vault backup: 2026-10-12 16:23:53

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/NSA.md

@@ -28,19 +28,19 @@ relations:
     role: "Navy officer assigned to a research billet; Project LIGHTNING (ultra-high-speed computers)"
     start: 1960
     end: 1963
-    fn: 5
+    fn: 6
   - type: employed_by
     with: "[[Bill Hamilton]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "worked for NSA in the 1960s according to NSA's statement to the Bua inquiry; personnel records purged"
-    fn: 13
+    fn: 14
   - type: investigated
     with: "[[Church Committee]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "hearings on SHAMROCK and the watch list activity, October 29 and November 6, 1975"
     start: 1975
     end: 1975
-    fn: 1
+    fn: 2
 ---
   - type: head_of
     with: "[[Bobby Ray Inman]]"
@@ -48,75 +48,76 @@ relations:
     role: "director"
     start: 1977-07-05
     end: 1981-02
-    fn: 2
-The National Security Agency (NSA) was established by a presidential memorandum of October 1952, which directed the creation of the agency, designated the Secretary of Defense as the President's executive agent for communications intelligence, and set out the agency's missions. The agency's director, Lieutenant General [[Lew Allen]], described it in that form to the [[Church Committee]] on October 29, 1975.[^1] Its headquarters are at [[Fort Meade]], Maryland, where the Army's [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) also kept its remote viewing unit.
+    fn: 3
+The National Security Agency (NSA) was established in 1952. President [[Harry S. Truman]] sent a memorandum on communications intelligence activities to the Secretaries of State and Defense on October 24, 1952; Major General [[Ralph J. Canine]] became the agency's first director on November 4, 1952; and a revised National Security Council Intelligence Directive No. 9 is dated December 29, 1952.[^1] The agency's director, Lieutenant General [[Lew Allen]], described the founding to the [[Church Committee]] on October 29, 1975 as a presidential memorandum of October 1952 that directed the creation of the agency, designated the Secretary of Defense as the President's executive agent for communications intelligence, and set out the agency's missions.[^2] Its headquarters are at [[Fort Meade]], Maryland, where the Army's [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) also kept its remote viewing unit.
 
 ### Director Bobby Ray Inman, 1977 to 1981
 
-Bobby Ray Inman became director on July 5, 1977. In February 1981 he told the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] that he had served as director "since 5 July 1977."[^2] He told the committee that during his four years at the agency "this committee constantly pressed on the administration the question of the adequacy of the intelligence assets."[^2]
+Bobby Ray Inman became director on July 5, 1977. In February 1981 he told the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] that he had served as director "since 5 July 1977."[^3] He told the committee that during his four years at the agency "this committee constantly pressed on the administration the question of the adequacy of the intelligence assets."[^3]
 
-The BBC's Tim Harford wrote in 2017 that the agency's head "was genuinely puzzled about the academics' motives" in the public-key cryptography episode, and that he "soon accepted that the professor had a point and no prosecutions followed."[^3]
+The BBC's Tim Harford wrote in 2017 that the agency's head "was genuinely puzzled about the academics' motives" in the public-key cryptography episode, and that he "soon accepted that the professor had a point and no prosecutions followed."[^4]
 
-A Senate executive summary of January 1993 records that Inman testified that the NSA's signals intelligence collection in Southeast Asia was dismantled after the war and was not resumed until at least 1978.[^4]
+A Senate executive summary of January 1993 records that Inman testified that the NSA's signals intelligence collection in Southeast Asia was dismantled after the war and was not resumed until at least 1978.[^5]
 
 ### SHAMROCK and the watch list activity
 
-The Church Committee's statement of November 6, 1975 described SHAMROCK as a message collection program in which the government persuaded three international telegraph companies, [[RCA Global]], [[ITT World Communications]] and [[Western Union International]], to make their international telegraph traffic available, so that "for almost 30 years, copies of most international telegrams originating in or forwarded through the United States were turned over to the National Security Agency and its predecessor agencies." The committee found that the [[Army Security Agency]], later folded into INSCOM, was the first agency with operational responsibility for SHAMROCK; the [[Armed Forces Security Agency]] inherited it in 1949 and NSA assumed operational control when it was created in 1952. The committee added that no documents at NSA or the Department of Defense reflected the operational arrangements between the government and the companies.[^1] In his own testimony Allen separately described a "watch list activity" conducted by NSA between 1967 and 1973 in response to requirements levied by other government agencies, and the committee chairman's opening statement noted that NSA, like the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and the [[Internal Revenue Service]], had maintained a watch list containing the names of United States citizens.[^1]
+The Church Committee's statement of November 6, 1975 described SHAMROCK as a message collection program in which the government persuaded three international telegraph companies, [[RCA Global]], [[ITT World Communications]] and [[Western Union International]], to make their international telegraph traffic available, so that "for almost 30 years, copies of most international telegrams originating in or forwarded through the United States were turned over to the National Security Agency and its predecessor agencies." The committee found that the [[Army Security Agency]], later folded into INSCOM, was the first agency with operational responsibility for SHAMROCK; the [[Armed Forces Security Agency]] inherited it in 1949 and NSA assumed operational control when it was created in 1952. The committee added that no documents at NSA or the Department of Defense reflected the operational arrangements between the government and the companies.[^2] In his own testimony Allen separately described a "watch list activity" conducted by NSA between 1967 and 1973 in response to requirements levied by other government agencies, and the committee chairman's opening statement noted that NSA, like the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and the [[Internal Revenue Service]], had maintained a watch list containing the names of United States citizens.[^2]
 
 ### Hal Puthoff at the NSA
 
-[[Hal Puthoff]], later the principal investigator of the [[Stanford Research Institute]] remote viewing work, reported to active duty as a [[U.S. Navy|Navy]] officer in 1960 after taking a master's degree at the [[University of Florida]] and was assigned to a research billet at the NSA at Fort Meade. According to the biography SRI filed with its 1979 Grill Flame protocol, he pursued research and monitored contracts on the development of ultra-high-speed computers under Project LIGHTNING, started a program on the potential of lasers, fiber optics and related devices for optical computers, received a Department of Defense Certificate of Commendation, and won second prize for outstanding paper of the year in the NSA Technical Journal in 1963. He left active duty in February 1963 and remained a civilian (GS-13) until September 1963, when he entered [[Stanford University]].[^5]
+[[Hal Puthoff]], later the principal investigator of the [[Stanford Research Institute]] remote viewing work, reported to active duty as a [[U.S. Navy|Navy]] officer in 1960 after taking a master's degree at the [[University of Florida]] and was assigned to a research billet at the NSA at Fort Meade. According to the biography SRI filed with its 1979 Grill Flame protocol, he pursued research and monitored contracts on the development of ultra-high-speed computers under Project LIGHTNING, started a program on the potential of lasers, fiber optics and related devices for optical computers, received a Department of Defense Certificate of Commendation, and won second prize for outstanding paper of the year in the NSA Technical Journal in 1963. He left active duty in February 1963 and remained a civilian (GS-13) until September 1963, when he entered [[Stanford University]].[^6]
 
 ### The 1973 West Virginia target
 
-SRI's final report for the period January 1974 through February 1975 describes experiments "under the control of the sponsor," in which an SRI experimenter requested geographical coordinates of a site unknown to the experimenters and subjects from "the sponsor's group responsible for threat analysis." The coordinates received were 38 degrees 23 minutes 45 seconds to 48 seconds north, 79 degrees 25 minutes west, described only as being in West Virginia. On May 29, 1973 [[Puthoff]] relayed them by telephone to a first subject, designated S3 in the final report and named as [[Ingo Swann]] in SRI's October 1, 1973 proposal, whose sessions of May 29 and 30 described rolling hills, lawns like those around a military base, and "either some old bunkers around, or maybe this is a covered reservoir." On June 1, 1973 Puthoff gave the coordinates to a second subject, designated S1 and named as [[Pat Price]] in the proposal, whose written response of June 2 reported a peak in a mountain chain, a concealed road, a "former missile site" where underground rooms held records, microfilm and file cabinets under "Army 5th Corps Engineers," and, beyond them, bays "with computers, communication equipment, large maps" staffed by the Army Signal Corps. The report states that both West Virginia reports and the report on a Urals site that Price volunteered were "verified by personnel in the sponsor organization as being substantially correct."[^6]
+SRI's final report for the period January 1974 through February 1975 describes experiments "under the control of the sponsor," in which an SRI experimenter requested geographical coordinates of a site unknown to the experimenters and subjects from "the sponsor's group responsible for threat analysis." The coordinates received were 38 degrees 23 minutes 45 seconds to 48 seconds north, 79 degrees 25 minutes west, described only as being in West Virginia. On May 29, 1973 [[Puthoff]] relayed them by telephone to a first subject, designated S3 in the final report and named as [[Ingo Swann]] in SRI's October 1, 1973 proposal, whose sessions of May 29 and 30 described rolling hills, lawns like those around a military base, and "either some old bunkers around, or maybe this is a covered reservoir." On June 1, 1973 Puthoff gave the coordinates to a second subject, designated S1 and named as [[Pat Price]] in the proposal, whose written response of June 2 reported a peak in a mountain chain, a concealed road, a "former missile site" where underground rooms held records, microfilm and file cabinets under "Army 5th Corps Engineers," and, beyond them, bays "with computers, communication equipment, large maps" staffed by the Army Signal Corps. The report states that both West Virginia reports and the report on a Urals site that Price volunteered were "verified by personnel in the sponsor organization as being substantially correct."[^7]
 
