371, Editorial Note on the August 10, 1962 meeting of the Special Group (Augmented), quoting Harvey's memorandum of August 14, 1962 and McCone's memorandum of April 14, 1967. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d371
-[^26]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 107 (Walter Elder, McCone's Executive Assistant, on telling Helms of McCone's opposition after the August 10 meeting). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
-[^27]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 83-85 (the 1961 assignment and the November 16, 1961 notes; the April 1962 reactivation and "explicit orders"; the poison pills of April 18 and 21, 1962; the $5,000 equipment and the rented truck; the September 1962 meetings; the $2,700 payment; the second team; the February 1963 termination), citing Harvey testimony of June 25 and July 11, 1975, and the affidavit of September 14, 1975. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
-[^28]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Johnny Roselli," August 9, 1976. Reading room document 00508811, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00508811 (Harvey's operations from early 1962 to February 1963; Harvey as case officer from May 1962; Harvey and O'Connell in contact from 1964 to about 1970; Harvey retired in 1967).
-[^29]: Church Committee, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Final Report Book V, S. Rept. 94-755, April 23, 1976, pp. 69, 72. https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
-[^30]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 105, citing Inspector General's report p. 54 (the June 1963 farewell dinner; FBI observation; Papich's notice to Harvey; Harvey's report to Helms). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
-[^31]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report of the Select Committee on Assassinations*, H. Rept. 95-1828, 1979, p. 117 (the committee's finding that the plots were not shown to be irrelevant; CIA files on contact with Harvey until 1967). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
-[^32]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 86-87 (Osborn memorandum for the record, December 11, 1967). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
-[^33]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 149 n. 1, citing Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 80-81, and Walter Elder testimony of August 13, 1975, pp. 34-35. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
-[^34]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 86-87 (FitzGerald replacing Harvey in January 1963; the diving-suit plan), citing Inspector General's report p. 75. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
-[^35]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Appointment of Mr. William K. Harvey Chief of Station, Rome, Italy," June 12, 1963. Reading room document 01228805, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01228805
-[^36]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record "William K. Harvey," April 5, 1967. Reading room document 0001228917, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001228917
-[^37]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record "William K. Harvey," October 30, 1967. Reading room document 0001228965, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001228965
-[^38]: Osborn, Howard J. Memorandum for the record, November 8, 1967, JFK record 104-10133-10076. National Archives, JFK Assassination Records Collection.
-[^39]: Bush, George, memorandum "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. Reading room document 00508811, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00508811
-[^40]: Central Intelligence Agency, routing and record memorandum, June 16, 1976, filed with the reading room copy of the June 1976 press report, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-00498a000600020001-2
-[^41]: Central Intelligence Agency, routing and record sheet, "Mr. David Martin, Associated Press Correspondent's Interest in Writing a Book About Mr. William King Harvey," June 27, 1977. Reading room document 0001229025, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001229025
+[^24]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 161-167 (the August 10, 1962 meeting; Lansdale memorandum of August 13; Harvey memorandum to Helms of August 14; McCone's account of McNamara; Elder's recollection of the meeting), and pp. 164-165 for Harvey's recollection of the meeting and McNamara's testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 7-8, citing Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, p. 30. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^25]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 164, and Additional Views of Senator Howard H. Baker Jr., p. 321, quoting Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 29-30 and 86. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf
+[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 371, Editorial Note on the August 10, 1962 meeting of the Special Group (Augmented), quoting Harvey's memorandum of August 14, 1962 and McCone's memorandum of April 14, 1967. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d371
+[^27]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 107 (Walter Elder, McCone's Executive Assistant, on telling Helms of McCone's opposition after the August 10 meeting). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^28]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 83-85 (the 1961 assignment and the November 16, 1961 notes; the April 1962 reactivation and "explicit orders"; the poison pills of April 18 and 21, 1962; the $5,000 equipment and the rented truck; the September 1962 meetings; the $2,700 payment; the second team; the February 1963 termination), citing Harvey testimony of June 25 and July 11, 1975, and the affidavit of September 14, 1975. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^29]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Johnny Roselli," August 9, 1976. Reading room document 00508811, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00508811 (Harvey's operations from early 1962 to February 1963; Harvey as case officer from May 1962; Harvey and O'Connell in contact from 1964 to about 1970; Harvey retired in 1967).
+[^30]: Church Committee, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Final Report Book V, S. Rept. 94-755, April 23, 1976, pp. 69, 72. https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
+[^31]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 105, citing Inspector General's report p. 54 (the June 1963 farewell dinner; FBI observation; Papich's notice to Harvey; Harvey's report to Helms). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^32]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report of the Select Committee on Assassinations*, H. Rept. 95-1828, 1979, p. 117 (the committee's finding that the plots were not shown to be irrelevant; CIA files on contact with Harvey until 1967). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
+[^33]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 86-87 (Osborn memorandum for the record, December 11, 1967). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^34]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 149 n. 1, citing Harvey testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 80-81, and Walter Elder testimony of August 13, 1975, pp. 34-35. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^35]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 86-87 (FitzGerald replacing Harvey in January 1963; the diving-suit plan), citing Inspector General's report p. 75. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
+[^36]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Appointment of Mr. William K. Harvey Chief of Station, Rome, Italy," June 12, 1963. Reading room document 01228805, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01228805
+[^37]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record "William K. Harvey," April 5, 1967. Reading room document 0001228917, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001228917
+[^38]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record "William K. Harvey," October 30, 1967. Reading room document 0001228965, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001228965
+[^39]: Osborn, Howard J. Memorandum for the record, November 8, 1967, JFK record 104-10133-10076. National Archives, JFK Assassination Records Collection.
+[^40]: Bush, George, memorandum "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. Reading room document 00508811, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00508811
+[^41]: Central Intelligence Agency, routing and record memorandum, June 16, 1976, filed with the reading room copy of the June 1976 press report, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-00498a000600020001-2
+[^42]: Central Intelligence Agency, routing and record sheet, "Mr. David Martin, Associated Press Correspondent's Interest in Writing a Book About Mr. William King Harvey," June 27, 1977. Reading room document 0001229025, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001229025