-On a later date, the report says, S1 was asked to return to the site "with the goal of obtaining information on code words," and supplied the following: top of desk with papers labeled "Flytrap" and "Minerva"; a file cabinet labeled "Operation Pool"; folders labeled "Cueball," "14 Ball," "4 Ball," "8 Ball" and "Rackup"; a site name that "vaguely seems like Hayfork or Haystack"; and the personnel "Col. R. J. Hamilton, Maj. Gen. George R. Nash, Major John C. Calhoun (??)."[^6] The name Sugar Grove does not appear in the SRI report. An article by the former [[Time]] science correspondent John L. Wilhelm in [[The Washington Post]] (c. 1977) wrote that the coordinates were encoded and passed through an NSA monitor in the Washington area to a CIA scientist at [[Menlo Park]], that the site was a satellite interrogation station which "eavesdrops on Soviet space vehicles," that an officer exclaimed "Hell, there's no security left," and that a security investigation was launched to determine whether the information had leaked to Price. Wilhelm, who also names Sugar Grove in listing the explanations later offered, quoted a source as saying the security men "wouldn't buy the idea of remote viewing."[^7] An Army briefing script on the Grill Flame program, describing the same episode without naming the site, states that the viewer "actually entered the place, calling out names of people who were working there," that he "read" classified codewords on folders, some locked inside security containers, and that "the CIA later confirmed with NSA the validity of much of the subject's information."[^8]
+On a later date, the report says, S1 was asked to return to the site "with the goal of obtaining information on code words," and supplied the following: top of desk with papers labeled "Flytrap" and "Minerva"; a file cabinet labeled "Operation Pool"; folders labeled "Cueball," "14 Ball," "4 Ball," "8 Ball" and "Rackup"; a site name that "vaguely seems like Hayfork or Haystack"; and the personnel "Col. R. J. Hamilton, Maj. Gen. George R. Nash, Major John C. Calhoun (??)."[^7] The name Sugar Grove does not appear in the SRI report. An article by the former [[Time]] science correspondent John L. Wilhelm in [[The Washington Post]] (c. 1977) wrote that the coordinates were encoded and passed through an NSA monitor in the Washington area to a CIA scientist at [[Menlo Park]], that the site was a satellite interrogation station which "eavesdrops on Soviet space vehicles," that an officer exclaimed "Hell, there's no security left," and that a security investigation was launched to determine whether the information had leaked to Price. Wilhelm, who also names Sugar Grove in listing the explanations later offered, quoted a source as saying the security men "wouldn't buy the idea of remote viewing."[^8] An Army briefing script on the Grill Flame program, describing the same episode without naming the site, states that the viewer "actually entered the place, calling out names of people who were working there," that he "read" classified codewords on folders, some locked inside security containers, and that "the CIA later confirmed with NSA the validity of much of the subject's information."[^9]
 
 ### NSA and the Army remote viewing program
 
-An INSCOM staff paper of 1982, written when [[Congress]] was ending National Foreign Intelligence Program funding for the Army's Grill Flame project, listed among the options for its future a determination "if the Director, NSA would integrate the current INSCOM GRILL FLAME project into any NSA program."[^9] A September 22, 1982 memorandum from the 902d Military Intelligence Group set out the mechanics of NSA sponsorship: the psi personnel could be carried on the rolls of the CONUS MI Group, the housekeeping organization for Army personnel working at NSA, under a "Strategic Systems Planning Detachment" with funding provided by the NSA sponsor and tasking exercised by the INSCOM commander through an INSCOM liaison officer at the NSA.[^10] INSCOM's chronology records that Lieutenant General [[Lincoln D. Faurer]], director of the NSA, was briefed on the program on August 2, 1982.[^9]
+An INSCOM staff paper of 1982, written when [[Congress]] was ending National Foreign Intelligence Program funding for the Army's Grill Flame project, listed among the options for its future a determination "if the Director, NSA would integrate the current INSCOM GRILL FLAME project into any NSA program."[^10] A September 22, 1982 memorandum from the 902d Military Intelligence Group set out the mechanics of NSA sponsorship: the psi personnel could be carried on the rolls of the CONUS MI Group, the housekeeping organization for Army personnel working at NSA, under a "Strategic Systems Planning Detachment" with funding provided by the NSA sponsor and tasking exercised by the INSCOM commander through an INSCOM liaison officer at the NSA.[^11] INSCOM's chronology records that Lieutenant General [[Lincoln D. Faurer]], director of the NSA, was briefed on the program on August 2, 1982.[^10]
 
-On August 27, 1982 the Grill Flame project manager, Lieutenant Colonel [[Robert Jachim]], recorded a conversation with NSA personnel. The NSA people said the agency had "no active remote viewers," asked INSCOM how remote viewers were selected, what psychological battery was used, whether a screening questionnaire could be provided and what training SRI had offered, and were given copies of articles from Signal, [[Omni]] and an [[IEEE]] article by [[Robert Jahn]] of Princeton. Jachim wrote that Puthoff had telephoned an NSA contact to say that some of SRI's funding had not materialized and to invite NSA into the program, and that the NSA contact "was noncommittal." The memorandum gives an internal NSA designation for the agency's own parapsychology activity, which is redacted in the released copy.[^11] A 1984 INSCOM commanding general's memorandum lists the NSA among the agencies that had tasked remote viewing and says an evaluation from the NSA, with one from the CIA, was attached to it.[^12] 
+On August 27, 1982 the Grill Flame project manager, Lieutenant Colonel [[Robert Jachim]], recorded a conversation with NSA personnel. The NSA people said the agency had "no active remote viewers," asked INSCOM how remote viewers were selected, what psychological battery was used, whether a screening questionnaire could be provided and what training SRI had offered, and were given copies of articles from Signal, [[Omni]] and an [[IEEE]] article by [[Robert Jahn]] of Princeton. Jachim wrote that Puthoff had telephoned an NSA contact to say that some of SRI's funding had not materialized and to invite NSA into the program, and that the NSA contact "was noncommittal." The memorandum gives an internal NSA designation for the agency's own parapsychology activity, which is redacted in the released copy.[^12] A 1984 INSCOM commanding general's memorandum lists the NSA among the agencies that had tasked remote viewing and says an evaluation from the NSA, with one from the CIA, was attached to it.[^13] 
 
 ### PROMIS
 
-An NSA database named PROMIS appears in the [[Department of Justice]] inquiry into the INSLAW matter. The 1993 report of Special Counsel [[Nicholas J. Bua]] records that [[Ari Ben-Menashe]] told Bua's team that the "PROMIS" software [[Earl Brian]] distributed to the Israelis was an NSA program and not INSLAW's, that the NSA had developed it to translate Vietnamese into English, and that [[Bill Hamilton]] had worked on it while employed at the NSA before INSLAW existed. Ben-Menashe had earlier sworn affidavits for INSLAW stating that Brian told a 1987 Israeli meeting that the CIA, the NSA, the Department of Justice and Israeli intelligence had been allowed to use PROMIS since 1982; he told Bua that he had let the Hamiltons "assume" he meant INSLAW's product. The Bua report states that the NSA told the investigators Hamilton had worked for the NSA in the 1960s but that, because his personnel records had been purged, it could not say whether he had worked on such a program. The NSA also told them it used a commercial software package from [[Computer Corporation of America]] and that in 1974 and 1975, six years before INSLAW was incorporated, it had developed a database in the M204 language called PROMIS, an acronym for Product Related On-line Management Information System ("product" being the agency's term for its intelligence reports), which it said had no relationship to INSLAW's product and shared the name coincidentally. The NSA general counsel's office told the investigators that many NSA personnel knew of its PROMIS and that many had since moved to other agencies and private employers. The Bua report declined to credit the rest of Ben-Menashe's account.[^13]
+An NSA database named PROMIS appears in the [[Department of Justice]] inquiry into the INSLAW matter. The 1993 report of Special Counsel [[Nicholas J. Bua]] records that [[Ari Ben-Menashe]] told Bua's team that the "PROMIS" software [[Earl Brian]] distributed to the Israelis was an NSA program and not INSLAW's, that the NSA had developed it to translate Vietnamese into English, and that [[Bill Hamilton]] had worked on it while employed at the NSA before INSLAW existed. Ben-Menashe had earlier sworn affidavits for INSLAW stating that Brian told a 1987 Israeli meeting that the CIA, the NSA, the Department of Justice and Israeli intelligence had been allowed to use PROMIS since 1982; he told Bua that he had let the Hamiltons "assume" he meant INSLAW's product. The Bua report states that the NSA told the investigators Hamilton had worked for the NSA in the 1960s but that, because his personnel records had been purged, it could not say whether he had worked on such a program. The NSA also told them it used a commercial software package from [[Computer Corporation of America]] and that in 1974 and 1975, six years before INSLAW was incorporated, it had developed a database in the M204 language called PROMIS, an acronym for Product Related On-line Management Information System ("product" being the agency's term for its intelligence reports), which it said had no relationship to INSLAW's product and shared the name coincidentally. The NSA general counsel's office told the investigators that many NSA personnel knew of its PROMIS and that many had since moved to other agencies and private employers. The Bua report declined to credit the rest of Ben-Menashe's account.[^14]
 
-The House Judiciary Committee's 1992 report on the INSLAW affair had recorded a different claim: [[Juval Aviv]], a former Israeli intelligence officer and head of the investigative firm [[Interfor]], told committee investigators in January 1991 that Brian had sold INSLAW's Enhanced PROMIS to United States agencies outside the Department of Justice, including the CIA, the NSA, [[NASA]] and the [[National Security Council]], and to [[Interpol]], the [[Mossad]], the Israeli Air Force and the Egyptian government.[^14]
+The House Judiciary Committee's 1992 report on the INSLAW affair had recorded a different claim: [[Juval Aviv]], a former Israeli intelligence officer and head of the investigative firm [[Interfor]], told committee investigators in January 1991 that Brian had sold INSLAW's Enhanced PROMIS to United States agencies outside the Department of Justice, including the CIA, the NSA, [[NASA]] and the [[National Security Council]], and to [[Interpol]], the [[Mossad]], the Israeli Air Force and the Egyptian government.[^15]
 
 ### UFO records and Citizens Against UFO Secrecy v. NSA
 
-In [[Ground Saucer Watch]] v. CIA (D.D.C., Civil Action 78-859) the Central Intelligence Agency located documents that originated with the NSA and referred them to that agency in four separate referrals, the last on July 27, 1979. The attorney for the plaintiff, [[Peter A. Gersten]], then requested the documents from the NSA; by letters of January 9, 1979 and December 19, 1979 the NSA's policy staff chief, [[Roy R. Banner]], told him the records were classified in their entirety and exempt under 5 U.S.C. 552(b)(1) and (b)(3), the latter on the strength of 18 U.S.C. 798, 50 U.S.C. 403(d)(3) and Public Law 86-36. The NSA appeals authority affirmed on March 24, 1980, and in Citizens Against Unidentified Flying Objects Secrecy v. National Security Agency (D.D.C., Civil Action 80-1562) the agency's Chief of the Office of Policy, [[Eugene F. Yeates]], swore an affidavit that the withheld material consisted of communications intelligence reports that were "all based on intercepted foreign communications," whose disclosure would identify communications "successfully intercepted and processed," together with four non-COMINT records, and that he would supply a second affidavit classified Top Secret for the court's in camera consideration. A portion of one responsive document was declassified and released to plaintiff's counsel on September 15, 1980.[^15]
+In [[Ground Saucer Watch]] v. CIA (D.D.C., Civil Action 78-859) the Central Intelligence Agency located documents that originated with the NSA and referred them to that agency in four separate referrals, the last on July 27, 1979. The attorney for the plaintiff, [[Peter A. Gersten]], then requested the documents from the NSA; by letters of January 9, 1979 and December 19, 1979 the NSA's policy staff chief, [[Roy R. Banner]], told him the records were classified in their entirety and exempt under 5 U.S.C. 552(b)(1) and (b)(3), the latter on the strength of 18 U.S.C. 798, 50 U.S.C. 403(d)(3) and Public Law 86-36. The NSA appeals authority affirmed on March 24, 1980, and in Citizens Against Unidentified Flying Objects Secrecy v. National Security Agency (D.D.C., Civil Action 80-1562) the agency's Chief of the Office of Policy, [[Eugene F. Yeates]], swore an affidavit that the withheld material consisted of communications intelligence reports that were "all based on intercepted foreign communications," whose disclosure would identify communications "successfully intercepted and processed," together with four non-COMINT records, and that he would supply a second affidavit classified Top Secret for the court's in camera consideration. A portion of one responsive document was declassified and released to plaintiff's counsel on September 15, 1980.[^16]
 
 ### The KH-11 and the Israeli access dispute
 
-[[Seymour Hersh]] wrote in *The Samson Option* that a former NSA official told him the KH-11 satellite, launched in December 1976, was considered the most important advance of its time in reconnaissance photography, that every military and civilian intelligence agency had an urgent requirement for its imagery, and that the NSA, responsible for all communications intelligence, had a role in scheduling the satellite to maximize collection. Hersh wrote that [[Jimmy Carter]]'s decision in March 1979 to give [[Israel]] direct access to KH-11 photographs disrupted that scheduling and was unpopular within the NSA and other agencies, and that during the [[Ronald Reagan]] administration it was learned that Israeli military officers were permitted to attend Pentagon meetings where future KH-11 missions and orbital paths were discussed, which dismayed some NSA officials.[^16]
+[[Seymour Hersh]] wrote in *The Samson Option* that a former NSA official told him the KH-11 satellite, launched in December 1976, was considered the most important advance of its time in reconnaissance photography, that every military and civilian intelligence agency had an urgent requirement for its imagery, and that the NSA, responsible for all communications intelligence, had a role in scheduling the satellite to maximize collection. Hersh wrote that [[Jimmy Carter]]'s decision in March 1979 to give [[Israel]] direct access to KH-11 photographs disrupted that scheduling and was unpopular within the NSA and other agencies, and that during the [[Ronald Reagan]] administration it was learned that Israeli military officers were permitted to attend Pentagon meetings where future KH-11 missions and orbital paths were discussed, which dismayed some NSA officials.[^17]
 
 ### USS Liberty intercepts, 2003 to 2007
 
-The NSA released transcripts of intercepts made after the June 8, 1967, attack on the [[USS Liberty Incident|USS Liberty]] in July 2003, in response to a Freedom of Information Act request by [[A. Jay Cristol]] filed April 26, 2001. The letter of July 2, 2003, enclosed three recordings of Israeli communications in Hebrew, three transcripts and two summary reports, and states that "No communications of the attacking aircraft or torpedo boats were available" and that an EC-121 aircraft had collected conversations between two Israeli helicopter pilots and the control tower at Hazor Airfield; it states that portions were withheld under Executive Order 12958 and under statutes including 18 U.S.C. 798 and Section 6 of Public Law 86-36.[^17] In January 2004 the agency's historian, [[David Hatch]], said the new material "doesn't settle much," according to the Financial Times, and that his reading of the air controller's conversations with two helicopter pilots "suggested strongly" that the Israelis did not know at first that the ship was American.[^18] On June 8, 2007, the NSA announced that it had finished its review of all material relating to the attack and had posted additional documents, stating: "It is not NSA's intention to prove or disprove any one set of conclusions, many of which can be drawn from a thorough review of this material."[^19] [[Oliver Kirby]], the NSA deputy director for operations/production in 1967, said in an interview of February 14, 2003 that within weeks of the attack he read transcripts of the Israeli pilots' conversations that made it "absolutely certain" the Israelis knew the ship was American.[^20] The Chicago Tribune reported on October 2, 2007 that the NSA's position was that it never intercepted the communications of the attacking Israeli pilots; quoted Kirby as saying "I'm willing to swear on a stack of Bibles that we knew they knew"; quoted Michael Prostinak, a Hebrew linguist aboard the EC-121, as saying "there were more tapes than just the three on the Internet"; and reported that the posted tape designated A1104/A-02 begins at 2:29 p.m. local time and that a preceding tape designated A1104/A-01 is absent. An NSA media adviser did not respond to the Tribune's question about the difference.[^21]
+The NSA released transcripts of intercepts made after the June 8, 1967, attack on the [[USS Liberty Incident|USS Liberty]] in July 2003, in response to a Freedom of Information Act request by [[A. Jay Cristol]] filed April 26, 2001. The letter of July 2, 2003, enclosed three recordings of Israeli communications in Hebrew, three transcripts and two summary reports, and states that "No communications of the attacking aircraft or torpedo boats were available" and that an EC-121 aircraft had collected conversations between two Israeli helicopter pilots and the control tower at Hazor Airfield; it states that portions were withheld under Executive Order 12958 and under statutes including 18 U.S.C. 798 and Section 6 of Public Law 86-36.[^18] In January 2004 the agency's historian, [[David Hatch]], said the new material "doesn't settle much," according to the Financial Times, and that his reading of the air controller's conversations with two helicopter pilots "suggested strongly" that the Israelis did not know at first that the ship was American.[^19] On June 8, 2007, the NSA announced that it had finished its review of all material relating to the attack and had posted additional documents, stating: "It is not NSA's intention to prove or disprove any one set of conclusions, many of which can be drawn from a thorough review of this material."[^20] [[Oliver Kirby]], the NSA deputy director for operations/production in 1967, said in an interview of February 14, 2003 that within weeks of the attack he read transcripts of the Israeli pilots' conversations that made it "absolutely certain" the Israelis knew the ship was American.[^21] The Chicago Tribune reported on October 2, 2007 that the NSA's position was that it never intercepted the communications of the attacking Israeli pilots; quoted Kirby as saying "I'm willing to swear on a stack of Bibles that we knew they knew"; quoted Michael Prostinak, a Hebrew linguist aboard the EC-121, as saying "there were more tapes than just the three on the Internet"; and reported that the posted tape designated A1104/A-02 begins at 2:29 p.m. local time and that a preceding tape designated A1104/A-01 is absent. An NSA media adviser did not respond to the Tribune's question about the difference.[^22]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
-[^1]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Intelligence Activities, Senate Resolution 21*, Hearings, vol. 5, "The National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights," 94th Cong., 1st sess., October 29 and November 6, 1975 (testimony of Lt. Gen. Lew Allen, Jr.; committee statement on SHAMROCK read November 6), https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume5-National-Security-Agency (text at https://archive.org/download/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume5-National-Security-Agency/Vol5-NSA_djvu.txt).
-[^2]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, Nomination of Admiral B. R. Inman to Be Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, hearing of February 3, 1981 (Washington: GPO, 1981). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/97inman.pdf
-[^3]: Tim Harford, "Geeks v government: The battle over public key cryptography," BBC News, April 24, 2017. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-39341663
-[^4]: U.S. Senate, Report of the Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs, S. Rept. 103-1, Executive Summary, January 13, 1993. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1993_rpt/pow-exec.html
-[^5]: "Proposed Grill Flame Protocol: Proposed SRI International Applied Remote Viewing Protocol," SRI 9-4107, March 23, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300070001-1, biography of Harold E. Puthoff, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001300070001-1.
-[^6]: Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ, "Perceptual Augmentation Techniques, Part Two: Research Report," final report covering January 1974 through February 1975, SRI International, December 1, 1975, section on "West Virginia Site (S3)," "West Virginia Site (S1)" and "Urals Site," CIA-RDP96-00788R001300030001-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001300030001-5; and SRI Proposal for Research ISH 73-146, "Perceptual Augmentation Techniques, Part One," October 1, 1973, CIA-RDP96-00787R000700100001-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000700100001-5, which names Price in the same passage.
-[^7]: John L. Wilhelm, "The CIA, the Pentagon and the Russians: The Military Potential of Parapsychology," *The Washington Post* (c. 1977), as reproduced in CIA-RDP96-00788R001700360003-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700360003-3.
-[^8]: "Army's Role in a Sensitive, Close-Hold DoD Project," Army briefing script on psychoenergetics (undated), CIA-RDP96-00787R000200020023-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000200020023-5.
-[^9]: Staff paper on termination of the Army Grill Flame program, 1982, and "Center Lane Historical Overview," CIA-RDP96-00788R001500180001-7, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001500180001-7 and CIA-RDP96-00788R000400060001-2.
-[^10]: Memorandum, "Detachment G Reorganization," 902d Military Intelligence Group Security Support Detachment, September 22, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700350013-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700350013-3.
-[^11]: Memorandum for the record, "NSA Involvement in GRILL FLAME," Lt. Col. Robert J. Jachim, August 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700230009-1, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700230009-1.
-[^12]: INSCOM commanding general's memorandum and talking paper, May 4, 1984, CIA-RDP96-00788R001500180001-7.
-[^13]: Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc. (1993), pp. 73 to 80, released by the Department of Justice Office of Information Policy on September 30, 2013 (AG/13-00675 (F)), https://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/nsa/DOJ-OIP-INSLAW_1993.pdf.
-[^14]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, *The INSLAW Affair*, H. Rept. 102-857, September 10, 1992, pp. 67 to 68, https://archive.org/details/InslawAffairInvestigativeReport. The report records these statements as Aviv's account to committee investigators.
-[^15]: Affidavit of Eugene F. Yeates, Chief, Office of Policy, National Security Agency, *Citizens Against Unidentified Flying Objects Secrecy v. National Security Agency*, Civil Action No. 80-1562 (D.D.C. 1980), https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/ufo/assets/files/affadavit_yeates.pdf (archived copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/ufo/assets/files/affadavit_yeates.pdf).
-[^16]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991). Hersh attributes the account of the KH-11 scheduling to an unnamed former NSA official.
-[^17]: National Security Agency, letter from Louis F. Giles, Director of Policy, to A. Jay Cristol, FOIA Case 40039A, July 2, 2003. https://irp.fas.org/nsa/liberty.html
-[^18]: Guy Dinmore, *Financial Times*, January 13, 2004, reprinted by the History News Network. https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/3027
-[^19]: National Security Agency, "U.S.S. Liberty," release page (Wayback Machine 2007 capture). http://web.archive.org/web/2007/http://www.nsa.gov/liberty
-[^20]: David C. Walsh, "Former NSA Officials Agree," *U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings*, June 2003. https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2003/june/former-nsa-officials-agree
-[^21]: "New revelations in attack on American spy ship," *Chicago Tribune*, October 2, 2007. https://www.chicagotribune.com/2007/10/02/new-revelations-in-attack-on-american-spy-ship/
+[^1]: Memorandum to the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense, "Communications Intelligence Activities," October 24, 1952, and NSCID No. 9, December 29, 1952, National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book 23, Documents 2a and 2b. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB23/ ; National Security Agency, "Origins of NSA" (Major General Ralph J. Canine first Director, November 4, 1952). https://irp.fas.org/nsa/oldind.html
+[^2]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Intelligence Activities, Senate Resolution 21*, Hearings, vol. 5, "The National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights," 94th Cong., 1st sess., October 29 and November 6, 1975 (testimony of Lt. Gen. Lew Allen, Jr.; committee statement on SHAMROCK read November 6), https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume5-National-Security-Agency (text at https://archive.org/download/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume5-National-Security-Agency/Vol5-NSA_djvu.txt).
+[^3]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, Nomination of Admiral B. R. Inman to Be Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, hearing of February 3, 1981 (Washington: GPO, 1981). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/97inman.pdf
+[^4]: Tim Harford, "Geeks v government: The battle over public key cryptography," BBC News, April 24, 2017. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-39341663
+[^5]: U.S. Senate, Report of the Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs, S. Rept. 103-1, Executive Summary, January 13, 1993. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1993_rpt/pow-exec.html
+[^6]: "Proposed Grill Flame Protocol: Proposed SRI International Applied Remote Viewing Protocol," SRI 9-4107, March 23, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300070001-1, biography of Harold E. Puthoff, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001300070001-1.
+[^7]: Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ, "Perceptual Augmentation Techniques, Part Two: Research Report," final report covering January 1974 through February 1975, SRI International, December 1, 1975, section on "West Virginia Site (S3)," "West Virginia Site (S1)" and "Urals Site," CIA-RDP96-00788R001300030001-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001300030001-5; and SRI Proposal for Research ISH 73-146, "Perceptual Augmentation Techniques, Part One," October 1, 1973, CIA-RDP96-00787R000700100001-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000700100001-5, which names Price in the same passage.
+[^8]: John L. Wilhelm, "The CIA, the Pentagon and the Russians: The Military Potential of Parapsychology," *The Washington Post* (c. 1977), as reproduced in CIA-RDP96-00788R001700360003-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700360003-3.
+[^9]: "Army's Role in a Sensitive, Close-Hold DoD Project," Army briefing script on psychoenergetics (undated), CIA-RDP96-00787R000200020023-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000200020023-5.
+[^10]: Staff paper on termination of the Army Grill Flame program, 1982, and "Center Lane Historical Overview," CIA-RDP96-00788R001500180001-7, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001500180001-7 and CIA-RDP96-00788R000400060001-2.
+[^11]: Memorandum, "Detachment G Reorganization," 902d Military Intelligence Group Security Support Detachment, September 22, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700350013-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700350013-3.
+[^12]: Memorandum for the record, "NSA Involvement in GRILL FLAME," Lt. Col. Robert J. Jachim, August 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700230009-1, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700230009-1.
+[^13]: INSCOM commanding general's memorandum and talking paper, May 4, 1984, CIA-RDP96-00788R001500180001-7.
+[^14]: Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc. (1993), pp. 73 to 80, released by the Department of Justice Office of Information Policy on September 30, 2013 (AG/13-00675 (F)), https://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/nsa/DOJ-OIP-INSLAW_1993.pdf.
+[^15]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, *The INSLAW Affair*, H. Rept. 102-857, September 10, 1992, pp. 67 to 68, https://archive.org/details/InslawAffairInvestigativeReport. The report records these statements as Aviv's account to committee investigators.
+[^16]: Affidavit of Eugene F. Yeates, Chief, Office of Policy, National Security Agency, *Citizens Against Unidentified Flying Objects Secrecy v. National Security Agency*, Civil Action No. 80-1562 (D.D.C. 1980), https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/ufo/assets/files/affadavit_yeates.pdf (archived copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/ufo/assets/files/affadavit_yeates.pdf).
+[^17]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991). Hersh attributes the account of the KH-11 scheduling to an unnamed former NSA official.
+[^18]: National Security Agency, letter from Louis F. Giles, Director of Policy, to A. Jay Cristol, FOIA Case 40039A, July 2, 2003. https://irp.fas.org/nsa/liberty.html
+[^19]: Guy Dinmore, *Financial Times*, January 13, 2004, reprinted by the History News Network. https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/3027
+[^20]: National Security Agency, "U.S.S. Liberty," release page (Wayback Machine 2007 capture). http://web.archive.org/web/2007/http://www.nsa.gov/liberty
+[^21]: David C. Walsh, "Former NSA Officials Agree," *U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings*, June 2003. https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2003/june/former-nsa-officials-agree
+[^22]: "New revelations in attack on American spy ship," *Chicago Tribune*, October 2, 2007. https://www.chicagotribune.com/2007/10/02/new-revelations-in-attack-on-american-spy-ship/

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Securities and Exchange Commission.md

@@ -1,23 +1,336 @@
 ---
-updated: 2026-10-03
-tags: ["Organization", "Government", "USA"]
+aliases:
+  - SEC
+  - U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
 category: "U.S. Government"
-summary: "The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is a U.S. government agency responsible for regulating the securities markets and protecting investors.[^1]"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - Government
+  - USA
+  - Regulator
+  - SecuritiesEnforcement
+  - FCPA
+  - BCCI
+  - Vesco
+  - EDGAR
+  - JeffreyEpstein
+  - CryptoFraud
+summary: "The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is a U.S. government agency responsible for regulating the securities markets and protecting investors."
 start: 1934
 location: "Washington, D.C."
+updated: 2026-10-12
+relations:
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[William J. Casey]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "chairman"
+    start: 1971-04-14
+    end: 1973-02-02
+    fn: 3
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Jay Clayton]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "chairman"
+    start: 2017-05-04
+    end: 2020-12-23
+    fn: 3
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Stephen Cutler]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "director of the Division of Enforcement, October 2001 to April 2005"
+    start: 2001-10
+    end: 2005-04
+    fn: 27
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[International Controls Corporation]]"
+    role: "investigation of the 1970 purchase of control of Investors Overseas Services; injunctive action filed November 27, 1972"
+    start: 1972-11-27
+    fn: 2
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Robert Vesco]]"
+    role: "civil injunctive action, Southern District of New York, November 27, 1972"
+    start: 1972-11-27
+    fn: 2
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Jeffrey Epstein]]"
+    role: "insider-trading inquiry into St. Joe Minerals trading at Bear Stearns; testimony taken April 1, 1981"
+    start: 1981-04-01
+    fn: 16
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Kamal Adham]]"
+    role: "inquiry under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act into Boeing and Lockheed arms sales to Saudi Arabia"
+    fn: 15
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Faisal Saud al-Fulaij]]"
+    role: "inquiry under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act into Boeing and Lockheed arms sales to Saudi Arabia"
+    fn: 15
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]]"
+    role: "SEC v. Bank of Credit and Commerce International, Civil Action No. 78-0469 (D.D.C.), consent injunctions"
+    start: 1978-03-18
+    fn: 12
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Bert Lance]]"
+    role: "civil action over the Financial General Bankshares stock purchases (permanent injunction March 18, 1978, per the News Digest; April 27, 1978, per the Senate report); separate N.D. Ga. action with the Comptroller of the Currency, April 26, 1978"
+    start: 1978-03-18
+    fn: 13
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Lockheed Aircraft Company]]"
+    role: "review of Lockheed's disclosure of questionable overseas payments and sales commissions"
+    start: 1975
+    fn: 7
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Ghaith R. Pharaon]]"
+    role: "ownership filings for CenTrust Savings, August 1987"
+    start: 1987-08-12
+    fn: 17
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[George W. Bush]]"
+    role: "late Form 4 filings for Harken Energy stock; investigation terminated October 1993"
+    start: 1991-04-09
+    end: 1993-10
+    fn: 21
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[James Guerin]]"
+    role: "joint announcement with the U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania of an indictment of Guerin and twenty others, October 31, 1991"
+    start: 1991-10-31
+    fn: 22
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Towers Financial Corporation]]"
+    role: "SEC v. Towers Financial Corporation, 93 Civ. 0744 (S.D.N.Y.), February 1993"
+    start: 1993-02
+    fn: 25
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Steven Hoffenberg]]"
+    role: "SEC v. Towers Financial Corporation, 93 Civ. 0744 (S.D.N.Y.), February 1993"
+    start: 1993-02
+    fn: 25
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Michael Rosoff]]"
+    role: "civil complaint, 96 Civ. 7064 (S.D.N.Y.), September 17, 1996"
+    start: 1996-09-17
+    fn: 25
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Earl Brian]]"
+    role: "charged with inflating revenue and earnings of Financial News Network; settled without admitting or denying, July 1993"
+    start: 1993-07
+    fn: 26
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Ralph Cioffi]]"
+    role: "SEC v. Cioffi and Tannin, Civil Action No. 08 2457 (E.D.N.Y.)"
+    start: 2008-06-19
+    fn: 31
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Matthew Tannin]]"
+    role: "SEC v. Cioffi and Tannin, Civil Action No. 08 2457 (E.D.N.Y.)"
+    start: 2008-06-19
+    fn: 31
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[JPMorgan Chase]]"
+    role: "Enron-related charges settled; $135 million disgorgement, penalty and interest"
+    start: 2003-07-28
+    fn: 28
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Citigroup]]"
+    role: "Enron and Dynegy-related charges settled; $120 million"
+    start: 2003-07-28
+    fn: 28
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Goldman Sachs]]"
+    role: "SEC v. Goldman, Sachs & Co. and Fabrice Tourre, synthetic CDO; $550 million settlement in 2010"
+    start: 2010-04-16
+    fn: 33
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Goldman Sachs]]"
+    role: "FCPA order over 1MDB bond deals; $606.3 million disgorgement and $400 million penalty"
+    start: 2020-10-22
+    fn: 35
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Cantor Fitzgerald]]"
+    role: "blue sheet data order, $3.2 million"
+    start: 2020-04-06
+    fn: 38
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Cantor Fitzgerald]]"
+    role: "SPAC disclosure order, $6.75 million civil penalty"
+    start: 2024-12-12
+    fn: 39
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Samuel Bankman-Fried]]"
+    role: "civil complaint, December 13, 2022"
+    start: 2022-12-13
+    fn: 40
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Caroline Ellison]]"
+    role: "civil complaint, December 21, 2022; bifurcated consent to judgment"
+    start: 2022-12-21
+    fn: 41
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[BDM Corporation]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "EDGAR system contract awarded January 3, 1989, estimated cost $52 million over eight years"
+    start: 1989-01-03
+    fn: 18
 ---
-The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is a U.S. government agency responsible for regulating the securities markets and protecting investors.[^1]
 
-### Involvement in BCCI Scandal
+The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is a U.S. government agency responsible for regulating the securities markets and protecting investors. It was founded in 1934 under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.[^1] It brings civil actions in federal court and administrative proceedings, receives registration statements and periodic reports from public companies through the EDGAR system, and receives exempt-offering notices from private issuers.
 
-The SEC filed suit against [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]], [[Agha Hasan Abedi]], [[Bert Lance]], and others in connection with the purchase of [[Financial General Bankshares]] stock.[^1] The nominees used by BCCI to secretly acquire Financial General Bankshares were summarily sued by the SEC for failing to declare that they were acting as a group.[^2]
+### Vesco and International Controls, 1972 to 1974
 
-### EDGAR contract
+On November 27, 1972 the commission filed an injunctive action in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York against [[Robert Vesco]] and 41 other corporate and individual defendants for violations of the antifraud, filing and proxy provisions of the federal securities laws.[^2] The complaint alleged that Vesco caused [[International Controls Corporation]] to transfer its investments in foreign companies to entities he controlled, and it described the early 1971 purchase of 6,000,000 shares of [[Investors Overseas Services]] (IOS) from [[Bernard Cornfeld]] for approximately 5,500,000 dollars.[^2]
 
-The Baltimore Sun of January 5, 1989 reported that on Tuesday, January 3, 1989, after a delay of more than two years, the SEC awarded a 52 million dollar contract to build its electronic data gathering, analysis and retrieval system, EDGAR, to a consortium led by [[BDM Corporation|BDM Corp.]] of [[McLean, Virginia]], which the paper called "a subsidiary of the Ford Motor Co." The other members were [[Mead Data Central]], [[Sorg, Inc.]] and [[Bechtel Information Systems]]. The eight-year contract provided for BDM to design and install a computer to accept and disseminate all SEC filings by more than 11,000 publicly traded companies and 2,700 investment firms, and the SEC said EDGAR should provide more than 170 million dollars in savings.[^3]
+The commission's chairman during the investigation was [[William J. Casey]], who held the post from April 14, 1971 to February 2, 1973.[^3] The [[Supreme Court of New Jersey|New Jersey Supreme Court]]'s disciplinary opinion on [[Harry L. Sears]], a former majority leader of the New Jersey Senate, records that Sears conveyed the requests of Robert Vesco, on behalf of International Controls, to [[John N. Mitchell]], then attorney general, in two letters and three meetings, and that Vesco hoped Mitchell could induce Casey "to monitor and limit the investigation." The opinion records that Mitchell telephoned Casey and arranged a meeting between Sears and the chairman, at which Sears received assurances that International Controls could respond to the investigation and that Casey would personally review its allegations of SEC harassment.[^4] Mitchell was acquitted in April 1974 of the charges arising from a secret cash contribution by Vesco.[^5]
+
+### Corporate payments and the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, 1976 to 1977
+
+On May 12, 1976 the commission, under Chairman [[Roderick M. Hills]], submitted a report on questionable and illegal corporate payments and practices to the [[Senate Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs]], in response to a March 18, 1976 letter to Chairman [[William Proxmire]]. The report stated that the commission's staff had analyzed the public disclosures of 89 corporations as of April 21, 1976, and that, with six companies that had submitted special reports as a result of enforcement actions, 95 companies had made disclosures; sixty-six of them were manufacturing companies. It stated that fourteen enforcement cases had been filed as of May 10, 1976, each ending in a consent to a permanent injunction without admitting or denying the allegations, and that in thirteen the consent decree required an independent special review committee of the company's board. It stated that about 25 formal, private investigations had not yet resulted in public enforcement actions.[^6]
+
+The report described a voluntary disclosure program under which a company that might have a disclosure problem was to authorize an investigation by persons not involved in the activities in question, preferably reporting to outside directors, and to discuss the matter with the commission's staff before filing documents.[^6] In its summary of the enforcement action against Lockheed, the report stated that the commission had alleged secret payments of at least 25 million dollars to foreign government officials, 750,000 dollars deposited in a secret Swiss bank account, and over 200 million dollars disbursed to consultants and commission agents without adequate records.[^6] Testifying before the House Subcommittee on Consumer Protection and Finance in April 1977, [[Gordon Adams]] of the [[Council on Economic Priorities]] said that more than 350 companies had made such disclosures under the SEC program. He said that [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]] had disclosed about 25 million dollars in questionable overseas payments, while the SEC had raised questions about nearly 200 million dollars in Lockheed sales commissions.[^7]
+
+The same hearing record contains a statement by Representative [[Michael J. Harrington]]. Harrington wrote, "One day it is Lockheed. Another day it is Gulf. A third day it is General Tire," describing a run of American corporations that had disclosed bribery or other payments to foreign officials. He wrote that allegations that [[Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands|Prince Bernhard]] had received 1.1 million dollars in Lockheed payments had led to his resignation from his official posts.[^7]
+
+Harrington's statement also placed corporate payments beside [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] funding. It cited the final report of the House Select Committee on Intelligence for a finding that the CIA passed 75 million dollars to Italian parties and politicians between 1948 and 1972. It reported that the [[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]] had said government investigators were assembling "strong indications" that the CIA may have encouraged corporations to pay under-the-table cash to buy intelligence information for the U.S. government. Harrington wrote that after the disclosure of Exxon payments in [[Italy]] there was widespread press speculation that the payments were a covert mechanism for CIA funding. He quoted the same article's statement that the relationship between the intelligence community and corporate funding "has never been thoroughly examined."[^7]
+
+Congress enacted the [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]] on December 19, 1977 as Title I of Public Law 95-213. The act amended the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 to make it unlawful for issuers of registered securities to make certain payments to foreign officials, and required such issuers to keep accurate books and records.[^8]
+
+### Financial General Bankshares and BCCI, 1978
+
+In February 1978, [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] orchestrated a hostile bid for [[Financial General Bankshares]] with the help of [[Bert Lance]].[^9] The SEC filed suit against BCCI, [[Agha Hasan Abedi]], Bert Lance, and others in connection with the purchase of Financial General Bankshares stock.[^9] The nominees used by BCCI to secretly acquire Financial General Bankshares were summarily sued by the SEC for failing to declare that they were acting as a group.[^10]
+
+The Senate report on BCCI, by Senators [[John Kerry]] and [[Hank Brown]], states that on February 7, 1978 Lance told a meeting of Financial General shareholders that the BCCI group controlled 20 percent of the stock, and that the Middendorf group of shareholders immediately complained to the SEC and the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]]. The Middendorf group sued on February 17, 1978. The report dates the SEC's own complaint to March 17, 1978 (its note 12 prints the year as "1078").[^11]
+
+The report quotes a January 30, 1978 memorandum by [[Abdus Sami]], in which he wrote: "We have already given the names of Sheikh Kamal Adham and Mr. Fulaig [sic]. We want two other names immediately."[^12] The report states that the SEC was "not looking for punitive action, merely corrective action." The report states that on April 27, 1978 a federal judge permanently enjoined Lance and ten other defendants from violating the securities laws.[^12]
+
+The commission's News Digest of March 20, 1978, under the heading "Lance, others enjoined," reported that on March 18 the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia had entered permanent injunctions against eleven defendants for violations of Section 13(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and the associated Schedule 13D rules, with the defendants consenting without admitting or denying the allegations. The complaint alleged that defendants acting together had acquired approximately 20 percent of the common stock of Financial General Bankshares through open market and privately negotiated purchases structured to avoid public disclosure, and that with other shares they held the defendants controlled approximately 28 percent. The defendants named included BCCI, Agha Hasan Abedi, Kamal Adham, Faisal Saud al-Fulaij, Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Abdullah Darwaish, Eugene Metzger, J. W. Middendorf II, Stephens Inc. and Jackson T. Stephens. The digest cited the case as SEC v. Bank of Credit and Commerce International S.A., et al., Civil Action No. 78-0469 (D.D.C.), Litigation Release 8336, and reported that certain defendants represented that they intended to make a tender offer for all outstanding Financial General common stock at 15 dollars a share in cash.[^13]
+
+On April 26, 1978 the commission and the Comptroller of the Currency announced a separate civil injunctive action in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Georgia against The National Bank of Georgia, The Calhoun First National Bank and Bertram Lance, alleging violations of the antifraud, reporting and proxy provisions of the securities laws. The court simultaneously entered final judgments of permanent injunction against the three defendants, who consented without admitting or denying the allegations (Civil Action No. 78-758). The digest of April 28, 1978 reported that Lance submitted a letter dated April 26 on his future plans in banking.[^14]
+
+[[Clark Clifford]] wrote in written testimony to the Senate that four of the investors had bought stock in Financial General Bankshares "without filing certain disclosures with the Securities and Exchange Commission," and that his firm was retained to represent Lance, Abedi, BCCI, [[Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan|Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]], [[Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan|Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan]], [[Faisal Saud al-Fulaij]] and Abdullah Darwaish.[^11]
+
+The original 1978 filing with the commission listed [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani]] as a 5 percent shareholder of [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH), the holding company through which the BCCI group bought Financial General shares.[^15] The Senate report describes Irvani as the principal partner of [[Richard Helms]], the former CIA director, in Helms's consulting firm Safeer, and as that firm's chief financier. It says that Helms advised Irvani on how to be protected from any liability in his role as BCCI's lead front man.[^15]
+
+The report also states that the CIA, asked by the Federal Reserve in 1981 about the Middle Eastern shareholders of CCAH, reported no derogatory information on them. The shareholders included [[Kamal Adham]] and [[A. R. (Abdul Raouf) Khalil|Abdul Raouf Khalil]], the past and then-current Saudi intelligence liaisons to the United States. The CIA did not tell the Federal Reserve that Adham and Khalil were intelligence liaisons of the United States, and did not advise it that Adham and Faisal Saud al-Fulaij, a third FGB shareholder, had been the subject of a Securities and Exchange Commission probe under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act into violations by [[Boeing]] and Lockheed for arms sales to [[Saudi Arabia]]. The report states that Federal Reserve staff did learn of the intelligence contacts and of the probe in 1981.[^15]
+
+### Bear Stearns and Jeffrey Epstein, 1981
+
+[[Jeffrey Epstein]] resigned from [[Bear Stearns]] on March 12, 1981, the day after [[Seagram Company|Seagram]] announced a tender offer for [[St. Joe Minerals]]. The commission was investigating trading in St. Joe at Bear Stearns and other firms, had been told that Epstein had information about insider trading at Bear Stearns, and took his testimony on April 1, 1981 through staff attorneys [[Jonathan Harris]] and [[Robert Blackburn]]. The journalist [[Vicky Ward]] wrote in 2003 that Epstein told the commission he had found management's handling of a possible "Reg D" violation "offensive."[^16]
+
+### Ghaith Pharaon and CenTrust, 1987
+
+On August 12, 1987 [[Ghaith R. Pharaon]] filed disclosure statements with the commission stating that he had bought 16.9 percent of the common stock of [[CenTrust Savings]] and 24.4 percent of its Series One participating preferred stock. The Senate report describes the holding as just under the 25 percent that would constitute legal control of CenTrust, and concludes that "at the very time that BCCI was under indictment in Tampa, Florida for money laundering, it had secretly acquired and controlled the largest S&L in Florida, CenTrust."[^17]
+
+### EDGAR contract, 1989
+
+The commission's News Digest for January 4, 1989 announced that on January 3 it had awarded a contract to build the electronic data gathering, analysis and retrieval system to the [[BDM Corporation]], bidding with [[Mead Data Central]], [[Sorg, Inc.]] and [[Bechtel Information Systems]]. The digest gave an expected term of eight years and an estimated total cost to the government of about 52 million dollars.[^18] The [[Baltimore Sun]] of January 5, 1989 reported that, after a delay of more than two years, the commission awarded a 52 million dollar contract to a consortium led by BDM Corp. of [[McLean, Virginia]], which the paper called "a subsidiary of the Ford Motor Co." The eight-year contract provided for BDM to design and install a computer to accept and disseminate all SEC filings by more than 11,000 publicly traded companies and 2,700 investment firms, and the paper reported the commission's estimate of more than 170 million dollars in savings.[^19]
+
+### Harken Energy and George W. Bush, 1990 to 1993
+
+A commission memorandum drafted for the files on April 9, 1991, as the [[Center for Public Integrity]] reported it, noted that [[George W. Bush]] had on four occasions filed late Form 4 reports for [[Harken Energy]] stock transactions worth more than one million dollars. The tardiest, 34 weeks late, reported his June 22, 1990 sale of 212,140 shares.[^20] [[Salon]] reported that the commission did not receive the Form 4 for that sale until March 4, 1991.[^21] In an October 1993 memorandum the commission stated that the investigation had been terminated as to Bush's conduct and that no enforcement action was contemplated at that time, adding that the termination "must in no way be construed as indicating that the party has been exonerated or that no action may ultimately result."[^21]
+
+### International Signal and Control and James Guerin, 1991
+
+On October 31, 1991 the commission and the U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania announced the indictment of [[James Guerin]] and twenty others in "a billion dollars in phony contracts," with laundering of 700,000,000 dollars and smuggling of weapons and restricted commodities.[^22] Guerin ran [[International Signal and Control]], whose special proxy board included [[Bobby Ray Inman]], a former CIA deputy director, according to a 1989 report in [[The Washington Post|Washington Post]].[^23] [[Kenneth R. Timmerman]] wrote that Guerin "claimed he had received quiet approval from the CIA."[^24]
+
+### Towers Financial and Steven Hoffenberg, 1993 to 1996
+
+In February 1993 the commission sued [[Towers Financial Corporation]], [[Steven Hoffenberg]], [[Mitchell Brater]] and [[Arthur J. Ferro]] before Judge [[Whitman Knapp]]. Towers filed for protection under Chapter 11 that March.[^25] On September 17, 1996 the commission sued Michael Rosoff, Towers' former chief legal officer, for participating in offering documents that described promissory notes as insured and fully collateralized. The commission described the Towers operation as a huge Ponzi scheme that ran for five years.[^25]
+
+### Earl Brian and Financial News Network, 1993
+
+In July 1993 the commission charged [[Earl Brian]] and three others with fraudulently inflating the revenue and earnings of the [[Financial News Network]], the [[Los Angeles]] cable channel controlled with [[United Press International]] by his holding company Infotechnology, Inc. He settled without admitting or denying the charges and consented to a permanent injunction.[^26]
+
+### September 11 attacks, 2001
+
+On September 19, 2001 the acting director of enforcement, [[Stephen Cutler]], stated that the commission had received reports that those associated with the [[September 11 attacks]] "may have sought to exploit our securities markets to profit from those activities," that it had "drawn no conclusions," and that speculation about its conclusions "has absolutely no foundation in fact."[^27]
+
+### Enron settlements, 2003
+
+On July 28, 2003 the commission settled with [[JPMorgan Chase]] and [[Citigroup]] over their roles in the manipulation of [[Enron Corporation|Enron]]'s financial statements. The commission stated that each institution had characterized what were essentially loan proceeds as cash from operating activities. JPMorgan Chase consented to a final judgment in a civil action in [[Texas]] requiring 135 million dollars in disgorgement, penalty and interest. Citigroup consented to an administrative order requiring 120 million dollars, of which 101 million related to Enron and 19 million to [[Dynegy]].[^28]
+
+The commission announced on April 14, 2005 that Stephen Cutler would leave.[^29] He joined [[WilmerHale]] in October 2005 and was named general counsel of JPMorgan Chase in December 2006, effective February 2007.[^30]
+
+### Bear Stearns hedge funds, 2008
+
+On June 19, 2008 the commission charged two former [[Bear Stearns Asset Management]] portfolio managers, [[Ralph Cioffi]] and [[Matthew Tannin]], with fraudulently misleading investors about the financial state of the firm's two largest hedge funds before the funds collapsed in June 2007. The same day the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Eastern District of New York announced their indictment on conspiracy and fraud charges.[^31] [[Fox Business]] reported in 2019 that Epstein had put about 60 million dollars into the Bear Stearns High-Grade Structured Credit Strategies Enhanced Leverage Fund, "making him one of its largest investors."[^32]
+
+### Goldman Sachs, 2010 and 2020
+
+On April 16, 2010 the commission sued [[Goldman Sachs]] and [[Fabrice Tourre]] over the structuring and marketing of a synthetic collateralized debt obligation.[^33] In July 2010 Goldman Sachs agreed to pay a record 550 million dollars to settle charges related to a subprime mortgage CDO.[^34]
+
+On October 22, 2020 the commission ordered Goldman Sachs to disgorge 606.3 million dollars, deemed satisfied by a payment to the government of [[Malaysia]] and [[1Malaysia Development Berhad|1MDB]], and to pay a civil penalty of 400 million dollars. The order found that former senior Goldman employees had paid bribes and kickbacks to officials in Malaysia and the [[Abu Dhabi|Emirate of Abu Dhabi]], in violation of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, in connection with the 2012 and 2013 bond deals.[^35]
+
+### Jed Rakoff and the Citigroup settlement, 2011
+
+On October 19, 2011 the commission sued Citigroup Global Markets Inc. in the Southern District of New York (No. 11 Civ. 7387) over a roughly billion-dollar collateralized debt obligation, Class V Funding III, and presented a proposed consent judgment at the same time. The complaint charged negligence under Sections 17(a)(2) and (3) of the Securities Act. The proposed judgment required Citigroup to disgorge 160 million dollars in profits plus 30 million dollars in interest and to pay a 95 million dollar civil penalty, without admitting or denying the allegations. On November 28, 2011 Judge [[Jed Rakoff]] refused to approve it. The opinion stated that investors had lost more than 700 million dollars, called the civil penalty "pocket change to any entity as large as Citigroup," noted that the commission's own account described Citigroup as a recidivist, and concluded that the court had not been provided with "any proven or admitted facts upon which to exercise even a modest degree of independent judgment."[^36]
+
+### Apollo Global Management and the Dechert memorandum, 2020 to 2021
+
+The conflicts committee of the board of [[Apollo Global Management]] retained [[Dechert]] as outside counsel to conduct an independent review of information concerning [[Leon Black]]. The Dechert report was attached to a Form 8-K filed with the commission on January 25, 2021.[^37]
+
+### Cantor Fitzgerald, 2020 and 2024
+
+On April 6, 2020 the commission announced that [[Cantor Fitzgerald]] & Co. had agreed to pay 3.2 million dollars over deficient "blue sheet" trading data. According to the order, for almost five years the firm's submissions contained missing or inaccurate data for approximately 35 million transactions.[^38] On December 12, 2024 the commission announced that Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P. had agreed to pay a 6.75 million dollar civil penalty. The order found that negotiations with View and Satellogic had already commenced at the time of the disclosures concerning the Cantor-sponsored [[special-purpose acquisition company|SPACs]] CF Finance II and CF V.[^39]
+
+### FTX and Alameda Research, 2022
+
+On December 13, 2022 the commission charged [[Samuel Bankman-Fried]] with orchestrating a scheme to defraud equity investors in [[FTX]], which it said had raised more than 1.8 billion dollars from equity investors since at least May 2019.[^40] On December 21, 2022 it charged [[Caroline Ellison]], the former chief executive of [[Alameda Research]], and Zixiao "Gary" Wang, FTX's former chief technology officer, for their roles in manipulating the price of the FTT token and in the undisclosed loans of customer assets to Alameda.[^41]
+
+### Commission leadership and the Epstein matters, 2017 to 2025
+
+[[Jay Clayton]] chaired the commission from May 4, 2017 to December 23, 2020.[^3] The Senate confirmed Clayton as a member of the commission on May 2, 2017 by a vote of 61 to 37 (nomination PN47).[^42] In June 2020 Attorney General [[William Barr]] announced that [[Geoffrey Berman]], the U.S. attorney for the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], was stepping down and that the president would nominate Clayton to replace him. Berman said he had no intention of resigning, and Barr then told him in a letter that he had asked the president to remove him, and the president had done so. New York Senators [[Chuck Schumer]] and [[Kirsten Gillibrand]] called on Clayton to withdraw his name from the nomination. CNBC reported these events on June 20, 2020.[^43] On November 14, 2025 The Washington Times reported that Attorney General [[Pam Bondi]] had tapped Clayton, then acting U.S. attorney, to probe Democrats' ties to Epstein.[^44]
+
+### Regulation A and Form D filings
+
+[[To The Stars Academy of Arts & Science]] filed an offering statement on Form 1-A with the commission on August 15, 2017, amended it on September 1 and September 18, 2017, and filed a Form 253G2 offering circular on September 29, 2017.[^45] The circular listed [[Tom DeLonge]] as president, chief executive officer and director; [[Jim Semivan|James Semivan]] as vice president of operations and director; [[Hal Puthoff|Harold Puthoff]] as vice president of science and technology and director; Louis Tommasino as chief financial officer; Kari DeLonge as chief content officer; and Lisa Clifford as secretary. It named an advisory board of [[Christopher Mellon]], Adele Gilpin, Norman Kahn, [[Colm Kelleher]], [[Garry Nolan]] and Paul Rapp, and stated that in May 2017 the company issued 12,500,000 shares of Class A common stock and 5,400 shares of Class B common stock to Gravity Holdings, LLC, JimSemI, LLC and Harold Puthoff.[^46] The company later filed further Regulation A offering statements on Form 1-A (February 12, 2019; June 23, 2020; March 16, 2022) and annual reports on Form 1-K, the latest on April 29, 2026. Its most recent filing in its EDGAR submissions is a semiannual Form 1-SA filed September 18, 2026.[^45]
+
+Private issuers also file Form D notices of exempt offerings. Minerva Project, Inc. filed one on April 6, 2012 that listed [[Ben Nelson]] as an executive officer and director.[^47]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
-[^1]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12.
-[^2]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 183.
-[^3]: "SEC awards data pact," Business Briefly, Baltimore Sun (Baltimore), January 5, 1989, p. 1D, https://www.newspapers.com/image/378257935/
+[^1]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "What We Do," https://www.sec.gov/about/what-we-do (founding in 1934 and mission statement).
+[^2]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, November 28, 1972 (announcement of the November 27, 1972 complaint against Robert L. Vesco and 41 other defendants; transfers from International Controls Corp.; purchase of 6,000,000 shares of Investors Overseas Services from Bernard Cornfeld for approximately $5,500,000 in early 1971). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1972/dig112872.pdf
+[^3]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Historical Summary of Chairmen and Commissioners" (William Casey, Chairman, April 14, 1971 to February 2, 1973; Jay Clayton, Chairman, May 4, 2017 to December 23, 2020). https://www.sec.gov/about/sec-commissioners/sec-historical-summary-chairmen-commissioners
+[^4]: In re Sears, 71 N.J. 175 (1976) (Supreme Court of New Jersey disciplinary opinion; the request that Mitchell induce Casey "to monitor and limit the investigation"; the meeting Mitchell arranged between Sears and Casey). https://static.case.law/nj/71/cases/0175-01.json
+[^5]: Associated Press, "Jury acquits Mitchell, Stans," State News (Michigan State University), April 29, 1974, p. 1. https://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/state_news/1974/state_news_19740429.pdf
+[^6]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Report of the Securities and Exchange Commission on Questionable and Illegal Corporate Payments and Practices to the Senate Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs Committee, May 12, 1976, reproduced in Securities Regulation and Law Report No. 353 (Bureau of National Affairs), May 19, 1976, Special Supplement, pp. 1 to 45 (introduction; Part I, "The Voluntary Disclosure Program"; Exhibit B, Lockheed Aircraft Corporation). https://sechistorical.org/wp-content/uploads/1976_0512_SECQuestionable.pdf
+[^7]: Unlawful Corporate Payments Act of 1977, Hearings on H.R. 3815 and H.R. 1602 before the Subcommittee on Consumer Protection and Finance of the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, House of Representatives, 95th Congress, 1st session, April 20 and 21, 1977 (Serial No. 95-11). Statement of Gordon Adams, Director of Military Research, Council on Economic Priorities (beginning p. 26, including the passages on the voluntary disclosure program and Lockheed); statement of Rep. Michael J. Harrington (pp. 168-173, including the passages on Lockheed, Prince Bernhard, the House Select Committee on Intelligence, the Exxon payments and the Wall Street Journal report). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-95hhrg91391O/pdf/CHRG-95hhrg91391O.pdf
+[^8]: Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977, Pub. L. 95-213, Title I, 91 Stat. 1494 (December 19, 1977). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-91/pdf/STATUTE-91-Pg1494.pdf
+[^9]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12.
+[^10]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 183.
+[^11]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate. December 1992, ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry" (February 7, 1978 shareholder meeting; Middendorf group complaints and suit of February 17, 1978; the SEC civil complaint, which the report's note 12 dates to March 17, 1978; Clifford's written testimony). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
+[^12]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 6 (January 30, 1978 Sami memorandum and its description of the strategy to circumvent SEC disclosure rules; the SEC's "not looking for punitive action, merely corrective action" passage; the April 27, 1978 order enjoining Lance and ten other defendants and the consent decree issued with it). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
+[^13]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, Issue 78-54, March 20, 1978, "Lance, Others Enjoined" (SEC v. Bank of Credit and Commerce International S.A., et al., U.S.D.C. D.C., Civil Action No. 78-0469, LR-8336). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1978/dig032078.pdf
+[^14]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, April 28, 1978 (SEC and Comptroller of the Currency v. The National Bank of Georgia, The Calhoun First National Bank, Bertram Lance, U.S.D.C. N.D. Ga., Atlanta Division, Civil Action No. 78-758). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1978/dig042878.pdf
+[^15]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence" (Irvani and Helms; the CIA's reply to the Federal Reserve; the Adham and Fulaij Foreign Corrupt Practices Act probe; note 11: staff interview, Virgil Mattingly, Federal Reserve, June 1991, and review of Federal Reserve documents). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
+[^16]: Vicky Ward, "The Talented Mr. Epstein," Vanity Fair, March 2003 (the March 12, 1981 resignation, the April 1, 1981 SEC testimony taken by Jonathan Harris and Robert Blackburn, and Epstein's description of management's handling of a possible "Reg D" violation as "offensive"). https://vickyward.com/article/the-talented-mr-epstein/
+[^17]: Kerry and Brown, The BCCI Affair, ch. 7, "BCCI in the United States: Later Acquisitions" (Pharaon's disclosure statements to the SEC of 16.9 percent of CenTrust common stock and 24.4 percent of its Series One preferred; the conclusion quoted on BCCI's control of CenTrust). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/07later.htm
+[^18]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, January 4, 1989, "SEC Names Contractor for EDGAR System" (Press Release 89-1): contract awarded January 3, 1989 to BDM Corporation, bidding with Mead Data Central, Inc., Sorg, Inc., and Bechtel Information Systems; expected term of eight years; estimated total cost to the government of approximately $52 million. https://sec.gov/news/digest/1989/dig010489.pdf
+[^19]: "SEC awards data pact," Business Briefly, Baltimore Sun (Baltimore), January 5, 1989, p. 1D, https://www.newspapers.com/image/378257935/
+[^20]: Knut Royce, "Bush violated security laws four times, SEC report says," Center for Public Integrity, October 4, 2000 (describing the April 9, 1991 SEC memorandum). https://publicintegrity.org/politics/bush-violated-security-laws-four-times-sec-report-says/
+[^21]: Salon, "Harken," July 13, 2002 (the March 4, 1991 receipt of the Form 4 and the October 1993 SEC memorandum, including the statement that termination "must in no way be construed as indicating that the party has been exonerated or that no action may ultimately result"). https://www.salon.com/2002/07/13/harken/
+[^22]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, November 7, 1991 (Litigation Release LR-13077, announced October 31, 1991, Eastern District of Pennsylvania, Crim. Nos. 91-601 and 91-602). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1991/dig110791.pdf
+[^23]: Glenn Frankel, "British Firm Claims It Was Duped by Pa. Arms Maker," Washington Post, September 29, 1989 (the special proxy board including Bobby Ray Inman). https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1989/09/29/british-firm-claims-it-was-duped-by-pa-arms-maker/5b675f69-e5e0-4c25-9aee-ced8b8e07efa/
+[^24]: Kenneth R. Timmerman, The Death Lobby: How the West Armed Iraq (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991), pp. 168 to 169.
+[^25]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Litigation Release No. 15053, SEC v. Michael Rosoff, 96 Civ. 7064 (WK) (S.D.N.Y.), September 17, 1996 (describing the Towers scheme and cross-referencing Litigation Release No. 13514, SEC v. Towers Financial Corporation, Steven Hoffenberg, Mitchell Brater, and Arthur J. Ferro, 93 Civ. 0744 (WK) (S.D.N.Y.), February 1993). https://www.sec.gov/litigation/litreleases/lr15053.txt
+[^26]: Debra Gersh, "SEC Accuses Former UPI Chief of Fraud," Editor & Publisher, July 10, 1993; "Former UPI execs charged with fraud," United Press International, September 6, 1995. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1995/09/06/Former-UPI-execs-charged-with-fraud/3824810360000/
+[^27]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Statement by Acting Director of Enforcement Stephen Cutler," Press Release 2001-96, September 19, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2001-96-statement-acting-director-enforcement-stephen-cutler
+[^28]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "SEC Settles Enforcement Proceedings against J.P. Morgan Chase and Citigroup," Press Release 2003-87, July 28, 2003. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2003-87.htm
+[^29]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Enforcement Director Stephen M. Cutler to Leave SEC," Press Release 2005-56, April 14, 2005. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2005-56.htm
+[^30]: JPMorgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K for fiscal year 2006, "Executive officers of the registrant" (Stephen M. Cutler: General Counsel since February 2007; partner and co-chair of the Securities Department at WilmerHale since October 2005).
+[^31]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Litigation Release No. 20625, SEC v. Ralph R. Cioffi and Matthew M. Tannin, Civil Action No. 08 2457 (FB) (E.D.N.Y.), June 19, 2008. https://www.sec.gov/files/litigation/litreleases/2008/lr20625.htm
+[^32]: Charles Gasparino and Lydia Moynihan, "The woes of Jeffrey Epstein: How he maintained Wall Street connections while downplaying child sex accusations," Fox Business, August 10, 2019. https://www.foxbusiness.com/features/jeffrey-epstein-wall-street-connections-child-sex-trafficking
+[^33]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Litigation Release No. 21489, April 16, 2010, SEC v. Goldman, Sachs & Co. and Fabrice Tourre, 10 Civ. 3229 (S.D.N.Y.). https://www.sec.gov/litigation/litreleases/2010/lr21489.htm
+[^34]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Press Release 2010-123, "Goldman Sachs to Pay Record $550 Million to Settle SEC Charges Related to Subprime Mortgage CDO," July 15, 2010. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2010/2010-123.htm
+[^35]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, In the Matter of The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc., Release No. 90243, Administrative Proceeding File No. 3-20132, October 22, 2020 (disgorgement of $606,300,000 deemed satisfied by the payment to the Government of Malaysia and 1MDB; civil money penalty of $400,000,000). https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2020/34-90243.pdf
+[^36]: SEC v. Citigroup Global Markets Inc., No. 11 Civ. 7387 (JSR), 827 F. Supp. 2d 328 (S.D.N.Y. Nov. 28, 2011) (Rakoff, J.). https://static.case.law/f-supp-2d/827/cases/0328-01.json ; https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/8710930/us-securities-exchange-commission-v-citigroup-global-markets-inc/
+[^37]: Apollo Global Management, Inc., Current Report on Form 8-K, filed January 25, 2021, accession 0001193125-21-016405, Exhibit 99.1 (report of Dechert LLP provided to the Conflicts Committee). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1411494/000119312521016405/d118102d8k.htm
+[^38]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Cantor Fitzgerald Agrees to Pay $3.2 Million to Settle Charges for Providing Deficient Blue Sheet Data," Press Release 2020-81, April 6, 2020. https://www.sec.gov/news/press-release/2020-81
+[^39]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "SEC Charges Cantor Fitzgerald Over Misleading SPAC Disclosures," Press Release 2024-199, December 12, 2024 ($6.75 million civil penalty; order finding that Cantor personnel had already commenced negotiations with View and Satellogic). https://www.sec.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2024-199
+[^40]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "SEC Charges Samuel Bankman-Fried with Defrauding Investors in Crypto Asset Trading Platform FTX," Press Release 2022-219, December 13, 2022. https://www.sec.gov/news/press-release/2022-219
+[^41]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "SEC Charges Caroline Ellison and Gary Wang with Defrauding Investors in Crypto Asset Trading Platform FTX," Press Release 2022-234, December 21, 2022. https://www.sec.gov/news/press-release/2022-234
+[^42]: United States Senate, Roll Call Vote 115th Congress, 1st Session, Vote No. 118, May 2, 2017 (PN47, Jay Clayton, of New York, to be a Member of the Securities and Exchange Commission for a term expiring June 5, 2021; Nomination Confirmed, 61 to 37; cloture agreed to May 1, 2017, Vote No. 117, 60 to 36). https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1151/vote_115_1_00118.htm
+[^43]: Spencer Kimball, "Attorney General Barr tells top Manhattan prosecutor Berman he is fired amid power struggle," CNBC, June 20, 2020. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/20/attorney-general-barr-tells-manhattan-us-attorney-berman-he-is-fired-amid-power-struggle.html
+[^44]: "Bondi taps acting U.S. Attorney Jay Clayton to probe Democrats' ties to Epstein," The Washington Times, November 14, 2025. https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2025/nov/14/bondi-taps-acting-us-attorney-jay-clayton-probe-democrats-ties/
+[^45]: To The Stars Academy of Arts & Science Inc., EDGAR, CIK 1710274: Form 1-A filed August 15, 2017 (qualified September 29, 2017); Form 1-SA filed September 18, 2026. https://www.sec.gov/cgi-bin/browse-edgar?action=getcompany&CIK=1710274&type=1-A ; https://data.sec.gov/submissions/CIK0001710274.json
+[^46]: To The Stars Academy of Arts & Science Inc., Form 253G2 (offering circular), filed September 29, 2017, accession 0001144204-17-050693, sections "Directors, Executive Officers and Significant Employees" and "Interest of Management and Others in Certain Transactions." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1710274/000114420417050693/v476177_253g2.htm
+[^47]: Form D, Minerva Project, Inc., filed April 6, 2012, accession 0001546672-12-000001, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, EDGAR. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1546672/000154667212000001/primary_doc.xml

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Senate Select Committee on Intelligence.md

@@ -17,11 +17,11 @@ relations:
     with: "[[Malcolm Wallop]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "chairman of the budget subcommittee"
-    fn: 4
+    fn: 5
   - type: investigated
     with: "[[BNL Scandal]]"
     end: 1993-02
-    fn: 7
+    fn: 11
 created: 2026-09-22
 updated: 2026-09-22
 ---
@@ -30,27 +30,30 @@ The Senate created the Select Committee on Intelligence in 1976 "to oversee and
 
 ### Letelier and the Charter
 
-On September 29, 1976, eight days after the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]] in Washington, Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] of the committee wrote to Director [[George H.W. Bush|George Bush]] asking what the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] knew of a reported high-level meeting in the Chilean government at which Letelier had been discussed.[^3] In April 1978 the former deputy director for plans [[Thomas Karamessines]] appeared before the committee to oppose its draft charter for the CIA, calling the investigations of the preceding years "an inexcusable exercise in political sensationalism."[^8]
+On September 29, 1976, eight days after the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]] in Washington, Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] of the committee wrote to Director [[George H.W. Bush|George Bush]] asking what the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] knew of a reported high-level meeting in the Chilean government at which Letelier had been discussed.[^3] In April 1978 the former deputy director for plans [[Thomas Karamessines]] appeared before the committee to oppose its draft charter for the CIA, calling the investigations of the preceding years "an inexcusable exercise in political sensationalism."[^4]
 
 ### Remote Viewing
 
-At the end of fiscal 1982, according to the Army's Intelligence and Security Command, "the budget subcommittee of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (Senator Wallop) curtailed all psychoenergetic operational activities conducted by the Army in the National Foreign Intelligence Program"; its chronology records that on October 1, 1982, "NFIP funding terminated for Army GRILL FLAME collection operations project by Congressional directive," and the program continued under other funding as [[Center Lane]].[^4][^5] Senator [[Claiborne Pell]] invited eight members of the committee to a GRILL FLAME briefing in his Capitol office on September 29, 1982; "none were present."[^6] After a briefing of [[Malcolm Wallop]] on October 5, 1983, the Army's record states that "the Senator replied that he is only one person, and that perhaps the briefing should be presented to the entire SSCI Budget Subcommittee."[^4] Committee staff received status reports on the [[Stargate Project|Star Gate]] program in March and April 1995 and a briefing on June 1, attended by seven staff members, during its [[1995 transfer of Star Gate to the CIA|transfer to the CIA]].[^9]
+At the end of fiscal 1982, according to the Army's Intelligence and Security Command, "the budget subcommittee of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (Senator Wallop) curtailed all psychoenergetic operational activities conducted by the Army in the National Foreign Intelligence Program"; its chronology records that on October 1, 1982, "NFIP funding terminated for Army GRILL FLAME collection operations project by Congressional directive," and the program continued under other funding as [[Center Lane]].[^5][^6] Senator [[Claiborne Pell]] invited eight members of the committee to a GRILL FLAME briefing in his Capitol office on September 29, 1982; "none were present."[^7] After a briefing of [[Malcolm Wallop]] on October 5, 1983, the Army's record states that "the Senator replied that he is only one person, and that perhaps the briefing should be presented to the entire SSCI Budget Subcommittee."[^5] Committee staff received status reports on the [[Stargate Project|Star Gate]] program in March and April 1995 and a briefing on June 1, attended by seven staff members, during its [[1995 transfer of Star Gate to the CIA|transfer to the CIA]].[^8]
 
 ### Later Inquiries
 
-The CIA told the committee in April 1984 that it "was unable to confirm reports implicating high-level Sandinistas in drug trafficking."[^10] In 1986, after a member of Senator [[Jesse Helms]]'s staff was briefed by the CIA on the burning of Rodrigo Rojas by Chilean soldiers and the Chilean government learned of an American intelligence operation, the committee asked the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] to investigate whether Helms or an aide had disclosed it.[^11] Its staff reported in February 1993 on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the intelligence agencies and the Justice Department had coordinated poorly and that the CIA's grounds for withholding its reports from prosecutors had "no legal support," without finding deliberate concealment.[^7] Its study of the CIA's detention and interrogation program, released in summary on December 9, 2014, concluded that the program had produced little intelligence not available by other means and that the agency had misled Congress, the [[White House]] and the public about it.[^12]
+The CIA told the committee in April 1984 that it "was unable to confirm reports implicating high-level Sandinistas in drug trafficking."[^9] In 1986, after a member of Senator [[Jesse Helms]]'s staff was briefed by the CIA on the burning of Rodrigo Rojas by Chilean soldiers and the Chilean government learned of an American intelligence operation, the committee asked the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] to investigate whether Helms or an aide had disclosed it.[^10] Its staff reported in February 1993 on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the intelligence agencies and the Justice Department had coordinated poorly and that the CIA's grounds for withholding its reports from prosecutors had "no legal support," without finding deliberate concealment.[^11] Its study of the CIA's detention and interrogation program, released in summary on December 9, 2014, concluded that the program had produced little intelligence not available by other means and that the agency had misled Congress, the [[White House]] and the public about it.[^12]
+
+The staff report on the intelligence community's involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro affair, Committee Print S. Prt. 103-12 of February 1993, was prepared after the sentencing hearing of Judge [[Marvin Shoob]] in Atlanta. The staff recorded that CIA analysts concluded in January 1990 that "managers at BNL headquarters in Rome were involved in the scandal," and that CIA reports of November 1991 "confirmed press allegations that more senior BNL officials in Rome had been witting of BNL-Atlanta's activities." The staff found that "the evidence does not show that this failure was a deliberate attempt to withhold information from the Department of Justice," and that it "could find no legal support" for the CIA's guidance that unsent reports would not be discoverable.[^13]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, "About the Committee." https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/about-the-committee/
 [^2]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. *Final Report,* S. Rept. 94-755, 1976, as cited on the Church Committee page.
 [^3]: Inouye, Daniel K., letter to George Bush, September 29, 1976, CIA Reading Room, as cited on the Orlando Letelier page.
-[^4]: Buzby, Brian, memorandum "Briefing to Senator Wallop, 5 October 1983," October 14, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700270015-0. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
-[^5]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "Briefing - Project Center Lane," c. 1984, CIA-RDP96-00789R002100180002-8, and "List of Events from September 1977 to January 1986," CIA-RDP96-00788R001100020001-8. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
-[^6]: Jachim, Robert J., memorandum "Information Briefing for Senator Clairborne Pell," October 6, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320001-5.
-[^7]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair,* staff report, S. Prt. 103-12, February 1993.
-[^8]: Hailey, Jean R. "T. H. Karamessines, Ex-Chief of CIA Covert Work, Dies." *The Washington Post,* September 9, 1978, p. B4.
-[^9]: "Star Gate Transfer Chronology: 1995," memorandum for the record, CIA-RDP96-00791R000200190017-9; Director of Research and Development, ORD-0520-95, memorandum for the Executive Director, "Star Gate - Final Response," September 27, 1995.
-[^10]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998, as cited on the Sandinistas page.
-[^11]: United Press International, report on the Justice Department inquiry into Senator Helms, August 2, 1986.
+[^4]: Hailey, Jean R. "T. H. Karamessines, Ex-Chief of CIA Covert Work, Dies." *The Washington Post,* September 9, 1978, p. B4.
+[^5]: Buzby, Brian, memorandum "Briefing to Senator Wallop, 5 October 1983," October 14, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700270015-0. Read in the archive.org copy of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
+[^6]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "Briefing - Project Center Lane," c. 1984, CIA-RDP96-00789R002100180002-8, and "List of Events from September 1977 to January 1986," CIA-RDP96-00788R001100020001-8. Read in the archive.org copy of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
+[^7]: Jachim, Robert J., memorandum "Information Briefing for Senator Clairborne Pell," October 6, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320001-5.
+[^8]: "Star Gate Transfer Chronology: 1995," memorandum for the record, CIA-RDP96-00791R000200190017-9; Director of Research and Development, ORD-0520-95, memorandum for the Executive Director, "Star Gate - Final Response," September 27, 1995.
+[^9]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998, as cited on the Sandinistas page.
+[^10]: United Press International, report on the Justice Department inquiry into Senator Helms, August 2, 1986.
+[^11]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair,* staff report, S. Prt. 103-12, February 1993.
 [^12]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. *Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program,* S. Rept. 113-288, December 9, 2014.
+[^13]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair,* Committee Print S. Prt. 103-12, February 1993, pp. 4-5, 26, 28, 34. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf