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86
00 - META/CHANGELOG.md
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@ -1,6 +1,32 @@
- 2026-10-14T1840 · [[New Jersey]]
- 2026-10-14T1840 · [[Congo]]
- 2026-10-14T1840 · [[Chieu Hoi]]
- 2026-10-14T1840 · [[ORO-RAC]]
- 2026-10-14T1840 · [[Thomas F. Ellis]]
- 2026-10-14T1840 · [[Harold Abramson]]
- 2026-10-14T1838 · [[Frank Church]]
- 2026-10-14T1838 · [[Forbes]]
- 2026-10-14T1838 · [[Standard Oil]]
- 2026-10-14T1838 · [[Rockefeller family]]
- 2026-10-14T1838 · [[Sullivan & Cromwell]]
- 2026-10-14T1837 · [[John Foster Dulles]]
- 2026-10-14T1837 · [[Iran]]
- 2026-10-14T1837 · [[Operation AJAX]]
- 2026-10-14T1836 · [[Anti-Defamation League]]
- 2026-10-14T1835 · [[William Broe]]
- 2026-10-14T1835 · [[Special Operations Division]]
- 2026-10-14T1834 · [[Church Committee]]
- 2026-10-14T1833 · [[Johns Hopkins University]]
- 2026-10-14T1833 · [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]]
- 2026-10-14T1833 · [[Foreign Technology Division]]
- 2026-10-14T1833 · [[Rockefeller Foundation]]
- 2026-10-14T1832 · [[Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory]]
- 2026-10-14T1831 · [[Radio Free Europe]]
- 2026-10-14T1829 · [[William Colby]]
- 2026-10-14T1829 · [[Washington Post]]
- 2026-10-14T1829 · [[Newsweek]]
- 2026-10-14T1658 · [[Amiram Nir]]
- 2026-10-14T1658 · [[Yitzhak Rabin]]
- 2026-10-14T1657 · [[Operation AJAX]]
- 2026-10-14T1657 · [[Yehoshua Sagi]]
- 2026-10-14T1657 · [[Australian Security Intelligence Organization]]
- 2026-10-14T1657 · [[Safari Club]]
@ -10,22 +36,6 @@
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Operation Mongoose]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Boland Amendment]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Robert Kennedy]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Richard J. Kerr]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Moshe Hebroni]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Mohammed Jalali]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Michael Milken]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Henry A. Kissinger]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Edward Lansdale]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Robert Gates]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Rafael Eitan]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Nachum Admoni]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[James A. Baker III]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Jack Blum]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Elliott Abrams]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Edward P. Boland]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Dick Cheney]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Ari Ben-Menashe]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Drexel Burnham]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Golani infantry brigade]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Kerry Committee]]
@ -44,6 +54,22 @@
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Harry H. Schwartz]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[William Harvey]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Robert McFarlane]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Robert Kennedy]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Richard J. Kerr]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Moshe Hebroni]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Mohammed Jalali]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Michael Milken]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Henry A. Kissinger]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Edward Lansdale]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Robert Gates]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Rafael Eitan]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Nachum Admoni]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[James A. Baker III]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Jack Blum]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Elliott Abrams]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Edward P. Boland]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Dick Cheney]]
- 2026-10-14T1656 · [[Ari Ben-Menashe]]
- 2026-10-14T1541 · [[Cornelius Blackshear]]
- 2026-10-14T1541 · [[PayPal]]
- 2026-10-14T1541 · [[Palantir Technologies]]
@ -72,29 +98,3 @@
- 2026-10-14T1530 · [[Roy Cohn]]
- 2026-10-14T1530 · [[Karl Baarslag]]
- 2026-10-14T1530 · [[Allen Dulles]]
- 2026-10-14T1529 · [[State Department]]
- 2026-10-14T1529 · [[Phillip Paske]]
- 2026-10-14T1528 · [[Odyssey Foundation]]
- 2026-10-14T1528 · [[Delta Project]]
- 2026-10-14T1528 · [[John David Norman]]
- 2026-10-14T1439 · [[John M. Middleton]]
- 2026-10-14T1439 · [[Robert H. Cain]]
- 2026-10-14T1438 · [[George Hunter White]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[Union Banking Corporation]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[PayPal Mafia]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[U.S. Attorney's office]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[Office of Crime Analysis of the District of Columbia]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[National Center for Prosecution Management]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[Stanley H. Turner]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[Richard Thornburgh]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[Elliot Richardson]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[David Sacks]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[Soo Lee]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[Thomas A. Flannery]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[James M. Etheridge]]
- 2026-10-14T1437 · [[Albert Biderman]]
- 2026-10-14T1435 · [[Operation Condor]]
- 2026-10-14T1435 · [[PROMIS Software Scandal]]
- 2026-10-14T1435 · [[Operation Paperclip]]
- 2026-10-14T1435 · [[PROMIS]]
- 2026-10-14T1435 · [[Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co]]

196
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Frank Church.md
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---
created: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-14
title: Frank Church
aliases:
- Frank Church
- Frank Forrester Church III
- Frank F. Church III
- Senator Frank Church
category: "Political Figure"
tags:
- Person
@ -12,40 +14,200 @@ tags:
- ChurchCommittee
- CIA
- FBI
- NSA
- CongressionalInvestigation
- ColdWar
- Vietnam
- CooperChurchAmendment
- ITT
- Chile
- Cuba
- Lockheed
- NCPAC
- 1970s
- 1980s
summary: "Democratic senator from Idaho who chaired the 1975-1976 Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Activities, which documented COINTELPRO, Operation CHAOS, assassination plots against foreign leaders and illegal domestic surveillance by the CIA, FBI and NSA."
born: 1924-07-25
died: 1984-04-07
location: "Boise, Idaho"
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[United States Senate]]"
role: "senator from Idaho"
start: 1957
end: 1981
fn: 5
- type: member_of
with: "[[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]"
role: "member"
start: 1959
fn: 6
- type: head_of
with: "[[Church Committee]]"
role: "chairman, Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities"
start: 1975-01-27
end: 1976-04-26
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Church Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations]]"
role: "chairman"
start: 1973
fn: 14
- type: head_of
with: "[[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]"
role: "chairman"
start: 1979
end: 1981
fn: 2
- type: investigated
with: "[[ITT Corporation]]"
role: "subcommittee hearings on ITT and Chile"
start: 1973-03-20
end: 1973-03-22
fn: 15
- type: investigated
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
role: "select committee investigation of intelligence abuses"
start: 1975-01-27
end: 1976-04-26
fn: 1
- type: investigated
with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]"
role: "select committee investigation of COINTELPRO and domestic intelligence"
start: 1975-01-27
end: 1976-04-26
fn: 31
- type: investigated
with: "[[NSA]]"
role: "select committee hearings on SHAMROCK, MINARET and the watch-list program"
start: 1975-10-29
end: 1975-11-06
fn: 32
- type: investigated
with: "[[Lockheed Aircraft Company]]"
role: "subcommittee hearings on overseas payments"
start: 1976-02-04
fn: 17
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Gulf of Tonkin Resolution]]"
role: "voted yes in the Senate"
start: 1964-08-07
fn: 8
- type: partner_of
with: "[[John Sherman Cooper]]"
role: "co-sponsor of the Cooper-Church Amendment"
start: 1969
fn: 11
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Whitman and Ransom]]"
role: "international law practice, Washington, D.C."
start: 1981
fn: 47
---
Frank Forrester Church III (July 25, 1924 - April 7, 1984) was a Democratic senator from Idaho who served from 1957 to 1981. He is primarily known for chairing the Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities (the [[Church Committee]]) in 1975-1976, the most comprehensive congressional investigation of U.S. intelligence abuses ever conducted.[^1]
Frank Forrester Church III (born July 25, 1924, in [[Boise, Idaho]]; died April 7, 1984, in [[Bethesda, Maryland]]) was a Democratic senator from [[Idaho]] who served from 1957 to 1981. He is primarily known for chairing the Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities (the [[Church Committee]]) in 1975 and 1976, the most comprehensive congressional investigation of U.S. intelligence abuses ever conducted.[^1] Earlier he chaired the [[Church Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations]], and from 1979 to 1981 he chaired the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]].[^2]
### Early Career
Church was born in Boise, Idaho. He served in U.S. Army Military Intelligence during World War II, rising to the rank of Captain. He received his law degree from Stanford in 1950 and was elected to the U.S. Senate from Idaho in 1956 at age 32, one of the youngest senators in history at that time. He became known as a foreign policy critic, opposing the [[Vietnam War]] from an early period and chairing the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] from 1979 to 1981.[^1]
Church was a third-generation Idahoan. As a junior at Boise High School he won the 1941 [[American Legion]] National Oratorical Contest, whose prize paid for four years at the college of the winner's choice. He enrolled at [[Stanford University]] in 1942.[^3] He enlisted in the [[United States Army]] in 1943 and served as a military intelligence officer in the China-Burma-India theater until his discharge in 1946, rising to the rank of Captain.[^4] He received his law degree from [[Stanford Law School]] in 1950 and practiced law in Boise.[^3]
### The Church Committee
In 1956 Church won the Democratic primary and then defeated the Republican incumbent [[Herman Welker]] for the Senate. At 32 he became the fifth youngest member ever to sit in the Senate.[^5] At his own request he was assigned to the [[Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs]]. In 1958 he was appointed to the [[McClellan Committee]] and received national television exposure. In 1959 [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] appointed him to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and in 1960 he gave the keynote address at the [[Democratic National Convention]].[^6] He was re-elected in 1962 and 1968.[^7]
In January 1975, the Senate created the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities in the aftermath of Seymour Hersh's December 1974 New York Times reporting on [[Operation CHAOS]]. Church was appointed chairman. The committee ran through April 1976 and produced an interim report on assassination plots (S. Rept. 94-465, November 20, 1975), a six-book final report (S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, Books I to VI) and seven volumes of hearings, documenting:[^2]
### Vietnam, the Gulf of Tonkin and Cooper-Church
- Operation CHAOS: the CIA's domestic surveillance program targeting antiwar organizations, found to be unlawful
- [[COINTELPRO]]: the FBI's systematic campaign against political organizations, including programs resulting in the death of activists such as [[Fred Hampton]]
- Assassination plots against foreign leaders including Fidel Castro, Patrice Lumumba, and others
- NSA programs monitoring American citizens' international communications
- IRS harassment of political opponents
- Illegal mail opening programs
On August 7, 1964, Church voted for the [[Gulf of Tonkin Resolution]] (H.J.Res. 1145), which the Senate passed 88 to 2. [[Wayne Morse]] and [[Ernest Gruening]] cast the two dissenting votes.[^8][^9] Church later became a critic of the war. In a 1965 Senate floor speech he expressed concern about continued U.S. involvement in the [[Vietnam War]]. His finding aid says that his stance was to the right of his Idaho constituency and carried political risk, and that afterward he was actively engaged in efforts to force the end of the war.[^10]
Church's most quoted statement from the investigation was his warning that the NSA's surveillance technology, if turned inward against the domestic population, could create "a capacity for tyranny." The observation preceded by decades the documents eventually revealed by Edward Snowden about the NSA's domestic surveillance programs.[^1]
In 1969 Church joined [[John Sherman Cooper]], a Republican from Kentucky, to sponsor an amendment prohibiting the use of ground troops in Laos and Thailand.[^11] On June 30, 1970, the Senate adopted the [[Cooper-Church Amendment]] by a 58 to 37 roll call, a measure that restricted further U.S. military operations in Cambodia.[^12] Section 7 of the Special Foreign Assistance Act of 1971 (Public Law 91-652, signed January 5, 1971) provided that none of the funds authorized or appropriated under that or any other Act could be used to finance the introduction of United States ground combat troops into Cambodia or to provide United States advisers to or for Cambodian military forces in Cambodia.[^13] The finding aid describes the 1970 amendment as limiting presidential power in wartime.[^11]
### Presidential Campaign and Later Career
### The Multinational Corporations Subcommittee
Church ran for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1976, entering the primaries late and winning several states, but ultimately lost the nomination to Jimmy Carter. He was defeated for Senate reelection in 1980 by Republican Steve Symms in what was partly characterized as a backlash against his intelligence committee work. He died of pancreatic cancer on April 7, 1984, in Bethesda, Maryland, at age 59.[^1]
In 1973 Church was appointed chairman of the Church Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, which he regarded as possibly his most important assignment.[^14] The subcommittee held hearings on [[ITT Corporation]] and [[Chile]] on March 20, 21 and 22, 1973. A CIA memorandum of March 26, 1973 to the Chief of the Western Hemisphere Division reviewed the transcripts. It listed William Merriam, who was in charge of ITT's Washington offices, and [[Edward Gerrity]] as the most evasive witnesses and [[John McCone]] as receiving the most deferential treatment from the subcommittee. The subcommittee dwelt on the approval [[William Broe]] gave to Merriam of recommendations from ITT's Latin America public relations staff, on what the memorandum called "the Broe plan" put to Gerrity for creating economic problems in Chile, and on Broe's discussion with [[Harold Geneen]]. McCone testified that ideas had been generated at CIA staff level that Director [[Richard Helms]] never approved, and said of Broe, "I think he was exploring." The memorandum recorded that the subcommittee staff was using Broe's written responses of March 20 to formulate questions for witnesses, including whether Geneen had discussed with Broe an offer of election funds to be channeled through the CIA.[^15]
### Footnotes
The Select Committee's staff report on covert action in Chile, *Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973*, was published in 1975. It stated that the CIA spent three million dollars in an effort to influence the 1964 Chilean presidential election, and eight million dollars covertly in the three years between 1970 and the September 1973 military coup, with over three million of it in fiscal year 1972.[^16]
[^1]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976. Olmsted, Kathryn S. *Challenging the Secret Government: The Post-Watergate Investigations of the CIA and FBI*. University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
[^2]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, title page; *Hearings*, vols. 1 to 7, "Senate Resolution 21." https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
Hearings on [[Lockheed Aircraft Company]] before the subcommittee opened on February 4, 1976 (Part 14 of *Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy*, covering February 4 and 6 and May 4, 1976).[^17] The New York Times reported that Lockheed payoffs in Japan, involving $12.6 million over twenty years and made to top officials of the government primarily through [[Yoshio Kodama]], were first disclosed publicly at the subcommittee's February 4 hearings. Its reporter Ann Crittenden, citing a former CIA official and other sources, wrote that details of the bribery in connection with the sale of the F-104 to Japan in the late 1950s were reported to CIA headquarters from the Tokyo embassy; that Kodama had not been identified as a CIA agent but had a long-standing relationship with American embassy officials and, according to former CIA officials, received American funds for covert projects on several occasions; and that Mitchell Rogovin, special counsel to Director [[George H. W. Bush]], said the agency had no records of any involvement with Lockheed.[^18] [[Jack Anderson]] and Les Whitten wrote on March 23, 1976 that CIA officials questioned behind closed doors by Church's subcommittee denied knowledge of the foreign payoffs, although the agency gave the subcommittee a biography of Kodama, and that, according to their sources, Lockheed representatives had taken part in CIA briefings at American embassies.[^19] [[Tad Szulc]] wrote in *The New Republic* that sources close to the investigation said the CIA may have orchestrated much of Lockheed's financial operations in Japan, and that most of Lockheed's payments from 1969 to 1975 were transmitted through a New York firm of currency dealers the CIA had reportedly often used, Deak and Company, which was founded after the Second World War by the [[Office of Strategic Services]] officer [[Nicholas Deak]] and which, according to Szulc's intelligence sources, kept close ties with senior CIA personnel.[^20]
### The Select Committee, 1975 to 1976
The Senate adopted Senate Resolution 21 on January 27, 1975, creating the Select Committee and naming Church its chairman.[^1] Its members were Church, [[John G. Tower]] as vice chairman, [[Phil Hart]], [[Walter Mondale]], [[Walter Huddleston]], [[Robert Morgan]], [[Gary Hart]], [[Howard Baker]], [[Barry Goldwater]], [[Charles Mathias]] and [[Richard Schweiker]], with [[Frederick A. O. Schwarz Jr.]] as chief counsel.[^21] On December 22, 1974, [[Seymour Hersh]] had reported on the front page of the [[New York Times]] that the Times investigation had established that intelligence files on at least 10,000 American citizens were maintained by a special unit of the CIA reporting directly to Richard Helms, in what became known as [[Operation CHAOS]]; the committee was formed in the aftermath of that reporting.[^22] The committee ran through April 1976 and produced an interim report on assassination plots (S. Rept. 94-465, November 20, 1975), a six-book final report (S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, Books I to VI) and seven volumes of hearings.[^23][^21]
The interim report, [[Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders]], documented plots against [[Fidel Castro]] and [[Patrice Lumumba]] and discussed the [[Operation MONGOOSE]] program against [[Cuba]].[^23] It stated that the command and control structure "failed to provide a specific written order which, according to one CIA employee, would have ensured the destruction of certain toxins."[^24]
On September 16, 1975, the committee opened three days of hearings on the unauthorized storage of toxic agents, and took testimony from [[Nathan Gordon]], a former chief of the chemistry branch of the Army's Technical Services.[^25] The hearing examined a quantity of [[shellfish toxin]] (paralytic shellfish poison) that the CIA kept after President [[Richard Nixon]]'s November 25, 1969, statement on chemical and biological warfare, and two sheets of paper dated February 18, 1970, found with the toxin.[^25] Gordon testified that he had not received an order from the Director of Central Intelligence to search out and destroy the CIA's stock of biological agents. Counsel read back his earlier answer to the question of whether he would have searched the south laboratory had there been such an order: "Very likely, very likely. Yes; I would have been a darned fool if I did not."[^26] Gordon said that he, his project officer and a technical consultant regarded the shellfish toxin as a chemical substance, "not a biological agent, not a biological toxin," when the offer to store the Agency stockpile of five grams was made to them in the latter part of February 1970. He also described a dart tranquilizer device for dogs that had been developed before he joined the branch, and the hearing took up a dart device for clandestine inoculation, which the staff called a "microbioinoculator."[^27]
The final report's second book, which covers the rights of Americans, reported that separate files were created on approximately 7,200 Americans and over 100 domestic groups during Operation CHAOS (1967-1973), and that about 300,000 individuals were indexed in a CIA computer system.[^28] The report stated that CIA officials recognized that the CIA's examination of domestic groups violated the Agency's mandate, and that the CIA and the NSA illegally instituted programs for the interception of international communications to and from American citizens, primarily first class mail and cable traffic.[^29] Operation CHAOS, the CIA's domestic surveillance program targeting antiwar organizations, was found to be unlawful.[^30] The [[COINTELPRO]] program, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]'s campaign against political organizations, included programs resulting in the death of activists such as [[Fred Hampton]].[^31]
The committee found that the [[NSA|National Security Agency]] obtained millions of private telegrams sent from, to or through the United States from 1947 to 1975 under a secret arrangement with three telegraph companies.[^28] On October 29, 1975, the committee opened public hearings on the NSA; Tower began by saying that from the beginning he had opposed public hearings on NSA activities.[^32] On November 3 the committee had voted seven to three to make one NSA operation public, subject to confirmation by the Senate Parliamentarian. At the November 6 session Church read the statement into the record: SHAMROCK was the cover name for a program in which the government persuaded three international telegraph companies, RCA Global, ITT World Communications and Western Union International, to make certain of their international telegraph traffic available; for almost thirty years copies of most international telegrams originating in or forwarded through the United States were turned over to the National Security Agency and its predecessor agencies. Church said the program appeared to violate section 605 of the Communications Act of 1934 and the Fourth Amendment, and that it had been terminated.[^33] [[MINARET]] was a watch-list program governed by a charter dated July 1, 1969.[^34]
The committee also documented [[HTLINGUAL]], the CIA program that opened mail to and from the Soviet Union, intercepting letters of Americans unrelated to foreign intelligence or counterintelligence.[^35] The committee's hearings on Internal Revenue Service activity and on mail opening were published as separate volumes.[^36][^37] The committee documented harassment of political opponents by the [[Internal Revenue Service]].[^36]
[[Edward Korry]], the former ambassador to Chile, began his public testimony before the committee: "I requested the CIA program in Chile. I planned much of the covert action in 1970."[^38]
### Meet the Press and the Additional Views
On August 17, 1975, Church appeared on NBC's [[Meet the Press]] and said of the investigation: "Now, why is this investigation important? I'll tell you why: because I don't want to see this country ever go across the bridge. I know the capacity that is there to make tyranny total in America, and we must see to it that this agency and all agencies that possess this technology operate within the law and under proper supervision so that we never cross over that abyss. That is the abyss from which there is no return."[^39]
In the Final Report, Book I, Church filed Additional Views on covert action. He wrote that the covert action capability of the intelligence community ought to be circumscribed more sharply than a majority of the committee was willing to recommend; that the CIA "filled its bag with dirty tricks, ranging from bribery and false propaganda to schemes to 'alter the health' of unfriendly foreign leaders and undermine their regimes"; and that "all covert activity unrelated to the gathering of essential intelligence should be severed entirely from the CIA," with any future secret operation in a foreign land done under the direct aegis of the State Department.[^40]
### Presidential Campaign and Cuba
In the spring of 1976 Church sought the Democratic presidential nomination. He entered the primaries late and won in Nebraska, Idaho, Oregon and Montana, then withdrew in favor of [[Jimmy Carter]], who was nominated.[^41]
Church became chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 1979, a post he had long sought. He guided the ratification of the [[Panama Canal Treaty]] through the Senate.[^2] His chairmanship coincided with the dispute over a Soviet combat brigade in Cuba. On September 5, 1979, as Senator Baker spoke on the Senate floor about the brigade and the [[SALT II]] treaty, Senator [[Robert Byrd]] said that the Foreign Relations Committee was at that moment holding an executive session at which Admiral [[Stansfield Turner]], the Director of Central Intelligence, was making a presentation.[^42] Before Carter's televised address on the brigade in early October 1979, Church met the president for a half-hour briefing and said that he thought the SALT II treaty could be salvaged and that he was looking for a way to do it.[^43]
### Defeat and Death
Church's support for the treaties was used by his political opponents. In 1980 he lost his bid for a fifth term to Republican [[Steve Symms]] by 4,262 votes, less than 1 percent of the turnout.[^44] The defeat was partly characterized as a backlash against his intelligence committee work.[^30] The [[National Conservative Political Action Committee]] (NCPAC), led by [[Terry Dolan]], spent heavily against him. Federal Election Commission Schedule E records for candidate S4ID00026 in the 1980 two-year period list 842 independent expenditure line items. Of these, 798 were filed by NCPAC (committee C00024687) as independent expenditures against Church, dated from May 30, 1979 to May 1981, with line amounts summing to $305,228 ($95,299 dated 1979, $209,221 dated 1980 and $708 dated 1981). The other filers on the same candidate were Americans for Life, Positive Action Today, the Committee for Positive Change and the Idaho Pro-Life PAC (all against) and the Idaho Voters Association and Idaho Families for Church (for).[^45] A review of Jim Heffernan's book on the 1980 Senate races states that NCPAC's ads focused on the SALT II and Panama Canal treaties.[^46]
After leaving the Senate, Church practiced international law with the Washington, D.C., firm of Whitman and Ransom, specializing in Asian issues.[^47] His papers are held by [[Boise State University]].[^48]
In 1984 Church was hospitalized for a pancreatic tumor. He died of pancreatic cancer at home in Bethesda, Maryland, on April 7, 1984, at the age of 59.[^49]
[^1]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book II, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, letter of transmittal, citing Senate Resolution 21, January 27, 1975. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel02unit
[^2]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Boise State University Special Collections, Biographical Note (1973 subcommittee chairmanship, 1979 Foreign Relations chairmanship, Panama Canal Treaties). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^3]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (1941 American Legion oratorical contest, enrollment at Stanford in 1942, Stanford Law School degree in 1950). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^4]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (1943 enlistment, military intelligence officer in the China-Burma-India theater, discharge in 1946). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^5]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (1956 Senate primary and defeat of Herman Welker, "fifth youngest member ever to sit in the U.S. Senate"). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^6]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (Interior and Insular Affairs assignment, 1958 McClellan Committee appointment, 1959 appointment to the Foreign Relations Committee by Lyndon B. Johnson, 1960 keynote address). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^7]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (1962 and 1968 re-elections). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^8]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, August 7, 1964, pp. 18470-71, roll call on H.J.Res. 1145 ("The result was announced, yeas 88, nays 2"; Church among the yeas; Gruening and Morse the nays). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt14/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt14-4-1.pdf
[^9]: H.J.Res. 1145, 88th Congress, Public Law 88-408, approved August 10, 1964. https://www.congress.gov/bill/88th-congress/house-joint-resolution/1145/text
[^10]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (1965 Senate floor speech on Vietnam, constituency and political risk, later efforts to force an end to the war). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^11]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (1969 amendment with John Sherman Cooper barring ground troops in Laos and Thailand, 1970 second Cooper-Church Amendment limiting presidential power in wartime). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^12]: "Cooper-Church rider wins Senate approval," *State News* (Michigan State University), July 1, 1970, reporting the Associated Press roll call of 58 to 37 on the Cooper-Church amendment. https://sanweb.lib.msu.edu/DMC/state_news/1970/state_news_19700701.pdf
[^13]: Special Foreign Assistance Act of 1971, Public Law 91-652, 84 Stat. 1942 (approved January 5, 1971), sec. 7(a) and (b). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-84/pdf/STATUTE-84-Pg1942.pdf
[^14]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (1973 appointment as chairman of the Subcommittee on Multi-National Corporations, which Church felt "may have been his single most important assignment"). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^15]: CIA, Memorandum for Chief, Western Hemisphere Division, "Text of Senate ITT Hearings: 20, 21 and 22 March 1973," March 26, 1973, CIA Reading Room document 0005492976. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/0005492976
[^16]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973*, Staff Report, 1975, Part I, A. Overview. https://archive.org/details/Covert-Action-In-Chile-1963-1973
[^17]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy*, Hearings, 94th Congress, 2d Session, on Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, Part 14, February 4 and 6 and May 4, 1976 (Government Printing Office, 1976), catalog entry. https://search.law.villanova.edu/Record/234018
[^18]: Ann Crittenden, "C.I.A. Said to Have Known in '50's of Lockheed Bribes," *New York Times*, April 1976, stating that public disclosure of the payoffs "did not come until last Feb. 4 in hearings of the Senate subcommittee on multinational corporations" (CIA Reading Room copy, CIA-RDP88-01315R000300470055-1). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300470055-1
[^19]: Jack Anderson and Les Whitten, "The Washington Merry-Go-Round," March 23, 1976 (CIA Reading Room copy, "CIA Knew of Multinationals' Payoffs," CIA-RDP88-01315R000300450031-9). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300450031-9
[^20]: William Shawcross, "Did CIA back Lockheed bribes to Japanese?," *The Observer*, April 1976, summarizing Tad Szulc in *The New Republic* (CIA Reading Room copy, CIA-RDP88-01315R000300470050-6). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300470050-6
[^21]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book I, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, title page and membership list. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^22]: Seymour M. Hersh, "Huge C.I.A. Operation Reported in U.S. Against Antiwar Forces, Other Dissidents in Nixon Years," *New York Times*, December 22, 1974, p. 1, https://www.nytimes.com/1974/12/22/archives/huge-cia-operation-reported-in-u-s-against-antiwar-forces-other.html ; quoted and summarized in *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVIII, part 2, Document 17, Editorial Note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v38p2/d17
[^23]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, Interim Report, S. Rept. 94-465, November 20, 1975, including Part VI on the MONGOOSE program. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^24]: Interim Report, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 334, n. 1, citing "Gordon, 9/16/75, pp. 166-67." In the printed hearing volume (*Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents*, Vol. 1) Gordon's September 16 testimony runs from p. 51 to p. 63 and the no-order exchange is at pp. 56-57; pp. 166-67 carry the September 18 testimony of Senseney. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^25]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents*, Hearings, Vol. 1, September 16, 17 and 18, 1975, Tuesday, September 16, 1975 session, opening statements and exhibit list (exhibit No. 3, p. 198, and exhibit No. 4, p. 200). https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume1-Toxic-Agents
[^26]: *Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents*, Hearings, Vol. 1, testimony of Nathan Gordon, pp. 56-58 (exchange on an order to search out and destroy the CIA's stocks of biological agents and the answer read back from the afternoon session, p. 56; statement on the shellfish toxin as a chemical substance, p. 58). https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume1-Toxic-Agents
[^27]: *Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents*, Hearings, Vol. 1, testimony of Nathan Gordon, p. 63 (dart tranquilizer for dogs), and staff statement on the microbioinoculator, "a dart device for clandestine and imperceptible inoculation." https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume1-Toxic-Agents
[^28]: Final Report, Book II, S. Rept. 94-755, Summary (pp. 4-7, statistics on CHAOS and the NSA telegram program) and the Operation CHAOS section (p. 99 ff.; p. 102: 13,000 files, more than 7,200 on American citizens, names of more than 300,000 persons and groups). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel02unit
[^29]: Final Report, Book II, S. Rept. 94-755, p. 101 (CIA officials recognized that examination of domestic groups "violated the Agency's mandate") and p. 40 ("The CIA and the National Security Agency illegally instituted programs for the interception of international communications to and from American citizens"). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel02unit
[^30]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976. Olmsted, Kathryn S. *Challenging the Secret Government: The Post-Watergate Investigations of the CIA and FBI*. University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
[^31]: Final Report, Book III, S. Rept. 94-755, COINTELPRO chapters, including the Chicago "Black Nationalist" section that discusses Fred Hampton. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel03unit
[^32]: *Electronic Surveillance Within the United States for Foreign Intelligence Purposes*, Hearings, Vol. 5, *The National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights*, October 29 and November 6, 1975, October 29 session, opening statements of Church and Tower. https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume5-National-Security-Agency
[^33]: Hearings, Vol. 5, Thursday, November 6, 1975, chairman's opening remarks and the SHAMROCK statement, pp. 57-58. https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume5-National-Security-Agency
[^34]: Final Report, Book II, S. Rept. 94-755, p. 105 n. (NSA MINARET Charter, 7/1/69). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel02unit
[^35]: Final Report, Book II, S. Rept. 94-755, p. 59 (the CIA "opened mail to and from the Soviet Union largely at random, intercepting letters of Americans unrelated to foreign intelligence or counterintelligence"). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel02unit
[^36]: *Internal Revenue Service*, Church Committee Hearings, Vol. 3, 1975. https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume3-IRS
[^37]: *Mail Opening*, Church Committee Hearings, Vol. 4, 1975. https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume4-Mail-Opening
[^38]: Senate Select Committee, *Covert Action*, Hearings, Vol. 7, testimony of Edward M. Korry, former U.S. Ambassador to Chile (opening statement). https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume7-Covert-Action
[^39]: Frank Church, NBC *Meet the Press*, August 17, 1975, as quoted in "Frank Church and the Church Committee," Carl Levin Center for Oversight and Democracy, Wayne State University Law School (Wayback copy), https://web.archive.org/web/2023/https://www.carllevincenter.org/frank-church-and-the-church-committee/ ; the sentence beginning "I know the capacity" is also quoted from the broadcast in Tim Weiner, Times-News, reprinted by the Boise State University Frank Church Institute, March 30, 2015. https://boisestate.edu/sps-frankchurchinstitute/?p=6542; Associated Press, "Church: Technology Could Perpetuate Tyranny, Total U.S. Control Said Possible," *Post-Bulletin* (Rochester, Minn.), August 18, 1975, p. 21 (Church "said Sunday on NBC's 'Meet the Press'"), https://www.newspapers.com/image/1132361475/
[^40]: Final Report, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755, "Additional Views of Senator Frank Church Concerning Covert Action," pp. 563-565. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^41]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (spring 1976 candidacy, primaries in Nebraska, Idaho, Oregon and Montana, withdrawal in favor of Carter) and the Campaign 1976 (President) subseries. https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^42]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, September 5, 1979, remarks of Senators Baker and Robert C. Byrd on the Soviet brigade in Cuba and SALT II. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1979-pt18/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1979-pt18-1-1.pdf
[^43]: "Church said he thought SALT II could be salvaged," *State News* (Michigan State University), October 2, 1979, news report on Church's briefing with Carter before the president's address on the Soviet brigade in Cuba. https://sanweb.lib.msu.edu/DMC/state_news/1979/state_news_19791002.pdf
[^44]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (1980 defeat by Steve Symms by 4,262 votes, less than 1 percent of turnout) and the Campaign 1980 (Senate) subseries. https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^45]: Federal Election Commission, OpenFEC API, Schedule E independent expenditures, candidate_id S4ID00026 (CHURCH, FRANK, Senate, Idaho), two_year_transaction_period 1980, queried October 14, 2026 with the API's keyset pagination (842 line items; committee C00024687 accounts for 798, each filed on an amended F3X report; amounts summed by expenditure_date year). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_e/?candidate_id=S4ID00026&two_year_transaction_period=1980
[^46]: Jim Heffernan, *Tuesday Night Massacre: Four Senate Elections and the Radicalization of the Republican Party*, account of NCPAC's 1980 campaign against Church, reviewed at https://tillamookcountypioneer.net/book-review-tuesday-night-massacre-four-senate-elections-and-the-radicalization-of-the-republican-party
[^47]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (post-Senate practice with Whitman and Ransom, Washington, D.C., specializing in Asian issues). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^48]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Boise State University Special Collections, Content Description and Administrative Information (papers relating chiefly to Church's Senate career, 1956-1980). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912
[^49]: Frank Church Papers, MSS 056, Biographical Note (1984 hospitalization for a pancreatic tumor, death at home in Bethesda, Maryland, April 7, 1984, age 59). https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv50912

12
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Harold Abramson.md
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@ -8,7 +8,14 @@ tags:
- FrankOlson
- ArmyChemicalCorps
- JosiahMacyJrFoundation
summary: "Columbia University allergist and CIA contractor who ran three MKULTRA LSD subprojects totaling $85,000, coordinated the academic LSD research network through Macy Foundation conferences, and was chosen by Gottlieb to manage Frank Olson's deteriorating mental state after the 1953 Deep Creek Lodge dosing."
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Johns Hopkins University]]"
start: 1928
end: 1929
role: "instructor in medicine"
fn: 2
summary: "Columbia University allergist and CIA contractor who ran three MKULTRA LSD subprojects totaling $85,000, convened the Macy Foundation LSD conferences, and managed Frank Olson after the 1953 Deep Creek Lodge dosing."
born: 1899-11-27
died: 1980-09-29
location: New York, New York
@ -21,6 +28,8 @@ Harold Abramson was a New York allergist and immunologist affiliated with [[Mt.
In a 1953 document, [[Sidney Gottlieb]] listed subjects he expected Abramson to investigate with the $85,000 the Agency was furnishing him across three subprojects. Gottlieb wanted "operationally pertinent materials along the following lines: a. Disturbance of Memory; b. Discrediting by Aberrant Behavior; c. Alteration of Sex Patterns; d. Eliciting of Information; e. Suggestibility; f. Creation of Dependence." The gap between the innocent-sounding published research and the operational questions posed by the CIA characterized the entire MKULTRA program. Most of the CIA's academic researchers published articles in professional journals, but those long, scholarly reports often gave an incomplete picture. In effect, the scientists would write openly about how LSD affects a patient's pulse rate, but they would tell only the CIA how the drug could be used to ruin that patient's marriage or memory.[^1]
A CIA memorandum of December 2, 1953, addressed to Colonel Edwards by the chief of the SSD, describes Abramson as a physician educated at Columbia University who was later chief of the allergy clinic at Mt. Sinai Hospital in New York. It records that he was an instructor in medicine at [[Johns Hopkins University]] from 1928 to 1929, and it states: "Subject is a physician but not known as a psychiatrist."[^2]
### Intelligence Gathering and the Macy Conferences
Abramson talked regularly to virtually everyone interested in LSD, including the few early researchers not funded by the Agency or the military, and he reported his findings to [[TSS]]. He served as recording secretary of two conference series sponsored by the [[Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation]], the Agency's sometime conduit, as well as the first international LSD therapy conference in 1959, which [[Paul Hoch]] chaired. The two Macy series each lasted over five-year periods in the 1950s; one dealt with "Problems of Consciousness" and the other with "Neuropharmacology." Held once a year at the Princeton Inn, the conferences brought together TSS's leading contractors as part of a group of roughly 25 with multidisciplinary backgrounds, including such luminaries as [[Margaret Mead]] and [[Jean Piaget]]. The topics discussed usually mirrored TSS's interests at the time, and the conferences served as a spawning ground for ideas that allowed researchers to engage in cross-fertilization.[^1]
@ -40,3 +49,4 @@ After Olson fell from a tenth-floor window at the [[Statler Hotel]] on November
### Footnotes
[^1]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapters 4 and 5.
[^2]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum, December 2, 1953, "ABRAMSON, Harold A.," from the Chief, SSD to Colonel Edwards, MKULTRA document 0000144974, CIA reading room. https://archive.org/details/DOC_0000144974

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/John Foster Dulles.md
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@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ A declassified CIA dispatch from the PBSUCCESS operations center in Florida, dat
A telephone conversation memorandum (FRUS 1952-54 Guatemala, Document 252), dated June 28, 1954, records John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles coordinating directly on the coup's operational status. John Foster Dulles stated that "our side must use more air power" and that CIA air operations were "excellent and effective." Regarding the accidental sinking of a British vessel by CIA-supported forces, John Foster Dulles said "No authority was given for this. However, we can't say it," documenting both operational awareness and deliberate deniability.[^pb2]
A second telephone memorandum (FRUS 1952-54 Guatemala, Document 189), dated June 16, 1954, records Dulles telling Allen Dulles that Standard Oil of [[New Jersey]] executives had met with Allen about "the small country down south," and that John Foster wanted to "possibly slow things up without formalized action," referencing a Senate sanctions bill he had drafted but found unsatisfactory.[^pb3]
A second telephone memorandum (FRUS 1952-54 Guatemala, Document 189), dated June 16, 1954, records Allen Dulles telling John Foster Dulles that he was seeing "men from Standard of NJ" that morning, who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action"; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^pb3]
After Arbenz's resignation and the installation of a new government, Dulles delivered a national radio address in June 1954 framing the coup as a spontaneous Guatemalan rejection of Soviet infiltration. He asserted that communists had "dominated the social security organization and ran the agrarian land reform program," and praised the restoration of "peace and freedom to that sister Republic." The address made no reference to U.S. covert involvement. The full text was published in the *Department of State Bulletin*.[^pb4]

9
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Thomas F. Ellis.md
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@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ tags:
- NationalCongressionalClub
- FairnessInMedia
- NewRight
summary: "Raleigh lawyer who ran Jesse Helms's political organization, sat on the Pioneer Fund board, took its money for his television foundation, organized a bid for CBS, and lost a Reagan nomination over his record on race."
summary: "Raleigh lawyer who ran Jesse Helms's political organization, sat on the Pioneer Fund board, organized a bid for CBS, and lost a Reagan nomination over his record on race."
location: "Raleigh, North Carolina"
created: 2026-09-21
updated: 2026-09-21
@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ Ellis joined the board of the [[Pioneer Fund]] in 1973, with the Kinston lawyer
### The 1983 Nomination
Reagan nominated Ellis on February 8, 1983, to the [[Board for International Broadcasting]], which supervised [[Radio Free Europe]] and [[Radio Liberty]]. Forbes was nominated to the same board. At the hearing of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] on July 26, where his chief critics were Senators [[Paul Tsongas]] and [[Joe Biden|Joseph Biden]], he was challenged on his service on the board of "a group financing studies into theories that whites are genetically superior to blacks," his membership in an all-white country club, a letter circulated in 1976 claiming that President [[Gerald Ford|Ford]] was seeking a black running mate, and a visit to [[South Africa]] paid for by its government. He told the committee: "I do not believe in my heart that I'm a racist." A majority of the committee asked the president to withdraw the name. On July 28 Ellis asked to be withdrawn, in a letter on his firm's stationery distributed by a Helms aide, calling the criticism "an obvious partisan political effort to drive a wedge between you and the black community using me as the instrumentality." He hoped the board would continue to "broadcast the tenets of Christian belief" without "interference from some of those in public office who do not recognize the threat of communist world domination." Reagan replied that he had "acted in a manner consistent with the reputation for honor that you have always possessed." The nomination lapsed on August 4.[^5][^6]
Reagan nominated Ellis on February 8, 1983, to the [[Board for International Broadcasting]], which supervised [[Radio Free Europe]] and [[Radio Liberty]]. Forbes was nominated to the same board; the White House announced the nomination of Malcolm Forbes, Jr. (Steve Forbes) on May 16, 1983, in a slate with Clair W. Burgener, [[Lane Kirkland]], Arch L. Madsen and [[James A. Michener]].[^5] At the hearing of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] on July 26, where his chief critics were Senators [[Paul Tsongas]] and [[Joe Biden|Joseph Biden]], he was challenged on his service on the board of "a group financing studies into theories that whites are genetically superior to blacks," his membership in an all-white country club, a letter circulated in 1976 claiming that President [[Gerald Ford|Ford]] was seeking a black running mate, and a visit to [[South Africa]] paid for by its government. He told the committee: "I do not believe in my heart that I'm a racist." A majority of the committee asked the president to withdraw the name. On July 28 Ellis asked to be withdrawn, in a letter on his firm's stationery distributed by a Helms aide, calling the criticism "an obvious partisan political effort to drive a wedge between you and the black community using me as the instrumentality." He hoped the board would continue to "broadcast the tenets of Christian belief" without "interference from some of those in public office who do not recognize the threat of communist world domination." Reagan replied that he had "acted in a manner consistent with the reputation for honor that you have always possessed." The nomination lapsed on August 4.[^6][^7]
Asked by [[New York Times|The New York Times]] in 2001 whether one race was genetically superior to another, Ellis said: "I have no idea."[^3]
@ -39,5 +39,6 @@ Asked by [[New York Times|The New York Times]] in 2001 whether one race was gene
[^2]: Edsall, Thomas B., and David A. Vise. "CBS Fight a Litmus Test for Conservatives," *The Washington Post,* March 31, 1985, p. 1.
[^3]: Southern Poverty Law Center, "From eugenics to voter ID laws: Thomas Farr's connections to the Pioneer Fund," *Hatewatch,* December 4, 2017.
[^4]: Mehler, Barry, comp. "Pioneer Fund Grants, 1971-1996," Institute for the Study of Academic Racism, compiled from Internal Revenue Service Forms 990; Mahler, Jonathan. "Forbes Waffles on Ellis; Brooks Blasts Buchanan," *The Forward,* February 1996.
[^5]: United Press International, dispatch on the withdrawal of Thomas Ellis, Washington, July 28, 1983.
[^6]: United States Senate, nomination PN59-1, Thomas F. Ellis, Board for International Broadcasting, 98th Congress. https://www.congress.gov/nomination/98th-congress/59/1
[^5]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of Five Members of the Board for International Broadcasting," May 16, 1983, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/262151
[^6]: United Press International, dispatch on the withdrawal of Thomas Ellis, Washington, July 28, 1983.
[^7]: United States Senate, nomination PN59-1, Thomas F. Ellis, Board for International Broadcasting, 98th Congress. https://www.congress.gov/nomination/98th-congress/59/1

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William Broe.md
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@ -31,6 +31,8 @@ Under oath before Senator [[Frank Church]] in 1973, Broe said he had called on G
The subcommittee summarized his evidence in four points. On July 16, 1970, at the [[Sheraton-Carlton Hotel]], Geneen "offered to assemble a substantial election fund" for [[Jorge Alessandri]], "controlled and channeled through the C.I.A.," which Broe refused. The contacts "derived from an initiative taken by Mr. McCone with Mr. Helms." Broe proposed to Gerrity "a plan of action designed to create or accelerate economic instability in Chile." And throughout he "was acting with the knowledge and in accordance with instructions given him by his superiors at the C.I.A., specifically including Mr. Helms." [[John McCone]], a director of ITT and still a consultant to the agency, testified that such ideas were "never approved by Mr. Helms" and that Broe "was exploring."[^2]
A CIA memorandum of March 26, 1973 for the Chief, Western Hemisphere Division, reviewing the transcripts of the subcommittee's ITT hearings of March 20, 21 and 22, 1973, recorded that the subcommittee staff was using Broe's written responses of March 20 to formulate questions for witnesses, including whether Harold Geneen had discussed with Broe an offer of election funds to be channeled through the CIA.[^2]
### Schneider
Broe and Phillips asked Hecksher whether there was "anything we or Station can do to effect the removal of Schneider," the army commander, and on October 18 approved the station's request for three submachine guns. They ordered Hecksher "not, repeat not," to tell Ambassador [[Edward Korry]] of the "impending coup" and, "should it occur," to "appear surprised and stonewall any and all queries." General [[Rene Schneider|René Schneider]] was shot on October 22. After briefing Director Richard Helms they cabled: "The Station has done excellent job of guiding Chileans to point today where a military solution is at least an option for them." If any "points of compromise" reached the press, "absolute denial will be the order of the day even with Ambassador and other embassy colleagues," and the agency's "position will be stonewall all the way." On November 5 Broe cabled his concern that the American "hardware could ultimately be discovered."[^1]

5
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William Colby.md
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@ -52,6 +52,10 @@ On April 27, 1996, Colby disappeared from his weekend home in Rock Point, Maryla
William E. Colby served as the Director of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] from 1973 to 1976. He shared the assumption that [[Israel]] had a few nuclear weapons and that if there was a collapse during the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], there was a possibility that Israel would use them. Colby believed that nuclear weapons would be used "only in an extreme situation."[^6]
### Katharine Graham's 1973 inquiry
In November 1973 [[Katharine Graham]], publisher of the [[Washington Post]], telephoned Colby to ask whether any Post stringers or staff members were associated with the CIA. Colby assured her that no staff members were employed by the Agency, but he refused to discuss the question of stringers.[^7]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Powers, Thomas. *The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA*. Knopf, 1979. Hersh, Seymour M. "Huge C.I.A. Operation Reported in U.S. Against Antiwar Forces." New York Times, December 22, 1974.
@ -60,3 +64,4 @@ William E. Colby served as the Director of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA
[^4]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 17.
[^5]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion*. Seven Stories Press, 1998. Ch. 9.
[^6]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 17.
[^7]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on the Washington Post Company. https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php

38
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Rockefeller family.md
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@ -21,45 +21,45 @@ relations:
- type: funded
with: "[[Rockefeller Foundation]]"
start: 1913
fn: 2
fn: 3
- type: founded
with: "[[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]]"
start: 1940
role: "the five sons of John D. Rockefeller Jr."
fn: 3
fn: 4
- type: owned
with: "[[Chase Manhattan Bank]]"
role: "family control of Chase National from the 1920s"
fn: 5
fn: 6
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Operations Coordinating Board]]"
role: "Nelson Rockefeller, chairman of the Planning Coordination Group, a grouping of OCB members"
start: 1955-03-10
fn: 8
fn: 9
created: 2026-09-22
updated: 2026-09-22
---
The Rockefeller family's fortune came from [[Standard Oil]]. In 1870 [[John D. Rockefeller]] and his associates formed the Standard Oil Company (Ohio), with the largest refining capacity of any firm in the world; in 1882 the Standard Oil Trust took in Standard Oil of New Jersey and Standard Oil of New York, with headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York; after a Supreme Court decision in 1911 it was broken up into 34 companies.[^1] The family's philanthropies followed: the [[General Education Board]], the [[Rockefeller Sanitary Commission]] and, chartered in 1913, the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], which by the 1920s owned stock in thirteen oil companies and nine pipelines. When [[Charles Evans Hughes]], a Standard Oil counsel and Foundation trustee, became secretary of state, the British Foreign Office complained that "Washington officials begin to think, talk, and write like Standard Oil officials."[^2]
The Rockefeller family's fortune came from [[Standard Oil]]. In 1870 [[John D. Rockefeller]] and his associates formed the Standard Oil Company (Ohio), with the largest refining capacity of any firm in the world; in 1882 the Standard Oil Trust took in Standard Oil of New Jersey and Standard Oil of New York, with headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York; after a Supreme Court decision in 1911 it was broken up into 34 companies.[^1] The Court's opinion of May 15, 1911 names "The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and thirty-three other corporations" as appellants, together with John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller and five other individual defendants, and affirmed the decree with directions to modify it.[^2] The family's philanthropies followed: the [[General Education Board]], the [[Rockefeller Sanitary Commission]] and, chartered in 1913, the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], which by the 1920s owned stock in thirteen oil companies and nine pipelines. When [[Charles Evans Hughes]], a Standard Oil counsel and Foundation trustee, became secretary of state, the British Foreign Office complained that "Washington officials begin to think, talk, and write like Standard Oil officials."[^3]
### The Five Brothers
[[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller had five sons, John D. III, [[Nelson Rockefeller]], [[Laurance Rockefeller]], Winthrop and [[David Rockefeller]], who in 1940 set up the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] to coordinate their giving.[^3][^4] The family had controlled the Chase National Bank since the 1920s; merged with the Bank of the Manhattan Company in 1955 as [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], it was run by David, president from 1961 and chairman from 1969 to 1981.[^5]
[[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller had five sons, John D. III, [[Nelson Rockefeller]], [[Laurance Rockefeller]], Winthrop and [[David Rockefeller]], who in 1940 set up the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] to coordinate their giving.[^4][^5] The family had controlled the Chase National Bank since the 1920s; merged with the Bank of the Manhattan Company in 1955 as [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], it was run by David, president from 1961 and chairman from 1969 to 1981.[^6]
Nelson, a director of Standard Oil of New Jersey's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s, was named on August 16, 1940, to head the office that became the [[CIAA|Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], which subsidized 1,200 Latin American newspaper publishers dependent on its newsprint shipments.[^4][^6] After the war he set up two private development companies, the [[IBEC|International Basic Economy Corporation]] and the [[AIA|American International Association]].[^4] In 1955, as special assistant to President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], he chaired the Planning Coordination Group, set up in March 1955 within the [[Operations Coordinating Board]] to cover overt and covert action; its members were the under secretary of state, the deputy secretary of defense and the director of central intelligence.[^7] The Bureau of the Budget had proposed it as "a special grouping of OCB members chaired by Mr. Rockefeller," and Rockefeller was designated its chairman on March 10, 1955. The group was a grouping of OCB members, distinct from the Special Group of [[National Security Council|NSC]] 5412.[^8] The Brothers Fund's Special Studies Project of 1956 to 1961, which Nelson convened, had [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] as its director, and Nelson kept him on afterward as his foreign policy consultant; Laurance sat on Kissinger's panel.[^3][^9] As vice president, Nelson chaired the [[Rockefeller Commission 1975|commission]] that [[Gerald Ford]] set up on January 4, 1975, to investigate the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s domestic activities.[^10]
Nelson, a director of Standard Oil of New Jersey's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s, was named on August 16, 1940, to head the office that became the [[CIAA|Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], which subsidized 1,200 Latin American newspaper publishers dependent on its newsprint shipments.[^5][^7] After the war he set up two private development companies, the [[IBEC|International Basic Economy Corporation]] and the [[AIA|American International Association]].[^5] In 1955, as special assistant to President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], he chaired the Planning Coordination Group, set up in March 1955 within the [[Operations Coordinating Board]] to cover overt and covert action; its members were the under secretary of state, the deputy secretary of defense and the director of central intelligence.[^8] The Bureau of the Budget had proposed it as "a special grouping of OCB members chaired by Mr. Rockefeller," and Rockefeller was designated its chairman on March 10, 1955. The group was a grouping of OCB members, distinct from the Special Group of [[National Security Council|NSC]] 5412.[^9] The Brothers Fund's Special Studies Project of 1956 to 1961, which Nelson convened, had [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] as its director, and Nelson kept him on afterward as his foreign policy consultant; Laurance sat on Kissinger's panel.[^4][^10] As vice president, Nelson chaired the [[Rockefeller Commission 1975|commission]] that [[Gerald Ford]] set up on January 4, 1975, to investigate the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s domestic activities.[^11]
The Foundation paid for the founding in 1943 of the [[Allan Memorial Institute]] in Montreal, where [[D. Ewen Cameron]] later conducted the depatterning experiments funded under [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]].[^11] David founded the Council of the Americas in 1963 and in 1973, with [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], the [[Trilateral Commission]].[^4]
The Foundation paid for the founding in 1943 of the [[Allan Memorial Institute]] in Montreal, where [[D. Ewen Cameron]] later conducted the depatterning experiments funded under [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]].[^12] David founded the Council of the Americas in 1963 and in 1973, with [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], the [[Trilateral Commission]].[^5]
### Footnotes
[^1]: ExxonMobil, "Our History," corporate history timeline, entries for 1870, 1882 and the 1911 dissolution. https://corporate.exxonmobil.com/company/who-we-are/our-history
[^2]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon.* HarperCollins, 1995, chs. 2-3.
[^3]: Colby and Dennett, ch. 25, as cited on the Rockefeller Brothers Fund page.
[^4]: Colby and Dennett, chs. 1, 5, 8, 13, as cited on the Nelson Rockefeller and David Rockefeller pages.
[^5]: Colby and Dennett, ch. 13, as cited on the Chase Manhattan Bank page.
[^6]: Council of National Defense order establishing the Office for Coordination of Commercial and Cultural Relations Between the American Republics, August 16, 1940; Executive Order 8840, July 30, 1941.
[^7]: Hughes, Rowland, memorandum to the President, March 3, 1955, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community,* doc. 210.
[^8]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, Intelligence Community, doc. 210, Bureau of the Budget memorandum to President Eisenhower, with the annotation on the March 10, 1955 designation. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d210
[^9]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017) and ch. 23, as cited on the Henry A. Kissinger page.
[^10]: Executive Order 11828, January 4, 1975.
[^11]: Marks, John. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control.* Times Books, 1979, ch. 8.
[^2]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), opening paragraph and concluding part of the opinion of Chief Justice White. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^3]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon.* HarperCollins, 1995, chs. 2-3.
[^4]: Colby and Dennett, ch. 25, as cited on the Rockefeller Brothers Fund page.
[^5]: Colby and Dennett, chs. 1, 5, 8, 13, as cited on the Nelson Rockefeller and David Rockefeller pages.
[^6]: Colby and Dennett, ch. 13, as cited on the Chase Manhattan Bank page.
[^7]: Council of National Defense order establishing the Office for Coordination of Commercial and Cultural Relations Between the American Republics, August 16, 1940; Executive Order 8840, July 30, 1941.
[^8]: Hughes, Rowland, memorandum to the President, March 3, 1955, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community,* doc. 210.
[^9]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, Intelligence Community, doc. 210, Bureau of the Budget memorandum to President Eisenhower, with the annotation on the March 10, 1955 designation. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d210
[^10]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017) and ch. 23, as cited on the Henry A. Kissinger page.
[^11]: Executive Order 11828, January 4, 1975.
[^12]: Marks, John. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control.* Times Books, 1979, ch. 8.

2
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Foreign Technology Division.md
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@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ The subaward rows listed under the NOVASTAR orders total $107.3 million; under M
General Services Administration purchase order GS05T13BMC0003, awarded January 9, 2013 by the GSA Federal Acquisition Service Assisted Acquisition Services Region 5 to [[HII Mission Technologies]] (recipient name as now displayed), carries the description "IGF::CL::IGF FOREIGN MATERIEL EXPLOITATION ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE SUPPORT." The funding office is "F4FTAU NASIC GX"; the period of performance runs February 1, 2013 to July 31, 2018; the place of performance is Dayton, [[Ohio]]. USAspending shows $53,916,532.23 obligated and $61,599,045.26 including options, one offer received, "FULL AND OPEN COMPETITION" with "NO SET ASIDE USED," solicitation identifier ID05120091, product code AD23 and NAICS 541990. The record lists 373 subaward rows with a reported total of $73,640,597.06. Of the rows, 271 are described "MATERIALS," 23 "MATERIAL" and 28 "TECHNICAL SERVICES." The laboratory vendors named include Synopsys, Inc. (72 rows), Bruker Optics Inc. (50), OneSpin Solutions GmbH (32), Siemens Industry Software Inc. (28), Leica Geosystems Inc. (27), Mentor Graphics Corporation (15), Spirent Federal Systems Inc (13), North Star Imaging Incorporated (10), Oxford Instruments America, Inc. (5), MTS Systems Corporation (3) and 3D Systems, Inc. (1). Rows described "TECHNICAL SERVICES" name [[Lockheed Martin]] Services, LLC (ten rows dated February 12, 2014), Radiance Technologies (eleven rows dated September 14, 2017) and Modern Technology Solutions (seven rows dated February 15, 2018).[^16]
Other records name the facility. An Air Force order of September 30, 2009 to Edge & Tinney Architects Inc ($104,312.32) is described "CCD FOR PLANNED NASIC FME MILCON"; an Army order of September 28, 2013 to HDR Engineering Inc. ($3,273,287.53) "A/E SERVICES - ADD/ALTER FME LAB"; an order of December 12, 2013 to APTIM Federal Services, LLC ($66,129.20) "ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT - FOREIGN MATERIEL EXPLOITATION LAB"; and an order signed November 21, 2021 to the [[Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory]] ($4,812,298, coded not competed, place of performance Laurel, Maryland) the description "NASIC FME." See [[Foreign Materiel Exploitation]] for the Department of Defense program and its contractor roster.[^17]
Other records name the facility. An Air Force order of September 30, 2009 to Edge & Tinney Architects Inc ($104,312.32) is described "CCD FOR PLANNED NASIC FME MILCON"; an Army order of September 28, 2013 to HDR Engineering Inc. ($3,273,287.53) "A/E SERVICES - ADD/ALTER FME LAB"; an order of December 12, 2013 to APTIM Federal Services, LLC ($66,129.20) "ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT - FOREIGN MATERIEL EXPLOITATION LAB"; and an order signed November 21, 2021 to the [[Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory]] ($4,812,298, coded not competed, place of performance Laurel, Maryland, with a period of performance from November 25, 2022 to April 30, 2026) the description "NASIC FME." See [[Foreign Materiel Exploitation]] for the Department of Defense program and its contractor roster.[^17]
### Foreign materiel exploitation and the reverse engineering allegations

29
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory.md
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@ -10,14 +10,35 @@ category: "U.S. Government"
summary: "The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) is a not-for-profit university-affiliated research center that serves as a technical resource for the Department of Defense, NASA, and other government agencies."
start: 1942
location: "Laurel, Maryland"
relations:
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[U.S. Navy]]"
role: "university affiliated research center, primary sponsor"
fn: 2
---
# Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) is a not-for-profit university-affiliated research center that serves as a technical resource for the [[Department of Defense]], [[NASA]], and other government agencies. In the context of the [[Cold War]], APL scientists were assigned to oversee [[Project Pandora]], a classified program initiated by [[DARPA]] to duplicate the effects of the [[Moscow Signal]][^1].
The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) is a not-for-profit university-affiliated research center that serves as a technical resource for the [[Department of Defense]], [[NASA]], and other government agencies. The laboratory was founded on March 10, 1942, three months after the United States entered the Second World War, and was assigned the task of finding a more effective way for ships to defend themselves against enemy air attacks. It designed, built and tested the radar proximity fuze known as the VT fuze.[^1] Its 2025 description states that "APL's UARC sponsor is the U.S. Navy," and that each university affiliated research center has a primary sponsor and a primary contract that define the limits of competition; the same document says APL performs sponsored work for "the Intelligence Community," along with the DOW, NASA and other agencies.[^2] In the context of the [[Cold War]], APL scientists were assigned to oversee [[Project Pandora]], a classified program initiated by [[DARPA]] to duplicate the effects of the [[Moscow Signal]][^3].
Under the direction of [[Richard S. Cesaro]], APL scientists constructed an elaborate facility inside the [[Walter Reed Army Institute of Research]]. Here, primates were irradiated with microwave beams with a power density similar to that of the Moscow Signal. Cesaro became convinced of the harmful nature of these beams, concluding they adversely affected the internal organs, including the brain, of primates, and could lead to conditions like [[Alzheimer's Disease]][^1].
Under the direction of [[Richard S. Cesaro]], APL scientists constructed an elaborate facility inside the [[Walter Reed Army Institute of Research]]. Here, primates were irradiated with microwave beams with a power density similar to that of the Moscow Signal. Cesaro became convinced of the harmful nature of these beams, concluding they adversely affected the internal organs, including the brain, of primates, and could lead to conditions like [[Alzheimer's Disease]][^3].
APL was also involved in a $1 million study funded by the [[State Department]] to investigate the health effects on [[U.S. Embassy in Moscow]] personnel exposed to the Moscow Signal. This study, released in November 1978, found "no convincing evidence" that employees suffered "adverse health effects as of the time of this analysis," a finding that was controversial given the concerns raised by scientists like Cesaro and [[Allan H. Frey]][^1].
APL was also involved in a $1 million study funded by the [[State Department]] to investigate the health effects on [[U.S. Embassy in Moscow]] personnel exposed to the Moscow Signal. This study, released in November 1978, found "no convincing evidence" that employees suffered "adverse health effects as of the time of this analysis," a finding that was controversial given the concerns raised by scientists like Cesaro and [[Allan H. Frey]][^3].
### Navy and space programs
In 1957 two APL physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, developed a method of tracking satellites from the Doppler shift in the signals of the Soviet [[Sputnik]], and in 1958 APL invented the Doppler-based [[Transit]] satellite navigation system, which the laboratory states was fully operational in 1964 and improved the ability of U.S. submarines to determine their positions.[^4] In 1974 APL tested an engineering development model of the AN/SPY-1 radar for the [[Aegis combat system|Aegis]] system aboard USS Norton Sound, and in 1981 USS Ticonderoga became the first vessel with the Aegis combat system, with APL as technical advisor.[^5] APL built the NEAR spacecraft (launched February 22, 1996; orbited 433 Eros on February 14, 2000), MESSENGER (launched August 3, 2004), New Horizons (launched January 19, 2006; Pluto flyby July 14, 2015) and the Double Asteroid Redirection Test spacecraft (launched November 24, 2021, for NASA's Planetary Defense Coordination Office).[^6][^7]
### Federal contract totals
USAspending.gov records prime contract awards to the laboratory under the recipient name "The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory LLC" (unique entity identifier C1HBCJ9RMBV3). A spending-by-awarding-agency query for that identifier, contract award types A through D, with action dates from October 1, 2007 through September 30, 2026, run on October 14, 2026, returned $19,446,135,312.75 from the Department of Defense and $4,732,501,683.12 from NASA.[^8] Among the Department of the Air Force awards is delivery order FA868422F7013, described as "NASIC FME," with a total obligation of $4,812,298, a date signed of November 21, 2021 and a period of performance from November 25, 2022 to April 30, 2026.[^9]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^1]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "History." https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history
[^2]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "About APL," 2025 edition. https://www.jhuapl.edu/sites/default/files/2025-07/aboutAPL-25.pdf
[^3]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^4]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "Innovations and Breakthroughs" timeline, entries for 1957 (Sputnik), 1958 (Transit invented) and 1964 (Transit fully operational). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history/innovations-and-breakthroughs
[^5]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "Innovations and Breakthroughs" timeline, entries "Successful Aegis Radar Testing" (1974) and "The First Aegis Ship, USS Ticonderoga, Launches; APL Serves as Technical Advisor" (1981). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history/innovations-and-breakthroughs
[^6]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "Innovations and Breakthroughs" timeline, entries for NEAR (1996), MESSENGER (2004) and DART (2021). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history/innovations-and-breakthroughs
[^7]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "New Horizons," mission page. https://www.jhuapl.edu/destinations/missions/new-horizons
[^8]: USAspending.gov API, /api/v2/search/spending_by_category/awarding_agency/, recipient_search_text "C1HBCJ9RMBV3", award_type_codes A-D, time_period 2007-10-01 to 2026-09-30, queried October 14, 2026.
[^9]: USAspending.gov, award CONT_AWD_FA868422F7013_9700_FA868420D7000_9700. https://www.usaspending.gov/award/CONT_AWD_FA868422F7013_9700_FA868420D7000_9700

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Special Operations Division.md
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@ -33,4 +33,4 @@ SOD continued to manufacture and stockpile bacteriological agents for the CIA un
[^1]: Marks, John D. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Ch. 5. https://bibliotecapleyades.net/sociopolitica/manchurian/marks5.htm
[^2]: Regis, Ed. *The Biology of Doom: The History of America's Secret Germ Warfare Project*. Henry Holt, 1999. https://archive.org/details/biologyofdoomhis00regi
[^3]: Horrock, Nicholas M. "Colby Describes C.I.A. Poison Work," *New York Times,* Sept. 17, 1975. https://merylnass.substack.com/p/colby-describes-cia-poison-work-by
[^3]: Horrock, Nicholas M. "Colby Describes C.I.A. Poison Work," *New York Times,* Sept. 17, 1975. https://merylnass.substack.com/p/colby-describes-cia-poison-work-by Pinpoint: *Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents*, Hearings, Vol. 1, September 16, 1975, testimony of Nathan Gordon: pp. 56-57 (he did not receive an order from the Director of Central Intelligence to search out and destroy the CIA's stocks of biological agents) and pp. 57-58 (he read the November 25, 1969 and February 14, 1970 White House announcements as concerning military biological programs and said that he, his project officer and a technical consultant considered the shellfish toxin "a chemical substance, not a biological agent, not a biological toxin," when the offer to store five grams was made in late February 1970). https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume1-Toxic-Agents

7
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/INTERNATIONAL/Radio Free Europe.md
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@ -52,6 +52,8 @@ When Soviet tanks crushed the revolution in November 1956, the gap between RFE's
In February 1967, Ramparts magazine published an exposé of CIA funding of the [[National Student Association]], triggering a broader investigation of CIA-funded front organizations. The CIA's funding of RFE was publicly revealed in subsequent reporting, forcing a political response. In 1971, the [[U.S. Congress]] voted to acknowledge and continue public funding of RFE and Radio Liberty through a new [[Board for International Broadcasting]], ending the fiction of private funding while continuing the operations.
[[Steve Forbes]] (Malcolm Stevenson Forbes Jr., born July 18, 1947) was a member of the Board for International Broadcasting from 1983 and its chairman from 1985. On May 16, 1983, the White House announced the intention to nominate Malcolm Forbes, Jr., then president of [[Forbes]] magazine, to the board for a term expiring April 28, 1986, together with Clair W. Burgener, [[Lane Kirkland]], Arch L. Madsen and [[James A. Michener]].[^6] On September 16, 1985 the President announced the intention to designate him chairman, succeeding [[Frank Shakespeare]].[^7] On January 22, 1987 he was renominated for a term expiring April 28, 1989 and, on confirmation, redesignated chairman,[^8] and on January 4, 1990 the [[George H. W. Bush]] White House announced his renomination for a term expiring April 28, 1992, again with designation as chairman.[^9] A June 19, 1992 announcement of his renomination for a term expiring April 28, 1995 stated: "Since 1985, Mr. Forbes has served as Chairman of the Board for International Broadcasting."[^10]
RFE/RL continued to operate through the remainder of the Cold War and survived into the post-Soviet period. It broadcast into Russia, the former Soviet republics, and Eastern European countries through the transition period and beyond. Its funding came to be provided by the U.S. Agency for Global Media.
### Significance
@ -65,3 +67,8 @@ RFE represented the largest sustained CIA propaganda operation of the Cold War p
[^3]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Radio Free Europe (RFE) and the Hungarian Revolution," Cord Meyer, Jr., Chief, Covert Action Staff (catalogued 1962-03-04). CIA reading room document 0001409017. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001409017
[^4]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Re: Radio Free Europe and the 1956 Hungarian Uprising," April 20, 1990 (PAO 90-0152), quoting Cord Meyer, Facing Reality (1980), pp. 125-130. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401630009-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401630009-6
[^5]: Thomas, Evan. *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA.* Simon & Schuster, 1995. Mitrovich, Gregory. *Undermining the Kremlin: America's Strategy to Subvert the Soviet Bloc, 1947-1956.* Cornell University Press, 2000.
[^6]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of Five Members of the Board for International Broadcasting," May 16, 1983, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/262151
[^7]: Ronald Reagan, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," September 16, 1985, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/390622
[^8]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of Malcolm Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 22, 1987, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/252829
[^9]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564
[^10]: George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789

188
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Anti-Defamation League.md
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@ -1,26 +1,198 @@
---
created: 2026-06-13
updated: 2026-09-22
updated: 2026-10-14
title: Anti-Defamation League
aliases:
- ADL
- Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith
- ADL of B'nai B'rith
tags:
- Organization
- CivilSociety
- Intelligence
- Surveillance
- Wiretap
- DomesticIntelligence
- ExtremismMonitoring
category: "Private Organization"
summary: "The Anti-Defamation League is a Jewish civil-rights organization founded in 1913 that was found in a 1993 investigation to have run a private domestic intelligence operation gathering files on thousands of individuals and groups."
summary: "The Anti-Defamation League is a Jewish civil-rights organization founded in 1913 whose paid fact-finder Roy Bullock kept files on thousands of people and groups, drawn in part from police sources."
start: 1913
location: "New York City"
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[Abraham Foxman]]"
reverse: true
role: "national director"
start: 1987
end: 2015-07
fn: 18
- type: head_of
with: "[[Jonathan Greenblatt]]"
reverse: true
role: "national director"
start: 2015-07
fn: 18
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Arnold Forster]]"
reverse: true
role: "head of fact-finding division"
start: 1940
fn: 8
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Irwin Suall]]"
reverse: true
role: "director of fact-finding"
fn: 22
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Roy Bullock]]"
reverse: true
role: "paid fact-finder"
start: 1960
fn: 22
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Richard Hirschhaut]]"
reverse: true
role: "director, San Francisco office"
fn: 35
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Saul Rosenthal]]"
reverse: true
role: "director, Denver office"
fn: 41
- type: investigated
with: "[[San Francisco District Attorney's Office]]"
reverse: true
start: 1993
fn: 35
- type: investigated
with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]"
reverse: true
start: 1993-04
fn: 26
---
The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) is an organization founded in 1913, originally as an arm of the fraternal order B'nai B'rith, to combat antisemitism and other forms of discrimination. Alongside its civil-rights advocacy it has long maintained a fact-finding apparatus that monitors extremist and political groups.[^1]
The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) is a Jewish civil-rights organization founded in [[Chicago]] in 1913 by the Independent Order of [[B'nai B'rith]], "to eliminate, as far as possible, publication of literature prejudicial to the repute of the Jews."[^1] Its stated mission is "to stop the defamation of the Jewish people and to secure justice and fair treatment to all," and it is headquartered in [[New York City]] at 605 Third Avenue.[^2][^3] Its fact-finding division has supplied files and reports to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and police departments since at least the early 1940s.[^8][^12] According to the [[San Francisco]] district attorney's 1993 investigation, the ADL and its paid fact-finder, [[Roy Bullock]], had solicited and received non-public government information, some of it from San Francisco police officers, and a Colorado jury later awarded $10.5 million against the ADL and its Denver office director in a wiretap and defamation case that the [[Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals]] largely upheld.[^35][^41]
### The 1993 Spying Investigation
### Federal files and liaison, 1939 to 1962
In 1993 the [[San Francisco]] Police Department and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] searched ADL offices and exposed a private intelligence operation in which the organization, through the operative Roy Bullock, had compiled files on roughly ten thousand individuals and more than nine hundred organizations, ranging from white-supremacist groups to anti-apartheid and Arab-American organizations. Some of the information had been obtained from a serving police officer, Tom Gerard, a former [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] employee, and, according to Robert I. Friedman of *The Village Voice,* was passed to the governments of [[Israel]] and [[South Africa]]. The matter was settled through civil agreements without criminal charges against the organization.[^1][^2]
In August 1939 a witness before the [[House Un-American Activities Committee|Special Committee on Un-American Activities]] chaired by [[Martin Dies]], Henry B. Allen, testified about his arrest in [[San Diego]] for distributing anti-Jewish leaflets. He told the committee that San Diego police had passed his seized literature to Nate Baranov, "head of the Anti-Defamation League of San Diego," and that it had gone "direct from the police department to the head of the Anti-Defamation League of San Francisco, first." Asked how long the material stayed with the league, he answered "I think it was there several days" and said he was relying on what his attorney had told him.[^4]
A February 3, 1950 FBI memorandum to Assistant Director [[Louis B. Nichols]] on [[Arnold Forster]] (born Arnold Fastenberg) records that Forster had applied twice to become an FBI special agent, in 1937 and 1939, and was rejected both times, and that he joined the ADL about 1940 as an undercover agent and rose to head its Legal Division and its Fact-finding Division. From about 1941, according to the memorandum, he supplied the FBI's New York office by visit and telephone with "a great deal of information" on cases involving the Foreign Agents Registration Act, sedition and internal security. An informant told the Bureau that at the November 1939 [[Fritz Kuhn]] trial Forster said he was an undercover man for the ADL while practicing law.[^5]
The same memorandum records a dispute over an affidavit. On October 7, 1942 ADL officials brought the FBI a carbon copy of a sworn statement by Aleksy Pelypenko, a former paid FBI informant, alleging that Father [[Charles Coughlin]] had been a paid German agent; Pelypenko had signed it in Forster's presence and Forster had paid him $300. The Bureau pressed Forster for the original and all copies from October 26, 1942 to February 24, 1943, and Assistant Director [[D. Milton Ladd]] concluded that the "ADL lied in its dealings with the Bureau." Copies of the affidavit reached [[Albert E. Kahn]] and the newsletter *In Fact* in early 1946. The memorandum also records a conference on November 25, 1942 at which Nichols told ADL representatives that the Bureau had heard the ADL "reported having made 370 investigations for the Bureau," a rumor the memorandum traces to a former FBI agent then with the [[American Jewish Committee]], and an informant report that Forster possessed a list of about 240 incidents in which inquiries had been made by "the Washington agency."[^6]
On May 13, 1948 CIA Director [[Roscoe Hillenkoetter]] thanked Forster for adding him to the mailing list for the ADL's confidential monthly report on anti-Semitism, "The Facts." Forster's letter, written at the suggestion of the ADL's Washington director, Paul Richman, asked that the contents receive no publicity without clearance from the league, and Hillenkoetter replied that Forster could be assured he would abide by those wishes.[^7] A 1957 report from the FBI's New York office records that Forster and a researcher in the ADL's Civil Rights Division furnished the office on February 14, 1957 with press releases and pamphlets from the Committee to Secure Justice for [[Morton Sobell]] and made the ADL Research Section files on the committee available to agents.[^9] A 1962 FBI memorandum records an FBI official telling Forster that a claim reaching him, that the Director had endorsed Dr. Fred Schwarz's anti-communist crusade, was "absolutely false."[^10]
The FBI's headquarters file on [[Irwin Suall]], later the ADL's director of fact-finding, begins with a State Department special inquiry that [[J. Edgar Hoover]] ordered on February 8, 1951 when Suall was working at the [[Voice of America]]. The file records his January 1945 arrest in Chicago, a $25 fine for disorderly conduct, as national organizer of the Young People's Socialist League during a protest against peacetime conscription.[^11] The [[University of Kansas]] Spencer Research Library holds, in the Laird M. Wilcox Papers, FBI files on the ADL dated 1942, 1944, 1954 and 1970 and a folder on ADL collaboration with the FBI dated 1974, 1979, 1985 and 1987 to 1989.[^12][^13]
### Leadership, finances and lobbying
[[Abraham Foxman]] joined the ADL in 1965 and was named national director in 1987. In November 2014 the organization named [[Jonathan Greenblatt]], then a White House aide, to succeed him, with Foxman to step down in July 2015.[^18]
ProPublica's Nonprofit Explorer lists the ADL under EIN 13-1818723 with a tax exemption issued in June 1948.[^3] The organization's filings report total revenue of $105,430,775, functional expenses of $100,194,254, total assets of $93,995,360 and $2,575,323 in compensation of current officers for the year ending December 2022, against revenue of $53,760,549 for 2011.[^19]
The Senate lobbying disclosure database lists the ADL (registrant 4072, Washington office at 1100 Connecticut Avenue NW) with quarterly reports beginning with the first quarter of 2022. The reported lobbying expenses are $340,000 for 2022 ($85,000 in each quarter), $723,000 for 2023, $1,400,000 for 2024 and $1,440,000 for 2025, with $720,000 for the first two quarters of 2026. The 2026 reports list activity on the Antisemitism Awareness Act, the Holocaust Education and Antisemitism Lessons Act, the Violent Antisemitism Threat Assessment Act, the Jewish American Security Act, the Domestic Terrorism Prevention Act, the Countering Hate Against Israel by Federal Contractors Act, and appropriations for the Departments of State and Homeland Security.[^20]
### The San Francisco investigation, 1992 to 1993
The [[San Francisco Police Department]] had disbanded its intelligence unit in 1990 under new guidelines. In 1993 Chief Tony Ribera acknowledged that files on non-criminal political activity had not been destroyed as the guidelines required, in the course of the scandal around intelligence officer Thomas Gerard.[^21] The [[San Francisco District Attorney's Office|San Francisco district attorney]] began an investigation in 1993 after the police department learned that one or more of its officers might have been improperly giving confidential government information to Bullock, who was employed by the ADL to investigate organizations opposing the policies of the governments of [[Israel]] and [[South Africa]].[^35] The [[Los Angeles Times]] reported on April 13, 1993 that the district attorney's office had released nearly 700 pages of investigative documents, including transcripts of FBI and police interviews with Bullock and with David Gurvitz, a former Los Angeles-based ADL operative, and that police and FBI investigators had searched the ADL's San Francisco and Los Angeles offices in early April 1993 under warrants supported by an affidavit from San Francisco Police Inspector Ron Roth.[^22][^26]
Bullock told investigators that he began working as an ADL and FBI volunteer in Indiana in 1954, that the ADL signed him as a paid investigator after he moved to Los Angeles in 1960, and that his salary, $550 a week by 1993, was paid through a Beverly Hills attorney so that the league would not be officially connected with him. His ADL code name was Cal. He told investigators he had compiled files on 9,876 individuals and more than 950 groups, among them the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], Earth Island Institute, the United Auto Workers, Jews for Jesus, *Mother Jones*, the Center for Investigative Reporting, the Asian Law Caucus and ACT UP, and that the files also covered members of Congress including [[Nancy Pelosi]], [[Ron Dellums]] and [[Pete McCloskey]]. Investigators identified confidential police information on at least 1,394 people, including as many as 4,500 members of the [[American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee]]. Bullock described an operation in which a paid informant helped tap the message system of the [[White Aryan Resistance]] and said he had passed a confidential FBI report on the [[Nation of Islam]] through a shredder at the ADL's San Francisco office. Gurvitz told investigators that the Los Angeles ADL office kept a record of any Arab-American with "anti-Israel leanings," and that he had once telephoned an Israeli consular official to warn of a pro-Palestinian activist about to board a flight to Haifa.[^22]
The ADL denied that its information gathering was a spy network and contended that the files were Bullock's personal files; prosecutors contended they were the ADL's.[^23] Bullock said he infiltrated about 30 groups, that the league might have asked him specifically about 2 percent of the 10,000 names in his computer, and that he had worked with officers in ten law-enforcement agencies. He said the only law-enforcement payment he received was $500 from FBI agents.[^23]
Al Miskin reported in the July 22, 1993 issue of [[Middle East Research and Information Project|MERIP]] that Bullock had worked for the ADL for more than three decades, that his database held files on some 12,000 individuals and 950 organizations, and that the material included information from Gerard. Miskin wrote that the targets included Dellums, the ACLU, New Jewish Agenda, MERIP and Arab-American, Palestine solidarity and anti-apartheid groups, and that Bullock's original assignment in the 1960s was to infiltrate white supremacist and far-right groups. Miskin also reported that Representative [[Don Edwards]] had announced he would investigate whether the FBI had used Bullock as a surrogate to collect information the Bureau was barred by law from collecting directly.[^26]
Mark Ames wrote in 2014 that the partnership between Bullock and Gerard began in the ADL's San Francisco office in 1986 when [[Richard Hirschhaut]], the regional executive director, introduced the two, and that a Hirschhaut memorandum to Suall praised Gerard for providing "a significant amount of information" on Arab organizations in the Bay Area. Ames also reported that the ADL's Washington office funded a 1991 trip by Gerard to Israel. Ames wrote that the ADL later said it had no relationship with Gerard.[^25]
### Thomas Gerard and the South African sales
[[Thomas Gerard]] was an inspector in the San Francisco police intelligence unit. The Los Angeles Times described him on April 13, 1993 as "a former CIA agent and San Francisco police officer," and reported that a briefcase left in his police locker held passports, driver's licenses and identification cards in ten names, identification cards for four American embassies in Central America, blank birth certificates and official stationery from various agencies, material on death squads, a black hood and photographs of blindfolded, chained men.[^22] The San Francisco Chronicle later described him as "a former CIA bomb expert."[^29]
Gerard fled to Palawan in the Philippines on October 25, 1992 after an interview with the FBI, and told the Los Angeles Times in a three-hour interview published April 27, 1993 that he had been an undercover CIA agent from 1982 through 1985 and had left because of what he witnessed supporting Central American death squads. He said he would disclose the agency's work if indicted. The CIA, following its practice, declined to confirm that he had been a staff employee.[^24] Gerard said that he and Bullock had routinely searched through trash collected outside the homes of people affiliated with the groups they watched. "We were the kings of garbage," he said. He said he had brought Bullock to the FBI about 1986, after a Bullock file helped police find a man who bombed synagogues, and had persuaded the Bureau to hire Bullock as a paid informant; court documents showed Bullock was a part-time FBI informant who received one $500 payment. Gerard denied Bullock's account that the two began selling information to the South African government in 1987 and split about $16,000.[^24] Bullock told investigators that Gerard had given him complete SFPD intelligence files on Nazi groups that were supposed to be destroyed, and that the pair sold information on anti-apartheid activism to South African agents, including a report on Dellums. Bullock told the FBI in 1992 that the ADL had put him in contact with a South African agent, then told authorities he had lied to protect Gerard, who made the initial contact.[^22][^23]
Gerard returned to the United States in early May 1993 and was arrested; he said on his return, according to Miskin, that he was a CIA agent and that the agency had a contract out on his life.[^26] In 1994 he pleaded no contest to a misdemeanor count of illegally accessing police computer records and was sentenced to 45 days. The ACLU of Northern California reports the fine as $2,500, and the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported a $25,000 fine and three years of probation.[^27][^30]
Robert I. Friedman wrote in *The Village Voice* that the files numbered roughly ten thousand individuals and more than nine hundred organizations, and that the material was passed to the governments of Israel and South Africa.[^28] Cockburn and Silverstein wrote that the matter was settled through civil agreements without criminal charges against the organization.[^31]
### Settlements, 1993 to 2002
In November 1993 the district attorney sued the ADL and Bullock under California Business and Professions Code section 17200. The ADL agreed to a permanent injunction barring it and Bullock from obtaining documents or information they knew could not legally be disclosed to them.[^35] The Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported on November 17, 1993 that the ADL admitted no wrongdoing and paid no fine, that the settlement barred criminal prosecution of the ADL and Bullock, that the ADL agreed to a San Francisco hate-crimes award fund of $25,000 over two years and a program training assistant district attorneys to speak in schools, and that Foxman said the district attorney "moved heaven and earth to find something he could charge us with." Foxman said the ADL continued to work with Bullock.[^32] Later accounts put the payments at up to $50,000 for the reward fund and up to $25,000 for the school program.[^33] In 1996 the ADL's San Francisco director said Bullock "still does various assignments for us but not on an undercover basis."[^34]
A civil action filed in April 1993 by 17 individuals under California Civil Code section 1798.53, which provides a damages action against the intentional disclosure of information known to have been obtained from government records, alleged that the defendants gathered and disclosed information about the plaintiffs because of their opposition to the apartheid policy of the South African government or to Israeli policies toward the Palestinians. Bullock, the ADL, Hirschhaut and Gerard were defendants, and [[Audrey Shabbas]] appeared in propria persona for the plaintiffs.[^35] In its November 16, 1998 decision the California Court of Appeal held that the ADL and Bullock, as journalists, were protected by the First Amendment as to all but one and possibly two of the plaintiffs, who were limited-purpose public figures, but not as to the remaining nonpublic plaintiff or plaintiffs. It held that the journalist's privilege would not protect discovery into whether nonpublic information was privately disclosed to a foreign government, because that use is not journalism, and it vacated the discovery order.[^35] The case ended in February 2002 when the ADL agreed to pay $178,000 to the three remaining plaintiffs. The plaintiffs' attorney was former Representative Pete McCloskey. A San Francisco Superior Court judge had dismissed two plaintiffs the preceding July but not a third, who claimed the ADL had obtained his Social Security number "for non-journalistic purposes."[^36][^37]
A federal class action filed in Los Angeles in 1993 by the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, the [[American Indian Movement]], the [[National Lawyers Guild]], the National Conference of Black Lawyers, the Palestine Solidarity Committee, the Bay Area Anti-Apartheid Network and other groups alleged that the ADL had hired intelligence agents with police ties to run a private national intelligence operation. A tentative settlement in 1996 provided for $175,000 toward legal fees, a $25,000 community-relations fund and an injunction against obtaining information from California government employees the ADL knew or should have known were barred from disclosing it. The final settlement, reached in September 1999, added a purge of arrest records, Social Security numbers and similar data from ADL files on the plaintiffs, supervised by a referee, with the removed data held for six years and then destroyed.[^38][^39] In May 1999 the City of San Francisco separately settled the claim that its police had given the ADL confidential law-enforcement information, agreeing to revise the police department's investigation orders and to pay $47,500 in legal fees.[^29] The ACLU of Northern California records that San Francisco settled a National Lawyers Guild suit over the Gerard scandal in 1999 by making its intelligence guidelines enforceable through a court decree.[^27]
### Quigley v. Rosenthal
The Quigleys, William and Dorothy Quigley, were residents of [[Evergreen, Colorado]], a suburb in the foothills west of [[Denver]].[^40] In October 1994 a neighboring couple, after a dispute with the Quigleys, contacted the ADL's Denver office, which referred them to a Denver criminal-defense attorney who volunteered for and sat on the local board. The neighbors had been recording the Quigleys' cordless telephone conversations, which they overheard with a police scanner, and delivered copies to an assistant district attorney. The attorneys filed a federal complaint on the neighbors' behalf on December 6, 1994, quoting snippets of the recordings.[^40]
The ADL's Denver director, [[Saul Rosenthal]], held a press conference at the ADL office on December 7, 1994 and appeared the same day on the Greg Dobbs radio program.[^40] On January 6, 1995 Rosenthal sent a memo to the Denver office's associate director directing that the office "[m]ake hay while the sun shines," alert the [[Intermountain Jewish News]], and keep the ADL's New York and Los Angeles offices informed.[^40] On January 20, 1995 the district attorney's office dismissed all charges against the Quigleys except one against Mr. Quigley. The Quigleys later sued the district attorney, and that suit settled in the fall of 1995 with two published letters of apology.[^40]
The Quigleys' settlement with the neighbors and their attorneys on February 20, 1998 did not include their claims against the ADL or Rosenthal. The ADL reimbursed the attorneys for the full amount of their malpractice deductibles.[^40]
In April 2000 the case went to a jury in the [[United States District Court for the District of Colorado]].[^42] On April 28, 2000 the jury found for the Quigleys on five claims: defamation against Rosenthal and the ADL over the press conference, defamation over the radio appearance, false light invasion of privacy, invasion of privacy by intrusion against the ADL, and a violation of the [[Federal Wiretap Act]] against the ADL for its use of the intercepted calls. The itemized awards total $10.5 million, including $5,000,000 and $2,500,000 in federal punitive damages against the ADL. The district court reduced the compensatory awards by $175,000 to reflect the settlement with the attorneys and reduced Mrs. Quigley's state punitive award to $325,000.[^40][^43]
The Tenth Circuit decided the appeal on April 22, 2003. It reversed the intrusion and false-light judgments, with no effect on the damages, and affirmed the rest. The majority held that the evidence supported treating the attorneys as agents of the ADL. Circuit Judge Hartz concurred in part and dissented in part: he would have reversed the defamation verdict because the jury was not instructed that malice was required, and would have reversed the federal punitive award because the jury was told the ADL was presumed to know the Wiretap Act.[^40] The Supreme Court denied certiorari on March 1, 2004, and the parties advised the district court on March 11, 2004 that the judgment had been fully satisfied. The Quigleys then sought about $6.4 million in fees and costs; the district court denied the request as untimely, and on October 17, 2005 the Tenth Circuit affirmed.[^43]
### Intelligence-community and FBI relations, 1982 to 2025
[[William J. Casey]], Director of Central Intelligence, addressed an ADL appeal dinner honoring James A. Finkelstein at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York on June 3, 1982.[^14] A July 1984 State Department cable copied to the CIA's legislative liaison office reports that ADL officers were organizing a group of 20 to 25 Black and Jewish community representatives for a September 1984 visit to Morocco and Israel, following an ADL visit to Morocco in December 1983 and January 1984 with a congressional delegation.[^15] [[William H. Webster]], then Director of Central Intelligence, addressed the ADL's national leadership conference in Washington on March 22, 1988, recalling earlier addresses to B'nai B'rith in Chicago in 1985 as FBI Director and to the ADL's annual meeting in New York in the late 1970s. In May 1988 a CIA staff memorandum recorded an invitation from the ADL's Washington director, David Brody, to keynote an ADL dinner in Los Angeles on June 23, 1988 and attached a letter of regret.[^16][^17]
In May 2017 FBI Director [[James Comey]] told an ADL conference: "For more than 100 years, you have advocated and fought for fairness and equality, for inclusion and acceptance."[^44] In early October 2025 the Associated Press reported that FBI Director [[Kash Patel]] had said in a statement that the bureau would end its relationship with the ADL, and then said it would sever its relationship with the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]], after complaints about both groups from some conservatives and allies of President [[Donald Trump]]. Patel wrote on X that Comey had "embedded FBI agents with" the ADL, "a group that ran disgraceful ops spying on Americans." Jonathan Greenblatt said in a statement that the ADL "has deep respect" for the FBI. The ADL announced the same week that it was discontinuing its Glossary of Extremism.[^44]
### Police exchanges with Israel
More than 1,000 people, mostly senior law-enforcement officials, have gone on police trips to Israel run by the ADL, the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs and the Georgia International Law Enforcement Exchange. The Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported in March 2022 that the ADL had considered ending its trips and decided not to. A June 9, 2020 memo to Greenblatt from George Selim, the ADL's senior vice president of programs, and Greg Ehrie, vice president for law enforcement and analysis, recommended ending the trips and said "we must ask ourselves difficult questions, like whether we are contributing to the problem" of police brutality by militarized forces in the United States. The memo put the cost of each trip at $115,000 and the staff cost at upward of $200,000 a year. The ADL paused the trips in 2019 and described the memo as a draft that was part of an internal review.[^45]
### Extremism reporting
The ADL's Center on Extremism reviewed the manifestos left by the two teenagers who attacked the Islamic Center of San Diego on May 18, 2026, killing three people, and reported on May 19, 2026 that they reflected several ideologies, most prominently white supremacist accelerationism and inceldom, along with Islamophobia and antisemitism.[^46] The Center's analysis of an August 12, 2024 stabbing attack in [[Eskişehir]], Turkey, found that the attacker was fueled by accelerationism and motivated by past mass killers, including white supremacists.[^47]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Friedman, Robert I. "The Enemy Within." *The Village Voice*, May 11, 1993.
[^2]: Cockburn, Alexander, and Ken Silverstein. *Washington Babylon*. Verso, 1996.
[^1]: "Events in 5674: United States," *The American Jewish Year Book*, vol. 16 (5675, 1914-15), p. 145 (entry "14. At Chicago, Ill., Anti-Defamation League founded by Independent Order B'nai B'rith, to eliminate, as far as possible, publication of literature prejudicial to the repute of the Jews," listed under November 1913). https://archive.org/details/americanjewishye0016unse
[^2]: Anti-Defamation League, "About ADL," archived 2022 ("Founded in 1913, its timeless mission is 'to stop the defamation of the Jewish people and to secure justice and fair treatment to all'"). https://web.archive.org/web/2022/https://www.adl.org/about-adl
[^3]: ProPublica, "Anti-defamation League," Nonprofit Explorer, EIN 13-1818723 (address 605 Third Avenue, New York; tax exemption ruling June 1948). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/131818723
[^4]: Testimony of Henry B. Allen, August 24, 1939, *Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States*, Hearings before a Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 76th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 6, pp. 4100-4102. https://archive.org/details/HCUAInvestigationOfUnAmericanPropagandaActivitiesInTheU.S.Vol.6
[^5]: FBI memorandum, Jones to Nichols, "Arnold Forster, aka Arnold Fastenberg," February 3, 1950, FBI headquarters file 100-367944, released under FOIA. https://archive.org/details/forster-arnold-hq-100-367944
[^6]: FBI memorandum, Jones to Nichols, February 3, 1950, sections III ("The Aleksy Pelypenko Matter") and IV ("Rumor That ADL Investigates for the FBI"), FBI file 100-367944. https://archive.org/details/forster-arnold-hq-100-367944
[^7]: R. H. Hillenkoetter to Arnold Forster, May 13, 1948, with file note quoting Forster's letter of May 11, 1948, CIA-RDP80R01731R001300130057-6, CIA Reading Room. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001300130057-6
[^8]: FBI memorandum, Jones to Nichols, February 3, 1950, section II ("Bureau Contact with Forster") and biographical section, FBI file 100-367944. https://archive.org/details/forster-arnold-hq-100-367944
[^9]: SAC, New York, to Director, FBI, "Mr. Arnold Forster, Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, Research (Crime Records)," February 19, 1957 (New York file 62-6755), in FBI file 100-367944. https://archive.org/details/forster-arnold-hq-100-367944
[^10]: FBI memorandum to Mr. Mohr (C. D. DeLoach), 1962, subject Arnold Forster, Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, FBI file 100-367944. https://archive.org/details/forster-arnold-hq-100-367944
[^11]: J. Edgar Hoover to SAC, Washington Field, "Irwin J. Suall, Special Inquiry, State Department, Voice of America," February 8, 1951, and report synopsis, FBI headquarters file 123-8550, released under FOIA. https://archive.org/details/suall-irwin-j.-hq-123-8550
[^12]: University of Kansas Libraries, Laird M. Wilcox Papers (RH WL MS 1), Box 31, Folder 29, "Miscellaneous Federal Bureau of Investigation files on the Anti-Defamation League, 1942, 1944, 1954, 1970." https://archives.lib.ku.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/379026
[^13]: University of Kansas Libraries, Laird M. Wilcox Papers (RH WL MS 1), Box 31, Folder 12, "Anti-Defamation League collaboration with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1974, 1979, 1985, 1987-1989." https://archives.lib.ku.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/379009
[^14]: "Remarks of William J. Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, at Anti-Defamation League Appeal Dinner Honoring James A. Finkelstein, Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, New York City, June 3, 1982," CIA Reading Room document 0001446213. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001446213
[^15]: State Department cable 195996, "Visit - ADL Mission," July 4, 1984, to the embassies in Rabat and Tel Aviv, CIA Office of Legislative Liaison incoming copy, CIA-RDP90B01370R000801050032-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90b01370r000801050032-3
[^16]: William H. Webster, "Remarks at Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith," Washington, March 22, 1988, CIA-RDP99-00777R000302110002-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00777r000302110002-6
[^17]: CIA memorandum and letter of regret, "Speaking Invitation, Anti-Defamation League (ADL) of B'nai B'rith, Los Angeles, California, 23 June 1988," May 1988, CIA-RDP90G01353R001900090004-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90g01353r001900090004-3
[^18]: "ADL names White House aide as Foxman's successor," *Jewish Ledger* (JNS), November 2014. https://www.jewishledger.com/2014/11/adl-names-white-house-aide-as-foxmans-successor/
[^19]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, filings series for EIN 13-1818723 (tax years 2011 and 2022: total revenue, functional expenses, total assets, compensation of current officers). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/131818723.json
[^20]: U.S. Senate Lobbying Disclosure Act database, registrant Anti-Defamation League (ID 4072), quarterly reports for 2022 through the second quarter of 2026. https://lda.gov/api/v1/filings/?registrant_name=anti-defamation
[^21]: American Civil Liberties Union of Northern California, "SFPD Intelligence-Gathering Practices and Reforms: An Abbreviated History," entries for 1990 and 1993. https://www.aclunc.org/sites/default/files/asset_upload_file321_10599.pdf
[^22]: "New Details of Extensive ADL Spy Operation Emerge," *Los Angeles Times*, April 13, 1993. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-04-13-mn-22383-story.html
[^23]: "Infiltrated 30 Groups, ADL Figure Says," *Los Angeles Times*, April 21, 1993. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-04-21-mn-25487-story.html
[^24]: Bob Drogin, "Ex-Spy Threatens CIA Scandal," *Los Angeles Times*, April 27, 1993. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-04-27-mn-27930-story.html
[^25]: Mark Ames, "The Kings of Garbage, or, The ADL Spied on Me and All I Got Was This Lousy Index Card," *Pacific Standard*, March 10, 2014. https://psmag.com/news/kings-garbage-76228/
[^26]: Al Miskin, "ADL's Spy Ring," *Middle East Research and Information Project*, July 22, 1993. https://www.merip.org/adls-spy-ring/
[^27]: American Civil Liberties Union of Northern California, "SFPD Intelligence-Gathering Practices and Reforms: An Abbreviated History," entries for 1994 and 1999. https://www.aclunc.org/sites/default/files/asset_upload_file321_10599.pdf
[^28]: Robert I. Friedman, "The Enemy Within," *The Village Voice*, May 11, 1993.
[^29]: Seth Rosenfeld, "B'nai B'rith spy case deal near," *San Francisco Chronicle*, May 11, 1999. https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/b-nai-b-rith-spy-case-deal-near-3084067.php
[^30]: "ADL payout finally lays 9-year-old lawsuit to rest," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 26, 2002 (Gerard "pleaded guilty to a lesser count of illegally accessing a computer," sentenced to three years probation, a $25,000 fine and a 45-day jail term to be served on a sheriff's work detail). https://www.jta.org/?p=408911
[^31]: Alexander Cockburn and Ken Silverstein, *Washington Babylon* (London: Verso, 1996).
[^32]: "ADL Settles California Case over Collecting Information," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, November 17, 1993. https://jta.org/archive/adl-settles-california-case-over-collecting-information
[^33]: "ADL payout finally lays 9-year-old lawsuit to rest," *J. The Jewish News of Northern California*, February 22, 2002. https://jweekly.com/2002/02/22/adl-payout-finally-lays-9-year-old-lawsuit-to-rest/
[^34]: "ADL settles with plaintiffs of 1993 spying lawsuit," *J. The Jewish News of Northern California*, September 6, 1996. https://jweekly.com/1996/09/06/adl-settles-with-plaintiffs-of-1993-spying-lawsuit/
[^35]: *Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith v. Superior Court*, 67 Cal. App. 4th 1072, 79 Cal. Rptr. 2d 597 (Cal. Ct. App. 1998) (No. A080694), Kline, P.J. https://static.case.law/cal-app-4th/67/cases/1072-01.json
[^36]: Bob Egelko, "Jewish defense group settles S.F. spying suit," *San Francisco Chronicle*, February 23, 2002. https://www.monabaker.org/?p=4314
[^37]: "ADL payout finally lays 9-year-old lawsuit to rest" (Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 26, 2002), citing the 1998 Court of Appeal decision and the 2001 Superior Court dismissals. https://www.jta.org/?p=408911
[^38]: "ADL to Pay $200,000 to Settle Suit Alleging Spying Activities," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, September 6, 1996. https://jta.org/archive/adl-to-pay-200000-to-settle-suit-alleging-spying-activities
[^39]: "ADL settles case with ethnic groups, ending six-year-old class-action lawsuit," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, September 28, 1999, https://www.jta.org/?p=405282; "ADL ready to settle 1993 class-action suit on spying," *J. The Jewish News of Northern California*, May 14, 1999, https://jweekly.com/1999/05/14/adl-ready-to-settle-1993-class-action-suit-on-spying/
[^40]: *Quigley v. Rosenthal*, 327 F.3d 1044 (10th Cir. 2003) (No. 01-1228), Briscoe, J., with Hartz, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part. https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2003/04/22/Quigley_vs._Rosenthal.pdf
[^41]: *Quigley v. Rosenthal*, 327 F.3d 1044 (10th Cir. 2003), affirming in part the judgment of the District of Colorado. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/163405/quigley-v-rosenthal/
[^42]: *Quigley v. Rosenthal*, 43 F. Supp. 2d 1163 (D. Colo. 1999) (Nos. 94-N-2782, 95-N-2916), caption and procedural history. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2423082/quigley-v-rosenthal/
[^43]: *Quigley v. Rosenthal*, 427 F.3d 1232 (10th Cir. 2005) (No. 04-1501), affirming denial of fees and nontaxable costs; certiorari denied, 540 U.S. 1229 (2004). https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2005/10/17/Quigley_vs._Rosenthal.pdf
[^44]: Associated Press, "FBI cuts ties with Southern Poverty Law Center, Anti-Defamation League following complaints," October 4, 2025. https://www.wbrc.com/2025/10/04/fbi-cuts-ties-with-southern-poverty-law-center-anti-defamation-league-following-complaints/
[^45]: Philissa Cramer, "The ADL considered scrapping its US police training trips to Israel but decided not to," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, March 18, 2022. https://www.jta.org/?p=1805687
[^46]: Anti-Defamation League Center on Extremism, "San Diego Mosque Shooters' Apparent Manifestos Reveal Anti-Muslim Extremism, Antisemitism, and Broader Extremist Ideology," May 19, 2026. https://www.adl.org/resources/article/san-diego-mosque-shooters-apparent-manifestos-reveal-anti-muslim-extremism
[^47]: Anti-Defamation League Center on Extremism, "Turkey Attacker Inspired by Accelerationism and Mass Killers, Manifesto Shows," August 16, 2024. https://www.adl.org/resources/article/turkey-attacker-inspired-accelerationism-and-mass-killers-manifesto-shows

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category: "Private Organization"
aliases:
- "Forbes Media"
- "Forbes Media LLC"
- "Forbes magazine"
- "Forbes Global Media Holdings"
- "Forbes Global Holdings"
- "Forbes Global"
tags:
- Organization
- Media
- Business
- Publishing
- HongKong
summary: "American business magazine whose owners sold a majority stake in 2014 to Integrated Whale Media Investments, a Hong Kong group, which in 2023 terminated a deal to sell it to Austin Russell."
- SPAC
- Forbes400
- BoardForInternationalBroadcasting
summary: "American business magazine founded in 1917 by B.C. Forbes, whose owners sold a majority stake in 2014 to a Hong Kong group, and whose 2021 SPAC merger and 2023 sale to Austin Russell both collapsed."
location: "New York City, New York, USA"
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[B.C. Forbes]]"
reverse: true
start: 1917
fn: 1
- type: founded
with: "[[Walter Drey]]"
reverse: true
start: 1917
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Steve Forbes]]"
reverse: true
role: "chairman, chief executive and editor-in-chief"
start: 1990
fn: 15
- type: owned
with: "[[Integrated Whale Media Investments]]"
reverse: true
start: 2014
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: owned
with: "[[Elevation Partners]]"
reverse: true
end: 2014
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Steve Forbes]]"
reverse: true
role: "chairman and editor-in-chief"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Magnum Opus Acquisition Limited]]"
start: 2021
end: 2022
fn: 22
created: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-10-14
---
Forbes is an American business magazine and media company published by Forbes Media LLC. [[Steve Forbes]] is its chairman and editor-in-chief.[^1]
Forbes is an American business magazine and media company published by Forbes Media LLC in [[New York City]]. [[B.C. Forbes]] founded the magazine in 1917 with [[Walter Drey]].[^1][^2] [[Steve Forbes]] was its chairman and editor-in-chief at the time of the 2014 sale of a majority stake, and the company's announcement said he would continue in that role.[^3]
### Founding and the Forbes family
B.C. Forbes went to work for the [[Journal of Commerce]] in New York City in 1904, and [[William Randolph Hearst]] hired him in 1911 as a business and financial columnist and editor for the [[New York American]].[^4] Walter Drey, general manager of the [[Magazine of Wall Street]], was his partner. Forbes supplied the money and the name, and Drey supplied the publishing expertise.[^5] The magazine began as a bimonthly first planned under the name "Doers and Doings" and was published as Forbes. Drey became vice president of the [[B.C. Forbes Publishing Company]], and B.C. Forbes served as editor-in-chief until his death in 1954.[^6]
B.C. Forbes married Adelaide Stevenson in 1915, and the couple had five sons. In his later years he was assisted by his two eldest, [[Bruce Charles Forbes]] (1916-1964) and [[Malcolm Forbes]] (Malcolm Stevenson Forbes, 1917-1990).[^7] Steve Forbes was born on July 18, 1947, in Morristown, New Jersey, and graduated from Princeton in 1970; the White House nomination papers of 1983 to 1990 give the same birth date, birthplace and degree for Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr.[^8]
### Board for International Broadcasting
The [[Board for International Broadcasting]] oversaw [[Radio Free Europe]] and [[Radio Liberty]]. The presidential announcements concerning its membership name Steve Forbes as Malcolm Forbes, Jr., and give his birth date as July 18, 1947.
On May 16, 1983, the White House announced the intention to nominate Malcolm Forbes, Jr. to the board for a term expiring April 28, 1986, succeeding [[Mark Goode]]. The announcement described him as president of Forbes Magazine in New York City and listed his birth date as July 18, 1947. The same announcement named four other nominees: [[Clair W. Burgener]], a former congressman from [[California]]; [[Lane Kirkland]] (Joseph Lane Kirkland), president of the [[AFL-CIO]]; [[Arch L. Madsen]], president of [[Bonneville International]]; and the writer [[James A. Michener]] (James Albert Michener).[^9] [[Thomas F. Ellis]], the North Carolina lawyer who ran [[Jesse Helms]]'s political organization, had been nominated to the same board on February 8, 1983, and asked to be withdrawn on July 28, 1983, two days after a [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] hearing on his nomination.[^10]
A White House announcement of September 16, 1985 stated the President's intention to designate Malcolm Forbes, Jr. as chairman of the board, noted that he had served as a member since September 23, 1983, and said that he would succeed [[Frank Shakespeare]].[^11] On January 22, 1987, the President announced the intention to renominate him for a term expiring April 28, 1989 and, on confirmation, to redesignate him as chairman. That announcement described him as president and chief operating officer of Forbes, Inc., a graduate of [[Princeton University]] (B.A., 1970), born July 18, 1947, in Morristown.[^12]
On January 4, 1990, during the presidency of [[George H. W. Bush]], the White House announced the intention to nominate Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr. to the board for a term expiring April 28, 1992 and, on confirmation, to designate him chairman. The announcement described him as president and chief operating officer of Forbes, Inc. and deputy editor in chief of Forbes magazine, formerly vice president and secretary of Forbes, Inc., and listed service in the New Jersey National Guard in 1970.[^13] On June 19, 1992 the White House announced the intention to nominate Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., of New Jersey, for a term expiring April 28, 1995. The announcement stated: "Since 1985, Mr. Forbes has served as Chairman of the Board for International Broadcasting," and described him as editor-in-chief, president and chief executive officer of Forbes, Inc. and Forbes magazine.[^14]
The [[Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation]] biography of Steve Forbes states that in 1985 President [[Ronald Reagan]] named him chairman of the "bi-partisan Board for International Broadcasting," that in this position he oversaw the operation of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, that President Bush reappointed him, and that he served until 1993. The same biography states that he assumed the chief executive position at Forbes in 1990.[^15] His father, Malcolm Forbes, died in 1990.[^7]
### The Forbes 400 and the John Barron call
[[Jonathan Greenberg]], a former Forbes reporter, wrote that Malcolm Forbes conceived the Forbes 400 in 1981 and assigned him to travel the country for a year interviewing wealthy people and those who worked with them. The first list appeared in 1982 and included [[Donald Trump]] at $100 million; Greenberg wrote that Trump was worth roughly $5 million at the time, citing government reports and books that appeared much later.[^16] Greenberg wrote that the 1982 family estimate of $200 million, with Donald Trump and his father [[Fred Trump]] each credited half, rested on Trump's account of the family's apartments in Brooklyn, Queens and Staten Island, and that the 1983 list carried $200 million for each of them. He wrote that [[Roy Cohn]] telephoned him at his Forbes desk in the summer of 1982, said he was looking at Trump's bank statement, and refused to produce it, and that Cohn telephoned again in 1983 to say Trump was worth more than $700 million.[^17]
In an opinion piece published April 20, 2018, Greenberg wrote that in May 1984 a caller from the Trump Organization identifying himself as "John Barron" telephoned him while he was reporting for the Forbes 400. Greenberg wrote that "Barron" said Trump had taken possession of the business he ran with his father, quoting him as saying "Most of the assets have been consolidated to Mr. Trump" and that Trump held "in excess of 90 percent" of the family business. The piece includes audio of a call captioned May 17, 1984. Greenberg wrote that he listened to the tapes again decades later and concluded the caller was Trump, and that Forbes raised Trump's estimate to $400 million in 1984, to $600 million in 1985, when his father was dropped from the list, and to $1.7 billion in 1989 after Trump sent a Forbes reporter a statement of a $3.7 billion net worth. He wrote that the magazine removed Trump from the list in 1990 and kept him off for five years.[^18]
The [[Washington Post]] reported in May 2016 that Trump had posed as "John Miller" and "John Barron" in calls to reporters. On NBC's TODAY show that month Trump denied it: "It was not me on the phone. And it doesn't sound like me on the phone, I will tell you that." NBC reported that in a 1990 court case Trump testified, "I believe on occasion I used that [John Barron] name," and quoted a Newsday article of July 13, 1990 stating that Trump acknowledged using the alias "John Baron."[^19]
### Sale to Integrated Whale Media
On July 18, 2014 Forbes Media announced that a group of international investors would buy a majority stake, that the Forbes family would keep "a significant ownership stake," and that the private equity firm [[Elevation Partners]] would "fully exit its investment." Terms were not disclosed. The buyer, the newly formed [[Hong Kong]] group [[Integrated Whale Media Investments]] (IWM), was led by [[Integrated Asset Management]] (Asia) Limited, founded by [[Tak Cheung Yam]]; another significant investor was [[Wayne Hsieh]], co-founder of [[ASUSTeK Computer]], based in [[Singapore]]. Yam said: "As more market-based economies emerge globally, interest in the information that Forbes provides and the message it delivers resonates with a growing audience."[^1]
On July 18, 2014, Forbes Media announced an agreement under which "a group of international investors will purchase a majority stake in the company." The Forbes family would "retain a significant ownership stake," and the private equity firm [[Elevation Partners]] would "fully exit its investment." The terms were not disclosed.[^3] The buyer was [[Integrated Whale Media Investments]] (IWM), a newly formed [[Hong Kong]] investor group led by [[Integrated Asset Management]] (Asia) Limited. The announcement identified [[Wayne Hsieh]], co-founder of [[ASUSTeK Computer]] and based in [[Singapore]], as another significant investor in IWM.[^20]
### Austin Russell bid
Integrated Asset Management was founded by [[Tak Cheung Yam]], who was quoted in the announcement: "As more market-based economies emerge globally, interest in the information that Forbes provides and the message it delivers resonates with a growing audience."[^20] The announcement said that Steve Forbes would continue as chairman and editor-in-chief and that [[Mike Perlis]] would continue as president and chief executive.[^20]
In May 2023 [[Austin Russell]], founder and chief executive of [[Luminar Technologies]], whom Forbes had named the "world's youngest self-made billionaire" in 2021, agreed to buy 82 percent of Forbes Global Media Holdings at a valuation of nearly 800 million dollars. He missed the November 1, 2023 closing deadline, and on November 21 IWM terminated the agreement. *[[TechCrunch]]* reported that investors including India's [[Sun Group]], whose vice chairman [[Shiv Khemka]] had "committed to invest $300 million," "didn't wire the money they were contractually obligated to."[^2]
A later SEC proxy statement describes the structure: Forbes Global Holdings Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of Integrated Whale Media Investment Inc. (IWM), held 95 percent of the share capital of Forbes Global Media Holdings, Inc., and Highlander Management LLC held the other 5 percent. On July 16, 2014, two days before the announcement, Forbes Media, LLC entered into a Services Agreement with Highlander Management Co. of NY, Inc., a subsidiary of Highlander, under which members of the Forbes family agreed to attend board meetings and company events and provide other services; the agreement was amended on November 30, 2018. A Settlement Agreement dated November 26, 2016 among IWM, Forbes Global Holdings, Forbes Global Media Holdings, Highlander Management LLC, Forbes Media Holdings LLC and Forbes Financial Services LLC terminated a shareholders agreement between IWM and Highlander, with the tag-along, drag-along, preemptive and information rights surviving. The Services Agreement and a second amendment drafted in August 2021 provided Highlander an annual fee of $1 million and travel reimbursement of up to $250,000.[^21]
### Magnum Opus Acquisition, 2021 to 2022
[[Magnum Opus Acquisition Limited]], a Cayman Islands blank check company, completed its initial public offering on March 25, 2021. Its chief executive, [[Jonathan Lin]], met representatives of IWM, described in the proxy statement as the majority shareholder of Forbes, on March 27, 2021, and the company signed a nondisclosure agreement with Forbes on March 30, 2021. The company's proxy statement states that it reviewed 21 acquisition opportunities before Forbes.[^21]
On August 26, 2021, Magnum Opus, whose shares were listed on the [[New York Stock Exchange]] under the symbol OPA and whose principal executive offices were in Hong Kong, signed a business combination agreement with Integrated Whale Media Investment Inc., Highlander Management LLC, Forbes Global Holdings Inc. and Forbes Global Media Holdings, Inc. The aggregate consideration was valued at $620,000,000, subject to adjustments for cash and indebtedness. Closing required that trust account cash and PIPE investments total at least $400,000,000. The PIPE was an agreement to buy 40,000,000 Class A shares at $10.00 per share, for gross proceeds of $400,000,000.[^22]
On February 10, 2022, Forbes announced a $200 million strategic investment from [[Binance]], through Binance's assumption of subscription agreements representing $200 million of commitments in the existing $400 million PIPE, and said that the combination was expected to close in the first quarter of 2022.[^23] On March 28, 2022, the parties extended the termination date to May 31, 2022. On June 1, 2022, IWM, acting as shareholders' representative, notified Magnum Opus that it was terminating the business combination agreement, and the related agreements were terminated the same day.[^24] On September 29, 2022, Magnum Opus signed a merger agreement with Asia Innovations Group Limited.[^25]
### Austin Russell bid, 2023
On May 12, 2023, Forbes announced that [[Austin Russell]], founder and chief executive of [[Luminar Technologies]], would acquire an 82 percent stake in Forbes Global Media Holdings in a deal valuing the company at close to $800 million. IWM would keep a minority stake and one board seat, the Forbes family would not keep a stake, Steve Forbes would remain involved, and Russell would not be involved in day-to-day operations.[^1] Forbes had described Russell in 2021 as the world's youngest self-made billionaire.[^26] The [[Wall Street Journal]] reported Russell's statement: "Forbes is something I had always looked up to as a brand and as a media empire."[^27]
The closing was set for November 1, 2023. [[Axios]] reported that the deal fell apart after the Indian investment firm [[Sun Group]] and others did not wire money they were contractually obligated to, and that Sun Group vice chair [[Shiv Khemka]] had reportedly committed to invest $300 million.[^26] [[Bloomberg]] was the first to report the termination, citing an internal memo from Forbes chief executive [[Michael Federle]]. On November 21, 2023, IWM terminated the agreement after Russell failed to secure the investor group needed to close. TechCrunch reported that Russell had been granted an extension to the deadline. A statement from Russell's family office read: "The Forbes acquisition was all about impact, and to further the philosophy of business-for-good and philanthropy with the next generation of capitalism." According to sources familiar with the deal, an updated agreement sent to the Russell side contained terms for the investor group that were described as untenable.[^26] According to the Washington Post, IWM said it was terminating its agreement after the buyer, a group led by Russell, "couldn't deliver on closing." The sale had drawn criticism on Capitol Hill and scrutiny by the [[Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States]] over possible foreign involvement.[^28]
Luminar's annual report for 2023 stated that Russell held all of its Class B common stock and approximately 75.4 percent of its voting power as of December 31, 2023.[^29] On May 14, 2025, Luminar announced that Russell had resigned as president, chief executive and chairperson of the board, effective immediately, following a Code of Business Conduct and Ethics inquiry by the board's Audit Committee.[^30]
### Reporting on Palantir, ICONIQ and Epstein
[[Andy Greenberg]]'s August 14, 2013 article, headlined "How A 'Deviant' Philosopher Built Palantir, A CIA-Funded Data-Mining Juggernaut," described the customers of [[Palantir Technologies]] as including "the NSA, the FBI and the CIA," and said that the CIA was "an early investor through its In-Q-Tel venture fund."[^31]
Brian Solomon's December 1, 2014 profile of [[Divesh Makan]], then 41, said that Makan had "turned his otherwise run-of-the-mill registered investment advisory into an exclusive members-only Silicon Valley billionaires club" through [[ICONIQ Capital]].[^32]
Forbes reported in February 2026 (Thomas Brewster) that [[Ehud Barak]] helped [[Jeffrey Epstein]] invest approximately one million dollars in [[Reporty]] in 2015, an investment that could have grown to be worth up to one hundred million dollars. Reporty later renamed itself [[Carbyne]].[^33]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Forbes Corporate Communications. "Forbes Media Agrees To Sell Majority Stake To A Group Of International Investors To Accelerate The Company's Global Growth." *Forbes,* July 18, 2014. http://web.archive.org/web/20140718220248/http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbespr/2014/07/18/forbes-media-agrees-to-sell-majority-stake-to-a-group-of-international-investors-to-accelerate-the-companys-global-growth/
[^2]: "Tech CEO Austin Russell's bid to buy Forbes fails." *TechCrunch,* November 21, 2023. https://techcrunch.com/2023/11/21/tech-ceo-austin-russells-bid-to-buy-forbes-fails/
[^1]: Palmeri, Christopher, "Forbes magazine's new majority owner is a 28-year-old billionaire who made his money in self-driving car tech," Fortune (Bloomberg), May 12, 2023 (founding in 1917 by B.C. Forbes; Russell's 82 percent stake and valuation close to $800 million; IWM minority stake and board seat; the Forbes family out; Steve Forbes remaining involved; Russell's role). https://fortune.com/2023/05/12/forbes-austin-russell-acquisition-majority-stake/
[^2]: Clan Forbes Society, "B.C. Forbes, Magazine and Media Founder, 1880-1954," account of the partnership with Walter Drey and the magazine. https://www.clan-forbes.org/bc-forbes
[^3]: Forbes Media LLC, "Forbes Media Agrees To Sell Majority Stake To A Group Of International Investors To Accelerate The Company's Global Growth," press release, July 18, 2014 (archived), on the investor group, the Forbes family stake, the Elevation Partners exit, the undisclosed terms, and Steve Forbes and Mike Perlis continuing in their posts. http://web.archive.org/web/20140718220248/http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbespr/2014/07/18/forbes-media-agrees-to-sell-majority-stake-to-a-group-of-international-investors-to-accelerate-the-companys-global-growth/
[^4]: Clan Forbes Society, "B.C. Forbes," account of his 1904 move to New York City and his 1911 hiring by Hearst. https://www.clan-forbes.org/bc-forbes
[^5]: Clan Forbes Society, "B.C. Forbes," account of the partnership with Walter Drey, general manager of the Magazine of Wall Street, and the division of money and publishing expertise. https://www.clan-forbes.org/bc-forbes
[^6]: Clan Forbes Society, "B.C. Forbes," account of "Doers and Doings," the bimonthly format, Drey's vice presidency and B.C. Forbes's editorship until 1954. https://www.clan-forbes.org/bc-forbes
[^7]: Clan Forbes Society, "B.C. Forbes," account of the 1915 marriage, the five sons, and the assistance of Bruce Charles Forbes (1916-1964) and Malcolm Stevenson Forbes (1917-1990). https://www.clan-forbes.org/bc-forbes
[^8]: Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation and Institute, "Steve Forbes," Board of Trustees biography, https://www.reaganfoundation.org/about-us/board-of-trustees/steve-forbes ; George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564
[^9]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of Five Members of the Board for International Broadcasting," May 16, 1983, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/262151
[^10]: United Press International, dispatch on the withdrawal of Thomas Ellis, Washington, July 28, 1983; United States Senate, nomination PN59-1, Thomas F. Ellis, Board for International Broadcasting, 98th Congress. https://www.congress.gov/nomination/98th-congress/59/1
[^11]: Ronald Reagan, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," September 16, 1985, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/390622
[^12]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of Malcolm Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 22, 1987, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/252829
[^13]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564
[^14]: George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789
[^15]: Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation and Institute, "Steve Forbes," Board of Trustees biography. https://www.reaganfoundation.org/about-us/board-of-trustees/steve-forbes
[^16]: Greenberg, Jonathan, "Trump lied to me about his wealth to get onto the Forbes 400. Here are the tapes," Washington Post, April 20, 2018 (archived July 19, 2025), on the origin of the Forbes 400 in 1981, the 1982 listing at $100 million and the estimate of roughly $5 million. http://web.archive.org/web/20250719020416/https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/trump-lied-to-me-about-his-wealth-to-get-onto-the-forbes-400-here-are-the-tapes/2018/04/20/ac762b08-4287-11e8-8569-26fda6b404c7_story.html
[^17]: Greenberg, Jonathan, Washington Post, April 20, 2018 (archived), on the 1982 and 1983 interviews and the telephone calls from Roy Cohn. http://web.archive.org/web/20250719020416/https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/trump-lied-to-me-about-his-wealth-to-get-onto-the-forbes-400-here-are-the-tapes/2018/04/20/ac762b08-4287-11e8-8569-26fda6b404c7_story.html
[^18]: Greenberg, Jonathan, Washington Post, April 20, 2018 (archived), on the May 1984 calls from "John Barron," the audio captioned May 17, 1984, and the estimates of 1984, 1985, 1989 and 1990. http://web.archive.org/web/20250719020416/https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/trump-lied-to-me-about-his-wealth-to-get-onto-the-forbes-400-here-are-the-tapes/2018/04/20/ac762b08-4287-11e8-8569-26fda6b404c7_story.html
[^19]: Rafferty, Andrew, "Trump Denies Posing as His Own Spokesman, Including in 1991 Interview," NBC News, May 13, 2016, on the Washington Post's report of the Miller and Barron names, Trump's denial on TODAY, his 1990 testimony, and the Newsday report of July 13, 1990. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/amp/ncna573766
[^20]: Forbes Media LLC, press release, July 18, 2014 (archived), paragraphs on Integrated Whale Media Investments, Integrated Asset Management, Tak Cheung Yam and Wayne Hsieh. http://web.archive.org/web/20140718220248/http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbespr/2014/07/18/forbes-media-agrees-to-sell-majority-stake-to-a-group-of-international-investors-to-accelerate-the-companys-global-growth/
[^21]: Magnum Opus Acquisition Limited, preliminary proxy statement (Form PRER14A), filed March 28, 2022, sections "Background of the Business Combination" and "Certain Relationships and Related Party Transactions - Forbes Services Agreement" and "Shareholders Agreement" (95 percent and 5 percent holdings; Services Agreement of July 16, 2014 and its 2018 and 2021 amendments; Settlement Agreement of November 26, 2016; meetings of March 27 and March 30, 2021). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1843121/000110465922038449/tm2132270-13_prer14a.htm
[^22]: Magnum Opus Acquisition Limited, Form 8-K, filed August 26, 2021, Item 1.01, business combination agreement among the company, IWM, Highlander Management LLC, Forbes Global Holdings Inc. and Forbes Global Media Holdings, Inc.; $620,000,000 aggregate consideration; PIPE of 40,000,000 Class A shares at $10.00 for $400,000,000; closing condition of $400,000,000 in combined cash. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1843121/000110465921109797/tm2125497d1_8k.htm
[^23]: Magnum Opus Acquisition Limited, Form 8-K, filed February 10, 2022, Exhibit 99.1, "Forbes Announces $200 Million Strategic Investment from Binance," February 10, 2022. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1843121/000110465922018267/tm226048d1_ex99-1.htm
[^24]: Magnum Opus Acquisition Limited, Form 8-K, filed June 1, 2022, Item 1.02, extension of the termination date to May 31, 2022 on March 28, 2022, and the termination notice from IWM and termination of the ancillary agreements on June 1, 2022. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1843121/000110465922066897/tm2217269d1_8k.htm
[^25]: Magnum Opus Acquisition Limited, Form 8-K, filed September 29, 2022, Item 1.01, Agreement and Plan of Merger with Asia Innovations Group Limited. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1843121/000110465922104201/tm2226813d1_8k.htm
[^26]: Korosec, Kirsten, "Tech CEO Austin Russell's bid to buy Forbes fails," TechCrunch, November 21, 2023, citing Axios and Bloomberg (November 1 closing date; Sun Group; Shiv Khemka; the memo from Michael Federle; the statement from Russell's family office; the updated agreement). https://techcrunch.com/2023/11/21/tech-ceo-austin-russells-bid-to-buy-forbes-fails/
[^27]: Loizos, Connie, "Austin Russell became the youngest self-made billionaire in 2021; now he owns Forbes," TechCrunch, May 12, 2023, quoting Russell's statement to the Wall Street Journal. https://techcrunch.com/2023/05/12/austin-russell-became-the-youngest-self-made-billionaire-in-2021-now-he-owns-forbes/
[^28]: Nieman Journalism Lab, "What We're Reading," November 22, 2023, summarizing Belton, Catherine, and Todd C. Frankel, "Deal to sell Forbes collapses after questions about funds and foreign influence," Washington Post. https://www.niemanlab.org/reading/deal-to-sell-forbes-collapses-after-questions-about-funds-and-foreign-influence/
[^29]: Luminar Technologies, Inc., Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2023, filed February 28, 2024, risk factor on control by the founder. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1758057/000162828024007616/lazr-20231231.htm
[^30]: Luminar Technologies, Inc., Form 8-K, filed May 15, 2025, Exhibit 99.1, "Luminar Announces Leadership Transition," May 14, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1758057/000162828025025599/exhibit991leadershiptransi.htm
[^31]: Greenberg, Andy, "How A 'Deviant' Philosopher Built Palantir, A CIA-Funded Data-Mining Juggernaut," Forbes, August 14, 2013 (archived). http://web.archive.org/web/20141228035702/http://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2013/08/14/agent-of-intelligence-how-a-deviant-philosopher-built-palantir-a-cia-funded-data-mining-juggernaut/
[^32]: Solomon, Brian, "The Spider Of Silicon Valley: Inside 'Zuck & Friends' Secret Billionaire Fund," Forbes, December 1, 2014 (archived). http://web.archive.org/web/20141201154053/http://www.forbes.com/sites/briansolomon/2014/12/01/the-spider-of-silicon-valley-inside-zuck-friends-secret-billionaire-fund/
[^33]: Brewster, Thomas. "Epstein Could Have Made $100 Million On A Secret Police Tech Investment With Ehud Barak." *Forbes,* February 10, 2026. https://www.forbes.com/sites/thomasbrewster/2026/02/10/epstein-police-surveillance-investments-with-ehud-barak/

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Johns Hopkins University.md
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@ -1,30 +1,195 @@
---
created: 2026-06-13
updated: 2026-06-13
updated: 2026-10-14
title: Johns Hopkins University
aliases:
- Johns Hopkins
- Johns Hopkins University
- JHU
tags:
- Organization
- Academic
- USA
- ColdWar
- Intelligence
- Bioethics
category: "Private Organization"
summary: "Johns Hopkins University is a Baltimore research university whose Army-funded Operations Research Office conducted classified psychological-warfare and counterinsurgency studies that prefigured Project Camelot."
start: 1876
location: "Baltimore, Maryland"
relations:
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[U.S. Army]]"
start: 1948
end: 1961
role: "Operations Research Office contract"
fn: 3
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[U.S. Navy]]"
role: "Applied Physics Laboratory, university affiliated research center sponsor"
fn: 6
- type: head_of
with: "[[Lincoln Gordon]]"
reverse: true
start: 1967
end: 1971
role: "President"
fn: 29
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Harold Abramson]]"
reverse: true
start: 1928
end: 1929
role: "instructor in medicine"
fn: 23
- type: employed_by
with: "[[John C. Whitehorn]]"
reverse: true
start: 1957
end: 1957
role: "chairman of the psychiatry department"
fn: 27
- type: funded
with: "[[Bloomberg Philanthropies]]"
reverse: true
start: 2018
role: "financial aid gifts of $1.8 billion (2018) and $1 billion (2024)"
fn: 40
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Event 201]]"
start: 2019
end: 2019
role: "host, Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security"
fn: 42
---
Johns Hopkins University is a private research university in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], founded in 1876 as the first American university built on the German research-university model. Its administration of large federal contract-research organizations made it an institutional hub for Cold War military and intelligence science.[^1]
Johns Hopkins University is a private research university in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], founded in 1876 as the first American university built on the German research-university model. Its administration of large federal contract-research organizations made it an institutional hub for Cold War military and intelligence science.[^1][^2]
### Operations Research Office
From 1948 the university operated the Operations Research Office (ORO) under [[U.S. Army]] contract, a classified body that conducted operations analysis during the [[Korean War]] and studies of psychological warfare and unconventional conflict. The Army terminated the Hopkins relationship in 1961 and reconstituted the work as the Research Analysis Corporation. The same lineage of Army-funded social science produced the Special Operations Research Office and its successor [[CRESS|SORO]], the unit that ran the controversial [[Project Camelot]] counterinsurgency study.[^1][^2]
From 1948 the university operated the [[Operations Research Office]] (ORO) under [[U.S. Army]] contract, a classified body that conducted operations analysis during the [[Korean War]] and studies of psychological warfare and unconventional conflict.[^1][^2] A 1995 history of federally funded research centers prepared by the [[Office of Technology Assessment]] records that ORO had been in existence for two years when the Korean War began in 1950, that its director [[Ellis A. Johnson]] personally led a team of four into the battle area, and that the contingent grew to eight teams of 40 analysts. Over 100 ORO staff, subcontractors and consultants worked in Japan and Korea, and 113 of them received the Korean Service Medal of the United Nations Command. The field work included evaluations of close air support, the use of indigenous manpower and the effectiveness of leaflets, and the author [[S. L. A. Marshall]] worked as an ORO consultant and wrote a primer of Chinese tactics that was distributed to platoon level in the Eighth Army.[^3]
The same history states that the Army's interest in psychological warfare in Korea led it to establish the [[Human Resources Research Office]] (HumRRO) in 1951 under a contract administered by [[George Washington University]], and that most of ORO's human factors work passed to HumRRO and later to the [[Special Operations Research Office]] (SORO). It describes SORO as formed in 1957 as a contract agency under [[The American University]] to specialize in what is now called low-intensity conflict or guerrilla warfare.[^3] SORO and its successor [[CRESS|SORO]] ran the controversial [[Project Camelot]] counterinsurgency study.[^1][^2]
The OTA history states that ORO was dissolved and a new organization established in June 1961, and that the change was made so that the Army could remove Johnson. According to that history, Johns Hopkins, ORO's administrative organization, was not willing to remove Johnson under Army pressure, and the two parties agreed to terminate the contract. The Army then established the [[Research Analysis Corporation]] (RAC); a new contract between the Army and RAC took effect on September 1, 1961, and ORO's research program, personnel, physical assets, leases and contracts for supplies and services transferred to it. The history adds that a senior ORO staff member quipped that RAC stood for "Relax and Cooperate."[^3]
### Applied Physics Laboratory
The university's [[Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory|Applied Physics Laboratory]], established in 1942 to develop the proximity fuze, became a major Navy research center and one of the largest university-affiliated defense laboratories in the United States.[^1]
The university's [[Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory|Applied Physics Laboratory]] (APL) was founded on March 10, 1942, three months after the United States entered the Second World War, as part of a federal effort to mobilize scientific resources for wartime problems. It was assigned the task of finding a more effective way for ships to defend themselves against enemy air attacks, and it designed, built and tested the radar proximity fuze known as the VT fuze.[^4] The laboratory describes the fuze as having been judged, along with the atomic bomb and radar, one of the three most valuable technology developments of the war, and states that the government, the university and APL then committed to continue their relationship, after which the laboratory became a major contributor to guided missiles and submarine technologies.[^4] APL became a major Navy research center and one of the largest university-affiliated defense laboratories in the United States.[^1]
APL describes itself as a not-for-profit university affiliated research center.[^5] Its 2025 description states that "APL's UARC sponsor is the U.S. Navy," and that each university affiliated research center has a primary sponsor and a primary contract that define the limits of competition.[^6] The same document says APL performs sponsored work for "the Intelligence Community," along with the DOW, NASA and other agencies.[^6]
The Terrier missile became operational aboard [[USS Boston]] in 1956. In 1957 two APL physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, developed a method of tracking satellites from the Doppler shift in the signals of the Soviet [[Sputnik]], and in 1958 APL invented the Doppler-based [[Transit]] satellite navigation system. APL designed, built, tested and operated numerous Transit satellites in the 1960s and 1970s; the system was fully operational in 1964 and improved the ability of U.S. submarines to determine their positions.[^7] In 1974 APL tested an engineering development model of the AN/SPY-1 radar for the [[Aegis combat system|Aegis]] system aboard USS Norton Sound, and in 1981 the guided-missile cruiser USS Ticonderoga became the first vessel with the Aegis combat system, with APL serving as technical advisor.[^8] APL also performed the Polaris flight-test analysis of 1957 and the Trident II accuracy evaluations of 1989.[^7][^8]
APL's Space Department developed a rotatable litter chair for weightlessness experiments on [[Skylab]] in 1973. APL built the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous spacecraft, launched on February 22, 1996, which became the first spacecraft to orbit an asteroid on reaching 433 Eros on February 14, 2000, and the MESSENGER spacecraft, launched on August 3, 2004, to orbit Mercury.[^9] The New Horizons spacecraft was designed and integrated at APL, launched on January 19, 2006, and flew past Pluto on July 14, 2015, with [[Alan Stern]] of the [[Southwest Research Institute]] as principal investigator.[^10] The Double Asteroid Redirection Test spacecraft, designed, developed and managed by APL for the [[NASA]] Planetary Defense Coordination Office, launched on November 24, 2021.[^9]
USAspending.gov records prime contract awards to the laboratory under the recipient name "The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory LLC" (unique entity identifier C1HBCJ9RMBV3). A spending-by-awarding-agency query for that identifier, contract award types A through D, with action dates from October 1, 2007 (the earliest date the database accepts) through September 30, 2026, run on October 14, 2026, returned $19,446,135,312.75 from the [[Department of Defense]] and $4,732,501,683.12 from NASA, with smaller totals from the Department of Homeland Security ($385,438,283.40) and the Department of Health and Human Services ($95,385,866.08).[^11]
One Department of the Air Force award in that database, delivery order FA868422F7013 under indefinite-delivery contract FA868420D7000, carries the description "NASIC FME" and a total obligation of $4,812,298. The record gives a date signed of November 21, 2021 and a period of performance from November 25, 2022 to April 30, 2026; the awarding office is AFLCMC HBKD of the Air Force, the solicitation procedure is recorded as "ONLY ONE SOURCE," and the stated authority is "MOBILIZATION, ESSENTIAL R&D (FAR 6.302-3)."[^12] The first action, on November 21, 2021, obligated $1,065,000, and later modifications through March 2025 added funding of $950,000, $70,000, $492,908, $742,392 and $1,491,998. The modification of February 15, 2024 carries the description "FORIEGN MATERIAL EXPLOITATION (FME) TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES (T2)" as spelled in the record, and the modification of July 9, 2024 is described as "JHU/APL PCB DR (NASIC) ADD-WORK."[^13]
Annie Jacobsen wrote that scientists from APL built an anechoic facility inside the [[Walter Reed Army Institute of Research]], under the direction of [[Richard S. Cesaro]], in which primates were irradiated with microwave beams at a power density similar to that of the [[Moscow Signal]].[^14] An ARPA memorandum of September 27, 1967, signed by Cesaro as acting director of advanced sensors, concerns a project designated BIZARRE.[^15] [[J. Allen Hynek]] was supervisor of technical reports at APL from 1942 to 1946.[^16] Thornton Page of Johns Hopkins University is among the signatories listed on the Durant memorandum concerning the [[Robertson Panel]].[^17]
### School of Advanced International Studies
The [[School of Advanced International Studies]] (SAIS) was founded in 1943 by [[Paul Nitze]] and [[Christian A. Herter]] along with other leading statesmen. The school became a division of Johns Hopkins in 1950, and in 1989 it was renamed for Nitze.[^18]
Among the school's alumni with intelligence careers is [[John E. McLaughlin]], who received his SAIS master's degree in 1966. In January 2005 the school announced that he had been appointed a senior fellow of the [[Merrill Center for Strategic Studies]]. The announcement recorded that he had been deputy director of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] since October 2000 and acting director from July to September 2004, and it credited him with founding the [[Sherman Kent School for Intelligence Analysis]].[^19]
Paul Linebarger of SAIS was one of eleven members of the [[Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel]] of 1955, which [[W. W. Rostow]] chaired.[^20] In June 2022 [[CNN]] reported that a Dutch intelligence agency had publicly identified a man who studied at SAIS under the name "Victor Muller" as [[Sergey Cherkasov]]. CNN described him as "alleged to be a Russian spy" and reported that he was known and liked by fellow students and faculty.[^21] [[Ben Buchanan]] became the Dmitri Alperovitch Assistant Professor at SAIS.[^22]
### MKULTRA
A CIA memorandum dated December 2, 1953, addressed to Colonel Edwards by the chief of the agency's SSD, concerns [[Harold Abramson]]. It describes him as a physician educated at [[Columbia University]] who had been chief of an allergy clinic at [[Mount Sinai Hospital]] in New York, and it records that he was an instructor in medicine at Johns Hopkins University from 1928 to 1929. The memorandum states: "Subject is a physician but not known as a psychiatrist."[^23] The document is among the [[Project MKUltra]] records in the CIA reading room.[^23]
The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources held a joint hearing on the program on August 3, 1977, titled "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's program of research in behavioral modification."[^24] In his opening statement Senator [[Edward M. Kennedy]] said of the records the CIA had located in March 1977: "Eighty-six universities or institutions were involved."[^25] [[Stansfield Turner]], the Director of Central Intelligence, stated in his prepared statement that the agency held "the names of 185 nongovernment researchers and assistants who are identified in the recovered material dealing with these 149 subprojects," and "names of 80 institutions," which "include 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundation or chemical or pharmaceutical companies or the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, in addition to those associated with the universities, and 3 penal institutions."[^26]
[[John Marks]] wrote that after the CIA severed the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]] from [[Cornell University]], the Society's board in 1957 included [[John C. Whitehorn|John Whitehorn]], chairman of the psychiatry department at Johns Hopkins University, together with [[Carl Rogers]] of the University of Wisconsin and [[Adolf A. Berle]]; Marks identified [[Harold G. Wolff]] and Lawrence Hinkle as the board's president and vice president.[^27] [[D. Ewen Cameron]] trained in psychiatry at the Phipps Clinic at Johns Hopkins before going to Canada.[^28]
### Faculty, students and staff
[[Lincoln Gordon]] succeeded [[Milton S. Eisenhower]] as president of the university in 1967 and resigned in 1971; the Baltimore Sun recorded that his adoption of a student-faculty-administration recommendation in 1969 led to women being allowed to enter the university for the first time, and that he faced an operating deficit of more than $4 million.[^29] [[René Girard]] taught at the university as a professor from 1957.[^30] [[Stephen Kosslyn]] was an assistant professor at the university before moving to Harvard.[^31][^32] [[Ray Hyman]] took a bachelor's degree from [[Boston University]] in 1950, a master's degree in 1952 and a doctorate in February 1953 from Johns Hopkins.[^33] [[Jason Matheny]] holds a Ph.D. in applied economics and an M.P.H. from the university.[^34] [[Risa Heller]] took a master's degree in communications at the university after an undergraduate degree at the [[University of Michigan]].[^35][^36] [[S. C. Gwynne]] took a master's degree in writing at the university.[^37] [[George R. Wackenhut]] directed physical education and coached at the university from 1946, and took a master's degree there in 1949.[^38]
### Hospital and medical training
[[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]] died at [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] in Baltimore on February 20, 2010, at the age of 85. A hospital spokesman attributed his death to complications of an infection.[^39]
### Bloomberg gifts
On Sunday, November 18, 2018, [[Michael Bloomberg]] announced a gift of $1.8 billion to his alma mater for student financial aid. The [[Associated Press]] reported that the gift was "the largest ever to any education institution in the U.S.," and quoted the university as saying it would allow Johns Hopkins to eliminate student loans in financial aid packages starting the following fall. University president Ronald Daniels said the gift would also let the institution permanently commit to "need-blind admissions."[^40]
On July 8, 2024, [[Bloomberg Philanthropies]] gave a further $1 billion to the university. [[NPR]] reported that the gift would make tuition free for most medical students.[^41]
### Event 201
The Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, "in partnership with the World Economic Forum and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation," hosted Event 201, which the center described as a high-level pandemic exercise held on October 18, 2019, in New York.[^42] The center described it as a 3.5-hour tabletop exercise with fifteen players from global business, government and public health, consisting of pre-recorded news broadcasts, live staff briefings and moderated discussions.[^43]
The exercise scenario was a novel zoonotic coronavirus transmitted from bats to pigs to people, modeled largely on SARS, that begins on pig farms in Brazil, is exported by air travel to Portugal, the United States and China, and ends at the 18-month point with 65 million deaths; in the scenario there is no possibility of a vaccine in the first year.[^44] The players listed by the center include [[Avril Haines]], [[George Gao]] of the Chinese Center for Disease Control, [[Christopher Elias]] of the Gates Foundation and [[Stephen Redd]] of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.[^45] The [[World Economic Forum]] announced the exercise on October 15, 2019 as a simulation for business, government, security and public health leaders, with a live virtual stream from 8:50 to 12:30 Eastern time; it listed Haines as a former deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency and former deputy national security adviser, and quoted [[Tom Inglesby]], director of the Center for Health Security.[^46]
### Guatemala experiments litigation
The [[United States Public Health Service]] ran sexually transmitted disease experiments on prisoners, soldiers and psychiatric patients in [[Guatemala]] from 1946 to 1948. The Fourth Circuit's opinion records that the Surgeon General, [[Thomas Parran]], approved the proposal in 1946, that a grant including $110,450 for the [[Pan American Sanitary Bureau]] was approved, that Parran simultaneously served on the Board of Trustees of the [[Rockefeller Foundation|The Rockefeller Foundation]], and that a junior Public Health Service officer, [[John C. Cutler]], and his research team began infecting test subjects in February 1947. The opinion states that from May 1947 to October 1948 the researchers conducted thirty-two experiments using gonorrhea, seventeen using syphilis and one using chancroid, which involved a total of 1,308 people.[^47]
On April 1, 2015, the Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez and other plaintiffs sued Johns Hopkins, The Rockefeller Foundation and [[Bristol-Myers Squibb]] under the Alien Tort Statute and the Guatemalan Civil Code. The complaint was filed in Baltimore City Circuit Court and removed to the District of Maryland the same day, and the federal caption is Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Johns Hopkins University, No. 1:15-cv-00950.[^47][^48]
The operative complaint alleged that researchers at Johns Hopkins and the Rockefeller Foundation, "who spent their careers studying syphilis," "intentionally chose to conduct nontherapeutic, nonconsensual experiments" because doing so allowed them to identify a large pool of uninfected people and infect them.[^47] Bristol-Myers Squibb was voluntarily dismissed. In 2017 the district court dismissed all claims under the Guatemalan Civil Code, dismissed the Alien Tort Statute claims based on direct liability except a limited claim against the Rockefeller Foundation, and declined to dismiss the claims based on aiding and abetting and conspiracy.[^47]
The district court later granted the defendants' motion for summary judgment. The plaintiffs appealed only the ruling as to the Rockefeller Foundation, and on March 20, 2024, the Fourth Circuit affirmed. The opinion records that the foundation paid the salary of [[Frederick Soper]], an associate director of its International Health Division, until January 1, 1948 while he served at the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, and the court held that Soper was not an agent of the foundation while he directed the Bureau.[^47] The Johns Hopkins claims were not part of that appeal.[^47]
### Henrietta Lacks and the HeLa cell line
The Estate of [[Henrietta Lacks]] filed a complaint against [[Thermo Fisher Scientific]] Inc. in the District of Maryland on October 4, 2021 (No. 1:21-cv-02524). Johns Hopkins is not a party to that case. The complaint alleges that Lacks was admitted to a segregated ward at Johns Hopkins Hospital with a malignant tumor of the cervix, that on February 5, 1951, while she was under anesthesia for radium treatment, a surgeon cut two circular samples of tissue, each about three quarters of an inch across, from her cervix, and that she had not been informed of or consented to the sampling. It alleges that the samples were given to a researcher at the hospital who cultured them into the HeLa cell line, that the cells were distributed to laboratories without payment to Lacks's estate, and that Thermo Fisher Scientific sells HeLa cells and products containing them. The complaint pleads a single count of unjust enrichment.[^49]
The case was terminated on August 1, 2023.[^50] [[Chemistry World]] reported that the family reached a settlement with Thermo Fisher, which had been accused of profiting from HeLa cells derived from Lacks's tumour without her family's approval.[^51]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Lyons, Gene M. *The Uneasy Partnership: Social Science and the Federal Government in the Twentieth Century*. Russell Sage Foundation, 1969.
[^2]: Rohde, Joy. *Armed with Expertise: The Militarization of American Social Research during the Cold War*. Cornell University Press, 2013.
[^3]: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, "A History of the Department of Defense Federally Funded Research and Development Centers," OTA-BP-ISS-157, June 1995, pp. 20-21 (ORO in Korea, HumRRO 1951, SORO 1957 under The American University, ORO dissolved June 1961, Johnson, Johns Hopkins's refusal, the September 1, 1961 RAC contract). https://web.archive.org/web/2016id_/https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1995/9501/950106.PDF
[^4]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "History" (founded March 10, 1942; VT fuze). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history
[^5]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "About." https://www.jhuapl.edu/about
[^6]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "About APL," 2025 edition, section "APL as a UARC": "APL's UARC sponsor is the U.S. Navy"; "We perform sponsored work for a variety of government agencies, including the DOW, NASA, and the Intelligence Community." https://www.jhuapl.edu/sites/default/files/2025-07/aboutAPL-25.pdf
[^7]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "Innovations and Breakthroughs" timeline, entries "Terrier Becomes Operational" (1956), "Lab Performs First Flight Test Analysis of Polaris System" (1957), "APL Tracks Soviet Sputnik" (1957), "Transit Satellite Navigation System Invented" (1958) and "Transit Becomes Fully Operational" (1964). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history/innovations-and-breakthroughs
[^8]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "Innovations and Breakthroughs" timeline, entries "Successful Aegis Radar Testing" (1974), "The First Aegis Ship, USS Ticonderoga, Launches; APL Serves as Technical Advisor" (1981) and "APL Accuracy Evaluations Aid Development of New Trident II (D5) Missile" (December 4, 1989). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history/innovations-and-breakthroughs
[^9]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "Innovations and Breakthroughs" timeline, entries "The Space Department's Rotatable Litter Chair for Skylab" (1973), "NEAR Sets Off for Eros" (February 22, 1996), "MESSENGER Launches Toward Mercury" (August 3, 2004) and "NASA's DART Spacecraft Launches in World's First Planetary Defense Test Mission" (November 24, 2021). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history/innovations-and-breakthroughs
[^10]: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "New Horizons," mission page (launch January 19, 2006; Pluto flyby July 14, 2015; designed and integrated at APL; principal investigator Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute). https://www.jhuapl.edu/destinations/missions/new-horizons
[^11]: USAspending.gov API, POST /api/v2/search/spending_by_category/awarding_agency/, filters: recipient_search_text "C1HBCJ9RMBV3" (the unique entity identifier of The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory LLC), award_type_codes A, B, C, D (contracts), time_period 2007-10-01 to 2026-09-30; default spending level (transactions, summing federal action obligations); queried October 14, 2026. Department of Defense $19,446,135,312.75; National Aeronautics and Space Administration $4,732,501,683.12; Department of Homeland Security $385,438,283.40; Department of Health and Human Services $95,385,866.08. https://api.usaspending.gov/api/v2/search/spending_by_category/awarding_agency/
[^12]: USAspending.gov, award CONT_AWD_FA868422F7013_9700_FA868420D7000_9700 (API /api/v2/awards/): recipient The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory LLC, awarding sub-agency Department of the Air Force, office FA8638 AFLCMC HBKD, description "NASIC FME," total obligation $4,812,298, date signed 2021-11-21, period of performance 2022-11-25 to 2026-04-30, solicitation procedures "ONLY ONE SOURCE," other than full and open competition "MOBILIZATION, ESSENTIAL R&D (FAR 6.302-3)." https://www.usaspending.gov/award/CONT_AWD_FA868422F7013_9700_FA868420D7000_9700
[^13]: USAspending.gov, transaction history of award CONT_AWD_FA868422F7013_9700_FA868420D7000_9700 (API /api/v2/transactions/): modification 0 (action date 2021-11-21, $1,065,000), P00001 (2023-05-22, $950,000), P00002 (2023-07-14, $70,000), P00003 (2024-02-15, $492,908), P00005 (2024-07-09, $742,392, "JHU/APL PCB DR (NASIC) ADD-WORK") and P00009 (2025-03-28, $1,491,998). https://www.usaspending.gov/award/CONT_AWD_FA868422F7013_9700_FA868420D7000_9700
[^14]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^15]: ARPA memorandum ARPA-AS-TS-67-20, "Project BIZARRE," September 27, 1967, signed Richard S. Cesaro, Acting Director, Advanced Sensors, declassified copy, National Security Archive. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/rhwvuj-tzy4b/08.pdf
[^16]: Biography and statement of J. Allen Hynek, *Symposium on Unidentified Flying Objects*, Hearings before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, House of Representatives, 90th Congress, 2d Session, July 29, 1968, pp. 1-3. https://nicap.org/books/1968Sym/1968Sym.htm
[^17]: Durant memorandum, Tab A, signatures of the Robertson Panel members: Berkner, Robertson, Goudsmit, Alvarez and Page (Johns Hopkins University).
[^18]: Johns Hopkins SAIS, "SAIS Founder and Arms Control Expert Paul H. Nitze Dead at 97," press release dated October 20, 2004. Nitze "founded the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) in 1943 along with Christian Herter"; the school "became a division of The Johns Hopkins University in 1950" and was renamed in 1989. https://web.archive.org/web/2019/https://www.sais.jhu.edu/news-press/sais-founder-and-arms-control-expert-paul-h-nitze-dead-97
[^19]: Johns Hopkins SAIS, press release dated January 25, 2005, "Former CIA Official John E. McLaughlin Joins SAIS as Visiting Scholar." https://web.archive.org/web/2024/https://sais.jhu.edu/news-press/former-cia-official-john-e-mclaughlin-joins-sais-visiting-scholar
[^20]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Volume XIX, National Security Policy*, document 26, editorial note on the Quantico Panel, p. 84, listing the eleven members and dating the meeting. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v19/d26
[^21]: CNN, "Suspected Russian spy was well-liked by classmates, but something just seemed a little off," June 24, 2022. https://amp.cnn.com/cnn/2022/06/24/politics/russian-spy-johns-hopkins-classmates-accent-suspicious/index.html
[^22]: Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies, "Ben Buchanan," faculty biography, archived October 10, 2025. http://web.archive.org/web/20251010173145/https://sais.jhu.edu/users/bbuchan
[^23]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum, December 2, 1953, "ABRAMSON, Harold A.," from the Chief, SSD to Colonel Edwards (MKULTRA document 0000144974, CIA reading room; archive.org copy). https://archive.org/details/DOC_0000144974
[^24]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence and Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing, 95th Congress, 1st session, August 3, 1977. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
[^25]: *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing, August 3, 1977, opening statement of Senator Edward M. Kennedy. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
[^26]: *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing, August 3, 1977, prepared statement of Admiral Stansfield Turner, Director of Central Intelligence. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
[^27]: Marks, John. *The Search for the "Manchurian Candidate": The CIA and Mind Control*. London: Allen Lane, 1979, p. 156 (the 1957 board of the Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology; index entries "Johns Hopkins University, 156" and "Whitehorn, John, 156").
[^28]: Collins, Anne. *In the Sleep Room: The Story of the CIA Brainwashing Experiments in Canada*. Lester & Orpen Dennys, 1988.
[^29]: Baltimore Sun, "Lincoln Gordon," obituary, December 22, 2009 (succeeded Milton S. Eisenhower as Hopkins president in 1967; the 1969 recommendation that admitted women; operating deficit of more than $4 million; resignation in 1971). https://www.baltimoresun.com/2009/12/22/lincoln-gordon/
[^30]: "René Girard," *Encyclopædia Britannica*, biography. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rene-Girard
[^31]: Minerva Project, "Minerva Project Names Dr. Stephen M. Kosslyn as Founding Dean," March 12, 2013.
[^32]: National Science Foundation, award 7616987 (Johns Hopkins University, September 1, 1976 to February 28, 1978).
[^33]: Hyman, Ray, "Curriculum Vitae," September 1994, CIA-RDP96-00791R000100030044-7, STARGATE collection. The vita lists the February 1953 doctorate from Johns Hopkins University.
[^34]: RAND Corporation, "Jason Matheny," staff biography. https://www.rand.org/about/people/m/matheny_jason.html
[^35]: McCreesh, Shawn, "Get Me Risa Heller!" *New York* (Intelligencer), February 14, 2023. https://nymag.com/intelligencer/article/risa-heller-communications-profile.html
[^36]: "Risa Heller," Heller firm biography, modified March 28, 2025. https://heller.inc/employee/risa-heller/
[^37]: Gwynne, S. C., author biography, scgwynne.com. https://scgwynne.com/author/s-c-gwynne
[^38]: The Wackenhut Corporation, biographical sketch of George R. Wackenhut and company reports, 1969 to 1988, scanned company files on archive.org.
[^39]: "Alexander Haig, Presidential Adviser, Dies," CBS News and Associated Press, February 20, 2010. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/alexander-haig-presidential-adviser-dies/
[^40]: Associated Press, "Bloomberg gives 'unprecedented' $1.8 billion to Johns Hopkins to boost financial aid," November 19, 2018 (announcement "Sunday"). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/amp/nation/bloomberg-gives-unprecedented-1-8-billion-to-johns-hopkins-to-boost-financial-aid
[^41]: NPR, "Bloomberg gives $1 billion to Hopkins to make tuition free for most medical students," July 9, 2024. https://www.npr.org/2024/07/09/g-s1-8876/johns-hopkins-medical-school-bloomberg
[^42]: Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, "Event 201," home page, Wayback Machine capture of 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.centerforhealthsecurity.org/event201/
[^43]: Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, "About the Event 201 exercise," Wayback Machine capture of 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.centerforhealthsecurity.org/event201/about/
[^44]: Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, "The Event 201 scenario," Wayback Machine capture of 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.centerforhealthsecurity.org/event201/scenario.html
[^45]: Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, "Event 201 Players," Wayback Machine capture of 2020; World Economic Forum press release of October 15, 2019 (affiliations). https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.centerforhealthsecurity.org/event201/players/
[^46]: World Economic Forum, press release "Live Simulation Exercise to Prepare Public and Private Leaders for Pandemic Response," Geneva, October 15, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/2019id_/https://www.weforum.org/press/2019/10/live-simulation-exercise-to-prepare-public-and-private-leaders-for-pandemic-response
[^47]: *Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Rockefeller Foundation*, No. 22-1678 (4th Cir. March 20, 2024) (published opinion, Hudson, J., joined by Wilkinson and Heytens, JJ.), on appeal from No. 1:15-cv-00950-TDC (D. Md.), pp. 2-9 (background, 1,308 participants, Parran's trusteeship, Soper's salary, the 2017 order, summary judgment). https://www.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinions/221678.P.pdf
[^48]: *Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Johns Hopkins University*, No. 1:15-cv-00950 (D. Md.), docket entries of April 1, 2015 (complaint and notice of removal from the Circuit Court for Baltimore City, case number 24-C-15-001618). CourtListener docket 6300310. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/6300310/
[^49]: *Estate of Henrietta Lacks v. Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.*, No. 1:21-cv-02524 (D. Md.), Civil Complaint and Request for Jury Trial (Doc. 1, filed October 4, 2021), paragraphs 5, 30-38, 45-48 and Count I. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.mdd.500650/gov.uscourts.mdd.500650.1.0.pdf
[^50]: *Estate of Henrietta Lacks v. Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.*, No. 1:21-cv-02524 (D. Md.), docket, terminated August 1, 2023. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/60620589/lacks-v-thermo-fisher-scientific-inc/
[^51]: Julia Robinson, "Justice for Henrietta Lacks as family reaches settlement with Thermo Fisher," Chemistry World, August 4, 2023. https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/justice-for-henrietta-lacks-as-family-reaches-settlement-with-thermo-fisher/4017851.article

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---
aliases:
- Newsweek
- News-Week
- Newsweek Media Group
- Newsweek magazine
category: "Private Organization"
start: 1933
location: "New York City, USA"
tags:
- organization
- media
- contra-war
summary: Newsweek was a major American news magazine that covered the Dark Alliance story, calling it a powerful series.
- Organization
- Media
- Magazine
- CIAMediaRelations
- ContraWar
- IranContra
- DarkAlliance
- NewsweekQuranStory
summary: "American news weekly founded in 1933, owned by the Washington Post Company from 1961 to 2010, whose staff and stringers appear in Carl Bernstein's 1977 account of CIA press relations."
updated: 2026-10-14
relations:
- type: owned
with: "[[Vincent Astor]]"
reverse: true
start: 1937
end: 1959
fn: 4
- type: owned
with: "[[Washington Post]]"
reverse: true
start: 1961
end: 2010-09-30
fn: 6
- type: owned
with: "[[Sidney Harman]]"
reverse: true
start: 2010-09-30
fn: 9
- type: owned
with: "[[IBT Media]]"
reverse: true
start: 2013
fn: 28
- type: funded
with: "[[Averell Harriman]]"
reverse: true
fn: 6
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Malcolm Muir]]"
reverse: true
role: "editor"
start: 1937
end: 1961
fn: 5
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Harry Kern]]"
reverse: true
role: "foreign editor"
start: 1945
end: 1956
fn: 23
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Ernest K. Lindley]]"
reverse: true
role: "Washington bureau chief"
start: 1945
end: 1961
fn: 23
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Osborn Elliott]]"
reverse: true
role: "editor"
start: 1961
fn: 6
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Arnaud de Borchgrave]]"
reverse: true
role: "Paris bureau chief, later chief foreign correspondent"
start: 1951
fn: 27
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Mark Whitaker]]"
reverse: true
role: "editor"
fn: 41
- type: investigated
with: "[[Manhattan District Attorney's Office]]"
reverse: true
start: 2018-01
end: 2020-02
fn: 28
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Iran-Contra affair]]"
role: "published the May 5, 1987 profile of Richard Secord, the first witness before the joint committees"
start: 1987-05-05
fn: 34
---
Newsweek was a major American news magazine that covered the [[Dark Alliance]] story. The magazine was also connected to the Contra war's origins: according to one account, [[Central Intelligence Agency]] director [[William J. Casey]] himself leaked news of the Contra project to Newsweek to ensure it could not be abandoned.[^1]
### Casey's Leak
Newsweek is an American news weekly, founded in 1933 as News-Week and owned from 1961 to 2010 by the [[Washington Post]] Company. Its staff and stringers appear in the 1977 Rolling Stone account of CIA press relations by [[Carl Bernstein]], and it reported on the [[Contras]] and the [[Iran-Contra affair]]. It covered the [[Dark Alliance]] story, calling it a powerful series.[^1]
According to reports, Casey wanted to ensure that the Contra project did not get shelved. Once it became public knowledge that the Reagan administration was helping the [[Contras]], Casey reasoned, stopping it would look like a sellout, another [[Bay of Pigs|Bay of Pigs]]. The deliberate leak to Newsweek illustrated how the CIA used the media to build political support for its covert operations and to box in congressional opponents.[^2]
### Founding, Today and the Astor years
### Footnotes
The masthead of the July 29, 1933 issue (volume 1, number 24) lists T. J. C. Martyn as president and treasurer and Samuel T. Williamson as editor, with editorial offices at Rockefeller Center in New York and a publication office in Dayton, Ohio.[^2] On September 11, 1933 [[Time]] reported that [[Vincent Astor]] and [[Averell Harriman|W. Averell Harriman]] had announced details of a separate weekly, Today, to be edited by [[Raymond Moley]], whose resignation from [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s Brain Trust had just been explained on the ground that he would edit it. The magazine was to run 24 pages on newsprint at five cents. Moley said: "In no sense will it be an Administration organ or a party organ."[^3]
Time wrote in 1961 that when Astor "got control in 1937" Newsweek had reached a circulation of 250,000 but had cost its original investors $2,250,000 in four years. Astor died in 1959 and left his controlling 60 percent of the stock, 177,200 shares, to the Vincent Astor Foundation, a trust he established in 1948.[^4] Bernstein dates [[Malcolm Muir]]'s tenure as editor to the magazine's founding in 1937 and places it until the sale to the Washington Post Company in 1961.[^5] In Time's account of the sale, Muir was board chairman and [[John Denson]] was the editor who resigned a month before the sale to join the [[New York Herald Tribune]].[^6]
### Sale to the Washington Post Company, 1961
In January 1961 Time reported that the Astor Foundation was asking $8,000,000 for its stock. The publisher [[Samuel Newhouse]] had offered more than market value and was rejected, reportedly on the insistence of Astor's widow, [[Brooke Astor|Brooke Russell Marshall Astor]], who sat on the Newsweek and Foundation boards. The Meredith Publishing Company approached and withdrew. Muir said a management group was negotiating to buy the majority interest.[^4]
On March 17, 1961 Time reported that [[Philip Graham|Philip L. Graham]], president of the Washington Post and Times Herald, had taken control by writing a check for $8,985,000 for the block of about 59 percent. His offer of $50 a share was $5 above Muir's best. Graham learned that the magazine was available from the investment banker [[Charles Spalding]], a friend of [[John F. Kennedy]]. He sent the Post's managing editor, [[Alfred Friendly]], to Rome to secure a pledge from Harriman, then a roving ambassador and, in Time's words, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell Harriman's 13 percent holding. One third of the purchase money was borrowed from a New York insurance company. [[Osborn Elliott]] became editor in place of Denson, and Muir became chairman of the executive committee.[^6]
Bernstein wrote that when Newsweek was purchased by the Washington Post Company, Graham "was informed by Agency officials that the CIA occasionally used the magazine for cover purposes, according to CIA sources." A former deputy director of the Agency told Bernstein: "It was widely known that Phil Graham was somebody you could get help from... Frank Wisner dealt with him." Bernstein described [[Frank Wisner]] as the Agency's orchestrator of "black" operations and Graham as probably Wisner's closest friend. He wrote that Graham, who died in 1963, "apparently knew little of the specifics of any cover arrangements with Newsweek, CIA sources said."[^7] [[Katharine Graham]], who succeeded him as publisher, told Bernstein she had never been informed of any CIA relationship with Post or Newsweek personnel. In November 1973 she called [[William Colby]] to ask whether any Post stringers or staff members were associated with the CIA. Colby told her that no staff members were employed by the Agency but refused to discuss stringers.[^8]
On August 2, 2010 the Washington Post Company announced a contract to sell Newsweek to [[Sidney Harman]]. The company said the terms of the asset purchase agreement were not announced and that it retained the pension assets and liabilities and certain employee obligations arising before the sale.[^9] The sale closed on September 30, 2010. The buyer, Harman Media, LLC, assumed Newsweek's subscription obligations and received its intellectual property, target working capital and selected equipment.[^10] The Post Company recorded an after-tax loss of $11.5 million on the transaction, reported in discontinued operations.[^11] The annual report for 2010 gives the same loss.[^12]
### CIA relations, from the Church Committee to Bernstein
The [[Church Committee]], in its final report of April 1976, stated that "the CIA maintained covert relationships with about 50 American journalists or employees of U.S. media organizations."[^13] It recorded that [[George H.W. Bush]], as the new director, pledged that the agency "will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any United States news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^13] The committee found that, as of February 1976, its first category, paid undercover contacts on the staff of general-circulation news organizations, "appears to be virtually phased out," and that only two current relationships fit it, both being terminated under the policy the CIA announced on February 11, 1976.[^14] The third and largest category, as the report describes it, included free-lance journalists and "stringers" for newspapers, news magazines and news services, most paid by the CIA, virtually all of them witting, and few of the news organizations aware of the relationships.[^15] From CIA testimony later that month the committee learned that the prohibition extends to non-Americans accredited to U.S. media organizations, and that it does not cover "unaccredited" Americans serving in U.S. media organizations or free-lance writers.[^16]
The committee also cited a Newsweek report. Its footnote gives "Newsweek, 5/19/75, pp. 25-28," for the disclosure that two Boston lawyers had a relationship with the CIA in setting up proprietaries, and quotes an Agency commentator on the proprietaries' utility after that disclosure.[^17]
Bernstein's article, published in Rolling Stone on October 20, 1977, drew on CIA and Senate sources. It said Agency sources listed Newsweek among the organizations that cooperated with the CIA, alongside the American Broadcasting Company, the National Broadcasting Company, the Associated Press and Reuters.[^18] Bernstein wrote that, according to CIA and Senate sources, Agency files contain written agreements with former foreign correspondents and stringers for both Time and Newsweek.[^19] Of Newsweek specifically, he wrote that "the CIA engaged the services of several foreign correspondents and stringers under arrangements approved by senior editors at the magazine," and that Newsweek's stringer in Rome in the mid-1950s "made little secret of the fact that he worked for the CIA."[^19] He reported that in 1965 and 1966 an accredited Newsweek stringer in the Far East was in fact a CIA contract employee earning an annual salary of $10,000, according to [[Robert T. Wood]], then a CIA officer in the Hong Kong station, and that some Newsweek correspondents and stringers continued to maintain covert ties with the Agency into the 1970s, according to CIA sources.[^20] CIA officials insisted to Bernstein that a Soviet charge of CIA affiliation against Christopher Wren of the New York Times and Alfred Friendly Jr., formerly of Newsweek, had no basis in fact.[^21]
According to Senate sources and CIA officials, the Agency in the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s concentrated its relationships with journalists in the most prominent sectors of the American press, including "the two major newsweekly magazines."[^22]
### Staff with intelligence contacts
Muir told Bernstein that his dealings with the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] were limited to private briefings he gave [[Allen Dulles]] after trips abroad and to arrangements he approved for regular debriefing of Newsweek correspondents. He said he had never provided cover for CIA operatives, but that others high in the organization might have done so without his knowledge. He said of the period: "I do think in those days the CIA kept pretty close touch with all responsible reporters." He added that Dulles "appointed one of his CIA men to keep in regular contact with our reporters."[^23] Muir said [[Harry Kern]], Newsweek's foreign editor from 1945 until 1956, and [[Ernest K. Lindley]], the magazine's Washington bureau chief in the same period, "regularly checked in with various fellows in the CIA."[^23]
Kern said: "To the best of my knowledge, nobody at Newsweek worked for the CIA... The informal relationship was there. Why have anybody sign anything? What we knew we told them [the CIA] and the State Department." CIA officials told Bernstein that Kern's dealings with the Agency were extensive. Kern left Newsweek in 1956 to run Foreign Reports, a Washington newsletter whose subscribers he declined to identify.[^24] Lindley told Bernstein he regularly consulted Dulles and other senior CIA officials before going abroad and briefed them on his return. He remained at Newsweek until 1961.[^25]
The historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern, as foreign affairs editor, was the most notable of the conservative critics of the occupation reforms in Japan, and that with the help of Secretary of Commerce [[W. Averell Harriman]] and others in the Truman administration, Kern and the [[American Council on Japan]] became the catalyst for a shift in American policy away from democratic reform. Schonberger wrote that Allen Dulles, on becoming director of the CIA in 1953, sought a recruiting and cover capability within leading journalistic institutions and turned to Newsweek among others; that [[The New York Times]] reported Newsweek's Tokyo bureau in the 1950s contained at least four CIA employees; and that Kern moved in and out of Japan consulting a succession of prime ministers and by 1952 had formed a friendship with [[Nobusuke Kishi|Kishi Nobusuke]], held three years in Sugamo prison as a suspected Class A war criminal. Schonberger quotes Kern telling Bernstein: "When I went to Washington I would talk to Foster or Allen Dulles about what was going on.... We thought it was admirable at the time. We were all on the same side."[^43]
Bernstein wrote that about a dozen columnists and broadcast commentators were regarded at the Agency as "known assets." He named [[Stewart Alsop]], whose column appeared in Newsweek among other publications, as one of three columnists with such ties, and wrote that CIA files contain reports of specific tasks all three undertook.[^26]
[[Arnaud de Borchgrave]] became Newsweek's Paris bureau chief in 1951 and went on to a career as a roving correspondent. A Washington Times obituary of February 2015 describes him as the magazine's chief foreign correspondent for 25 years and quotes Osborn Elliott, onetime editor of Newsweek: "de Borchgrave has played a role in world affairs known to no other journalist." He became editor in chief of the [[Washington Times]] in 1985 and later president of [[United Press International]].[^27]
### IBT Media and the Manhattan District Attorney
[[IBT Media]] bought Newsweek in 2013. In 2017 the company changed its name to Newsweek Media Group.[^28] In January 2018 investigators from the [[Manhattan District Attorney's Office]] raided IBT's Manhattan offices, and the New York Post reported that the office's cybercrimes unit was examining a possible money trail between [[Olivet University]] and executives at Newsweek Media Group.[^28][^29]
On October 10, 2018 a Manhattan indictment was unsealed naming IBT Media, [[Christian Media]], IBT co-founder [[Etienne Uzac]], Christian Media's former chief executive [[William Anderson]] and [[Oikos Networks]]. As reported at the time, the charges were that the defendants tried to defraud lenders by pretending to borrow money for computing services and moved most of the money to accounts controlled by the two media companies and their principals. The indictment alleged a fictitious accounting firm, Karen Smith LLP, and fake financial statements that induced lenders to put up millions of dollars in 2015 and 2016, and that some of the money covered the magazine's operating expenses.[^28] Uzac's lawyer, Marc Agnifilo, said his client "strongly denies these baseless charges." Anderson's lawyer, Andrew Lanker, denied that his client had engaged in wrongdoing. Uzac attributed the prosecution to retaliation by the district attorney, [[Cyrus Vance Jr.]], for the magazine's reporting on a campaign contribution to Vance from the lawyer for [[Harvey Weinstein]].[^28]
Top editors and reporters at Newsweek were fired after they began examining the company's accounts and "the owners' connections to Olivet University, an evangelical Christian college in New York."[^28]
In December 2018 the district attorney announced a superseding indictment that added Olivet University, its board chairman Andrew Lin, its finance director and business school dean John Xiao, and Anderson, charging them with "fraudulently obtaining at least $25 million in financing under Olivet's name, and laundering the money in order to obscure its origins and fund Olivet's operations." The indictment ran to 16 counts, including scheme to defraud, conspiracy, money laundering, falsification of business records and criminal contempt. Vance said that "after unmasking the scheme to keep Newsweek and Christian Media Corporation afloat," his office's Major Economic Crimes Bureau "skillfully followed the money, revealing an even larger scheme to defraud lenders throughout the country." Olivet, a Christian university based in San Francisco with a campus at the former Harlem Valley Psychiatric Center in Dover, New York, denied the charges and said that the lenders had suffered no loss.[^30]
In February 2020 Anderson and Uzac each pleaded guilty to one felony count of money laundering in the second degree and one of scheme to defraud in the first degree. The district attorney said the funds were not used to buy computer equipment and that most were used to buy land in New York and California and to fund day-to-day operations. On February 20, 2020 Olivet pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy and falsifying business records and agreed to forfeit $1.25 million over two years, and Lin pleaded guilty to scheme to defraud. If the obligations were met Olivet could re-plead to a misdemeanor and receive a conditional discharge.[^31]
### Contra and Iran-Contra coverage
Newsweek's issue of November 8, 1982, pages 42 to 53, headed "A Secret War for Nicaragua," is cited in the congressional Iran-Contra report for the statement that in late 1982 the American press began to report accounts of the Administration's "secret war" in Nicaragua, immediately before the account of Representative [[Tom Harkin]]'s December 8, 1982 amendment.[^32]
A note of January 4, 1986 by [[Charles Hill]], an aide to [[George Shultz]], records [[John Poindexter]] saying that [[Amiram Nir]] had come to see him to revive the hostage idea. The note states that Newsweek had the McFarlane-Kimche meetings but did not run them, and adds: "Kimche seems to have leaked it deliberately."[^33]
On May 5, 1987, Newsweek published a profile of retired major general [[Richard Secord]], the first witness before the joint House and Senate committees. The article described the contra arms-supply effort as one that "began in 1984, long before the first arms-for-hostages swap with Iran was contemplated." Others on the committee, the article reported, said Secord might implicate President Reagan as an enthusiastic cheerleader.[^34] It quoted committee chairman [[Daniel Inouye]]: "The general feels sincerely that he has nothing to hide and that he has done nothing wrong."[^35]
### Other reporting
Michael Isikoff reported on April 15, 2003 that a trio of lawyers from [[Baker Botts]] had filed a motion for Prince [[Sultan bin Abdulaziz]], the Saudi defense minister, in the September 11 families' suit, arguing that he was immune.[^36] Ronen Bergman wrote in the December 13, 2010 issue that in June 1980 Mossad agents unexpectedly spotted Egyptian nuclear expert [[Yahya El Mashad]] at a Paris hotel, had orders to kill him on sight, and, caught without weapons, broke into his room and clubbed him to death.[^37] Nicholas Schou's 2016 interview with [[Dewey Clarridge]] reported that the Contra force, assembled and trained by Argentina's military government, came to Clarridge almost immediately after he became the CIA's Latin America director.[^38] Brad Stone's July 2001 article on [[PayPal]]'s anti-fraud unit reported that its 75-member team "now regularly works with law enforcement."[^39] In August 1994 Newsweek reported that experts from the FBI Counter-Terrorism Center secretly met in Arlington, Virginia, with [[Igor Smirnov]], whose plan was "piping subliminal messages from sect members' families through the phone lines during negotiations."[^40]
### The 2005 Quran story
Newsweek's May 9, 2005 issue carried a half-page item reporting, as NPR summarized it, that an internal Defense Department investigation corroborated FBI e-mails saying that U.S. military personnel had desecrated the Quran to get detainees to talk. The item alleged that interrogators at [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo Bay]] put a copy of the Quran into a toilet. Editor [[Mark Whitaker]] said: "This was a 10-sentence item." Riots followed in Afghanistan and other countries; NPR reported that fifteen people died, and Reuters reported sixteen killed in Afghanistan.[^41][^42]
The Pentagon's chief spokesman, [[Lawrence Di Rita]], said the Defense Department went to the FBI e-mails and to the ongoing investigation into them and "weren't able to establish that this allegation surfaced in either of those areas." On Sunday, May 15, Newsweek apologized, saying in part: "We regret that we got any part of our story wrong." On Monday, May 16, as the White House, the Pentagon and the State Department criticized the report, Whitaker told journalists that the magazine was retracting the story. The one-sentence statement read: "Based on what we know now, we are retracting our original story that an internal military investigation had uncovered Koran abuse at Guantanamo Bay."[^41][^42] White House spokesman [[Scott McClellan]] called the retraction "a good first step" and said: "We encourage Newsweek to now work diligently to help undo what damage can be undone." Pentagon spokesman Bryan Whitman said the allegation was "demonstrably false" and that there had been "no credible allegations of willful Quran desecration."[^42]
Newsweek's May 23 edition said the original information came from a "knowledgeable government source," who said a military report had found that interrogators flushed at least one copy of the Quran down a toilet. The magazine said the source later told it he could not be certain he had seen an account of the Quran incident in the military report, and that it might have been in other investigative documents or drafts.[^42] Whitaker said that before publication Newsweek showed the story to a Pentagon official who apparently raised no issue with the detail about the Quran. The NPR program's host, introducing the segment, said: "There have been several such allegations."[^41]
### Dark Alliance and the Casey leak
According to [[Gary Webb]]'s account, [[William J. Casey]] himself leaked news of the Contra project to Newsweek because he wanted to ensure the project did not get shelved. Once it became public knowledge that the Reagan administration was helping the Contras, Webb wrote, stopping it would look like a sellout, another [[Bay of Pigs]]. Webb presented the leak to Newsweek as an illustration of how the CIA used the media to build political support for its covert operations and to box in congressional opponents.[^1]
[^1]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Ch. 6.
[^2]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Ch. 6.
[^2]: *News-Week*, vol. 1, no. 24, July 29, 1933, masthead (Martyn, president and treasurer; Samuel T. Williamson, editor). https://archive.org/details/sim_newsweek-us_1933-07-29_1_24
[^3]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/
[^4]: "The Press: Magazine for Sale," *Time*, January 27, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6622956/the-press-magazine-for-sale/
[^5]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on Time and Newsweek magazines (Muir's tenure). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^6]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/
[^7]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on Time and Newsweek magazines (Graham, Wisner and the purchase by the Post Company). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^8]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on the Washington Post Company (Katharine Graham and Colby, November 1973). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^9]: The Washington Post Company, press release, "Dr. Sidney Harman to Purchase Newsweek from The Washington Post Company," August 2, 2010. Business Wire copy: https://www.p2012.org/media/wp080210pr.html.
[^10]: The Washington Post Company, Form 8-K, filed October 6, 2010, Item 2.01. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/104889/000119312510224885/d8k.htm.
[^11]: The Washington Post Company, Form 10-Q for the quarter ended October 3, 2010, Note 2 (Discontinued Operations), filed November 10, 2010. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/104889/000119312510255855/d10q.htm.
[^12]: The Washington Post Company, Form 10-K for fiscal 2010, filed March 2, 2011, note on discontinued operations. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/104889/000119312511053497/d10k.htm.
[^13]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, p. 192, "B. Covert Relationships With the United States Media." https://archive.org/download/finalreportofsel01unit/finalreportofsel01unit_djvu.txt
[^14]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, pp. 195-196 (first category; two current relationships). https://archive.org/download/finalreportofsel01unit/finalreportofsel01unit_djvu.txt
[^15]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, p. 196 (third category of relationships). https://archive.org/download/finalreportofsel01unit/finalreportofsel01unit_djvu.txt
[^16]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, p. 197 (CIA public statement of February 11, 1976, and later CIA testimony). https://archive.org/download/finalreportofsel01unit/finalreportofsel01unit_djvu.txt
[^17]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, p. 212, text and footnote "Newsweek, 5/19/75, pp. 25-28." https://archive.org/download/finalreportofsel01unit/finalreportofsel01unit_djvu.txt
[^18]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on the executives and organizations that cooperated with the Agency. https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^19]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on Time and Newsweek magazines (written agreements; Newsweek stringers). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^20]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on Time and Newsweek magazines (Robert T. Wood account; stringers into the 1970s). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^21]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on the Soviet charges against American reporters. https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^22]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on the twenty-five files returned to the Senate. https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^23]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on Time and Newsweek magazines (Muir interview). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^24]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on Time and Newsweek magazines (Harry Kern and Foreign Reports). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^25]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on Time and Newsweek magazines (Ernest Lindley). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^26]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on columnists and commentators ("known assets"). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php
[^27]: Outside the Beltway, "Arnaud de Borchgrave Dead at 88," February 16, 2015, reproducing the Washington Post and Washington Times obituaries of February 15-16, 2015. https://outsidethebeltway.com/arnaud-de-borchgrave-dead-at-88/.
[^28]: Boston Globe, "Newsweek's former owner is charged in $10 million fraud," October 11, 2018. https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2018/10/11/newsweek-former-owner-charged-million-fraud/9rCmawbTJzFdh5WI6WLTPN/story.html.
[^29]: New York Post, "DA eyes Newsweek $ trail," January 20, 2018. https://www.pressreader.com/usa/new-york-post/20180120/281960313169393.
[^30]: "Olivet faces expanded indictment in $25 million fraud probe," *Lakeville Journal*, December 18, 2018 (quoting the Manhattan District Attorney's release). https://lakevillejournal.com/olivet-faces-expanded-indictment-25-million-fraud-probe.
[^31]: Alejandra Molina, "Bible college and former Newsweek and Christian Post publishers plead guilty in $35 million fraud probe," Religion News Service, February 20, 2020 (quoting the Manhattan District Attorney). https://religionnews.com/2020/02/20/former-newsweek-and-christian-post-publishers-convicted-in-35-million-fraud-probe/.
[^32]: *Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair*, S. Rept. 100-216, H. Rept. 100-433 (November 1987), ch. 26, "The Boland Amendments and the NSC Staff," p. 395 and n. 6 ("A Secret War for Nicaragua," Newsweek, Nov. 8, 1982, at 42-53; also "Fears of War Along the Border," Time, Dec. 6, 1982, at 37, 40). https://archive.org/details/reportofcongress87unit.
[^33]: Walsh, Lawrence E., *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 24, n. 206 (Hill Note, January 4, 1986, ANS 0001255-56). https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_24.htm.
[^34]: "The Secret World of General Secord," *Newsweek*, May 5, 1987, CIA Reading Room CIA-RDP90-00965R000605790003-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000605790003-5.
[^35]: "The Secret World of General Secord," *Newsweek*, May 5, 1987, CIA Reading Room CIA-RDP90-00965R000605790003-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000605790003-5.
[^36]: Isikoff, Michael. "Terror Watch: A Legal Counterattack," *Newsweek*, April 15, 2003. https://www.newsweek.com/terror-watch-legal-counterattack-133991.
[^37]: Bergman, Ronen. "Killing the Killers," *Newsweek*, December 13, 2010. https://www.newsweek.com/killing-killers-69081.
[^38]: Schou, Nicholas. "The 'October Surprise' Was Real, Legendary Spymaster Hints in Final Interview," *Newsweek*, April 24, 2016 (updated June 7, 2016). https://www.newsweek.com/duane-dewey-clarridge-october-surprise-spies-cia-451611.
[^39]: Stone, Brad. "Busting the Web Bandits," *Newsweek*, July 16, 2001 (online July 15). https://www.newsweek.com/busting-web-bandits-154463.
[^40]: Elliott, Dorinda, with John Barry. "A Subliminal Dr. Strangelove," *Newsweek*, August 1994 (online August 21, 1994). https://www.newsweek.com/subliminal-dr-strangelove-187766.
[^41]: Neda Ulaby, "'Newsweek' Retracts Story Alleging Quran Abuse," NPR *Morning Edition*, May 17, 2005. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/17/4654641/newsweek-retracts-story-alleging-quran-abuse.
[^42]: "Newsweek retracts Quran report," Al Jazeera (Reuters), May 17, 2005. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2005/5/17/newsweek-retracts-quran-report.
[^43]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), pp. 7, 135, 157-158. https://archive.org/details/aftermathofwaram0000scho

17
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/ORO-RAC.md
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@ -12,16 +12,24 @@ tags:
- ColdWar
- USArmy
- KoreanWar
summary: "A pair of successive Army-linked research organizations at Johns Hopkins University and then McLean, Virginia, that conducted early Cold War studies on fighter selection, unit cohesion, and guerrilla psychology before the university severed the relationship and the work continued under an independent nonprofit."
summary: "Successive Army-linked research organizations, the Operations Research Office at Johns Hopkins University and the Research Analysis Corporation in McLean, Virginia, which studied combat performance and guerrilla psychology from the Korean War onward."
location: McLean, Virginia
relations:
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[Johns Hopkins University]]"
reverse: true
start: 1948
end: 1961
role: "Operations Research Office, administered under Army contract"
fn: 2
created: 2026-06-04
updated: 2026-06-04
updated: 2026-10-14
---
The Operations Research Office (ORO) was an [[U.S. Army]]-linked behavioral science research unit established at [[Johns Hopkins University]] in [[Bethesda, Maryland]], that conducted some of the earliest systematic psychological studies of combat performance in the [[Korean War]]. When Johns Hopkins University grew uncomfortable with its military ties, it severed the relationship and ORO reconstituted as the Research Analysis Corporation (RAC), an independent nonprofit headquartered in [[McLean, Virginia]].[^1]
The Operations Research Office (ORO) was an [[U.S. Army]]-linked behavioral science research unit established at [[Johns Hopkins University]] in [[Bethesda, Maryland]], that conducted some of the earliest systematic psychological studies of combat performance in the [[Korean War]]. The Army's senior analysis center was dissolved in June 1961 and replaced by a new organization, the Research Analysis Corporation (RAC), an independent nonprofit headquartered in [[McLean, Virginia]]. According to a 1995 history of federally funded research centers, the change was made so that the Army could remove ORO's director, [[Ellis A. Johnson]]. Johns Hopkins University, which administered ORO, was not willing to remove Johnson under Army pressure, and the two parties agreed to terminate the contract. A new contract between the Army and RAC took effect on September 1, 1961, and ORO's research program, personnel, physical assets and supply contracts were transferred to RAC.[^2]
### From ORO to RAC
ORO's early work centered on what made effective fighters and effective fighting units, drawing on Korean War data, including identification of the psychological and behavioral factors distinguishing effective combat units from less effective ones. The transformation into RAC followed the same institutional dynamic that affected other university-based military contractors, notably [[HumRRO]] at [[George Washington University]] and [[CRESS]] at [[American University]]: as the Vietnam War generated campus opposition, universities preferred to disentangle themselves from visibly military-sponsored social science.[^1]
ORO's early work centered on what made effective fighters and effective fighting units, drawing on Korean War data, including identification of the psychological and behavioral factors distinguishing effective combat units from less effective ones. [[Peter Watson]] wrote that the transformation into RAC followed the same institutional dynamic that affected other university-based military contractors, notably [[HumRRO]] at [[George Washington University]] and [[CRESS]] at [[American University]]: as the Vietnam War generated campus opposition, universities preferred to disentangle themselves from visibly military-sponsored social science.[^1]
RAC is often described in the military research community as being to the Army what [[Rand Corporation]] is to the Air Force: a generalist operational research organization that addresses all fields of operational inquiry, not just psychology. In the psychological sciences its interests have concentrated on motivating soldiers and guerrillas, pre-testing methods for psychological warfare and evaluating their effectiveness, and analyzing the uses and organization of Communist propaganda.[^1]
@ -36,3 +44,4 @@ ORO contributed psychological studies on defection and disaffection to the Korea
### Footnotes
[^1]: Peter Watson, *War on the Mind: The Military Uses and Abuses of Psychology*. Basic Books, 1978. pp. 462-468 (App. II).
[^2]: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, "A History of the Department of Defense Federally Funded Research and Development Centers," OTA-BP-ISS-157, June 1995, p. 21. https://web.archive.org/web/2016id_/https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1995/9501/950106.PDF

103
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Rockefeller Foundation.md
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@ -18,38 +18,45 @@ relations:
start: 1933
end: 1943
role: "co-funded University in Exile appointments and the Research Project on Totalitarian Communication"
fn: 10
fn: 11
- type: funded
with: "[[Max Ascoli]]"
start: 1931
role: "fellowship that brought him to the United States"
fn: 24
fn: 25
- type: funded
with: "[[Princeton Listening Center]]"
start: 1939-11
end: 1941-06
role: "foundation funding for the listening center, per the Princeton finding aid and Mercado"
fn: 28
fn: 29
- type: funded
with: "[[Institute of World Affairs]]"
role: "grants to the Institute's predecessor projects and to Institute studies; donor listed in the historical note"
start: 1941-03
end: 1951
fn: 23
fn: 24
- type: director_of
with: "[[Cyrus Vance]]"
reverse: true
role: "trustee 1970 to 1977; chairman of the board 1975 to 1977"
start: 1970
end: 1977
fn: 7
fn: 8
- type: director_of
with: "[[Cyrus Vance]]"
reverse: true
role: "trustee again 1980 until retirement effective June 30, 1982"
start: 1980
end: 1982-06-30
fn: 8
fn: 9
- type: subject_of
with: "[[Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Johns Hopkins University]]"
reverse: true
start: 2015
end: 2024
role: "defendant, Alien Tort Statute litigation over Guatemala experiments"
fn: 5
---
The Rockefeller Foundation, chartered in 1913 and endowed from the [[Standard Oil]] fortune, was the largest of the [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.|Rockefeller]] family's philanthropies and the institutional model for the family's approach to social engineering through medicine, education, and agriculture. Across the first half of the twentieth century its public-health campaigns in [[Latin America]] (against hookworm, malaria, and yellow fever) prepared the ground for American corporate penetration of the region, easing the human suffering that accompanied plantation agriculture and resource extraction without addressing its causes. By the Cold War the Foundation had become a reservoir of national-security policy talent, supplying secretaries of state and trustees who moved between its board and the highest levels of US government, and a funder of psychiatric research that intersected the CIA's mind-control programs.
@ -66,75 +73,79 @@ Under Raymond Fosdick, whom Colby and Dennett describe as having the Foundation
The general [[General Jorge Ubico|Jorge Ubico]], later Guatemala's dictator, got his first political break in 1918 as military overseer of the Rockefeller anti-yellow-fever campaign, during which he subjected Indians to extreme eradication measures including burning their homes "as the only way out." George Vincent, a president of the Foundation through the 1920s, personally signaled the family fortune's reorientation "toward the Third World" during the period when [[Nelson Rockefeller]] was forming his own Latin American ambitions. The Foundation's projects in sanitation and medicine, in Colby and Dennett's account, "attacked these symptoms, but not their social causes," serving "the businessman's concern for productivity" by producing healthy workers for the export economy.[^4]
### Guatemala experiments litigation
In 2015 a class of plaintiffs sued [[Johns Hopkins University]], the Rockefeller Foundation and [[Bristol-Myers Squibb]] in the District of Maryland under the Alien Tort Statute and the Guatemalan Civil Code, over experiments run by the [[United States Public Health Service]] in Guatemala from 1946 to 1948.[^5] The district court granted summary judgment for the Foundation on the ground that [[Frederick Soper]], director of the [[Pan American Sanitary Bureau]], was not acting as the Foundation's agent. The plaintiffs appealed that ruling only as to the Foundation, and on March 20, 2024, the Fourth Circuit affirmed.[^5] The opinion describes Soper's salary as paid by the Foundation in 1947 while the Bureau was experiencing financial difficulties, and holds that the record did not show the Foundation controlled his work at the Bureau.[^5]
### Agricultural and Linguistic Surveys
The Foundation's survey programs doubled as intelligence-gathering. The Harvard botanist [[Richard Evans Schultes]] toured Mexico for the Rockefeller Foundation's Agricultural Survey and gathered seven tons of rubber seeds in the [[Putumayo]] and Vaupés regions of southern Colombia while passing on intelligence about the political sympathies of his Colombian colleagues. The anthropologist [[Sol Tax]], named head of the Foundation's Yucatán Linguistics Surveys on the strength of his claim that language was the last barrier to Indian assimilation, led the first expedition of the [[CIAA]]-funded [[National Indian Institute]]'s anthropology committee, an intellectual lineage that anticipated the [[Summer Institute of Linguistics]]'s later pacification work.[^5]
The Foundation's survey programs doubled as intelligence-gathering. The Harvard botanist [[Richard Evans Schultes]] toured Mexico for the Rockefeller Foundation's Agricultural Survey and gathered seven tons of rubber seeds in the [[Putumayo]] and Vaupés regions of southern Colombia while passing on intelligence about the political sympathies of his Colombian colleagues. The anthropologist [[Sol Tax]], named head of the Foundation's Yucatán Linguistics Surveys on the strength of his claim that language was the last barrier to Indian assimilation, led the first expedition of the [[CIAA]]-funded [[National Indian Institute]]'s anthropology committee, an intellectual lineage that anticipated the [[Summer Institute of Linguistics]]'s later pacification work.[^6]
### State Department Pipeline
The Foundation's board functioned as a recruiting pool for US foreign policy. In 1952, as [[John Foster Dulles]] prepared to become Eisenhower's secretary of state, he turned over the chair of the Foundation to [[John D. Rockefeller III|John D. Rockefeller 3rd]] and tapped his friend [[Dean Rusk]] for the presidency. When [[John F. Kennedy]] formed his cabinet in December 1960, Robert Lovett, a Foundation trustee, declined State, Defense, and Treasury and instead recommended Rusk, then the Foundation's president, who took the call from the president-elect while attending a board meeting and became secretary of state; trustee [[Chester Bowles]] joined him as undersecretary. Earlier figures linking the Foundation to the foreign-policy establishment included UN undersecretary-general [[Ralph Bunche]] (a former grantee and trustee), [[Council on Foreign Relations]] guiding light Fosdick, Union Theological Seminary president Henry Pitney Van Dusen, and Colombia's [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]], who collaborated with Nelson Rockefeller and became a Foundation trustee.[^6]
The Foundation's board functioned as a recruiting pool for US foreign policy. In 1952, as [[John Foster Dulles]] prepared to become Eisenhower's secretary of state, he turned over the chair of the Foundation to [[John D. Rockefeller III|John D. Rockefeller 3rd]] and tapped his friend [[Dean Rusk]] for the presidency. When [[John F. Kennedy]] formed his cabinet in December 1960, Robert Lovett, a Foundation trustee, declined State, Defense, and Treasury and instead recommended Rusk, then the Foundation's president, who took the call from the president-elect while attending a board meeting and became secretary of state; trustee [[Chester Bowles]] joined him as undersecretary. Earlier figures linking the Foundation to the foreign-policy establishment included UN undersecretary-general [[Ralph Bunche]] (a former grantee and trustee), [[Council on Foreign Relations]] guiding light Fosdick, Union Theological Seminary president Henry Pitney Van Dusen, and Colombia's [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]], who collaborated with Nelson Rockefeller and became a Foundation trustee.[^7]
The chairman of the board at the end of 1976 was [[Cyrus Vance]], a trustee from 1970 who had chaired the board since 1975. The trustees listed as of December 31, 1976 included [[W. Michael Blumenthal]], [[Theodore Hesburgh]], [[Vernon Jordan]], [[Lane Kirkland]], [[Bill Moyers]], [[Robert V. Roosa]], [[Frederick Seitz]], [[Paul Volcker]] and [[Clifton R. Wharton, Jr.|Clifton Wharton]], with John D. Rockefeller 3rd as honorary chairman. The president's report for 1976 states that in the selection of Americans to serve the incoming administration of [[Jimmy Carter]] the chairman of the board, Vance, had been appointed Secretary of State and the chairman of its Audit Committee, Blumenthal, Secretary of the Treasury, and that "Mr. Vance becomes the third Trustee in the history of the Foundation to be named Secretary of State, the others being John Foster Dulles and Dean Rusk."[^7] In October 1975 Vance had headed a world affairs delegation to China, which the president's report mentions in connection with a Foundation working paper, "China Diary."[^7] He rejoined the board in 1980 and retired effective June 30, 1982, having served on its Executive and Finance Committees; the 1982 report notes the retirement in the same year of the chairman, Hesburgh, and of the former chairman, Vance, whose combined service on the board was 30 years.[^8]
The chairman of the board at the end of 1976 was [[Cyrus Vance]], a trustee from 1970 who had chaired the board since 1975. The trustees listed as of December 31, 1976 included [[W. Michael Blumenthal]], [[Theodore Hesburgh]], [[Vernon Jordan]], [[Lane Kirkland]], [[Bill Moyers]], [[Robert V. Roosa]], [[Frederick Seitz]], [[Paul Volcker]] and [[Clifton R. Wharton, Jr.|Clifton Wharton]], with John D. Rockefeller 3rd as honorary chairman. The president's report for 1976 states that in the selection of Americans to serve the incoming administration of [[Jimmy Carter]] the chairman of the board, Vance, had been appointed Secretary of State and the chairman of its Audit Committee, Blumenthal, Secretary of the Treasury, and that "Mr. Vance becomes the third Trustee in the history of the Foundation to be named Secretary of State, the others being John Foster Dulles and Dean Rusk."[^8] In October 1975 Vance had headed a world affairs delegation to China, which the president's report mentions in connection with a Foundation working paper, "China Diary."[^8] He rejoined the board in 1980 and retired effective June 30, 1982, having served on its Executive and Finance Committees; the 1982 report notes the retirement in the same year of the chairman, Hesburgh, and of the former chairman, Vance, whose combined service on the board was 30 years.[^9]
### Mind-Control Research Funding
The Foundation's reach extended into the psychiatric research that the CIA would later exploit. In 1943 it funded the establishment of the [[Allan Memorial Institute]] at [[McGill University]] in Montreal (the book renders the name "Allen"), the psychiatric institute later directed by [[D. Ewen Cameron]], whose depatterning experiments became [[MKULTRA]] Subproject 68. The Foundation also funded [[Sensory Deprivation]] research, the technique of strapping subjects in a sealed box cut off from light, sound, smell, and touch; in March 1955 the [[National Institutes of Health]] began CIA-funded experiments using the standard method minus the practice of releasing subjects on request, after which mind-control experiments spread under funding directed by [[Sidney Gottlieb]] of the CIA's [[TSS|Technical Services Staff]], part of an old-boy network that included Nelson Rockefeller's former CIAA associate [[J.C. King]]. Colby and Dennett note that Nelson "needed little introduction to MKULTRA," the CIA's use of the health and welfare bureaucracy for mind-control work having begun during his own tenure as undersecretary of HEW.[^9]
The Foundation's reach extended into the psychiatric research that the CIA would later exploit. In 1943 it funded the establishment of the [[Allan Memorial Institute]] at [[McGill University]] in Montreal (the book renders the name "Allen"), the psychiatric institute later directed by [[D. Ewen Cameron]], whose depatterning experiments became [[MKULTRA]] Subproject 68. The Foundation also funded [[Sensory Deprivation]] research, the technique of strapping subjects in a sealed box cut off from light, sound, smell, and touch; in March 1955 the [[National Institutes of Health]] began CIA-funded experiments using the standard method minus the practice of releasing subjects on request, after which mind-control experiments spread under funding directed by [[Sidney Gottlieb]] of the CIA's [[TSS|Technical Services Staff]], part of an old-boy network that included Nelson Rockefeller's former CIAA associate [[J.C. King]]. Colby and Dennett note that Nelson "needed little introduction to MKULTRA," the CIA's use of the health and welfare bureaucracy for mind-control work having begun during his own tenure as undersecretary of HEW.[^10]
### New School for Social Research
The Foundation paired with the [[New School for Social Research]] in 1933 to bring German and Central European scholars to the University in Exile. [[Alvin Johnson]] and the Foundation agreed on a dozen individuals to rescue, and the Foundation's Paris associate [[Tracy Kittredge]] wrote on the State Department's view of the question on March 29, 1933. The [[Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars]] acted for the Foundation in these early cases and did not seek permanent United States posts for the men it supported.[^10] Johnson later went to Raymond Fosdick, then the Foundation's president, for travel and two-year stipends for five scholars, and the Foundation supplied expert information on who was a Nazi or Fascist.[^11]
The Foundation paired with the [[New School for Social Research]] in 1933 to bring German and Central European scholars to the University in Exile. [[Alvin Johnson]] and the Foundation agreed on a dozen individuals to rescue, and the Foundation's Paris associate [[Tracy Kittredge]] wrote on the State Department's view of the question on March 29, 1933. The [[Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars]] acted for the Foundation in these early cases and did not seek permanent United States posts for the men it supported.[^11] Johnson later went to Raymond Fosdick, then the Foundation's president, for travel and two-year stipends for five scholars, and the Foundation supplied expert information on who was a Nazi or Fascist.[^12]
The New School's history states that after Johnson had raised only $10,000, [[Hiram J. Halle]] gave the whole $60,000 for the University in Exile, and that additional funding from the Foundation "enabled him to enlarge his rescue efforts."[^12] [[Daniel Bessner]] describes Halle as associated with the Foundation, which he says spent $1.4 million helping displaced scholars.[^13]
The New School's history states that after Johnson had raised only $10,000, [[Hiram J. Halle]] gave the whole $60,000 for the University in Exile, and that additional funding from the Foundation "enabled him to enlarge his rescue efforts."[^13] [[Daniel Bessner]] describes Halle as associated with the Foundation, which he says spent $1.4 million helping displaced scholars.[^14]
The Rockefeller Archive Center's account of the Foundation's refugee scholar program states that Foundation officers worked closely with Johnson, with whom they had been working since 1933, and that the Foundation depended on the Emergency Committee to find permanent employment for scholars and on the [[United States Department of State]] to secure non-quota visas.[^14] Johnson's memoir has his request to Fosdick growing from five scholars to fifteen and then twenty-five, then to a project of one hundred, which Fosdick put to his trustees and approved the next day; the New York Times obituary of June 9, 1971 states that the Foundation "approved the request and assured the financing of 100 emigres."[^15] The Foundation's grant records group the New School's files under the refugee-scholar program, with a separate file for the [[Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes]] and wartime projects including Totalitarian Communication Studies and War and Peace Studies.[^16] A July 31, 1941 letter from [[Marc Bloch]] to Johnson, written after the French government barred French males of military age from leaving Paris, is filed in the Foundation's records.[^17]
The Rockefeller Archive Center's account of the Foundation's refugee scholar program states that Foundation officers worked closely with Johnson, with whom they had been working since 1933, and that the Foundation depended on the Emergency Committee to find permanent employment for scholars and on the [[United States Department of State]] to secure non-quota visas.[^15] Johnson's memoir has his request to Fosdick growing from five scholars to fifteen and then twenty-five, then to a project of one hundred, which Fosdick put to his trustees and approved the next day; the New York Times obituary of June 9, 1971 states that the Foundation "approved the request and assured the financing of 100 emigres."[^16] The Foundation's grant records group the New School's files under the refugee-scholar program, with a separate file for the [[Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes]] and wartime projects including Totalitarian Communication Studies and War and Peace Studies.[^17] A July 31, 1941 letter from [[Marc Bloch]] to Johnson, written after the French government barred French males of military age from leaving Paris, is filed in the Foundation's records.[^18]
The Foundation funded the [[Research Project on Totalitarian Communication]] at the New School, led by [[Hans Speier]] and [[Ernst Kris]], which analyzed radio broadcasts from totalitarian countries and was coordinated with the British Broadcasting Corporation and government agencies. Foundation funding ended in 1943, and many of the researchers later held federal posts. John Foster Dulles, a Foundation trustee, urged the Foundation to continue work in this field after the war in order to counter Soviet propaganda in Europe.[^18]
The Foundation funded the [[Research Project on Totalitarian Communication]] at the New School, led by [[Hans Speier]] and [[Ernst Kris]], which analyzed radio broadcasts from totalitarian countries and was coordinated with the British Broadcasting Corporation and government agencies. Foundation funding ended in 1943, and many of the researchers later held federal posts. John Foster Dulles, a Foundation trustee, urged the Foundation to continue work in this field after the war in order to counter Soviet propaganda in Europe.[^19]
The Foundation's grants reached the [[Institute of World Affairs]] through its predecessor projects and through studies run by the Institute. Its grants for the Research Project on Totalitarian Communication were $15,960 in March 1941 and $19,000 in 1942.[^19] A study titled "Germany's Position in European Postwar Reconstruction," compiled by the Institute from 1944 to 1949, was funded by the Foundation "in order to study the results of post-World War I reconstruction in Germany, with an eye toward the practical implementation of these lessons following World War II."[^20] The Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia project, formed in 1941, was financed by the Foundation and "focused largely on labor politics in Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia."[^21] A folder for [[Joseph H. Willits]] for 1941 to 1952 concerns a Foundation grant for the project of [[Hans Neisser]] titled Domestic Determinants of International Trade.[^22] The Institute's historical note reports its funding for 1943 to 1951 at $630,000, with the Foundation among its donors.[^23]
The Foundation's grants reached the [[Institute of World Affairs]] through its predecessor projects and through studies run by the Institute. Its grants for the Research Project on Totalitarian Communication were $15,960 in March 1941 and $19,000 in 1942.[^20] A study titled "Germany's Position in European Postwar Reconstruction," compiled by the Institute from 1944 to 1949, was funded by the Foundation "in order to study the results of post-World War I reconstruction in Germany, with an eye toward the practical implementation of these lessons following World War II."[^21] The Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia project, formed in 1941, was financed by the Foundation and "focused largely on labor politics in Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia."[^22] A folder for [[Joseph H. Willits]] for 1941 to 1952 concerns a Foundation grant for the project of [[Hans Neisser]] titled Domestic Determinants of International Trade.[^23] The Institute's historical note reports its funding for 1943 to 1951 at $630,000, with the Foundation among its donors.[^24]
### Refugee Scholar Fellowships, 1931 to 1933
The Italian anti-fascist [[Max Ascoli]] came to the United States in 1931 on a Foundation fellowship; Ascoli wrote in 1954 that the offer was made in the spring of 1931 by the Foundation's representative in Italy, [[Luigi Einaudi]].[^24][^25] In 1933 Johnson recruited Ascoli, with the Austrian scholar [[Erich Hula]], as one of two additional Rockefeller scholars for the University in Exile, and Ascoli joined the Graduate Faculty in late 1933.[^26]
The Italian anti-fascist [[Max Ascoli]] came to the United States in 1931 on a Foundation fellowship; Ascoli wrote in 1954 that the offer was made in the spring of 1931 by the Foundation's representative in Italy, [[Luigi Einaudi]].[^25][^26] In 1933 Johnson recruited Ascoli, with the Austrian scholar [[Erich Hula]], as one of two additional Rockefeller scholars for the University in Exile, and Ascoli joined the Graduate Faculty in late 1933.[^27]
### Belém Virus Laboratory
In the Brazilian Amazon the Foundation's medical infrastructure directly served the development drive. The BR-010 highway pushed south from [[Belem|Belém]] toward [[Juscelino Kubitschek|Kubitschek's]] new capital at Brasília, "shielded from the jungle's malarial counterattacks by mosquito control programs and scientists from the Rockefeller Foundation-funded Belém Virus Laboratory," the same road network that opened uncontacted indigenous territories to settlement and mining.[^27]
In the Brazilian Amazon the Foundation's medical infrastructure directly served the development drive. The BR-010 highway pushed south from [[Belem|Belém]] toward [[Juscelino Kubitschek|Kubitschek's]] new capital at Brasília, "shielded from the jungle's malarial counterattacks by mosquito control programs and scientists from the Rockefeller Foundation-funded Belém Virus Laboratory," the same road network that opened uncontacted indigenous territories to settlement and mining.[^28]
### Princeton Listening Center and Wartime Monitoring
The Foundation's money reached American radio monitoring before the government had a monitoring service of its own. The [[Princeton Listening Center]] was launched in November 1939 at [[Princeton University]] with Foundation funding, and its finding aid states that it was financed by the Foundation and continued its work until June 1941, when the [[Federal Communications Commission]] took over; [[Stephen C. Mercado]] likewise gives the absorption by the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] as June.[^28] Daniel Bessner writes that Washington organizations "used intermediaries at the Rockefeller Foundation to assign projects to Graduate Faculty members," some of whom could not work directly for the government because they remained foreign nationals.[^29]
The Foundation's money reached American radio monitoring before the government had a monitoring service of its own. The [[Princeton Listening Center]] was launched in November 1939 at [[Princeton University]] with Foundation funding, and its finding aid states that it was financed by the Foundation and continued its work until June 1941, when the [[Federal Communications Commission]] took over; [[Stephen C. Mercado]] likewise gives the absorption by the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] as June.[^29] Daniel Bessner writes that Washington organizations "used intermediaries at the Rockefeller Foundation to assign projects to Graduate Faculty members," some of whom could not work directly for the government because they remained foreign nationals.[^30]
A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC, Princeton and the Foundation. [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]] wrote a memo for [[Lloyd Free]] on July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment" at inaccuracies in the article, among them its claim of a joint project.[^30]
A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC, Princeton and the Foundation. [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]] wrote a memo for [[Lloyd Free]] on July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment" at inaccuracies in the article, among them its claim of a joint project.[^31]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995. Ch. 2.
[^2]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 2; Ch. 3.
[^3]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 3.
[^4]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 3; Ch. 5.
[^5]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 9; Ch. 10.
[^6]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12; Ch. 18; Ch. 23.
[^7]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1976, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1976-1.pdf
[^8]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1982, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1982-1.pdf
[^9]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 18.
[^10]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of The New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 86, p. 91 and p. 94.
[^11]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366-367.
[^12]: Histories of The New School, "University in Exile." https://histories.newschool.edu/histories/university-exile
[^13]: Daniel Morris Bessner, The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State (Duke University dissertation, 2013), p. 84 and note 16. https://hdl.handle.net/10161/7101
[^14]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program," REsource, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/the-rockefeller-foundations-refugee-scholar-program-world-war-ii-nazi-europe/ (Foundation officers worked closely with Alvin Johnson of the New School for Social Research, with whom they had been working since 1933; the Emergency Committee found permanent employment for scholars).
[^15]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (Viking Press, 1952; University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366 to 367; "Dr. Alvin Johnson Of New School Dies," The New York Times, June 9, 1971, p. 1, https://www.nytimes.com/1971/06/09/archives/dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school-dies-dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school.html
[^16]: Rockefeller Archive Center, DIMES catalog, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 1.1, Series 200, file groups "Refugee Scholars - New School for Social Research - (French Institute)," "New School for Social Research - Totalitarian Communication Studies," and "War and Peace Studies," https://dimes.rockarch.org.
[^17]: Rockefeller Archive Center, REsource story "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program" (letter from Marc Bloch to Alvin Johnson, July 31, 1941, RAC, RG 1.1, Series 200, Box 48, Folder 550).
[^18]: "Rockefeller Foundation Support for Communications Media in the 1930s and 1940s," Rockefeller Archive Center, RE:source, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/rockefeller-foundation-support-for-communications-media-in-the-1930s-and-1940s/
[^19]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 130-131. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
[^20]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "'Germany's Postion in European Postwar Reconstruction', 1944-1949," Institute of World Affairs records, Box 5, Folders 32-33. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27256
[^21]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia, 1941-1956," Institute of World Affairs records, Series 3. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27285
[^22]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Willits, Joseph H., 1941-1952," Box 3, Folder 6. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27198
[^23]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Institute of World Affairs records," NS-02-16-01, historical note. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/resources/235
[^24]: Boston University, Bridge, "Connections," November 23, 2001, https://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive/2001/11-23/connections.htm. Also Isabelle Richet, review of Davide Grippa, Un antifascista tra Italia e Stati Uniti, Primo Levi Center, November 24, 2014, https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/an-antifascist-between-italy-and-the-united-states/.
[^25]: "The Reporter's Notes," The Reporter, September 23, 1954, pp. 2-6, https://archive.org/details/sim_reporter_1954-09-23_11_5.
[^26]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of the New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), pp. 102 and 118.
[^27]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 22.
[^28]: Princeton University Library, "Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941" (AC015), finding aid. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015. Stephen C. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), on the Princeton Listening Center's launch in November 1939 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, and on its absorption by FBIS in June. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
[^29]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 138. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
[^30]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article of July 1941 and Graves's memo of 9 July 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^5]: *Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. Rockefeller Foundation*, No. 22-1678 (4th Cir. March 20, 2024), on appeal from No. 1:15-cv-00950-TDC (D. Md.). https://www.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinions/221678.P.pdf
[^6]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 9; Ch. 10.
[^7]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12; Ch. 18; Ch. 23.
[^8]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1976, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1976-1.pdf
[^9]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1982, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1982-1.pdf
[^10]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 18.
[^11]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of The New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 86, p. 91 and p. 94.
[^12]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366-367.
[^13]: Histories of The New School, "University in Exile." https://histories.newschool.edu/histories/university-exile
[^14]: Daniel Morris Bessner, The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State (Duke University dissertation, 2013), p. 84 and note 16. https://hdl.handle.net/10161/7101
[^15]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program," REsource, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/the-rockefeller-foundations-refugee-scholar-program-world-war-ii-nazi-europe/ (Foundation officers worked closely with Alvin Johnson of the New School for Social Research, with whom they had been working since 1933; the Emergency Committee found permanent employment for scholars).
[^16]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (Viking Press, 1952; University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366 to 367; "Dr. Alvin Johnson Of New School Dies," The New York Times, June 9, 1971, p. 1, https://www.nytimes.com/1971/06/09/archives/dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school-dies-dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school.html
[^17]: Rockefeller Archive Center, DIMES catalog, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 1.1, Series 200, file groups "Refugee Scholars - New School for Social Research - (French Institute)," "New School for Social Research - Totalitarian Communication Studies," and "War and Peace Studies," https://dimes.rockarch.org.
[^18]: Rockefeller Archive Center, REsource story "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program" (letter from Marc Bloch to Alvin Johnson, July 31, 1941, RAC, RG 1.1, Series 200, Box 48, Folder 550).
[^19]: "Rockefeller Foundation Support for Communications Media in the 1930s and 1940s," Rockefeller Archive Center, RE:source, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/rockefeller-foundation-support-for-communications-media-in-the-1930s-and-1940s/
[^20]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 130-131. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
[^21]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "'Germany's Postion in European Postwar Reconstruction', 1944-1949," Institute of World Affairs records, Box 5, Folders 32-33. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27256
[^22]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia, 1941-1956," Institute of World Affairs records, Series 3. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27285
[^23]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Willits, Joseph H., 1941-1952," Box 3, Folder 6. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27198
[^24]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Institute of World Affairs records," NS-02-16-01, historical note. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/resources/235
[^25]: Boston University, Bridge, "Connections," November 23, 2001, https://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive/2001/11-23/connections.htm. Also Isabelle Richet, review of Davide Grippa, Un antifascista tra Italia e Stati Uniti, Primo Levi Center, November 24, 2014, https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/an-antifascist-between-italy-and-the-united-states/.
[^26]: "The Reporter's Notes," The Reporter, September 23, 1954, pp. 2-6, https://archive.org/details/sim_reporter_1954-09-23_11_5.
[^27]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of the New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), pp. 102 and 118.
[^28]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 22.
[^29]: Princeton University Library, "Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941" (AC015), finding aid. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015. Stephen C. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), on the Princeton Listening Center's launch in November 1939 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, and on its absorption by FBIS in June. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
[^30]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 138. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
[^31]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article of July 1941 and Graves's memo of 9 July 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.

9
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology.md
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@ -61,6 +61,12 @@ relations:
end: 1963
role: "Human Ecology Fund grant, Physique and psychological functioning, $39,000 (Price table)"
fn: 9
- type: member_of
with: "[[John C. Whitehorn]]"
reverse: true
start: 1957
role: "board member"
fn: 19
---
The Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology was a [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] front foundation established in [[New York City]] around 1955 to channel covert funding from [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] to academic researchers, psychiatric institutions, and other organizations conducting behavioral modification research on the CIA's behalf. Operating under the guise of a legitimate foundation supporting behavioral science research, the Society provided institutional cover that allowed MKULTRA funding to reach recipients whose participation might have been refused or compromised if the CIA's role had been disclosed.[^1]
@ -89,7 +95,7 @@ In 1955 Sid Gottlieb's [[TSS]] crew took the Society over from [[Morse Allen]] a
### The 1957 Annual Report
The Society's annual report for 1957 gave its address as "71-58 Austin Street, Forest Hills 75, L. I., N.Y.," and listed James L. Monroe as executive secretary and treasurer. It named Harold G. Wolff as president, Lawrence E. Hinkle Jr. as vice president, and John W. Gittinger as field representative. The board of directors pictured in the report was Wolff, [[Adolf Berle]] Jr., Hinkle, [[Joseph C. Hinsey]], Carl R. Rogers and [[John C. Whitehorn]]. [[Walter P. Pasternak]] was listed as technical writer. The report says the Society's funds came from gifts by private individuals and, in one instance, from the [[Foresight Foundation]], and that "A major portion of the money has been expended in support of the Human Ecology Study Program at the Cornell University Medical College."[^4]
The Society's annual report for 1957 gave its address as "71-58 Austin Street, Forest Hills 75, L. I., N.Y.," and listed James L. Monroe as executive secretary and treasurer. It named Harold G. Wolff as president, Lawrence E. Hinkle Jr. as vice president, and John W. Gittinger as field representative. The board of directors pictured in the report was Wolff, [[Adolf Berle]] Jr., Hinkle, [[Joseph C. Hinsey]], Carl R. Rogers and [[John C. Whitehorn]]. [[Walter P. Pasternak]] was listed as technical writer. The report says the Society's funds came from gifts by private individuals and, in one instance, from the [[Foresight Foundation]], and that "A major portion of the money has been expended in support of the Human Ecology Study Program at the Cornell University Medical College."[^4] [[John Marks]] wrote that after the CIA severed the Society from Cornell, the board in 1957 included John Whitehorn, chairman of the psychiatry department at [[Johns Hopkins University]], together with Carl Rogers and Adolf Berle, with Harold Wolff and Lawrence Hinkle remaining as president and vice president.[^19]
The report's review of projects lists the Cornell work, research at [[Rutgers University]], Cameron's psychotherapy experiments at McGill University, [[Robert Hyde|Robert W. Hyde]]'s work at the Butler Health Center, a study of prisoners of war by [[Albert Biderman|Albert D. Biderman]], a project under [[Beatrice Bishop Berle]], and a "Personality Studies" project under Dr. David R. Saunders of the [[Educational Testing Service]]. The Saunders project was funded in October of the year under review to examine the relation between two personality theories, the Gittinger theory and the Myers-Briggs type theory, using the Wechsler-Bellevue scale and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator on the same group.[^4] John D. Marks later wrote that the Society gave about $140,000 to Saunders, "who knew about the Agency's involvement."[^5]
@ -143,3 +149,4 @@ A CIA memorandum of November 18, 1958, addressed to the Comptroller under the he
[^16]: Jo Thomas, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," *The New York Times*, October 9, 1977 (dateline Washington, October 8). CIA reading room copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp88-01315r000300390007-3 ; archive.org copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300390007-3 .
[^17]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
[^18]: CIA, memorandum for the Comptroller, "MKULTRA, Subproject No. 90," November 18, 1958, CIA reading room document 00017493. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00017493
[^19]: Marks, John. *The Search for the "Manchurian Candidate": The CIA and Mind Control*. London: Allen Lane, 1979, p. 156.

233
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Standard Oil.md
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@ -1,28 +1,251 @@
---
created: 2026-06-13
updated: 2026-06-13
updated: 2026-10-14
title: Standard Oil
aliases:
- Standard Oil Company
- Standard Oil Company of Ohio
- Standard Oil of New Jersey
- Standard Oil Company of New Jersey
- Standard Oil Company (New Jersey)
- Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey
- Jersey Standard
- Standard Oil of New York
- Standard Oil of California
tags:
- Organization
- Company
- Oil
- Rockefeller
- LatinAmerica
- IGFarben
- Cartel
- SyntheticRubber
- AlienPropertyCustodian
- Aramco
- Iran
- IranianConsortium
category: "Private Organization"
summary: "Standard Oil was the John D. Rockefeller oil monopoly broken up in 1911 into successor companies whose Latin American operations, particularly Standard Oil of New Jersey, underwrote the Rockefeller family's mid-century influence over U.S. hemispheric policy."
summary: "Standard Oil was the Rockefeller petroleum combination ordered dissolved in 1911, whose New Jersey company held patent, cartel and concession agreements with I.G. Farben, Aramco and the 1954 Iranian consortium."
start: 1870
location: "United States"
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[John D. Rockefeller]]"
reverse: true
start: 1870
role: "organized the Standard Oil Company of Ohio"
fn: 1
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
reverse: true
start: 1911
role: "United States v. Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey; decree affirmed with directions to modify"
fn: 7
- type: partner_of
with: "[[I.G. Farben]]"
start: 1929-11-09
role: "four agreements of November 9, 1929, and the Standard-I.G. and Jasco patent licensing"
fn: 12
- type: investigated
with: "[[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program]]"
reverse: true
start: 1942-03-05
end: 1942-04-07
role: "Part 11, Rubber, hearings on the I.G. Farben agreements"
fn: 12
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
reverse: true
start: 1942-03-25
role: "criminal information, complaint and consent decree of March 25, 1942"
fn: 35
- type: investigated
with: "[[Federal Trade Commission]]"
reverse: true
start: 1949-12-02
end: 1951-10
role: "international petroleum cartel staff investigation; staff report filed October 1951"
fn: 40
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
reverse: true
start: 1953-04-14
role: "civil antitrust complaint in the international petroleum cartel case, Civil No. 86-27"
fn: 56
- type: owned
with: "[[Creole Petroleum Company]]"
role: "Venezuelan subsidiary; Nelson Rockefeller sat on its board"
fn: 71
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Arabian American Oil Company]]"
start: 1948-12
role: "30 percent stake in Aramco from December 1948; Socony-Vacuum held 10 percent"
fn: 50
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Iranian Consortium]]"
start: 1954-04-01
role: "eight percent share of the 1954 consortium"
fn: 63
---
Standard Oil was the petroleum monopoly founded in 1870 by [[John D. Rockefeller]] that controlled roughly ninety percent of American oil refining before the U.S. Supreme Court ordered its dissolution in 1911 under the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]]. The breakup created successor companies, including Standard Oil of [[New Jersey]] (later Exxon), Standard Oil of New York (Mobil), and Standard Oil of California (Chevron), whose combined assets preserved the [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]] family's financial power.[^1]
Standard Oil was the petroleum monopoly founded in 1870 by [[John D. Rockefeller]] that controlled roughly ninety percent of American oil refining before the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ordered its dissolution in 1911 under the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]]. The breakup created successor companies, including Standard Oil of [[New Jersey]] (later [[Exxon]]), Standard Oil of New York ([[Mobil]]), and Standard Oil of California ([[Chevron]]), whose combined assets preserved the [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]] family's financial power.[^1] Between 1929 and 1942 the New Jersey company's patent and licensing arrangements ran through the German chemical combine [[I.G. Farben]]; after the war it held a 30 percent interest in the [[Arabian American Oil Company]] (Aramco) and an 8 percent share of the 1954 [[Iranian Consortium]].
### The trust and the 1911 decision
The government's bill alleged that the conspiracy was formed "in or about the year 1870" by John D. Rockefeller, [[William Rockefeller]] and [[Henry Flagler|Henry M. Flagler]], and that the defendants pursued it in three periods: 1870 to 1882, 1882 to 1899 and 1899 to the filing of the bill.[^2] The bill named the Standard Oil Company of [[Ohio]] and sixty-two other corporations and partnerships as defendants, with seven individuals.[^3] It alleged that the so-called trust of 1882, and the 1899 acquisition by the New Jersey corporation of the shares of the defendant companies, were combinations of independent or competing concerns, and that the combination had obtained "a complete mastery over the Oil industry, controlling 90 per cent of the business of producing, shipping, refining, and selling petroleum and its products."[^4][^5]
The appeal was brought by "The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and thirty-three other corporations," together with John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller and five other individuals.[^6] [[Edward Douglass White]] delivered the opinion of the Court on May 15, 1911, which affirmed the decree under the antitrust act of 1890 with directions to modify it and kept jurisdiction in the court below to compel compliance.[^7] [[John Marshall Harlan]] concurred in part and dissented in part.[^8]
### Successor companies
The Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) changed its name to Exxon Corporation in November 1972; on November 30, 1999 a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon was merged into Mobil Corporation and Exxon changed its name to Exxon Mobil Corporation, a New Jersey corporation incorporated in 1882.[^9] The Standard Oil Company of California, incorporated in Delaware in 1926, took the name Chevron Corporation in 1984, ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001, and Chevron Corporation again in 2005.[^10] The Senate's 1974 print, in describing the five defendants in the 1953 cartel case, gives their then-current names as Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Mobil ([[Socony-Vacuum]] Oil Company), Socal ([[Standard Oil of California|Standard Oil Company of California]]), [[Texaco]] ([[The Texas Company]]) and [[Gulf Oil|Gulf]].[^11]
### The 1929 agreements with I.G. Farben
The company's chemical relationship with I.G. Farben rested on four agreements dated November 9, 1929. [[Thurman Arnold]], the assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust, described them to the [[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program|Truman Committee]] on March 26, 1942 as the "division of the fields" agreement, the four-party agreement, the coordination agreement and the German sales agreement.[^12] Arnold testified that Standard turned its non-oil chemical processes over to I.G., and that I.G. turned over to Standard the patents and discoveries that directly concerned oil production, including synthetic gasoline, so that each company held a world monopoly in its field.[^13] The arrangement created two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled from [[Germany]] and one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil.[^14]
Arnold gave his own account of the motive in the same testimony: "these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control."[^15] He read into the record a letter signed by [[Walter C. Teagle]] of Standard, in which each party proposed "to hold itself willing to take care of any future eventualities in a spirit of mutual helpfulness" and, if performance of the agreements were restrained or prevented "by operation of any existing or future law" or the beneficial interest of either party alienated "by operation of law or governmental authority," to "enter into new negotiations in the spirit of the present agreements."[^16]
Arnold identified a second set of arrangements as the Hague Memorandum, made in September 1939, which he said carried the 1929 conspiracy through the war between Germany and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. He read a letter of October 12, 1939 from [[Frank A. Howard]], the president of the [[Standard Oil Development Company]], stating that in [[Netherlands|Holland]] "They delivered to me assignments of some 2,000 foreign patents" and that the parties had worked toward "complete plans for a modus Vivendi which would operate through the term of the war, whether or not the United States came in."[^17]
[[William S. Farish]], the president of the New Jersey company, testified on March 31, 1942 and described the 1939 readjustment. The company's patent licensing had run through two American corporations, Standard-I.G. and [[Jasco]], in one of which Standard held 80 per cent and in the other 50 per cent, the Germans holding the other shares; the stock holdings represented roughly the German participations in licensing fixed by the 1929 contracts. Farish said that substantially all the patents had originated with I.G. and that legal title to most of them, especially the foreign patents, had been left in I.G. to avoid the expense of transfers.[^18] The assignments were taken by an American trustee who, if the United States went to war with Germany, would be subject to account to the [[Alien Property Custodian]] for any equitable interest of the Germans. The German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. was purchased at book value ($20,000), and the Germans retained title to their 20 per cent of the royalties.[^19]
The same agreements appear in the first order the Custodian issued. Vesting Order No. 1, signed by [[Leo T. Crowley]] on March 25, 1942 (the date of the consent decree) and published in the Federal Register on March 31, 1942, vested all right, title and interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G. in the Division of Fields Agreement of November 9, 1929 and the Jasco Agreement of September 30, 1930; the four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; a series of agreements of October 7, 1938 among [[Ruhrchemie]], I.G., [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[M.W. Kellogg Company|Kellogg]] on hydrocarbon synthesis; the Hague Memorandum dated September 25, 1939, effective September 1, 1939; the trust agreement executed March 8, 1940 by Walter Schaefer and Harold Koechling; and a trust agreement of August 31, 1939 among Frank A. Howard, W.E. Currie and P.L. Young. The order also vested the stock, patents and contracts of the [[Standard Catalytic Company]], the capital stock of Jasco, Inc. (including five certificates held by Schaefer and Koechling as trustees), and all patents held by or in the name of Standard-I.G. Company, Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc. or W.E. Currie, listed in four schedules.[^20] The Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943, a period in which 1,792 vesting orders were issued, lists it first and states that German holders of American patents had "acquired a substantial influence in American industry" through patent contracts, naming synthetic rubber among the affected industries.[^21][^22]
The [[Federal Trade Commission]]'s staff later recorded the German marketing side of the relationship: an agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Royal Dutch Shell and the [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]], which together controlled more than 60 percent of the German domestic market, with the cooperation reported of the marketing subsidiaries of [[Leuna]] and I.G. Farben, and the distributor [[Deutsche Gasolin]] A.G. owned 50 percent by Standard and 50 percent by I.G. Farbenindustrie in 1933.[^23]
### Synthetic rubber and the buna patents
Arnold told the Truman Committee that I.G. Farben had "the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber." He said that between 1932 and 1934 four rubber companies and one chemical company approached Standard seeking licenses, and that negotiations in 1932 between [[B.F. Goodrich|Goodrich]] and Standard were subject to the supervision of I.G., which refused to accept various portions of the proposed terms.[^24] Howard's letter of February 6, 1940 to [[E.J. Sadler]] stated the company's position: "The interest of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey in the buna process dates back to the original agreement of 1929 between I. G. and Jersey."[^25] Arnold also said that for Standard's own butyl development the company licensed only two rubber companies, apart from specialty companies.[^26]
The company issued a release on the day of the consent decree, introduced as Exhibit 359, which stated that "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency."[^27] Arnold asked the committee to keep the release in mind when weighing the documents, one of which showed that the company had refused to let the British have a sample of rubber as late as 1941.[^28]
### Ethyl, aviation fuel and the German plants
Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^29] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^30]
The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^31] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^32]
The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^33]
Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^34]
### The 1942 consent decree
On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^29] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^35]
Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^36] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^37] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^38] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^39]
### The Federal Trade Commission staff report
The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^40] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^41] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^42] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^43]
The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^44] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^45]
### Aramco and the Saudi concessions
Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^46] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^47]
Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^48] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^49] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^50] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^46]
In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^51] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^52] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^53]
### The grand jury and the cartel case
The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^40][^54] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^55] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^56]
### Iran and the 1954 consortium
Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^55][^56] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^56][^57] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^57]
Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^58] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^59] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^60] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^57]
On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^61] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^62]
The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^63] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^64] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^65] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^66] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^67]
Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^57][^68] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^68]
### Guatemala, June 1954
On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^69]
### Latin America and the Rockefeller Network
Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^2]
Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^70] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^71] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^72]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Chernow, Ron. *Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr.* Random House, 1998.
[^2]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
[^2]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), statement of the bill (conspiracy alleged "in or about the year 1870" by John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller and Henry M. Flagler; three periods, 1870 to 1882, 1882 to 1899 and 1899 to the filing of the bill). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^3]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), statement of the bill ("Standard Oil Company of Ohio, and sixty-two other corporations and partnerships, as also seven individuals, were named as defendants"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^4]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), summary of the petition's averments on the trust of 1882 and the 1899 acquisition by the New Jersey company of the shares of the defendant companies. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^5]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), statement of the bill ("a complete mastery over the Oil industry, controlling 90 per cent of the business of producing, shipping, refining, and selling petroleum and its products"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^6]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), opinion of White, C.J., opening paragraph ("The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and thirty-three other corporations, John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller, and five other individual defendants prosecute this appeal"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^7]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), concluding part of the opinion ("Our order will therefore be one of affirmance, with directions, however, to modify the decree"; the court below "to retain jurisdiction"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^8]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), opinion of Harlan, J., "concurring in part and dissenting in part." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^9]: Exxon Mobil Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1999 (filed March 23, 2000), Item 1 ("Exxon Mobil Corporation ('ExxonMobil'), formerly named Exxon Corporation, was incorporated in the State of New Jersey in 1882"; merger of Mobil Corporation into a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon on November 30, 1999) and SEC header (former conformed name Standard Oil Co of New Jersey, date of name change 1972-11-23), accession no. 0000930661-00-000656. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34088/0000930661-00-000656.txt
[^10]: Chevron Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 (filed February 21, 2025), note to Item 1 ("Incorporated in Delaware in 1926 as Standard Oil Company of California, the company adopted the name Chevron Corporation in 1984 and ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001. In 2005, ChevronTexaco Corporation changed its name to Chevron Corporation"), accession no. 0000093410-25-000009. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/93410/000009341025000009/cvx-20241231.htm
[^11]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI ("Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now Mobil), Standard Oil Company of California (Socal), The Texas Company (now Texaco), and Gulf Oil Corporation (Gulf)"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^12]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), statement of Thurman W. Arnold, Assistant Attorney General, March 26, 1942, p. 4309 (the four agreements of November 9, 1929; "division of the fields," four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; Exhibits 360 to 364-A, appendix pp. 4561-4580). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^13]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4309-4310 (allocation of fields; I.G. turning over patents directly concerning oil production, including synthetic gasoline). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^14]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4309 (two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled by Germany, one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^15]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4307-4308 ("these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^16]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4310 (letter signed by Mr. Teagle, Exhibit 367, appendix p. 4584); U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 ("Walter Teagle of Standard"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^17]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4310-4311 (The Hague Memorandum; letter of Frank A. Howard of October 12, 1939, Exhibit 368, appendix pp. 4584-4585). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^18]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of W.S. Farish, March 31, 1942, p. 4374 (Standard-I.G. and Jasco holdings of 80 and 50 per cent; patents originated with I.G.; legal title left in I.G.). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^19]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish testimony, p. 4375 (assignment to an American trustee; German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. bought at "book value ($20,000)"; Jasco settlement). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^20]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 1, "Vesting of Property of I.G. Farbenindustrie, Standard-I.G. Co., and Others," signed by Leo T. Crowley, March 25, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 2417 (March 31, 1942) (Exhibit A, items 1 to 14 and schedules A to D of patents; issued under Executive Order 9095, 7 F.R. 1971). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-03-31/pdf/FR-1942-03-31.pdf
[^21]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), Exhibit A, "List of Vesting Orders Issued by the Office of Alien Property Custodian, Mar. 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943," first entry (interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie in Standard Catalytic Co. and Jasco Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
[^22]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), p. 97 (German interests in American patents and cartels; "acquired a substantial influence in American industry"; synthetic rubber among the industries listed). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
[^23]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 325 and note (agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Shell and Anglo-Iranian in Germany; marketing subsidiaries of Leuna and I.G. Farben; Deutsche Gasolin A.G. "owned 50 percent by Standard (Now Jersey), and 50 percent by I. G. Farbenindustrie"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^24]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 ("I. G. Farben had the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber"; four rubber companies and one chemical company, 1932 to 1934; Goodrich negotiations of 1932). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^25]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (letter of Frank A. Howard to E.J. Sadler, February 6, 1940, Exhibit 371, appendix p. 4589); the same letter at pp. 4589-4590. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^26]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (butyl licensing). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^27]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4307 (Exhibit 359, release issued by Standard Oil on March 25, 1942, appendix p. 4560-4561; "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^28]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4308 (refusal to let the British have a rubber sample as late as 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^29]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information in the District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4693-4697 (defendants; Standard and General Motors each owning 50 per cent of the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, "sole producer of tetraethyl lead," p. 4697). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^30]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^31]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^32]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^38]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^41]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^42]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^43]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^44]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^45]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^46]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^48]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^49]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^50]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^51]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850
[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892
[^53]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920
[^54]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^55]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^56]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^57]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^58]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397
[^59]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^60]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411
[^62]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413
[^63]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449
[^64]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458
[^65]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490
[^66]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496
[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502
[^68]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^69]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189
[^70]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
[^71]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^72]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the

119
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Sullivan & Cromwell.md
View file

@ -54,30 +54,30 @@ relations:
with: "[[Peter Thiel]]"
reverse: true
role: "securities lawyer before 1996"
fn: 28
fn: 30
- type: employed_by
with: "[[William Bradford Reynolds]]"
reverse: true
start: 1967
role: "associate"
fn: 29
fn: 31
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Keith Rabois]]"
reverse: true
role: "attorney before joining PayPal"
fn: 31
fn: 33
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Jamie McDonald]]"
reverse: true
role: "partner and co-head of the securities and commodities investigations practice after 2020"
fn: 35
fn: 37
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Jay Clayton]]"
reverse: true
start: 2001
end: 2017
role: "partner"
fn: 32
fn: 34
- type: represented
with: "[[New Panama Canal Company]]"
role: "counsel to the French canal company; Cromwell later general counsel and fiscal agent of Panama"
@ -97,37 +97,37 @@ relations:
- type: represented
with: "[[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]]"
role: "client through Allen Dulles"
fn: 25
fn: 27
- type: represented
with: "[[Ernest K. Halbach]]"
end: 1945-01-27
role: "counsel (Stoddard M. Stevens Jr.) in the General Dyestuff Corporation stock case against the Alien Property Custodian"
fn: 21
fn: 23
- type: represented
with: "[[FTX]]"
start: 2021-07
role: "acquisition and regulatory counsel before the petition; debtors' counsel from 2022-11-11"
fn: 41
fn: 43
- type: represented
with: "[[Sam Bankman-Fried]]"
start: 2022-04-14
end: 2022-08-05
role: "regulatory advice on his purchase of Robinhood shares; about $195,000 in fees paid through Alameda Research"
fn: 44
fn: 46
- type: represented
with: "[[Leon Black]]"
role: "estate planning memorandum of July 12, 2017 forwarded to Jeffrey Epstein"
fn: 37
fn: 39
- type: represented
with: "[[TD Bank]]"
start: 2019-10-01
role: "conveyed the bank's suspicious activity report on Epstein-associated entities (about $30 million in accounts) to prosecutors"
fn: 39
fn: 41
- type: subject_of
with: "[[Garrison v. Sullivan & Cromwell]]"
start: 2024-02-16
role: "putative class action by FTX investors in the Southern District of Florida, voluntarily dismissed in October 2024"
fn: 46
fn: 48
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-01
---
@ -176,62 +176,63 @@ On January 11, 1953, the week of John Foster Dulles's confirmation hearing, the
Dulles asked Dean to negotiate the [[Korean War]] prisoner exchange, telling the Republican National Committee chairman [[Leonard Hall]] that "there might be criticism about his taking someone from his old firm." Dean told Dulles he would not let the assignment interfere with the oil litigation because "no one else is prepared"; a week later the judge who was to hear the argument withdrew for health reasons and the proceedings were postponed indefinitely. Dulles also wrote to Hall that with himself as Secretary of State, Allen as "Deputy CIA" and Norris Darrell as Under Secretary of the Treasury, "a rather frightening picture could be drawn by unfriendly persons." Darrell stayed in New York and was used to draft the [[Internal Revenue Code of 1954]]. Handwritten notes for Dulles's January 1953 confirmation hearing referred to "[[Alger Hiss|Hiss]]," "bipartisan foreign policies," and "Cromwell estate," the last, in the authors' account, concerning aid to the Soviets.[^19]
The Senate's 1974 print of the cartel and consortium papers contains a memorandum by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles dated January 8, 1954. It records that after a meeting of the National Security Council he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^20] An earlier Justice Department report to the National Security Council, of January 1953, stated that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^21]
### Vested German Property
In 1953 and 1954 a special subcommittee of the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] chaired by Senator [[Everett Dirksen]] held hearings on amending the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] to return property vested by the [[Alien Property Custodian]]. At the hearing of July 20 to 22, 1953, Ernest K. Halbach, president of the [[General Dyestuff Corporation]], told the senators that the Sullivan & Cromwell lawyer who represented him had repeatedly warned him that his stock option put his job at risk if he did not settle, and had told him when the case was settled: "Ernest, you are a very sensitive man and if you go on with this trial you are going to kill your wife."[^20]
In 1953 and 1954 a special subcommittee of the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] chaired by Senator [[Everett Dirksen]] held hearings on amending the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] to return property vested by the [[Alien Property Custodian]]. At the hearing of July 20 to 22, 1953, Ernest K. Halbach, president of the [[General Dyestuff Corporation]], told the senators that the Sullivan & Cromwell lawyer who represented him had repeatedly warned him that his stock option put his job at risk if he did not settle, and had told him when the case was settled: "Ernest, you are a very sensitive man and if you go on with this trial you are going to kill your wife."[^22]
The Halbach case was summarized in the record of the July 1 and 2, 1954 hearing on S. 3423. Four thousand seven hundred twenty-five shares of General Dyestuff, a sales subsidiary of [[General Aniline & Film|General Aniline and Film Corporation]], had been transferred to Halbach before the Second World War and were vested in June 1942 as the property of I.G. Farben. He was represented by [[Stoddard M. Stevens Jr.]] of Sullivan & Cromwell, and on January 27, 1945, two days before trial, the Custodian paid him 557,500 dollars (118 dollars a share). In 1951 Halbach sought to reopen the settlement on a claim of duress, and Judge McLaughlin found a "complete failure to prove duress."[^21]
The Halbach case was summarized in the record of the July 1 and 2, 1954 hearing on S. 3423. Four thousand seven hundred twenty-five shares of General Dyestuff, a sales subsidiary of [[General Aniline & Film|General Aniline and Film Corporation]], had been transferred to Halbach before the Second World War and were vested in June 1942 as the property of I.G. Farben. He was represented by [[Stoddard M. Stevens Jr.]] of Sullivan & Cromwell, and on January 27, 1945, two days before trial, the Custodian paid him 557,500 dollars (118 dollars a share). In 1951 Halbach sought to reopen the settlement on a claim of duress, and Judge McLaughlin found a "complete failure to prove duress."[^23]
On July 2, 1954, Secretary of State Dulles testified at that hearing that "there is no objection from any foreign policy viewpoint to the return, as a matter of grace, of vested German property and of Japanese property," and that "I would like to see a return to our historic position, the position of the sanctity of private property in time of war." The [[Nashville]] lawyer [[Cecil Sims]], who opposed the bill, said in his testimony that Halbach "was represented by Sullivan & Cromwell, which I consider to be the finest law firm in the United States, with one possible exception in [[Tennessee]]."[^21]
On July 2, 1954, Secretary of State Dulles testified at that hearing that "there is no objection from any foreign policy viewpoint to the return, as a matter of grace, of vested German property and of Japanese property," and that "I would like to see a return to our historic position, the position of the sanctity of private property in time of war." The [[Nashville]] lawyer [[Cecil Sims]], who opposed the bill, said in his testimony that Halbach "was represented by Sullivan & Cromwell, which I consider to be the finest law firm in the United States, with one possible exception in [[Tennessee]]."[^23]
Lisagor and Lipsius wrote that Dulles "turned to Sullivan & Cromwell to carry out his support for Germany," that the Custodian's holdings were valued between 15 million and 200 million dollars "depending on the valuation of Sullivan & Cromwell client General Aniline & Film," and that Dulles tried to have the Attorney General postpone the sale of the [[Hugo Stinnes Corporation]], calling Dean to "get help in making sure Germans bought the shares." Dean spoke with [[Andre Meyer]] of [[Lazard Freres]]. The [[Deutsche Bank]] of Frankfurt was the sole bidder, and the authors wrote that Dean's role "remains submerged in classified documents," identified only as the "Stinnes matter."[^22]
Lisagor and Lipsius wrote that Dulles "turned to Sullivan & Cromwell to carry out his support for Germany," that the Custodian's holdings were valued between 15 million and 200 million dollars "depending on the valuation of Sullivan & Cromwell client General Aniline & Film," and that Dulles tried to have the Attorney General postpone the sale of the [[Hugo Stinnes Corporation]], calling Dean to "get help in making sure Germans bought the shares." Dean spoke with [[Andre Meyer]] of [[Lazard Freres]]. The [[Deutsche Bank]] of Frankfurt was the sole bidder, and the authors wrote that Dean's role "remains submerged in classified documents," identified only as the "Stinnes matter."[^24]
### United Fruit and Guatemala
Kinzer wrote that United Fruit "was a prized Sullivan & Cromwell client" for most of its existence, that Foster and Allen Dulles both did legal work for it and "both reportedly held substantial blocks of United Fruit stock," and that the firm represented American and Foreign Power Company, owner of the electric company of [[Guatemala]], and International Railways of [[Central America]], owner of its railway network. The company's former vice president [[Thomas McCann]] wrote that its longtime general counsel [[Sam G. Baggett]] told him Dulles "was reputed to be the author of the actual concessions" negotiated for United Fruit, among them the 1936 agreement with General [[Jorge Ubico]] that gave the company 99 years' rule over tracts amounting to one-seventh of Guatemala's arable land and control of its only port.[^3]
On June 21, 1954, [[I.F. Stone's Weekly]] wrote that the law firm in which Dulles was senior partner "is counsel for International Railways, which controls the transport system of Guatemala for United Fruit, and counsel for the Schroder bank, which served German coffee interests whose plantations in Guatemala were expropriated in the last war."[^23] On June 27, 1954 the Guatemalan commanders gave President [[Jacobo Arbenz]] a "final ultimatum" and he announced on radio that he would surrender power, in the coup the Central Intelligence Agency ran as [[Operation PBSUCCESS]]. Dulles testified on vested property five days later.[^21][^24]
On June 21, 1954, [[I.F. Stone's Weekly]] wrote that the law firm in which Dulles was senior partner "is counsel for International Railways, which controls the transport system of Guatemala for United Fruit, and counsel for the Schroder bank, which served German coffee interests whose plantations in Guatemala were expropriated in the last war."[^25] On June 27, 1954 the Guatemalan commanders gave President [[Jacobo Arbenz]] a "final ultimatum" and he announced on radio that he would surrender power, in the coup the Central Intelligence Agency ran as [[Operation PBSUCCESS]]. Dulles testified on vested property five days later.[^23][^26]
### Iran, Suez and Cuba
According to Lisagor and Lipsius, "Through Allen Dulles, the firm represented the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company," and after the overthrow of [[Mohammad Mossadegh]] the firm helped "smooth the way for a redivision that cut the major American oil companies in on the British concession." Kinzer wrote that the Schroder Banking Corporation, on whose board Allen Dulles sat, served as financial agent for Anglo-Iranian, and that John Foster Dulles was then seeking business in Iran for another client of the firm, the [[Chase Manhattan Bank]]. In October 1956 Dean met the Israeli ambassador [[Abba Eban]] about Egypt's closure of the [[Suez Canal]] to Israeli ships and told Dulles he would "go back and get hold of execs of Standard Oil of NJ."[^25][^26]
According to Lisagor and Lipsius, "Through Allen Dulles, the firm represented the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company," and after the overthrow of [[Mohammad Mossadegh]] the firm helped "smooth the way for a redivision that cut the major American oil companies in on the British concession." Kinzer wrote that the Schroder Banking Corporation, on whose board Allen Dulles sat, served as financial agent for Anglo-Iranian, and that John Foster Dulles was then seeking business in Iran for another client of the firm, the [[Chase Manhattan Bank]]. In October 1956 Dean met the Israeli ambassador [[Abba Eban]] about Egypt's closure of the [[Suez Canal]] to Israeli ships and told Dulles he would "go back and get hold of execs of Standard Oil of NJ."[^27][^28]
A Sullivan & Cromwell partner, [[Laurence A. Crosby]], resigned in 1946 to live in [[Cuba]], where he held executive positions in sugar companies and chaired the U.S. Cuban Sugar Council from 1954 to 1960; Lisagor and Lipsius wrote that the Dulles brothers "had access to information about Castro" through him.[^27]
A Sullivan & Cromwell partner, [[Laurence A. Crosby]], resigned in 1946 to live in [[Cuba]], where he held executive positions in sugar companies and chaired the U.S. Cuban Sugar Council from 1954 to 1960; Lisagor and Lipsius wrote that the Dulles brothers "had access to information about Castro" through him.[^29]
### Washington Alumni
Allen Dulles returned to the firm after the [[Bay of Pigs invasion]] as a 50,000 dollar a year of counsel, served on the [[Warren Commission]] in 1963 and then resumed at 16,000 dollars a year. Dean negotiated the nuclear test ban treaty in 1961 and 1962 with the rank of ambassador, and, after writing to President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] on his 1964 election and 1965 State of the Union message, proposed a Committee for an Effective and Durable Peace in Asia whose advertisement solicited funds sent to the firm at 48 Wall Street. A catalogue prepared for the 1979 centennial counted 739 lawyers who had passed through the firm, among them "a secretary of state, an attorney general, and a director of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^27][^28]
Allen Dulles returned to the firm after the [[Bay of Pigs invasion]] as a 50,000 dollar a year of counsel, served on the [[Warren Commission]] in 1963 and then resumed at 16,000 dollars a year. Dean negotiated the nuclear test ban treaty in 1961 and 1962 with the rank of ambassador, and, after writing to President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] on his 1964 election and 1965 State of the Union message, proposed a Committee for an Effective and Durable Peace in Asia whose advertisement solicited funds sent to the firm at 48 Wall Street. A catalogue prepared for the 1979 centennial counted 739 lawyers who had passed through the firm, among them "a secretary of state, an attorney general, and a director of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^29][^30]
[[William Bradford Reynolds]] began his legal career at the firm in 1967 and practiced there for three years; he joined the Justice Department in 1973 as an assistant to the [[Solicitor General of the United States|Solicitor General]] and in 1981 became [[Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights]].[^29] [[Peter Thiel]], according to [[PayPal]]'s 2001 registration statement, "practiced securities law with Sullivan & Cromwell" before trading derivatives and, from September 1996, managing Thiel Capital Management.[^30] [[Keith Rabois]], an executive of PayPal and later a director of [[Affirm]], "has also practiced as an attorney at Sullivan & Cromwell," according to Affirm's 2020 registration statement.[^31] [[Jay Clayton]], a partner from 2001 until 2017, became chairman of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] on May 4, 2017.[^32] As the SEC's former chairman and [[Apollo Global Management]]'s lead independent director, he was named non-executive chairman of Apollo on March 22, 2021, succeeding its founder [[Leon Black]], whose estate-planning memorandum from the firm had been forwarded to [[Jeffrey Epstein]] in 2017.[^33] The judges of the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York]] appointed Clayton, already serving there as interim United States Attorney by appointment of the Attorney General, United States Attorney for the district effective August 20, 2025. The Senate confirmed him as [[Director of National Intelligence]] on July 28, 2026 by 51 votes to 47.[^34] The website of the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|United States Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York]] states that [[Jamie McDonald]], after serving as an assistant United States Attorney until 2017 and as director of enforcement of the [[Commodity Futures Trading Commission]] from 2017 to 2020, was a partner of Sullivan & Cromwell and co-head of its securities and commodities investigations practice, and he is listed as the office's United States Attorney.[^35]
[[William Bradford Reynolds]] began his legal career at the firm in 1967 and practiced there for three years; he joined the Justice Department in 1973 as an assistant to the [[Solicitor General of the United States|Solicitor General]] and in 1981 became [[Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights]].[^31] [[Peter Thiel]], according to [[PayPal]]'s 2001 registration statement, "practiced securities law with Sullivan & Cromwell" before trading derivatives and, from September 1996, managing Thiel Capital Management.[^32] [[Keith Rabois]], an executive of PayPal and later a director of [[Affirm]], "has also practiced as an attorney at Sullivan & Cromwell," according to Affirm's 2020 registration statement.[^33] [[Jay Clayton]], a partner from 2001 until 2017, became chairman of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] on May 4, 2017.[^34] As the SEC's former chairman and [[Apollo Global Management]]'s lead independent director, he was named non-executive chairman of Apollo on March 22, 2021, succeeding its founder [[Leon Black]], whose estate-planning memorandum from the firm had been forwarded to [[Jeffrey Epstein]] in 2017.[^35] The judges of the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York]] appointed Clayton, already serving there as interim United States Attorney by appointment of the Attorney General, United States Attorney for the district effective August 20, 2025. The Senate confirmed him as [[Director of National Intelligence]] on July 28, 2026 by 51 votes to 47.[^36] The website of the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|United States Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York]] states that [[Jamie McDonald]], after serving as an assistant United States Attorney until 2017 and as director of enforcement of the [[Commodity Futures Trading Commission]] from 2017 to 2020, was a partner of Sullivan & Cromwell and co-head of its securities and commodities investigations practice, and he is listed as the office's United States Attorney.[^37]
### The 2008 Financial Crisis
[[H. Rodgin Cohen]], a partner of the firm, was involved in the fall of 2008 in "the failed attempts to find a buyer for Lehman Brothers, the federal government's takeover of Fannie Mae, the government's bailout of AIG, and Wells Fargo's purchase of Wachovia," and earlier that year in the negotiations that led to [[JPMorgan Chase]]'s purchase of [[Bear Stearns]], according to the [[Frontline|PBS Frontline]] introduction to two interviews he gave on December 1, 2011 and December 29, 2012.[^36]
[[H. Rodgin Cohen]], a partner of the firm, was involved in the fall of 2008 in "the failed attempts to find a buyer for Lehman Brothers, the federal government's takeover of Fannie Mae, the government's bailout of AIG, and Wells Fargo's purchase of Wachovia," and earlier that year in the negotiations that led to [[JPMorgan Chase]]'s purchase of [[Bear Stearns]], according to the [[Frontline|PBS Frontline]] introduction to two interviews he gave on December 1, 2011 and December 29, 2012.[^38]
### The Epstein Record
A Justice Department release of Jeffrey Epstein's email includes a message of July 24, 2017 from [[Barry J. Cohen]] to Epstein, subject "S&C: Leon Black Estate Planning," forwarding a "Privileged & Confidential" memorandum on "Leon Black Estate Planning" that Charles T. Dowling of Sullivan & Cromwell had sent on July 12, 2017 to [[Ada Clapp]] and two others. Cohen's covering note read: "Let us know what issues you have."[^37]
A Justice Department release of Jeffrey Epstein's email includes a message of July 24, 2017 from [[Barry J. Cohen]] to Epstein, subject "S&C: Leon Black Estate Planning," forwarding a "Privileged & Confidential" memorandum on "Leon Black Estate Planning" that Charles T. Dowling of Sullivan & Cromwell had sent on July 12, 2017 to [[Ada Clapp]] and two others. Cohen's covering note read: "Let us know what issues you have."[^39]
On December 20, 2017, [[Kathryn Ruemmler]] wrote to Epstein's email account: "I totally called it! Goldman picked Karen Seymour from Sullivan & Cromwell, which I predicted from the very beginning."[^38] [[Karen Seymour]] was a Sullivan & Cromwell partner; the message does not say for what post [[Goldman Sachs]] had picked her.
On December 20, 2017, [[Kathryn Ruemmler]] wrote to Epstein's email account: "I totally called it! Goldman picked Karen Seymour from Sullivan & Cromwell, which I predicted from the very beginning."[^40] [[Karen Seymour]] was a Sullivan & Cromwell partner; the message does not say for what post [[Goldman Sachs]] had picked her.
On October 1, 2019, eight weeks after Epstein's death in federal custody, [[Nicolas Bourtin]] of Sullivan & Cromwell wrote to a government recipient whose name is redacted in the release, with a copy to his partner [[Sharon Cohen Levin]], under the subject line "Epstein." The message attached a file titled "TD_Filed_SAR 2019-43693" and read: "As I mentioned last night, attached is a SAR that filed today in connection with persons associated with Jeffrey Epstein. The bank would like to close all of the accounts of the entities named in the SAR as soon as possible. (The current balance on those accounts is approximately $30 million.) Before doing so, the bank wanted to make your office aware of these accounts in case the government intends to take any action."[^39] On April 20, 2021, Levin asked a contact: "Are there any efforts by SDNY or DOJ to recover funds on behalf of Jeffrey Epstein's victims?" She mentioned the fund established through the [[Attorney General of the United States Virgin Islands]] and asked about "asset forfeiture/restitution efforts in the SDNY, such as through the Maxwell prosecution." The asset forfeiture coordinator of the Southern District of New York office's Money Laundering and Transnational Criminal Enterprises Unit forwarded the question internally, asking whether there was "anything we've said publicly about this that I can share."[^40]
On October 1, 2019, eight weeks after Epstein's death in federal custody, [[Nicolas Bourtin]] of Sullivan & Cromwell wrote to a government recipient whose name is redacted in the release, with a copy to his partner [[Sharon Cohen Levin]], under the subject line "Epstein." The message attached a file titled "TD_Filed_SAR 2019-43693" and read: "As I mentioned last night, attached is a SAR that filed today in connection with persons associated with Jeffrey Epstein. The bank would like to close all of the accounts of the entities named in the SAR as soon as possible. (The current balance on those accounts is approximately $30 million.) Before doing so, the bank wanted to make your office aware of these accounts in case the government intends to take any action."[^41] On April 20, 2021, Levin asked a contact: "Are there any efforts by SDNY or DOJ to recover funds on behalf of Jeffrey Epstein's victims?" She mentioned the fund established through the [[Attorney General of the United States Virgin Islands]] and asked about "asset forfeiture/restitution efforts in the SDNY, such as through the Maxwell prosecution." The asset forfeiture coordinator of the Southern District of New York office's Money Laundering and Transnational Criminal Enterprises Unit forwarded the question internally, asking whether there was "anything we've said publicly about this that I can share."[^42]
### FTX
According to the sworn declaration of its partner [[Andrew G. Dietderich]], the firm was engaged by the FTX group "for a limited number of matters prior to the Petition Date, chiefly with respect to acquisition transactions and specific regulatory inquiries relating to certain U.S. business lines," for total fees and expenses of 8,564,487.50 dollars from July 2021 to the petition date of November 11, 2022, and was "not primary external counsel to any Debtor." The United States Trustee noted that [[Ryne Miller]], general counsel of the FTX US entity, was "a partner at S&C until about 14 months before the filing" and had been an S&C partner "of eight years."[^41][^42]
According to the sworn declaration of its partner [[Andrew G. Dietderich]], the firm was engaged by the FTX group "for a limited number of matters prior to the Petition Date, chiefly with respect to acquisition transactions and specific regulatory inquiries relating to certain U.S. business lines," for total fees and expenses of 8,564,487.50 dollars from July 2021 to the petition date of November 11, 2022, and was "not primary external counsel to any Debtor." The United States Trustee noted that [[Ryne Miller]], general counsel of the FTX US entity, was "a partner at S&C until about 14 months before the filing" and had been an S&C partner "of eight years."[^43][^44]
In the ninety days before the petition the debtors, or others for them, paid the firm 23,882.50 dollars on August 26, 2022; 81,665 dollars on September 6; 142,611.53 dollars on October 5; 195,484.33 dollars on October 19; 166,493.75 and 555,030.05 dollars on October 20; and 2,253,670.77 dollars on November 3. A 12 million dollar retainer was "funded by Debtor [[West Realm Shires Inc.]]" before the petition, and at the petition date the firm held 8,971,661.14 dollars of it as an evergreen retainer. Partner rates in the application ran from 1,575 to 2,165 dollars an hour.[^41]
In the ninety days before the petition the debtors, or others for them, paid the firm 23,882.50 dollars on August 26, 2022; 81,665 dollars on September 6; 142,611.53 dollars on October 5; 195,484.33 dollars on October 19; 166,493.75 and 555,030.05 dollars on October 20; and 2,253,670.77 dollars on November 3. A 12 million dollar retainer was "funded by Debtor [[West Realm Shires Inc.]]" before the petition, and at the petition date the firm held 8,971,661.14 dollars of it as an evergreen retainer. Partner rates in the application ran from 1,575 to 2,165 dollars an hour.[^43]
Schedule 3 to [[Dietderich]]'s declaration listed "Samuel Bankman-Fried" as a former client, with the note "Transactional work arranged for and paid by Debtor [[Alameda Research]] Ltd. (total historical fees $195,000)," and [[Nishad Singh]] as a former client for 23,882.50 dollars. Schedule 2 listed as current clients, among others, [[BlockFi]], [[Coinbase]], [[Gemini]], [[Kraken]], [[Sequoia Capital]], [[Ribbit Capital]], [[Anchorage]], [[Consensys]], [[Bank of America]], [[Morgan Stanley]], [[HSBC]], [[Wells Fargo]], [[UBS]], [[Major League Baseball]], and the ultimate parents of JPMorgan Chase Bank and [[Silicon Valley Bank]].[^4]
[[Warren Winter]]'s amended objection and the declaration of [[Daniel Friedberg]], the former FTX chief regulatory officer, alleged conflicts. Friedberg swore that Miller "informed me that it was very important for him personally to channel a lot of business to S&C as he wanted to return there as a partner after his stint at the Debtors." The Trustee's objection of January 13, 2023 sought a supplemental disclosure. On January 20, 2023 Judge [[John T. Dorsey]] ruled: "there's nothing in the record before me to indicate that ... any investigation would be required of those transactions with which Sullivan & Cromwell might have been involved," found that any potential conflict was met by the debtors' conflicts counsel, and approved the retention.[^42][^43]
[[Warren Winter]]'s amended objection and the declaration of [[Daniel Friedberg]], the former FTX chief regulatory officer, alleged conflicts. Friedberg swore that Miller "informed me that it was very important for him personally to channel a lot of business to S&C as he wanted to return there as a partner after his stint at the Debtors." The Trustee's objection of January 13, 2023 sought a supplemental disclosure. On January 20, 2023 Judge [[John T. Dorsey]] ruled: "there's nothing in the record before me to indicate that ... any investigation would be required of those transactions with which Sullivan & Cromwell might have been involved," found that any potential conflict was met by the debtors' conflicts counsel, and approved the retention.[^44][^45]
On January 19, 2024 the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] reversed the denial of the Trustee's motion for an examiner; [[James L. Bromley]] and [[Brian D. Glueckstein]] of Sullivan & Cromwell appeared for the debtors.[^43] The examiner, [[Robert J. Cleary]], reported on September 25, 2024 on the firm's representation of Bankman-Fried in his purchase of about 500 million dollars of [[Robinhood]] shares. The representation ran from April 14 to August 5, 2022, was led by the firm's [[Joseph Hearn]] and [[Eric Queen]] under the partner [[Mitch Eitel]], and began with an email from Miller of April 14, 2022 under the subject line "Sam trading question." Cleary found that the firm "provided regulatory advice to Bankman-Fried in his personal capacity" and "did not serve as [[Emergent Fidelity Technologies|Emergent]]'s counsel," that it had no disqualifying conflict, and that it "did not obtain actual knowledge of, or ignore any red flags suggesting, fraud or malfeasance."[^44]
On January 19, 2024 the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] reversed the denial of the Trustee's motion for an examiner; [[James L. Bromley]] and [[Brian D. Glueckstein]] of Sullivan & Cromwell appeared for the debtors.[^45] The examiner, [[Robert J. Cleary]], reported on September 25, 2024 on the firm's representation of Bankman-Fried in his purchase of about 500 million dollars of [[Robinhood]] shares. The representation ran from April 14 to August 5, 2022, was led by the firm's [[Joseph Hearn]] and [[Eric Queen]] under the partner [[Mitch Eitel]], and began with an email from Miller of April 14, 2022 under the subject line "Sam trading question." Cleary found that the firm "provided regulatory advice to Bankman-Fried in his personal capacity" and "did not serve as [[Emergent Fidelity Technologies|Emergent]]'s counsel," that it had no disqualifying conflict, and that it "did not obtain actual knowledge of, or ignore any red flags suggesting, fraud or malfeasance."[^46]
The fee examiner's report of September 5, 2024 recorded that the firm sought 26,877,397.90 dollars in fees and 98,979.37 dollars in expenses for February 1 to April 30, 2024, and listed among areas of concern "too many attorneys billing to monitor the Bankman-Fried sentencing proceedings, and work related to the firm's own defense in the FTX multidistrict litigation pending in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida|Southern District of Florida]]." *Garrison v. Sullivan & Cromwell LLP*, No. 1:24-cv-20630 (S.D. Fla.), a putative class action by investors, was filed on February 16, 2024; the firm moved to dismiss on May 13, 2024, and the plaintiffs' lawyer said in October 2024 that after the examiner's second report there were "no claims at this stage."[^45][^46]
The fee examiner's report of September 5, 2024 recorded that the firm sought 26,877,397.90 dollars in fees and 98,979.37 dollars in expenses for February 1 to April 30, 2024, and listed among areas of concern "too many attorneys billing to monitor the Bankman-Fried sentencing proceedings, and work related to the firm's own defense in the FTX multidistrict litigation pending in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida|Southern District of Florida]]." *Garrison v. Sullivan & Cromwell LLP*, No. 1:24-cv-20630 (S.D. Fla.), a putative class action by investors, was filed on February 16, 2024; the firm moved to dismiss on May 13, 2024, and the plaintiffs' lawyer said in October 2024 that after the examiner's second report there were "no claims at this stage."[^47][^48]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Partnership Agreement of Sullivan & Cromwell, as of October 1, 1979, Appendix 1, reproduced in Frank Lipsius and Nancy Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan & Cromwell* (William Morrow, 1988), p. 313 ("founded by Algernon Sydney Sullivan and William Nelson Cromwell on April 2, 1879"). https://archive.org/details/alawuntoitselftheuntoldstoryofthelawfirmofsullivan
[^2]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 99 to 101 (Victor's death in May 1926, the directorate, Allen Dulles starting in October 1926, "In 1927 Dulles became sole managing partner"), and p. 203 (both brothers entering the Eisenhower administration in 1953).
[^3]: Stephen Kinzer, *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War* (Times Books, 2013), ch. 6 (United Fruit; American and Foreign Power; International Railways of Central America; the Schroder Banking Corporation as financial agent; Thomas McCann quoting Sam G. Baggett; the 1936 Ubico agreement). https://archive.org/details/the-brothers-john-foster-dulles-allen-dulles-and-their-secret-world-war-stephen-kinzer
@ -251,30 +252,32 @@ The fee examiner's report of September 5, 2024 recorded that the firm sought 26,
[^17]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 153 to 158.
[^18]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 202 to 204.
[^19]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 203 to 205 and 208.
[^20]: *Amendments to the Trading with the Enemy Act,* Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 83d Cong., 1st sess., July 20, 21 and 22, 1953 (Government Printing Office, 1953), statement of Ernest K. Halbach, pp. 281 to 282. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-hearings-prints-and-reports_july-20-21-and-22-1953
[^21]: *Return of Confiscated Property,* Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 83d Cong., 2d sess., on S. 3423, July 1 and 2, 1954 (Government Printing Office, 1954), statement of Cecil Sims, pp. 124 to 125, and the memorandum in opposition that follows it; statement of John Foster Dulles, July 2, 1954, pp. 159 to 162. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-hearings-prints-and-reports_july-1-2-1954_0
[^22]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 208 to 210.
[^23]: "Issue on Guatemala," *I.F. Stone's Weekly,* June 21, 1954, vol. 2, no. 22, p. 1. https://archive.org/details/sim_i-f-stones-bi-weekly_if-stones-weekly_1954-06-21_2_22
[^24]: Kinzer, *The Brothers*, chs. 6 and 7 ("On June 27 the commanders gave Arbenz what one called a 'final ultimatum.'").
[^25]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 210 to 211.
[^26]: Kinzer, *The Brothers*, ch. 5 (Schroder as financial agent for Anglo-Iranian; Chase Manhattan as a client of the firm).
[^27]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 214 to 216.
[^28]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 249 to 250.
[^29]: Landmark Legal Foundation, "In Memoriam: William Bradford Reynolds," 2019 ("Brad started his legal career in 1967 with the New York City Law Firm of Sullivan & Cromwell, where he practiced for three years before joining the U.S. Department of Justice in 1973"). https://landmarklegal.org/in-memoriam-william-bradford-reynolds/
[^30]: PayPal, Inc., Form S-1, filed September 28, 2001, "Management." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205701533855/a2059025zs-1.htm
[^31]: Affirm Holdings, Inc., Form S-1 registration statement, filed November 18, 2020, "Management." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1820953/000110465920126927/tm2026663-4_s1.htm
[^32]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Jay Clayton," SEC Historical Summary of Chairmen and Commissioners. https://www.sec.gov/about/sec-commissioners/sec-historical-summary-chairmen-commissioners/jay-clayton
[^33]: Apollo Global Management, Inc., Form 8-K, March 22, 2021, Exhibit 99.1, "Marc Rowan Assumes Role of CEO of Apollo; Jay Clayton Named Non-Executive Chair of Board" ("former SEC Chairman and Apollo's Lead Independent Director Jay Clayton has been named Non-Executive Chairman ... Rowan and Clayton succeed Apollo Founder Leon Black"). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1411494/000119312521088432/d114836dex991.htm
[^34]: United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, press advisory, August 18, 2025 (appointment under 28 U.S.C. 546(d) effective August 20, 2025). https://www.nysd.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/2025-08/Press%20Advisory.pdf ; Jenna McLaughlin, "Senate confirms Jay Clayton as director of national intelligence," *NPR,* July 29, 2026. https://www.npr.org/2026/07/29/nx-s1-5910749/senate-confirms-jay-clayton-as-director-of-national-intelligence
[^35]: U.S. Attorney's Office, Southern District of New York, "Meet the U.S. Attorney," accessed October 1, 2026. https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/meet-us-attorney
[^36]: "Rodgin Cohen," *The Financial Crisis: The FRONTLINE Interviews,* PBS, interviews of December 1, 2011 and December 29, 2012. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/oral-history/financial-crisis/rodgin-cohen
[^37]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00702518, DataSet 9, email from Barry J. Cohen to Jeffrey Epstein, "S&C: Leon Black Estate Planning," July 24, 2017. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00702518.pdf
[^38]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02611782, DataSet 11, email from Kathy Ruemmler to jeevacation@gmail.com, December 20, 2017, 12:18 PM. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02611782.pdf
[^39]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00015851, DataSet 8, email from Nicolas Bourtin (Sullivan & Cromwell LLP), cc Sharon Cohen Levin, subject "Epstein," October 1, 2019, attachment "TD_Filed_SAR 2019-43693." https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%208/EFTA00015851.pdf
[^40]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00064842, DataSet 9, email chain "FW: A question," April 20, 2021, forwarding Sharon Cohen Levin (Sullivan & Cromwell LLP), "A question." https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00064842.pdf
[^41]: Debtors' Application for an Order Authorizing the Retention and Employment of Sullivan & Cromwell LLP, D.I. 270, paras. 13 to 14, and Declaration of Andrew G. Dietderich, D.I. 270-3, para. 16, *In re FTX Trading Ltd.*, No. 22-11068 (JTD) (Bankr. D. Del., filed December 21, 2022). https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.deb.188450/gov.uscourts.deb.188450.270.0.pdf
[^42]: Objection of the United States Trustee, D.I. 496 (January 13, 2023), pp. 2 to 4; Amended Objection of Warren Winter, D.I. 459 (January 10, 2023); Declaration of Daniel Friedberg, D.I. 530 (January 19, 2023), paras. 13 to 17. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.deb.188450/gov.uscourts.deb.188450.496.0.pdf
[^43]: Transcript of hearing of January 20, 2023, D.I. 558, pp. 48 to 51, *In re FTX Trading Ltd.*, No. 22-11068 (JTD); *In re FTX Trading Ltd.*, No. 23-2297 (3d Cir. Jan. 19, 2024) (precedential). https://www2.ca3.uscourts.gov/opinarch/232297p.pdf
[^44]: Phase II Report of Robert J. Cleary, Examiner, D.I. 25679 (September 25, 2024), Executive Summary and pp. 11 to 28. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.deb.188450/gov.uscourts.deb.188450.25679.0.pdf
[^45]: Fee Examiner's Summary Report on Fee Review Process and Sixth Interim Fee Applications, D.I. 24274 (September 5, 2024), pp. 4 to 5 and Exhibit A. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.deb.188450/gov.uscourts.deb.188450.24274.0.pdf
[^46]: *Garrison v. Sullivan & Cromwell LLP,* No. 1:24-cv-20630 (S.D. Fla.), motion to dismiss, ECF No. 8 (May 13, 2024), https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/68261002/garrison-v-sullivan-cromwell-llp/ ; "FTX investors halt lawsuit against law firm Sullivan & Cromwell," *Lawyer Monthly,* October 2024, https://www.lawyer-monthly.com/2024/10/ftx-investors-halt-lawsuit-against-law-firm-sullivan-cromwell/
[^20]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61.
[^21]: Same print, p. 32.
[^22]: *Amendments to the Trading with the Enemy Act,* Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 83d Cong., 1st sess., July 20, 21 and 22, 1953 (Government Printing Office, 1953), statement of Ernest K. Halbach, pp. 281 to 282. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-hearings-prints-and-reports_july-20-21-and-22-1953
[^23]: *Return of Confiscated Property,* Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 83d Cong., 2d sess., on S. 3423, July 1 and 2, 1954 (Government Printing Office, 1954), statement of Cecil Sims, pp. 124 to 125, and the memorandum in opposition that follows it; statement of John Foster Dulles, July 2, 1954, pp. 159 to 162. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-hearings-prints-and-reports_july-1-2-1954_0
[^24]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 208 to 210.
[^25]: "Issue on Guatemala," *I.F. Stone's Weekly,* June 21, 1954, vol. 2, no. 22, p. 1. https://archive.org/details/sim_i-f-stones-bi-weekly_if-stones-weekly_1954-06-21_2_22
[^26]: Kinzer, *The Brothers*, chs. 6 and 7 ("On June 27 the commanders gave Arbenz what one called a 'final ultimatum.'").
[^27]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 210 to 211.
[^28]: Kinzer, *The Brothers*, ch. 5 (Schroder as financial agent for Anglo-Iranian; Chase Manhattan as a client of the firm).
[^29]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 214 to 216.
[^30]: Lipsius and Lisagor, *A Law Unto Itself*, pp. 249 to 250.
[^31]: Landmark Legal Foundation, "In Memoriam: William Bradford Reynolds," 2019 ("Brad started his legal career in 1967 with the New York City Law Firm of Sullivan & Cromwell, where he practiced for three years before joining the U.S. Department of Justice in 1973"). https://landmarklegal.org/in-memoriam-william-bradford-reynolds/
[^32]: PayPal, Inc., Form S-1, filed September 28, 2001, "Management." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205701533855/a2059025zs-1.htm
[^33]: Affirm Holdings, Inc., Form S-1 registration statement, filed November 18, 2020, "Management." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1820953/000110465920126927/tm2026663-4_s1.htm
[^34]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Jay Clayton," SEC Historical Summary of Chairmen and Commissioners. https://www.sec.gov/about/sec-commissioners/sec-historical-summary-chairmen-commissioners/jay-clayton
[^35]: Apollo Global Management, Inc., Form 8-K, March 22, 2021, Exhibit 99.1, "Marc Rowan Assumes Role of CEO of Apollo; Jay Clayton Named Non-Executive Chair of Board" ("former SEC Chairman and Apollo's Lead Independent Director Jay Clayton has been named Non-Executive Chairman ... Rowan and Clayton succeed Apollo Founder Leon Black"). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1411494/000119312521088432/d114836dex991.htm
[^36]: United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, press advisory, August 18, 2025 (appointment under 28 U.S.C. 546(d) effective August 20, 2025). https://www.nysd.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/2025-08/Press%20Advisory.pdf ; Jenna McLaughlin, "Senate confirms Jay Clayton as director of national intelligence," *NPR,* July 29, 2026. https://www.npr.org/2026/07/29/nx-s1-5910749/senate-confirms-jay-clayton-as-director-of-national-intelligence
[^37]: U.S. Attorney's Office, Southern District of New York, "Meet the U.S. Attorney," accessed October 1, 2026. https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/meet-us-attorney
[^38]: "Rodgin Cohen," *The Financial Crisis: The FRONTLINE Interviews,* PBS, interviews of December 1, 2011 and December 29, 2012. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/oral-history/financial-crisis/rodgin-cohen
[^39]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00702518, DataSet 9, email from Barry J. Cohen to Jeffrey Epstein, "S&C: Leon Black Estate Planning," July 24, 2017. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00702518.pdf
[^40]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02611782, DataSet 11, email from Kathy Ruemmler to jeevacation@gmail.com, December 20, 2017, 12:18 PM. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02611782.pdf
[^41]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00015851, DataSet 8, email from Nicolas Bourtin (Sullivan & Cromwell LLP), cc Sharon Cohen Levin, subject "Epstein," October 1, 2019, attachment "TD_Filed_SAR 2019-43693." https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%208/EFTA00015851.pdf
[^42]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00064842, DataSet 9, email chain "FW: A question," April 20, 2021, forwarding Sharon Cohen Levin (Sullivan & Cromwell LLP), "A question." https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00064842.pdf
[^43]: Debtors' Application for an Order Authorizing the Retention and Employment of Sullivan & Cromwell LLP, D.I. 270, paras. 13 to 14, and Declaration of Andrew G. Dietderich, D.I. 270-3, para. 16, *In re FTX Trading Ltd.*, No. 22-11068 (JTD) (Bankr. D. Del., filed December 21, 2022). https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.deb.188450/gov.uscourts.deb.188450.270.0.pdf
[^44]: Objection of the United States Trustee, D.I. 496 (January 13, 2023), pp. 2 to 4; Amended Objection of Warren Winter, D.I. 459 (January 10, 2023); Declaration of Daniel Friedberg, D.I. 530 (January 19, 2023), paras. 13 to 17. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.deb.188450/gov.uscourts.deb.188450.496.0.pdf
[^45]: Transcript of hearing of January 20, 2023, D.I. 558, pp. 48 to 51, *In re FTX Trading Ltd.*, No. 22-11068 (JTD); *In re FTX Trading Ltd.*, No. 23-2297 (3d Cir. Jan. 19, 2024) (precedential). https://www2.ca3.uscourts.gov/opinarch/232297p.pdf
[^46]: Phase II Report of Robert J. Cleary, Examiner, D.I. 25679 (September 25, 2024), Executive Summary and pp. 11 to 28. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.deb.188450/gov.uscourts.deb.188450.25679.0.pdf
[^47]: Fee Examiner's Summary Report on Fee Review Process and Sixth Interim Fee Applications, D.I. 24274 (September 5, 2024), pp. 4 to 5 and Exhibit A. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.deb.188450/gov.uscourts.deb.188450.24274.0.pdf
[^48]: *Garrison v. Sullivan & Cromwell LLP,* No. 1:24-cv-20630 (S.D. Fla.), motion to dismiss, ECF No. 8 (May 13, 2024), https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/68261002/garrison-v-sullivan-cromwell-llp/ ; "FTX investors halt lawsuit against law firm Sullivan & Cromwell," *Lawyer Monthly,* October 2024, https://www.lawyer-monthly.com/2024/10/ftx-investors-halt-lawsuit-against-law-firm-sullivan-cromwell/

12
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Washington Post.md
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@ -40,6 +40,11 @@ relations:
role: "published the October 2 and 4, 1996 rebuttals"
start: 1996-10-04
fn: 15
- type: owned
with: "[[Newsweek]]"
start: 1961
end: 2010-09-30
fn: 18
---
The [[Washington Post]] appears in records of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] as the paper of [[Philip Graham]] and [[Katharine Graham]], whose [[Newsweek]] subsidiary the Agency used for cover; as the employer of reporters the CIA placed under physical surveillance in 1971 and 1972; as the only recipient of the 1971 Media, Pennsylvania FBI documents to publish them; and as the paper in which [[Walter Pincus]] and [[Roberto Suro]] published the first of the major rebuttals of the [[San Jose Mercury News]] "[[Dark Alliance]]" series.
@ -47,6 +52,10 @@ The [[Washington Post]] appears in records of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]
[[Carl Bernstein]], formerly of the Post, wrote in [[Rolling Stone]] on October 20, 1977 that when the Washington Post Company bought Newsweek, publisher Philip L. Graham "was informed by Agency officials that the CIA occasionally used the magazine for cover purposes, according to CIA sources." A former CIA deputy director was quoted: "It was widely known that Phil Graham was somebody you could get help from. Frank Wisner dealt with him." Bernstein described [[Frank Wisner]] as the Agency's "premier orchestrator of 'black' operations" with a propaganda apparatus he called his "mighty Wurlitzer," and wrote that Graham "probably Wisner's closest friend" while apparently knowing "little of the specifics of any cover arrangements with Newsweek." Bernstein reported that in 1965 and 1966 an accredited Newsweek stringer in the [[Far East]] was a CIA contract employee at an annual salary of $10,000, according to [[Robert T. Wood]], then a CIA officer in the [[Hong Kong]] station.[^1]
On March 17, 1961 [[Time]] reported that Philip L. Graham, president of the Washington Post and Times Herald, took control of Newsweek by writing a check for $8,985,000 to the [[Vincent Astor]] Foundation for its block of about 59 percent of the stock. His offer of $50 a share was $5 above that of the magazine's board chairman, [[Malcolm Muir]]. Graham learned the magazine was for sale from the investment banker [[Charles Spalding]], a friend of [[John F. Kennedy]], and sent the Post's managing editor, [[Alfred Friendly]], to Rome to secure a pledge from [[Averell Harriman|W. Averell Harriman]], then a roving ambassador and, in Time's words, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell Harriman's 13 percent holding. One third of the purchase money was borrowed from a New York insurance company.[^18]
The Post Company owned Newsweek until the sale closed on September 30, 2010. The buyer, Harman Media, LLC, assumed Newsweek's subscription obligations and received its intellectual property, target working capital and selected equipment. The company retained the pension assets and liabilities and certain pre-sale employee obligations and recorded an after-tax loss of $11.5 million on the transaction.[^19][^20]
On the Post itself Bernstein wrote that information about Agency dealings with the newspaper "is extremely sketchy," that according to CIA officials some Post stringers had been CIA employees but the officials did not know whether Post management was aware, and that all editors-in-chief and managing editors of the Post since 1950 said they knew of no formal Agency relationship with stringers or staff. Katharine Graham told him she had never been informed of any such relationships; in November 1973 she telephoned Director [[William Colby]] to ask whether any Post stringers or staff members were associated with the CIA, and Colby assured her that no staff members were employed by the Agency but declined to discuss stringers.[^2]
The [[Church Committee]] stated in 1976 that the CIA maintained about 50 relationships with American journalists or media employees, and did not name the organizations.[^3]
@ -106,3 +115,6 @@ Webb wrote that when the New York Times reported the leaked conclusions of the C
[^15]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, *The CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy* (December 1997), chapter 1. https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch01p1.htm
[^16]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, chapter 27 (see note 9).
[^17]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, epilogue (see note 9).
[^18]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/
[^19]: The Washington Post Company, Form 8-K, filed October 6, 2010, Item 2.01. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/104889/000119312510224885/d8k.htm
[^20]: The Washington Post Company, Form 10-K for fiscal 2010, filed March 2, 2011, note on discontinued operations. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/104889/000119312511053497/d10k.htm

5
30 - PROGRAMS & PROJECTS/INTELLIGENCE_OPERATIONS/Chieu Hoi.md
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@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ tags:
- Counterinsurgency
- SouthVietnam
- USArmy
summary: "A South Vietnamese government defection program running throughout the Vietnam War that offered amnesty to Viet Cong and North Vietnamese soldiers who surrendered, and became the primary distribution channel for US psychological operations leaflets and loudspeaker broadcasts."
summary: "South Vietnamese defection and amnesty program of the Vietnam War, the main channel for US psychological operations leaflets and loudspeaker broadcasts aimed at Viet Cong and North Vietnamese soldiers."
location: South Vietnam
created: 2026-06-04
updated: 2026-06-04
@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ Chieu Hoi surrender tapes formed the second phase of [[Operation Tintinnabulatio
### Research Foundation
The [[Operations Research Office]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]] and the [[Rand Corporation]]'s Viet Cong Motivation and Morale Study conducted in the mid-1960s both examined the psychological and social conditions that made defection more or less likely. The Rand study, which interviewed approximately 450 captured personnel through 1965, focused specifically on identifying weaknesses and vulnerabilities in Viet Cong commitment that could be exploited through psyops programs including Chieu Hoi.[^1]
The [[Operations Research Office]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]] studied psychological and social conditions among communist soldiers during the Korean War, and the [[Rand Corporation]]'s Viet Cong Motivation and Morale Study, conducted in the mid-1960s, examined the same conditions in Vietnam.[^2] The Rand study, which interviewed approximately 450 captured personnel through 1965, focused specifically on identifying weaknesses and vulnerabilities in Viet Cong commitment that could be exploited through psyops programs including Chieu Hoi.[^1] ORO was dissolved in June 1961 and its research program passed to the Research Analysis Corporation on September 1, 1961.[^2]
### Defection Process Scholarship
@ -37,3 +37,4 @@ The five-phase defection model described by O'Brien drew on earlier Korean War-e
### Footnotes
[^1]: Peter Watson, *War on the Mind: The Military Uses and Abuses of Psychology*. Basic Books, 1978. pp. 388-416 (Ch. 21, Ch. 22).
[^2]: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, "A History of the Department of Defense Federally Funded Research and Development Centers," OTA-BP-ISS-157, June 1995, p. 21. https://web.archive.org/web/2016id_/https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1995/9501/950106.PDF

4
30 - PROGRAMS & PROJECTS/INTELLIGENCE_OPERATIONS/Operation AJAX.md
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@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ General Norman Schwarzkopf Sr. (father of the Gulf War commander) played a suppo
The immediate consequence of Operation AJAX was the consolidation of the Shah's autocratic rule. The Shah established [[SAVAK]], the Iranian secret police, with CIA and [[Mossad]] assistance in 1957. SAVAK became notorious for systematic torture and political repression and was the primary mechanism of regime control until the 1979 revolution.
The oil consortium outcome was a compromise: Iran retained nominal ownership of the nationalized oil industry through the National Iranian Oil Company, but a new international consortium gave 40 percent of production rights to American companies (eight companies) and 40 percent to the British (AIOC, renamed British Petroleum), with the remainder divided among Dutch and French interests. American companies received an equal share to the British - the commercial benefit that aligned U.S. corporate interests with the British political objective.
The oil consortium outcome was a compromise: Iran retained nominal ownership of the nationalized oil industry through the National Iranian Oil Company, but a new international consortium gave 40 percent of production rights to American companies (five companies, at 8 percent each) and 40 percent to the British (AIOC, renamed British Petroleum), with the remainder divided among Dutch and French interests.[^7] American companies received an equal share to the British - the commercial benefit that aligned U.S. corporate interests with the British political objective.
The long-term consequence was the Islamic Revolution of 1979. [[Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini]] and the clerical opposition had opposed the Shah since the early 1960s; the 1953 coup's restoration of foreign-backed autocracy became foundational to the revolutionary narrative. When CIA station files were seized during the November 1979 Embassy takeover in [[Tehran]], they documented the CIA-SAVAK relationship and confirmed for the revolutionary government the extent of American intelligence penetration of Iran under the Shah.[^1]
@ -67,10 +67,10 @@ The CIA maintained official silence about its role in Operation AJAX for sixty y
Secretary of State [[Madeleine Albright]] acknowledged in 2000 that the 1953 coup was a "setback for democratic governance" in Iran without explicitly admitting CIA direction.
### Footnotes
[^1]: Kinzer, Stephen. *All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror.* Wiley, 2003. CIA. "Clandestine Service History: Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran, November 1952-August 1953." Written by Donald Wilber, March 1954; first disclosed by James Risen in The New York Times on April 16 and June 18, 2000, and posted by the National Security Archive as Iran Coup Briefing Book 28 on November 29, 2000, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB28/ ; text copy at https://archive.org/details/CIA-Mossadeq-Iran-1953.
[^2]: National Security Archive, "CIA Confirms Role in 1953 Iran Coup," Electronic Briefing Book 435, August 19, 2013. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB435/
[^3]: Donald Wilber, *Clandestine Service History: Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran, November 1952-August 1953*, written March 1954. Text copy: https://archive.org/details/CIA-Mossadeq-Iran-1953 ; National Security Archive, Iran Coup Briefing Book 28: https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB28/
[^4]: *FRUS 1952-1954*, Volume X, Iran, 1951-1954, document 362, British Memorandum (undated), paragraphs 12-15. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d362
[^5]: *FRUS 1952-1954*, Volume X, document 348, editorial note citing telegram 571 from Rome, August 18, 1953 (the Shah arrived in Rome from Baghdad in the early afternoon of August 18), and document 350, editorial note citing telegram 613 from Rome, August 20, and telegram 454, August 22 (the Shah to depart Rome for Baghdad around midnight, arriving about noon August 21; Henderson and other chiefs of mission met the Shah at the Tehran airport). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d348 ; https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d350
[^6]: Gasiorowski, Mark J., and Malcolm Byrne, eds. *Mohammad Mosaddegh and the 1953 Coup in Iran.* Syracuse University Press, 2004.
[^7]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, Iran, 1951-1954, Document 449, April 1, 1954 (Anglo-Iranian 40 per cent; Royal Dutch Shell 14; Compagnie Francaise des Petroles 6; Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, Gulf and the Texas Company 8 per cent each). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449

177
40 - EVENTS/INTELLIGENCE_SCANDALS/Church Committee.md
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@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ relations:
with: "[[Richard Helms]]"
start: 1975-01-27
end: 1976-04-26
fn: 32
fn: 34
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Richard Ober]]"
reverse: true
@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ relations:
role: "Congo station chief, testified 1975"
start: 1975-01-27
end: 1975-11-20
fn: 36
fn: 38
---
The Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, known as the Church Committee after its chairman, [[Frank Church]] of Idaho, investigated the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA), the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI), the [[NSA|National Security Agency]] (NSA) and the [[Internal Revenue Service]] from January 1975 to April 1976. It issued an interim report on assassination plots on November 20, 1975, a six-book final report dated April 26, 1976, and seven volumes of hearings.[^1][^2] The Senate Historical Office gives April 29, 1976 as the date the final report was published.[^3]
@ -100,90 +100,91 @@ The CHAOS information was held in a computer system called [[HYDRA]], compartmen
The committee documented the CIA's [[HTLINGUAL]] program, which opened first-class mail between the United States and the Soviet Union from 1952 to 1973, as an illegal domestic operation conducted without judicial authorization.[^14]
The committee's NSA section records that from the early 1960s until 1973 the National Security Agency intercepted and disseminated international communications of selected American citizens and groups on the basis of name lists supplied by other agencies, that in 1967 the watch lists were expanded to include individuals and organizations in domestic antiwar and civil rights activities, and that NSA formalized the program under the codename MINARET in 1969. It records that Attorney General [[Elliot Richardson]] and Assistant Attorney General Henry Petersen concluded in October 1973 that the watch lists were of "questionable legality."[^15]
The committee's NSA section records that from the early 1960s until 1973 the National Security Agency intercepted and disseminated international communications of selected American citizens and groups on the basis of name lists supplied by other agencies, that in 1967 the watch lists were expanded to include individuals and organizations in domestic antiwar and civil rights activities, and that NSA formalized the program under the codename MINARET in 1969. It records that Attorney General [[Elliot Richardson]] and Assistant Attorney General Henry Petersen concluded in October 1973 that the watch lists were of "questionable legality."[^15] On October 29, 1975, the committee opened public hearings on the NSA, and John G. Tower began by saying that from the beginning he had opposed public hearings on NSA activities.[^16] The committee voted seven to three on November 3, 1975 to make one NSA operation public, subject to confirmation by the Senate Parliamentarian. On November 6 Church read the statement: SHAMROCK was the cover name for a program in which the government persuaded three international telegraph companies, RCA Global, ITT World Communications and Western Union International, to make certain of their international telegraph traffic available, and for almost thirty years copies of most international telegrams originating in or forwarded through the United States were turned over to the NSA and its predecessor agencies. Church said the program appeared to violate section 605 of the Communications Act of 1934 and the Fourth Amendment, and that it had been terminated.[^17]
### COINTELPRO and the King investigation
The FBI's programs used infiltration, psychological warfare, fabricated communications, referrals for prosecution and coordination with local police against lawful political activity. Between 1960 and 1974 the Bureau conducted more than 500,000 separate investigations of persons and groups under its "subversive" category.[^16][^17]
The FBI's programs used infiltration, psychological warfare, fabricated communications, referrals for prosecution and coordination with local police against lawful political activity. Between 1960 and 1974 the Bureau conducted more than 500,000 separate investigations of persons and groups under its "subversive" category.[^18][^19]
Book III of the final report devotes pages 1 to 80 to COINTELPRO and pages 81 to 184 to the FBI's campaign against [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], under the heading "Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study."[^17] The case study opens with testimony of [[William Sullivan|William C. Sullivan]], then the Bureau's assistant director for domestic intelligence and, in the report's words, the man in charge of the FBI's "war" against King: "No holds were barred." The report records wiretaps on King's home telephone from October 1963 until mid-1965, initially approved by Attorney General [[Robert Kennedy|Robert F. Kennedy]], wiretaps on the telephones of the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] headquarters for a longer period, and sixteen occasions on which the FBI acknowledged hiding microphones in King's hotel and motel rooms.[^18] The electronic surveillance section begins at page 111, the wiretap account at page 115 and the microphone account (January 1964 to November 1965) at page 120. A later section covers the Bureau's effort in 1964 to discredit King, beginning at page 131, including Sullivan's January 1964 proposal to promote a new Negro leader (page 135).[^19]
Book III of the final report devotes pages 1 to 80 to COINTELPRO and pages 81 to 184 to the FBI's campaign against [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], under the heading "Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study."[^19] The case study opens with testimony of [[William Sullivan|William C. Sullivan]], then the Bureau's assistant director for domestic intelligence and, in the report's words, the man in charge of the FBI's "war" against King: "No holds were barred." The report records wiretaps on King's home telephone from October 1963 until mid-1965, initially approved by Attorney General [[Robert Kennedy|Robert F. Kennedy]], wiretaps on the telephones of the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] headquarters for a longer period, and sixteen occasions on which the FBI acknowledged hiding microphones in King's hotel and motel rooms.[^20] The electronic surveillance section begins at page 111, the wiretap account at page 115 and the microphone account (January 1964 to November 1965) at page 120. A later section covers the Bureau's effort in 1964 to discredit King, beginning at page 131, including Sullivan's January 1964 proposal to promote a new Negro leader (page 135).[^21]
The report refers to two of King's advisers as "Adviser A" and "Adviser B." It records that a microphone was installed in the office of Adviser A on March 16, 1962 and a wiretap on his office telephone on March 20, 1962, and that the Attorney General authorized a wiretap on his home telephone in November 1962. It states that the information from the continued coverage of Adviser A "appears to have related solely to his advice to Dr. King concerning the civil rights movement and not at all to the alleged Communist Party origins of that advice."[^20] The committee found that the FBI's justification for surveillance of [[Stanley Levison]] was inadequate to support the scope of the surveillance, and that the surveillance extended beyond counterintelligence into political disruption under COINTELPRO.[^21]
The report refers to two of King's advisers as "Adviser A" and "Adviser B." It records that a microphone was installed in the office of Adviser A on March 16, 1962 and a wiretap on his office telephone on March 20, 1962, and that the Attorney General authorized a wiretap on his home telephone in November 1962. It states that the information from the continued coverage of Adviser A "appears to have related solely to his advice to Dr. King concerning the civil rights movement and not at all to the alleged Communist Party origins of that advice."[^22] The committee found that the FBI's justification for surveillance of [[Stanley Levison]] was inadequate to support the scope of the surveillance, and that the surveillance extended beyond counterintelligence into political disruption under COINTELPRO.[^23]
The section on the tape mailed to King begins at page 158. Sullivan testified that [[Alan Belmont]] told him that Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] wanted one of the King tapes mailed to [[Coretta Scott King]] to precipitate their separation, and that he sent an agent to Tampa, Florida to mail a package. The agent testified that he flew to Miami, telephoned Sullivan, and mailed the package, addressed to King, from a post office near the Miami airport; a travel voucher gives November 21, 1964 as the date of the flight.[^22] [[Andrew Young]] testified that a letter accompanied the tape stating that the tape would be released in 34 days and threatening that "there is only one thing you can do to prevent this from happening," and that the disturbing thing to King was that "somebody was trying to get him to commit suicide." The report discusses the letter's apparent purpose of inducing King to commit suicide at pages 158 to 161.[^22] Sullivan testified that he did not recall ever having seen the letter given to the committee, that it was "possible" he had something to do with it, and that it might have been "planted" in his files; after reading its last paragraph he conceded that it could be interpreted as an invitation to suicide.[^23] Sullivan wrote in his memoir that his division prepared the letter.[^24]
The section on the tape mailed to King begins at page 158. Sullivan testified that [[Alan Belmont]] told him that Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] wanted one of the King tapes mailed to [[Coretta Scott King]] to precipitate their separation, and that he sent an agent to Tampa, Florida to mail a package. The agent testified that he flew to Miami, telephoned Sullivan, and mailed the package, addressed to King, from a post office near the Miami airport; a travel voucher gives November 21, 1964 as the date of the flight.[^24] [[Andrew Young]] testified that a letter accompanied the tape stating that the tape would be released in 34 days and threatening that "there is only one thing you can do to prevent this from happening," and that the disturbing thing to King was that "somebody was trying to get him to commit suicide." The report discusses the letter's apparent purpose of inducing King to commit suicide at pages 158 to 161.[^24] Sullivan testified that he did not recall ever having seen the letter given to the committee, that it was "possible" he had something to do with it, and that it might have been "planted" in his files; after reading its last paragraph he conceded that it could be interpreted as an invitation to suicide.[^25] Sullivan wrote in his memoir that his division prepared the letter.[^26]
The committee also documented the Bureau's coordination with local police in the December 4, 1969 raid in Chicago that killed [[Fred Hampton]] of the [[Black Panther Party]]. The Black Panther section runs from page 185 to page 224 of Book III.[^25]
The committee also documented the Bureau's coordination with local police in the December 4, 1969 raid in Chicago that killed [[Fred Hampton]] of the [[Black Panther Party]]. The Black Panther section runs from page 185 to page 224 of Book III.[^27]
### Interim report: assassination plots
The Interim Report, "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders," was issued as Senate Report No. 94-465 on November 20, 1975.[^26] The Senate voted its release after [[Gerald Ford]] wrote to Church on October 31, 1975 asking that the report be suppressed and after Church refused that request on November 4.[^27]
The Interim Report, "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders," was issued as Senate Report No. 94-465 on November 20, 1975.[^28] The Senate voted its release after [[Gerald Ford]] wrote to Church on October 31, 1975 asking that the report be suppressed and after Church refused that request on November 4.[^29]
The report states that the committee had "concrete evidence of at least eight plots involving the CIA to assassinate [[Fidel Castro]]" in the period 1960 to 1965.[^28] It records that on December 11, 1959 [[Allen Dulles]] approved the CIA's giving "thorough consideration to the elimination of Fidel Castro," following a memorandum of that date from [[J.C. King]], head of the Western Hemisphere Division, and that Dulles told the Special Group the following month that "we do not have in mind the quick elimination of Castro."[^29] The Cuba section describes the poison pills prepared by the [[Technical Services Division]] and the recruitment of underworld figures through [[Robert Maheu]], who brought in [[Johnny Roselli]], [[Sam Giancana]] and [[Santos Trafficante, Jr.]]. The report states that there is some evidence that Giancana or Roselli originated the idea of putting a poison pill in Castro's drink, and that the second batch of pills prepared by the Technical Services Division, which contained botulinum toxin, was tested on monkeys.[^30] [[William Harvey]], to whom [[Richard Bissell]] was asked to hand the gambling-syndicate operation in November 1961, asked in early April 1962 to be put in touch with Roselli, met him in Miami, and told him to maintain his Cuban contacts but not to deal with Maheu or Giancana.[^31][^32] [[Desmond FitzGerald]] and a case officer met the AM/LASH asset [[Rolando Cubela]] in Paris on November 22, 1963, the day of the Kennedy assassination, and the report records their assurances of support to Cubela.[^32] The committee found that the plots had not been disclosed to the [[Warren Commission]].[^32][^33]
The report states that the committee had "concrete evidence of at least eight plots involving the CIA to assassinate [[Fidel Castro]]" in the period 1960 to 1965.[^30] It records that on December 11, 1959 [[Allen Dulles]] approved the CIA's giving "thorough consideration to the elimination of Fidel Castro," following a memorandum of that date from [[J.C. King]], head of the Western Hemisphere Division, and that Dulles told the Special Group the following month that "we do not have in mind the quick elimination of Castro."[^31] The Cuba section describes the poison pills prepared by the [[Technical Services Division]] and the recruitment of underworld figures through [[Robert Maheu]], who brought in [[Johnny Roselli]], [[Sam Giancana]] and [[Santos Trafficante, Jr.]]. The report states that there is some evidence that Giancana or Roselli originated the idea of putting a poison pill in Castro's drink, and that the second batch of pills prepared by the Technical Services Division, which contained botulinum toxin, was tested on monkeys.[^32] [[William Harvey]], to whom [[Richard Bissell]] was asked to hand the gambling-syndicate operation in November 1961, asked in early April 1962 to be put in touch with Roselli, met him in Miami, and told him to maintain his Cuban contacts but not to deal with Maheu or Giancana.[^33][^34] [[Desmond FitzGerald]] and a case officer met the AM/LASH asset [[Rolando Cubela]] in Paris on November 22, 1963, the day of the Kennedy assassination, and the report records their assurances of support to Cubela.[^34] The committee found that the plots had not been disclosed to the [[Warren Commission]].[^34][^35]
The Congo section concerns [[Patrice Lumumba]]. In 1960 DDP Richard Bissell asked [[Bronson Tweedy]] to explore the feasibility of assassinating Lumumba. Bissell also asked a CIA scientist, identified in the report by the pseudonym "Joseph Scheider," to prepare to assassinate or incapacitate an unspecified "African leader."[^34] In late September 1960 Scheider delivered the lethal substances to the Leopoldville station officer, whom the report calls "Hedgman," and instructed him to assassinate Lumumba.[^34] The report records that the toxic substances were never used. [[Larry Devlin]] was the Congo station chief. Scheider testified on October 7 and 9, 1975 that he destroyed the viability of the biological material and disposed of it in the [[Congo River]] before leaving the Congo on October 5, 1960; the station officer testified on August 21, 1975 that he locked the material in the bottom drawer of his safe and disposed of it months later. Each recalled disposing of it in the Congo River, alone.[^35] Devlin wrote that he never used the materials and disposed of them in the river.[^36] The committee examined whether [[Michael Mulroney]] received an assassination assignment after refusing one from Bissell, and it examined whether the CIA was involved in Lumumba's transfer to Katanga.[^37] The committee found that Lumumba was killed in Katanga Province after forces loyal to [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] transferred him there.[^38]
The Congo section concerns [[Patrice Lumumba]]. In 1960 DDP Richard Bissell asked [[Bronson Tweedy]] to explore the feasibility of assassinating Lumumba. Bissell also asked a CIA scientist, identified in the report by the pseudonym "Joseph Scheider," to prepare to assassinate or incapacitate an unspecified "African leader."[^36] In late September 1960 Scheider delivered the lethal substances to the Leopoldville station officer, whom the report calls "Hedgman," and instructed him to assassinate Lumumba.[^36] The report records that the toxic substances were never used. [[Larry Devlin]] was the Congo station chief. Scheider testified on October 7 and 9, 1975 that he destroyed the viability of the biological material and disposed of it in the [[Congo River]] before leaving the Congo on October 5, 1960; the station officer testified on August 21, 1975 that he locked the material in the bottom drawer of his safe and disposed of it months later. Each recalled disposing of it in the Congo River, alone.[^37] Devlin wrote that he never used the materials and disposed of them in the river.[^38] The committee examined whether [[Michael Mulroney]] received an assassination assignment after refusing one from Bissell, and it examined whether the CIA was involved in Lumumba's transfer to Katanga.[^39] The committee found that Lumumba was killed in Katanga Province after forces loyal to [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] transferred him there.[^40]
The Dominican section concerns [[Rafael Trujillo]]. The report records that the CIA supplied three pistols and three carbines to dissidents, and that U.S. officials knew the dissidents intended to overthrow Trujillo, probably by assassination.[^39]
The Dominican section concerns [[Rafael Trujillo]]. The report records that the CIA supplied three pistols and three carbines to dissidents, and that U.S. officials knew the dissidents intended to overthrow Trujillo, probably by assassination.[^41]
The Vietnam section concerns [[Ngo Dinh Diem]]. The report finds that the United States encouraged the coup against Diem but neither desired nor was involved in his death, which appears to have been a spontaneous act by Vietnamese generals.[^40] The Chile section concerns [[Rene Schneider|General René Schneider]], the Chilean army commander who was shot in an attempted abduction in October 1970. The report states that his removal became "a necessary ingredient in the coup plans of all the Chilean conspirators," and that the conspirators decided to kidnap him.[^41]
The Vietnam section concerns [[Ngo Dinh Diem]]. The report finds that the United States encouraged the coup against Diem but neither desired nor was involved in his death, which appears to have been a spontaneous act by Vietnamese generals.[^42] The Chile section concerns [[Rene Schneider|General René Schneider]], the Chilean army commander who was shot in an attempted abduction in October 1970. The report states that his removal became "a necessary ingredient in the coup plans of all the Chilean conspirators," and that the conspirators decided to kidnap him.[^43]
The Mongoose section records that Robert Kennedy played an active role in [[Operation Mongoose]], and that [[Maxwell Taylor]] was chairman of the Special Group (Augmented) that oversaw it. [[Edward Lansdale]] coordinated the operation, and William Harvey was placed in charge of the CIA's [[Task Force W]].[^42]
The Mongoose section records that Robert Kennedy played an active role in [[Operation Mongoose]], and that [[Maxwell Taylor]] was chairman of the Special Group (Augmented) that oversaw it. [[Edward Lansdale]] coordinated the operation, and William Harvey was placed in charge of the CIA's [[Task Force W]].[^44]
### Hearings
The committee published seven hearing volumes under Senate Resolution 21.[^2]
Volume 1, "Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents," was held September 16, 17 and 18, 1975, with testimony from Colby (September 16) and Helms (September 17). It concerned the CIA's shellfish toxin stored at [[Fort Detrick]] and the [[MKNAOMI]] program.[^43]
Volume 1, "Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents," was held September 16, 17 and 18, 1975, with testimony from Colby (September 16) and Helms (September 17). It concerned the CIA's shellfish toxin stored at [[Fort Detrick]] and the [[MKNAOMI]] program.[^45] The September 16 session took testimony from [[Nathan Gordon]], a former chief of the chemistry branch of the Army's Technical Services. Gordon testified that he had not received an order from the Director of Central Intelligence to search out and destroy the CIA's stock of biological agents, and that he, his project officer and a technical consultant regarded the shellfish toxin as a chemical substance rather than a biological agent or biological toxin; he also described a dart tranquilizer device for dogs that had been developed before he joined the branch.[^46] The committee's September 16 exhibits included the shellfish toxin and two sheets of paper dated February 18, 1970, found with it.[^46]
Volume 2, "Huston Plan," was held September 23, 24 and 25, 1975. Its witnesses were [[Tom Charles Huston]] (September 23), Angleton (September 24) and [[Charles Brennan]], former assistant director of the FBI's Domestic Intelligence Division (September 25).[^44]
Volume 2, "Huston Plan," was held September 23, 24 and 25, 1975. Its witnesses were [[Tom Charles Huston]] (September 23), Angleton (September 24) and [[Charles Brennan]], former assistant director of the FBI's Domestic Intelligence Division (September 25).[^47]
Volume 3 is titled "Internal Revenue Service." Volume 5 is titled "National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights."[^2]
Volume 4, "Mail Opening," was held October 21, 22 and 24, 1975. Its witnesses included former CIA Inspector General Gordon Stewart and former CIA Director of Security Howard J. Osborn (October 21) and former Postmasters General J. Edward Day, John A. Gronouski and Winton M. Blount (October 22).[^45]
Volume 4, "Mail Opening," was held October 21, 22 and 24, 1975. Its witnesses included former CIA Inspector General Gordon Stewart and former CIA Director of Security Howard J. Osborn (October 21) and former Postmasters General J. Edward Day, John A. Gronouski and Winton M. Blount (October 22).[^48]
Volume 6, "Federal Bureau of Investigation," was held on November 18 and 19 and December 2, 3, 9, 10 and 11, 1975. Its witnesses included FBI informants [[Mary Jo Cook]] and [[Gary Thomas Rowe]] (December 2), former FBI officials [[Cartha DeLoach]] and [[Courtney Evans]], former Attorneys General [[Nicholas Katzenbach]] and [[Ramsey Clark]] (December 3), FBI Director [[Clarence M. Kelley]] (December 10) and Attorney General [[Edward H. Levi]] (December 11). Exhibit 6 is a July 19, 1966 memorandum from Sullivan to DeLoach on "Black Bag" jobs.[^46]
Volume 6, "Federal Bureau of Investigation," was held on November 18 and 19 and December 2, 3, 9, 10 and 11, 1975. Its witnesses included FBI informants [[Mary Jo Cook]] and [[Gary Thomas Rowe]] (December 2), former FBI officials [[Cartha DeLoach]] and [[Courtney Evans]], former Attorneys General [[Nicholas Katzenbach]] and [[Ramsey Clark]] (December 3), FBI Director [[Clarence M. Kelley]] (December 10) and Attorney General [[Edward H. Levi]] (December 11). Exhibit 6 is a July 19, 1966 memorandum from Sullivan to DeLoach on "Black Bag" jobs.[^49]
Volume 7, "Covert Action," was held December 4 and 5, 1975. On December 4 the committee heard staff members William G. Miller, William Bader, Karl Inderfurth and [[Gregory Treverton]], and then Ralph Dungan, Charles A. Meyer and [[Edward Korry]], who was ambassador to Chile from 1967 to 1971. Treverton's statement quotes the handwritten notes of Helms from the September 15, 1970 meeting with [[Richard Nixon]], which include "Make the economy scream." It states that between October 5 and October 20, 1970 the CIA made 21 contacts with key military and police officials in Chile, and that on October 22 CIA officials passed three submachine guns to two Chilean officers; later that day General Schneider was mortally wounded in an abortive kidnap attempt, by a group that the statement says was not the group that received the weapons.[^47] The notes are reproduced as Exhibit 2 (page 96). Treverton wrote to Korry on October 20, 1975 (Exhibit 3, page 97), and Korry's reply to Church of October 23, 1975 is printed as Exhibit 4 (page 100).[^48]
Volume 7, "Covert Action," was held December 4 and 5, 1975. On December 4 the committee heard staff members William G. Miller, William Bader, Karl Inderfurth and [[Gregory Treverton]], and then Ralph Dungan, Charles A. Meyer and [[Edward Korry]], who was ambassador to Chile from 1967 to 1971. Treverton's statement quotes the handwritten notes of Helms from the September 15, 1970 meeting with [[Richard Nixon]], which include "Make the economy scream." It states that between October 5 and October 20, 1970 the CIA made 21 contacts with key military and police officials in Chile, and that on October 22 CIA officials passed three submachine guns to two Chilean officers; later that day General Schneider was mortally wounded in an abortive kidnap attempt, by a group that the statement says was not the group that received the weapons.[^50] The notes are reproduced as Exhibit 2 (page 96). Treverton wrote to Korry on October 20, 1975 (Exhibit 3, page 97), and Korry's reply to Church of October 23, 1975 is printed as Exhibit 4 (page 100).[^51]
The committee's staff report, *Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973*, was printed in December 1975. It states that the CIA spent three million dollars in an effort to influence the 1964 Chilean presidential election, and that eight million dollars was spent covertly in the three years between 1970 and the military coup of September 1973, in support of opposition to [[Salvador Allende]]. It records that the CIA spent more than thirteen million dollars on covert action in Chile between 1963 and 1974, and that Congress was briefed on projects totaling about 7.1 million dollars of it.[^49]
The committee's staff report, *Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973*, was printed in December 1975. It states that the CIA spent three million dollars in an effort to influence the 1964 Chilean presidential election, and that eight million dollars was spent covertly in the three years between 1970 and the military coup of September 1973, in support of opposition to [[Salvador Allende]]. It records that the CIA spent more than thirteen million dollars on covert action in Chile between 1963 and 1974, and that Congress was briefed on projects totaling about 7.1 million dollars of it.[^52]
### Final report
The final report, Senate Report No. 94-755, was issued April 26, 1976 in six books.[^50]
The final report, Senate Report No. 94-755, was issued April 26, 1976 in six books.[^53]
Book I, "Foreign and Military Intelligence," covers the assassination programs and the [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] program. It records approximately 11 grams of shellfish toxin held at a CIA laboratory at Fort Detrick that went undetected for five years, and it records that MKULTRA records were destroyed in January 1973 by Technical Services Division personnel acting on the verbal orders of [[Sidney Gottlieb]].[^51]
Book I, "Foreign and Military Intelligence," covers the assassination programs and the [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] program. It records approximately 11 grams of shellfish toxin held at a CIA laboratory at Fort Detrick that went undetected for five years, and it records that MKULTRA records were destroyed in January 1973 by Technical Services Division personnel acting on the verbal orders of [[Sidney Gottlieb]].[^54]
Book II, "Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans," contains the statistic on FBI investigations cited above and the committee's mandate, which includes "The origin and disposition of the so-called Huston Plan."[^52]
Church filed Additional Views on covert action in Book I, writing that the covert action capability ought to be circumscribed more sharply than a majority of the committee was willing to recommend, that "all covert activity unrelated to the gathering of essential intelligence should be severed entirely from the CIA," and that any future secret operation in a foreign land should be done under the direct aegis of the State Department.[^55]
Book III, "Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans," contains the following sections: COINTELPRO (from page 1), the King case study (from page 81), the Black Panther Party (from page 185), informants (from page 225), warrantless FBI electronic surveillance (from page 271), black bag operations (from page 353), FBI domestic intelligence investigations (from page 373), domestic CIA and FBI mail opening (from page 559), the CHAOS program and the Office of Security (from page 679) and NSA surveillance affecting Americans (from page 733).[^53]
Book II, "Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans," contains the statistic on FBI investigations cited above and the committee's mandate, which includes "The origin and disposition of the so-called Huston Plan."[^56]
Book IV, "Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Foreign and Military Intelligence," describes at pages 128 and 129 the CIA's Program Branch 7 (PB/7), headed in the early years of the CIA by Army Colonel [[Boris Pash]], as a "special operations" unit within the [[Office of Policy Coordination]] with jurisdiction over assassinations and kidnappings. The committee staff concluded that the unit was assigned responsibility for assassinations and kidnappings if such operations were authorized, and stated that it had found no evidence that the unit carried out any. [[Howard Hunt]] told an interviewer, as the New York Times reported on December 26, 1975, that he was told in 1954 or 1955 that Pash was in charge of an assassination unit.[^54]
Book III, "Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans," contains the following sections: COINTELPRO (from page 1), the King case study (from page 81), the Black Panther Party (from page 185), informants (from page 225), warrantless FBI electronic surveillance (from page 271), black bag operations (from page 353), FBI domestic intelligence investigations (from page 373), domestic CIA and FBI mail opening (from page 559), the CHAOS program and the Office of Security (from page 679) and NSA surveillance affecting Americans (from page 733).[^57]
Book V, "The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies," and Book VI, "Supplementary Reports on Intelligence Activities," complete the set.[^50]
Book IV, "Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Foreign and Military Intelligence," describes at pages 128 and 129 the CIA's Program Branch 7 (PB/7), headed in the early years of the CIA by Army Colonel [[Boris Pash]], as a "special operations" unit within the [[Office of Policy Coordination]] with jurisdiction over assassinations and kidnappings. The committee staff concluded that the unit was assigned responsibility for assassinations and kidnappings if such operations were authorized, and stated that it had found no evidence that the unit carried out any. [[Howard Hunt]] told an interviewer, as the New York Times reported on December 26, 1975, that he was told in 1954 or 1955 that Pash was in charge of an assassination unit.[^58]
Book V, "The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies," and Book VI, "Supplementary Reports on Intelligence Activities," complete the set.[^53]
### MKULTRA and behavioral research
The committee's inquiry into the CIA's behavioral-control research was hampered because the MKULTRA records had been destroyed in January 1973. Technical Services Division personnel destroyed them on Gottlieb's verbal orders. Gottlieb testified that he was carrying out a verbal order from Helms in doing so, and Helms confirmed that the order was his.[^51]
The committee's inquiry into the CIA's behavioral-control research was hampered because the MKULTRA records had been destroyed in January 1973. Technical Services Division personnel destroyed them on Gottlieb's verbal orders. Gottlieb testified that he was carrying out a verbal order from Helms in doing so, and Helms confirmed that the order was his.[^54]
Gottlieb testified in secret about the assassination programs, under the alias "Joseph Scheider," the name the interim report gives the CIA scientist who took the toxic materials to the Congo. [[John D. Marks]] wrote that Gottlieb professed not to remember most of the behavioral-control details.[^55] Book I describes the program as "concerned with the research and development of chemical, biological, and radiological materials capable of employment in clandestine operations to control human behavior," records that the DCI, Allen Dulles, approved it on April 13, 1953 on a proposal from Assistant Deputy Director for Plans Helms, and records that over its ten-year life many "additional avenues to the control of human behavior" were designated for investigation under its charter, among them "radiation, electroshock, various fields of psychology, psychiatry, sociology, and anthropology, graphology, harassment substances, and paramilitary devices and materials."[^56]
Gottlieb testified in secret about the assassination programs, under the alias "Joseph Scheider," the name the interim report gives the CIA scientist who took the toxic materials to the Congo. [[John D. Marks]] wrote that Gottlieb professed not to remember most of the behavioral-control details.[^59] Book I describes the program as "concerned with the research and development of chemical, biological, and radiological materials capable of employment in clandestine operations to control human behavior," records that the DCI, Allen Dulles, approved it on April 13, 1953 on a proposal from Assistant Deputy Director for Plans Helms, and records that over its ten-year life many "additional avenues to the control of human behavior" were designated for investigation under its charter, among them "radiation, electroshock, various fields of psychology, psychiatry, sociology, and anthropology, graphology, harassment substances, and paramilitary devices and materials."[^60]
The hearing volume on the storage of toxic agents disclosed the MKNAOMI program and the operations at Fort Detrick.[^57]
The hearing volume on the storage of toxic agents disclosed the MKNAOMI program and the operations at Fort Detrick.[^61]
John D. Marks wrote that the only time in about twenty-five years that CIA officials sought [[White House]] approval for this work was a 1955 contribution of $375,000 toward a research building at [[Georgetown University Hospital]], which Dulles approved. Marks also wrote that a reference to the program in the Rockefeller Commission report led to the Freedom of Information request that surfaced the surviving boxes of MKULTRA financial records.[^58]
John D. Marks wrote that the only time in about twenty-five years that CIA officials sought [[White House]] approval for this work was a 1955 contribution of $375,000 toward a research building at [[Georgetown University Hospital]], which Dulles approved. Marks also wrote that a reference to the program in the Rockefeller Commission report led to the Freedom of Information request that surfaced the surviving boxes of MKULTRA financial records.[^62]
### Rockefeller Commission and Pike Committee
President Ford created the Rockefeller Commission (Commission on CIA Activities Within the United States, chaired by Vice President [[Nelson Rockefeller]]) by Executive Order 11828 on January 4, 1975, and it issued its report in June 1975.[^59] The National Security Archive has published documents showing that the White House removed an 86-page section on assassination plots from the commission's draft before publication, and that [[Richard Cheney]] made handwritten edits to the draft around June 1, 1975.[^60]
President Ford created the Rockefeller Commission (Commission on CIA Activities Within the United States, chaired by Vice President [[Nelson Rockefeller]]) by Executive Order 11828 on January 4, 1975, and it issued its report in June 1975.[^63] The National Security Archive has published documents showing that the White House removed an 86-page section on assassination plots from the commission's draft before publication, and that [[Richard Cheney]] made handwritten edits to the draft around June 1, 1975.[^64]
The House Select Committee on Intelligence, known as the Pike Committee after [[Otis Pike]], ran in parallel with the Church Committee in 1975 and 1976. The House established the committee by H. Res. 138 on February 19, 1975 and reconstituted it by H. Res. 591 on July 17, 1975.[^61] The papers of Richard Ober at the [[Hoover Institution]] list Pike Committee files alongside the Church Committee and Rockefeller Commission files.[^62]
The House Select Committee on Intelligence, known as the Pike Committee after [[Otis Pike]], ran in parallel with the Church Committee in 1975 and 1976. The House established the committee by H. Res. 138 on February 19, 1975 and reconstituted it by H. Res. 591 on July 17, 1975.[^65] The papers of Richard Ober at the [[Hoover Institution]] list Pike Committee files alongside the Church Committee and Rockefeller Commission files.[^66]
### Successor committees and executive order
The Senate created the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] by S. Res. 400 of the 94th Congress, second session, introduced on March 1, 1976 and agreed to on May 19, 1976, to oversee intelligence activities and to make continuing studies of them.[^63] The [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] followed as the House counterpart.[^64]
The Senate created the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] by S. Res. 400 of the 94th Congress, second session, introduced on March 1, 1976 and agreed to on May 19, 1976, to oversee intelligence activities and to make continuing studies of them.[^67] The [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] followed as the House counterpart.[^68]
President Ford signed Executive Order 11905 on February 18, 1976. Section (g) provides that "No employee of the United States Government shall engage in, or conspire to engage in, political assassination."[^65] The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 created a judicial framework for domestic national security surveillance.[^66]
President Ford signed Executive Order 11905 on February 18, 1976. Section (g) provides that "No employee of the United States Government shall engage in, or conspire to engage in, political assassination."[^69] The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 created a judicial framework for domestic national security surveillance.[^70]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, April 26, 1976. https://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book1/
[^2]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Hearings*, vol. 1, "Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents," title page ("Senate Resolution 21"), and vols. 1 to 7 (vol. 2, "Huston Plan," September 23 to 25, 1975; vol. 3, "Internal Revenue Service"; vol. 4, "Mail Opening," October 21, 22 and 24, 1975; vol. 5, "National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights"; vol. 6, "Federal Bureau of Investigation," November and December 1975; vol. 7, "Covert Action," December 4 and 5, 1975). https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
[^3]: United States Senate, "Church Committee Created," Senate Historical Office (final report issued April 29, 1976; 126 full committee meetings, 40 subcommittee hearings, about 800 witnesses, 110,000 documents). https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/investigations/church-committee.htm
@ -199,54 +200,58 @@ President Ford signed Executive Order 11905 on February 18, 1976. Section (g) pr
[^13]: Commission on CIA Activities Within the United States, *Report to the President*, June 1975, ch. 11, "Special Operations Group, 'Operation CHAOS,'" pp. 130 to 151 (about 13,000 files, including about 7,200 personality files; more than 300,000 names in the index; program terminated March 15, 1974). https://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/rockcomm/pdf/RockComm_Chap11_CHAOS.pdf
[^14]: *Final Report*, Book III, "Domestic CIA and FBI Mail Opening," pp. 559 to 678; *Hearings*, vol. 4, "Mail Opening," October 21, 22 and 24, 1975.
[^15]: *Final Report*, Book III, S. Rept. 94-755, NSA surveillance affecting Americans (from p. 733), pp. 739 and 748 (watch lists from the early 1960s; expansion in 1967; MINARET charter, July 1969; Richardson and Petersen, October 1973).
[^16]: *Final Report*, Book II, "Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans," S. Rept. 94-755, p. 19 ("Between 1960 and 1974, the FBI conducted over 500,000 separate investigations of persons and groups under the 'subversive' category").
[^17]: *Final Report*, Book III, "COINTELPRO: The FBI's Covert Action Programs Against American Citizens," pp. 1 to 80, and "Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study," pp. 81 to 184. https://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book3/
[^18]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, pp. 81 to 82 (introduction; Sullivan testimony, November 1, 1975, p. 97; wiretaps from October 1963 until mid-1965; sixteen microphone occasions).
[^19]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, section IV ("Electronic Surveillance of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference," from p. 111; wiretaps, October 1963 to June 1966, at p. 115; microphone surveillance, January 1964 to November 1965, at p. 120) and section V ("The FBI's Effort to Discredit Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., 1964," from p. 131; Sullivan's plan to promote a new Negro leader, January 1964, at p. 135).
[^20]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, p. 88 (microphone in Adviser A's office, March 16, 1962; wiretap on his office telephone, March 20, 1962, authorized by the Attorney General) and p. 89 (authorization of a wiretap on his home telephone, November 1962; "appears to have related solely to his advice to Dr. King").
[^21]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, pp. 81 to 184, on the surveillance of King's advisers.
[^22]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, section VI.B ("Tapes are mailed to Dr. King: November 21, 1964," p. 158), and the suicide passages at pp. 158 to 161.
[^23]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, pp. 159 to 161 (Sullivan, November 1, 1975, pp. 104 to 106 and 112; letter given to the committee by the FBI; Young, February 19, 1976, p. 36).
[^24]: William C. Sullivan, *The Bureau: My Thirty Years in Hoover's FBI* (Norton, 1979).
[^25]: *Final Report*, Book III, "The FBI's Covert Action Program To Destroy The Black Panther Party," pp. 185 to 224.
[^26]: *Interim Report, Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, November 20, 1975, title page. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^27]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, "Gerald Ford White House Altered Rockefeller Commission Report in 1975; Removed Section on CIA Assassination Plots," February 29, 2016, Document 21 (Ford letter to Church, October 31, 1975; Church's rejection, November 4, 1975). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report
[^28]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 71 (Cuba section, opening; "concrete evidence of at least eight plots involving the CIA to assassinate Fidel Castro").
[^29]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 92 to 93 (the December 11, 1959 memorandum of J. C. King, approved by Allen Dulles) and p. 268 ("he approved the CIA's giving 'thorough consideration to the elimination of Fidel Castro,' but told the Special Group in a meeting the following month that 'we do not have in mind the quick elimination of Castro'").
[^30]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 80 (origin of the poison-pill idea; botulinum toxin batch tested on monkeys).
[^31]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 83 to 84 (Harvey's notes of November 16, 1961; April 1962 introduction to Roselli in Miami; Harvey's view that Maheu and Giancana were "untrustworthy" and "surplus").
[^32]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, Cuba section, pp. 71 to 90 (poison pills, pp. 79 to 82; Maheu, Roselli, Giancana and Trafficante, pp. 74 to 82; FitzGerald and Cubela on November 22, 1963, summarized at p. 72 and described at pp. 86 to 89).
[^33]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 269 (Helms "failed to inform the Warren Commission of the plots"; McCone failed to disclose the plot to the Commission; Allen Dulles, a member of the Commission, did not inform the other members).
[^34]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 18 to 24 (Bissell and Tweedy; "Joseph Scheider" at pp. 19 to 21; delivery of lethal substances to the Leopoldville station officer on September 26, 1960 at p. 24).
[^35]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 29 to 31 (Scheider, October 7 and 9, 1975; Hedgman, August 21, 1975, pp. 48 to 49 and 84 to 85; the Station Officer's October 7, 1960 cable that "certain items of continuing usefulness" were left).
[^36]: Lawrence Devlin, *Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone* (Public Affairs, 2007), describing his 1975 testimony to the committee.
[^37]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 37 to 42 (Mulroney's assignment in the Congo).
[^38]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 48 to 49 (Lumumba's imprisonment and death in Katanga Province).
[^39]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 191 (Dominican Republic: "Material support, consisting of three pistols and three carbines, was supplied to various dissidents"; U.S. officials "knew that the dissidents intended to overthrow Trujillo, probably by assassination").
[^40]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 217 to 224 (Diem), and p. 217 on U.S. encouragement of the coup.
[^41]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 225 to 256 (Chile; Schneider's removal as "a necessary ingredient in the coup plans of all the Chilean conspirators," p. 225; the attempted abduction of October 19, 1970 and the later attempt, pp. 245 et seq.).
[^42]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 139 to 157 (Operation MONGOOSE; Special Group (Augmented); Robert Kennedy, Maxwell Taylor, Lansdale, Harvey and Task Force W).
[^43]: *Hearings*, vol. 1, "Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents," September 16, 17 and 18, 1975, Exhibit No. 6 (memorandum to Chief, TSD, Subject: MKNAOMI).
[^44]: *Hearings*, vol. 2, "Huston Plan," September 23, 24 and 25, 1975. https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
[^45]: *Hearings*, vol. 4, "Mail Opening," October 21, 22 and 24, 1975.
[^46]: *Hearings*, vol. 6, "Federal Bureau of Investigation," title page, list of witnesses and Exhibit 6 (p. 357).
[^47]: *Hearings*, vol. 7, "Covert Action," December 4 and 5, 1975, list of witnesses; statement of Gregory Treverton, pp. 13 to 15 (Helms's handwritten notes quoted at p. 14, including "Make the economy scream."; contacts of October 5 to 20, 1970 and submachine guns of October 22, 1970, p. 14); Exhibit 2, p. 96 (handwritten notes by Richard Helms taken during the meeting of September 15, 1970 with President Nixon).
[^48]: Edward M. Korry, letter to Senator Frank Church, October 23, 1975, *Hearings*, vol. 7, "Covert Action," Exhibit 4, p. 100; Gregory Treverton, letter to Edward M. Korry, October 20, 1975, Exhibit 3, p. 97; Korry's testimony begins at p. 29.
[^49]: Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973: Staff Report* (December 18, 1975), overview, p. 1 (three million dollars in 1964; eight million dollars between 1970 and September 1973), and the section on congressional briefings (more than thirteen million dollars spent, 1963 to 1974; about 7.1 million dollars briefed). https://archive.org/details/Covert-Action-In-Chile-1963-1973
[^50]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 94-755, Books I to VI, April 26, 1976. Book V: "The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies." Book VI: "Supplementary Reports on Intelligence Activities." https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
[^51]: *Final Report*, Book I, pp. 362 to 363 (approximately 11 grams of shellfish toxin acquired from SOD personnel at Fort Detrick, about one-third of the total world production) and p. 389 (the toxin stored in a little-used CIA laboratory where it went undetected for five years; MKULTRA records destroyed in January 1973 by TSD personnel on Gottlieb's verbal orders, as Gottlieb testified and Helms confirmed the order was Helms's).
[^52]: *Final Report*, Book II, S. Rept. 94-755, mandate section (the Senate resolution's list of inquiries, including "The origin and disposition of the so-called Huston Plan").
[^53]: *Final Report*, Book III, table of contents and the King case study's own contents page: COINTELPRO p. 1; King case study p. 81; Black Panther Party p. 185; informants p. 225; warrantless electronic surveillance p. 271; black bag operations p. 353; FBI domestic intelligence investigations p. 373; domestic CIA and FBI mail opening p. 559; CHAOS p. 679; NSA p. 733.
[^54]: *Final Report*, Book IV, "Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Foreign and Military Intelligence," S. Rept. 94-755, pp. 128 to 129 (section II, "The 'Special Operations' Unit," and subsection A, "Program Branch 7: A Special Operations Unit with Assassination Jurisdiction"; Pash testimony; Hunt as reported in the *New York Times*, December 26, 1975, p. 9; CIA letter to the committee of January 16, 1976 and Director of Operations Planning memorandum of January 1, 1976, among the staff's sources).
[^55]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 19 to 21 (pseudonym "Joseph Scheider"). On the professed lack of memory: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control* (Times Books, 1979), chapter 12.
[^56]: *Final Report*, Book I, p. 389 ("concerned with the research and development of chemical, biological, and radiological materials capable of employment in clandestine operations to control human behavior"; records destroyed January 1973) and p. 390 (Helms proposal; approval by the DCI on April 13, 1953; the 1963 Inspector General's survey; "additional avenues to the control of human behavior").
[^57]: *Hearings*, vol. 1, "Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents," Exhibit No. 6, p. 204 (October 13, 1967 memorandum from Chief, TSD Biological Branch, to Chief, TSD).
[^58]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control* (Times Books, 1979), chapter 12.
[^59]: Commission on CIA Activities Within the United States, *Report to the President*, June 1975, Preface. https://archive.org/details/reporttopresiden01unit ; Executive Order 11828, "Establishing a Commission on CIA Activities Within the United States," January 4, 1975, sec. 6 (final report due within three months). https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11828-establishing-commission-cia-activities-within-the-united-states
[^60]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, February 29, 2016, Document 15 (Cheney's handwritten edits, c. June 1, 1975) and Document 19 (the 86-page section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders," June 5, 1975). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report
[^61]: H. Res. 138, 94th Cong. (agreed to February 19, 1975); H. Res. 591, 94th Cong. (introduced July 11, 1975; agreed to July 17, 1975), "Resolution establishing a Select Committee on Intelligence." https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/94/hres138 ; https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/94/hres591
[^62]: Richard Ober Papers, Hoover Institution Library and Archives, finding aid (Pike Committee, Church Committee and Rockefeller Commission files).
[^63]: S. Res. 400, 94th Cong., 2d Sess. (introduced March 1, 1976; agreed to May 19, 1976), "A resolution to establish a Standing Committee of the Senate on Intelligence Activities." https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/94/sres400 ; Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, text of the resolution. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/about-the-committee/s-res-400/
[^64]: House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, committee history. https://intelligence.house.gov/
[^65]: Executive Order 11905, "United States Foreign Intelligence Activities," February 18, 1976, sec. (g), "Prohibition of Assassination." https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11905-united-states-foreign-intelligence-activities
[^66]: Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, Pub. L. 95-511, 92 Stat. 1783.
[^16]: *The National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights*, Hearings, Vol. 5, October 29, 1975, opening statements. https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume5-National-Security-Agency
[^17]: Hearings, Vol. 5, Thursday, November 6, 1975, chairman's opening remarks and statement, pp. 57-58. https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume5-National-Security-Agency
[^18]: *Final Report*, Book II, "Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans," S. Rept. 94-755, p. 19 ("Between 1960 and 1974, the FBI conducted over 500,000 separate investigations of persons and groups under the 'subversive' category").
[^19]: *Final Report*, Book III, "COINTELPRO: The FBI's Covert Action Programs Against American Citizens," pp. 1 to 80, and "Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study," pp. 81 to 184. https://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book3/
[^20]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, pp. 81 to 82 (introduction; Sullivan testimony, November 1, 1975, p. 97; wiretaps from October 1963 until mid-1965; sixteen microphone occasions).
[^21]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, section IV ("Electronic Surveillance of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference," from p. 111; wiretaps, October 1963 to June 1966, at p. 115; microphone surveillance, January 1964 to November 1965, at p. 120) and section V ("The FBI's Effort to Discredit Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., 1964," from p. 131; Sullivan's plan to promote a new Negro leader, January 1964, at p. 135).
[^22]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, p. 88 (microphone in Adviser A's office, March 16, 1962; wiretap on his office telephone, March 20, 1962, authorized by the Attorney General) and p. 89 (authorization of a wiretap on his home telephone, November 1962; "appears to have related solely to his advice to Dr. King").
[^23]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, pp. 81 to 184, on the surveillance of King's advisers.
[^24]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, section VI.B ("Tapes are mailed to Dr. King: November 21, 1964," p. 158), and the suicide passages at pp. 158 to 161.
[^25]: *Final Report*, Book III, King case study, pp. 159 to 161 (Sullivan, November 1, 1975, pp. 104 to 106 and 112; letter given to the committee by the FBI; Young, February 19, 1976, p. 36).
[^26]: William C. Sullivan, *The Bureau: My Thirty Years in Hoover's FBI* (Norton, 1979).
[^27]: *Final Report*, Book III, "The FBI's Covert Action Program To Destroy The Black Panther Party," pp. 185 to 224.
[^28]: *Interim Report, Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, November 20, 1975, title page. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^29]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, "Gerald Ford White House Altered Rockefeller Commission Report in 1975; Removed Section on CIA Assassination Plots," February 29, 2016, Document 21 (Ford letter to Church, October 31, 1975; Church's rejection, November 4, 1975). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report
[^30]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 71 (Cuba section, opening; "concrete evidence of at least eight plots involving the CIA to assassinate Fidel Castro").
[^31]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 92 to 93 (the December 11, 1959 memorandum of J. C. King, approved by Allen Dulles) and p. 268 ("he approved the CIA's giving 'thorough consideration to the elimination of Fidel Castro,' but told the Special Group in a meeting the following month that 'we do not have in mind the quick elimination of Castro'").
[^32]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 80 (origin of the poison-pill idea; botulinum toxin batch tested on monkeys).
[^33]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 83 to 84 (Harvey's notes of November 16, 1961; April 1962 introduction to Roselli in Miami; Harvey's view that Maheu and Giancana were "untrustworthy" and "surplus").
[^34]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, Cuba section, pp. 71 to 90 (poison pills, pp. 79 to 82; Maheu, Roselli, Giancana and Trafficante, pp. 74 to 82; FitzGerald and Cubela on November 22, 1963, summarized at p. 72 and described at pp. 86 to 89).
[^35]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 269 (Helms "failed to inform the Warren Commission of the plots"; McCone failed to disclose the plot to the Commission; Allen Dulles, a member of the Commission, did not inform the other members).
[^36]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 18 to 24 (Bissell and Tweedy; "Joseph Scheider" at pp. 19 to 21; delivery of lethal substances to the Leopoldville station officer on September 26, 1960 at p. 24).
[^37]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 29 to 31 (Scheider, October 7 and 9, 1975; Hedgman, August 21, 1975, pp. 48 to 49 and 84 to 85; the Station Officer's October 7, 1960 cable that "certain items of continuing usefulness" were left).
[^38]: Lawrence Devlin, *Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone* (Public Affairs, 2007), describing his 1975 testimony to the committee.
[^39]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 37 to 42 (Mulroney's assignment in the Congo).
[^40]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 48 to 49 (Lumumba's imprisonment and death in Katanga Province).
[^41]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, p. 191 (Dominican Republic: "Material support, consisting of three pistols and three carbines, was supplied to various dissidents"; U.S. officials "knew that the dissidents intended to overthrow Trujillo, probably by assassination").
[^42]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 217 to 224 (Diem), and p. 217 on U.S. encouragement of the coup.
[^43]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 225 to 256 (Chile; Schneider's removal as "a necessary ingredient in the coup plans of all the Chilean conspirators," p. 225; the attempted abduction of October 19, 1970 and the later attempt, pp. 245 et seq.).
[^44]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 139 to 157 (Operation MONGOOSE; Special Group (Augmented); Robert Kennedy, Maxwell Taylor, Lansdale, Harvey and Task Force W).
[^45]: *Hearings*, vol. 1, "Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents," September 16, 17 and 18, 1975, Exhibit No. 6 (memorandum to Chief, TSD, Subject: MKNAOMI).
[^46]: *Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents*, Hearings, Vol. 1, September 16, 1975: testimony of Nathan Gordon at pp. 51-63 (no order to search out and destroy, pp. 56-57; chemical substance, p. 58; dart tranquilizer device for dogs, p. 63); exhibit No. 3 (p. 198). https://archive.org/details/Church-Committee-Hearings-Volume1-Toxic-Agents
[^47]: *Hearings*, vol. 2, "Huston Plan," September 23, 24 and 25, 1975. https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
[^48]: *Hearings*, vol. 4, "Mail Opening," October 21, 22 and 24, 1975.
[^49]: *Hearings*, vol. 6, "Federal Bureau of Investigation," title page, list of witnesses and Exhibit 6 (p. 357).
[^50]: *Hearings*, vol. 7, "Covert Action," December 4 and 5, 1975, list of witnesses; statement of Gregory Treverton, pp. 13 to 15 (Helms's handwritten notes quoted at p. 14, including "Make the economy scream."; contacts of October 5 to 20, 1970 and submachine guns of October 22, 1970, p. 14); Exhibit 2, p. 96 (handwritten notes by Richard Helms taken during the meeting of September 15, 1970 with President Nixon).
[^51]: Edward M. Korry, letter to Senator Frank Church, October 23, 1975, *Hearings*, vol. 7, "Covert Action," Exhibit 4, p. 100; Gregory Treverton, letter to Edward M. Korry, October 20, 1975, Exhibit 3, p. 97; Korry's testimony begins at p. 29.
[^52]: Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973: Staff Report* (December 18, 1975), overview, p. 1 (three million dollars in 1964; eight million dollars between 1970 and September 1973), and the section on congressional briefings (more than thirteen million dollars spent, 1963 to 1974; about 7.1 million dollars briefed). https://archive.org/details/Covert-Action-In-Chile-1963-1973
[^53]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 94-755, Books I to VI, April 26, 1976. Book V: "The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies." Book VI: "Supplementary Reports on Intelligence Activities." https://archive.org/details/ChurchCommittee
[^54]: *Final Report*, Book I, pp. 362 to 363 (approximately 11 grams of shellfish toxin acquired from SOD personnel at Fort Detrick, about one-third of the total world production) and p. 389 (the toxin stored in a little-used CIA laboratory where it went undetected for five years; MKULTRA records destroyed in January 1973 by TSD personnel on Gottlieb's verbal orders, as Gottlieb testified and Helms confirmed the order was Helms's).
[^55]: Final Report, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755, "Additional Views of Senator Frank Church Concerning Covert Action," pp. 563-565. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^56]: *Final Report*, Book II, S. Rept. 94-755, mandate section (the Senate resolution's list of inquiries, including "The origin and disposition of the so-called Huston Plan").
[^57]: *Final Report*, Book III, table of contents and the King case study's own contents page: COINTELPRO p. 1; King case study p. 81; Black Panther Party p. 185; informants p. 225; warrantless electronic surveillance p. 271; black bag operations p. 353; FBI domestic intelligence investigations p. 373; domestic CIA and FBI mail opening p. 559; CHAOS p. 679; NSA p. 733.
[^58]: *Final Report*, Book IV, "Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Foreign and Military Intelligence," S. Rept. 94-755, pp. 128 to 129 (section II, "The 'Special Operations' Unit," and subsection A, "Program Branch 7: A Special Operations Unit with Assassination Jurisdiction"; Pash testimony; Hunt as reported in the *New York Times*, December 26, 1975, p. 9; CIA letter to the committee of January 16, 1976 and Director of Operations Planning memorandum of January 1, 1976, among the staff's sources).
[^59]: *Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, pp. 19 to 21 (pseudonym "Joseph Scheider"). On the professed lack of memory: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control* (Times Books, 1979), chapter 12.
[^60]: *Final Report*, Book I, p. 389 ("concerned with the research and development of chemical, biological, and radiological materials capable of employment in clandestine operations to control human behavior"; records destroyed January 1973) and p. 390 (Helms proposal; approval by the DCI on April 13, 1953; the 1963 Inspector General's survey; "additional avenues to the control of human behavior").
[^61]: *Hearings*, vol. 1, "Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents," Exhibit No. 6, p. 204 (October 13, 1967 memorandum from Chief, TSD Biological Branch, to Chief, TSD).
[^62]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control* (Times Books, 1979), chapter 12.
[^63]: Commission on CIA Activities Within the United States, *Report to the President*, June 1975, Preface. https://archive.org/details/reporttopresiden01unit ; Executive Order 11828, "Establishing a Commission on CIA Activities Within the United States," January 4, 1975, sec. 6 (final report due within three months). https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11828-establishing-commission-cia-activities-within-the-united-states
[^64]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, February 29, 2016, Document 15 (Cheney's handwritten edits, c. June 1, 1975) and Document 19 (the 86-page section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders," June 5, 1975). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report
[^65]: H. Res. 138, 94th Cong. (agreed to February 19, 1975); H. Res. 591, 94th Cong. (introduced July 11, 1975; agreed to July 17, 1975), "Resolution establishing a Select Committee on Intelligence." https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/94/hres138 ; https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/94/hres591
[^66]: Richard Ober Papers, Hoover Institution Library and Archives, finding aid (Pike Committee, Church Committee and Rockefeller Commission files).
[^67]: S. Res. 400, 94th Cong., 2d Sess. (introduced March 1, 1976; agreed to May 19, 1976), "A resolution to establish a Standing Committee of the Senate on Intelligence Activities." https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/94/sres400 ; Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, text of the resolution. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/about-the-committee/s-res-400/
[^68]: House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, committee history. https://intelligence.house.gov/
[^69]: Executive Order 11905, "United States Foreign Intelligence Activities," February 18, 1976, sec. (g), "Prohibition of Assassination." https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11905-united-states-foreign-intelligence-activities
[^70]: Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, Pub. L. 95-511, 92 Stat. 1783.

10
60 - PLACES/COUNTRIES/Congo.md
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@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ tags:
- CIA
- ColdWar
category: "Country"
summary: "The Democratic Republic of Congo (known as Zaire 1971-1997) is a Central African country whose CIA-facilitated assassination of first Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, subsequent support for dictator Mobutu Sese Seko, use as a staging base for CIA Angola operations (IAFEATURE 1975-1976), and uranium deposits at Shinkolobwe mined for the Manhattan Project make it a significant subject in this vault."
summary: "Central African country (Zaire 1971-1997) where the CIA was implicated in the Lumumba assassination, backed Mobutu, staged Angola operations in 1975-1976, and where the Shinkolobwe mine supplied uranium for the Manhattan Project."
location: "Central Africa"
---
@ -35,17 +35,17 @@ During the Mobutu era, Zaire received billions in American economic and military
### Operation IAFEATURE: Angola
Zaire served as the primary CIA logistics base for Operation IAFEATURE (1975-1976), the CIA's covert program to support [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the Soviet- and [[Cuba|Cuban]]-backed [[MPLA]] in the [[Angola|Angolan]] civil war that followed Angolan independence from [[Portugal]]. CIA Director [[William Colby]] and then Director [[George H.W. Bush]] managed the operation. Zairian territory was used to funnel weapons, CIA personnel, and funds to the CIA-backed Angolan factions. The operation was disclosed by journalist John Stockwell (a CIA case officer who resigned and wrote *In Search of Enemies*, 1978) and was shut down by Congress through the [[Frank Church|Clark Amendment]] in 1976.[^1]
Zaire served as the primary CIA logistics base for Operation IAFEATURE (1975-1976), the CIA's covert program to support [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the Soviet- and [[Cuba|Cuban]]-backed [[MPLA]] in the [[Angola|Angolan]] civil war that followed Angolan independence from [[Portugal]]. CIA Director [[William Colby]] and then Director [[George H.W. Bush]] managed the operation. Zairian territory was used to funnel weapons, CIA personnel, and funds to the CIA-backed Angolan factions. The operation was disclosed by journalist John Stockwell (a CIA case officer who resigned and wrote *In Search of Enemies*, 1978) and was shut down by Congress through the [[Clark Amendment]], sponsored by Senator [[Dick Clark]] of Iowa, enacted as section 404 of Public Law 94-329 on June 30, 1976.[^1][^2]
### Uranium and Nuclear Connection
The Shinkolobwe uranium mine in Katanga province was the source of the high-grade uranium used in the [[Manhattan Project]]'s atomic bombs. Belgian-controlled Union Minière du Haut Katanga supplied the ore; Shinkolobwe uranium was used in both the Trinity test and the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The mine was subsequently closed and reopened multiple times; artisanal mining resumed in the 2000s despite official prohibition.[^2]
The Shinkolobwe uranium mine in Katanga province was the source of the high-grade uranium used in the [[Manhattan Project]]'s atomic bombs. Belgian-controlled Union Minière du Haut Katanga supplied the ore; Shinkolobwe uranium was used in both the Trinity test and the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The mine was subsequently closed and reopened multiple times; artisanal mining resumed in the 2000s despite official prohibition.[^3]
### Post-Mobutu
Laurent-Désiré Kabila's rebels overthrew Mobutu in May 1997; the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of Congo. Kabila was assassinated in January 2001; his son Joseph Kabila succeeded him. The DRC has experienced persistent civil conflict since Mobutu's fall, including two major regional wars (1996-1997 and 1998-2003) involving forces from multiple African countries, and ongoing internal armed conflict in eastern Congo.
### Footnotes
[^1]: Church Committee (U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities). *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders.* Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975. De Witte, Ludo. *The Assassination of Lumumba.* Verso, 2001.
[^2]: Groves, Leslie R. *Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project.* Harper, 1962. Wrong, Michela. *In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo.* HarperCollins, 2001.
[^2]: International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Public Law 94-329, 90 Stat. 729 (June 30, 1976), sec. 404(a) ("Limitation on certain assistance to and activities in Angola": no assistance of any kind for the purpose or effect of promoting the capacity of any group "to conduct military or paramilitary operations in Angola unless and until the Congress expressly authorizes such assistance by law"). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-90/pdf/STATUTE-90-Pg729.pdf ; sponsorship: *Congressional Record*, Senate, January 8, 2014, p. S130 (printed article quoting Clark on "my amendment" and "the so-called Clark amendment"). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CREC-2014-01-08/pdf/CREC-2014-01-08-pt1-PgS130.pdf
[^3]: Groves, Leslie R. *Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project.* Harper, 1962. Wrong, Michela. *In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo.* HarperCollins, 2001.

56
60 - PLACES/COUNTRIES/Iran.md
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@ -11,42 +11,54 @@ created: 2026-05-13
updated: 2026-09-22
---
### The Oil Consortium
The consortium that resumed operation of Iran's oil industry after the 1951 nationalization of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]] was assembled between December 1953 and October 1954. Its composition, as set out on April 1, 1954, gave the Anglo-Iranian company 40 per cent, [[Royal Dutch Shell]] 14 per cent, the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]] 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to five American companies: [[Standard Oil]] of New Jersey, [[Socony-Vacuum]], [[Standard Oil of California]], [[Gulf Oil]] and [[The Texas Company]].[^1] A report from the former Under Secretary of State [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] of January 21, 1954 identified those five as the companies then named in the pending cartel antitrust case.[^2]
The 1974 Senate print that published the consortium papers carries a preface by [[Frank Church]] describing two policies of the government in conflict, the prosecution of the international petroleum cartel case and the creation of the Iranian consortium.[^3] On January 20, 1954 Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] advised the National Security Council that the consortium, organized as described, did not violate the antitrust laws, subject to the express reservation of the government's right to continue the pending action against the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others.[^4] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation to the Anglo-Iranian company at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest.[^5] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister introduced into the Majlis a bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the [[National Iranian Oil Company]] on one side and eight companies on the other, including the five American companies;[^6] the Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^7]
### The Shah
In August 1953 the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] under [[Allen Dulles]], working with British intelligence, carried out [[Operation AJAX]], the coup that overthrew Prime Minister [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]] and restored [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] to full power; according to [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], [[Miles Copeland]] helped [[Kim Roosevelt|Kermit Roosevelt]] and the Iranian military restore the Shah.[^1][^2] The Shah's internal security service, [[SAVAK]], was established in March 1957 with organizational help from the CIA and the [[Mossad]], which kept a close liaison with it from the mid-1950s; SAVAK watched Iranian students and dissidents abroad, including in the [[United States]].[^3] [[Yaacov Nimrodi]] was Israel's military attaché in [[Tehran]] from 1955 to 1968, and [[Richard Helms]] was sent there as American ambassador in February 1973 after leaving the CIA.[^4][^5] With the intelligence services of [[France]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Egypt]] and [[Morocco]], SAVAK belonged to the [[Safari Club]] of the 1970s.[^6]
In August 1953 the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] under [[Allen Dulles]], working with British intelligence, carried out [[Operation AJAX]], the coup that overthrew Prime Minister [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]] and restored [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] to full power; according to [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], [[Miles Copeland]] helped [[Kim Roosevelt|Kermit Roosevelt]] and the Iranian military restore the Shah.[^8][^9] The Shah's internal security service, [[SAVAK]], was established in March 1957 with organizational help from the CIA and the [[Mossad]], which kept a close liaison with it from the mid-1950s; SAVAK watched Iranian students and dissidents abroad, including in the [[United States]].[^10] [[Yaacov Nimrodi]] was Israel's military attaché in [[Tehran]] from 1955 to 1968, and [[Richard Helms]] was sent there as American ambassador in February 1973 after leaving the CIA.[^11][^12] With the intelligence services of [[France]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Egypt]] and [[Morocco]], SAVAK belonged to the [[Safari Club]] of the 1970s.[^13]
### Revolution and Hostages
The Shah left Iran on January 16, 1979, and [[Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini]] returned on February 1; the Islamic Republic was declared on April 1. According to Ben-Menashe, the CIA and SAVAK had asked for Israeli help in December 1978 with a plan to assassinate Khomeini, which the Shah rejected.[^2][^7] On November 4, 1979, students seized the American embassy in Tehran; fifty-two Americans were held for 444 days. During the crisis the CIA and the Pentagon tasked remote viewers hundreds of times on the hostages' whereabouts.[^8][^9] In April 1980 the rescue attempt, [[Operation Eagle Claw]], which [[Richard Secord]] helped plan, ended at the Desert One staging area with eight Americans dead.[^10]
The Shah left Iran on January 16, 1979, and [[Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini]] returned on February 1; the Islamic Republic was declared on April 1. According to Ben-Menashe, the CIA and SAVAK had asked for Israeli help in December 1978 with a plan to assassinate Khomeini, which the Shah rejected.[^9][^14] On November 4, 1979, students seized the American embassy in Tehran; fifty-two Americans were held for 444 days. During the crisis the CIA and the Pentagon tasked remote viewers hundreds of times on the hostages' whereabouts.[^15][^16] In April 1980 the rescue attempt, [[Operation Eagle Claw]], which [[Richard Secord]] helped plan, ended at the Desert One staging area with eight Americans dead.[^17]
### October Surprise
[[Gary Sick]], the [[National Security Council]]'s Iran officer under Ford, Carter and Reagan, alleged in 1991 that the Reagan campaign had negotiated with Iranian representatives to hold the hostages until after the election of November 4, 1980, in exchange for the release of frozen assets and arms through [[Israel]]. In his account the brothers [[Cyrus Hashemi|Cyrus]] and [[Jamshid Hashemi]] arranged meetings in [[Madrid]] in late July 1980 between [[William J. Casey|William Casey]], the campaign manager, and the cleric [[Mehdi Karrubi]]; former French intelligence chief [[Alexandre de Marenches]], through his biographer's sworn testimony, said he arranged meetings between Casey and Iranians in Paris in October 1980. The hostages were freed on January 20, 1981, the day of Reagan's inauguration, and Nimrodi sold Iran's defense ministry Hawk missiles worth 135.8 million dollars that year.[^8] The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] rejected the allegation in January 1993; a Russian intelligence report stating that "William Casey, in 1980, met three times with representatives of the Iranian leadership" reached the task force after it had closed its inquiry, and was later found by [[Robert Parry]] in its files. A Senate inquiry found that Casey had run "potentially dangerous" efforts to collect intelligence on Carter's negotiations.[^11][^12] In 2023 the former Texas House speaker [[Ben Barnes]] said he had accompanied [[John Connally]] on a [[Middle East]] tour in the summer of 1980 on which Connally told Arab leaders to advise Iran to wait for Reagan.[^13]
[[Gary Sick]], the [[National Security Council]]'s Iran officer under Ford, Carter and Reagan, alleged in 1991 that the Reagan campaign had negotiated with Iranian representatives to hold the hostages until after the election of November 4, 1980, in exchange for the release of frozen assets and arms through [[Israel]]. In his account the brothers [[Cyrus Hashemi|Cyrus]] and [[Jamshid Hashemi]] arranged meetings in [[Madrid]] in late July 1980 between [[William J. Casey|William Casey]], the campaign manager, and the cleric [[Mehdi Karrubi]]; former French intelligence chief [[Alexandre de Marenches]], through his biographer's sworn testimony, said he arranged meetings between Casey and Iranians in Paris in October 1980. The hostages were freed on January 20, 1981, the day of Reagan's inauguration, and Nimrodi sold Iran's defense ministry Hawk missiles worth 135.8 million dollars that year.[^15] The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] rejected the allegation in January 1993; a Russian intelligence report stating that "William Casey, in 1980, met three times with representatives of the Iranian leadership" reached the task force after it had closed its inquiry, and was later found by [[Robert Parry]] in its files. A Senate inquiry found that Casey had run "potentially dangerous" efforts to collect intelligence on Carter's negotiations.[^18][^19] In 2023 the former Texas House speaker [[Ben Barnes]] said he had accompanied [[John Connally]] on a [[Middle East]] tour in the summer of 1980 on which Connally told Arab leaders to advise Iran to wait for Reagan.[^20]
### The War with Iraq
[[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Iraq]] invaded Iran on September 22, 1980; the war ended with Iran's acceptance of Security Council Resolution 598 on July 20, 1988. From about 1982 the Reagan administration tilted toward Iraq, and the CIA supplied it with satellite imagery of Iranian positions while American intelligence tracked Iraq's use of chemical weapons against Iranian troops.[^14] Israel supplied Iran throughout: according to Ben-Menashe, Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]] formed the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]] in the fall of 1980 to run the trade, and the defense minister, Colonel [[Mohammed Jalali]], met [[Robert Gates]] in Kansas City in July 1987 for assurances that supply would continue.[^7]
[[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Iraq]] invaded Iran on September 22, 1980; the war ended with Iran's acceptance of Security Council Resolution 598 on July 20, 1988. From about 1982 the Reagan administration tilted toward Iraq, and the CIA supplied it with satellite imagery of Iranian positions while American intelligence tracked Iraq's use of chemical weapons against Iranian troops.[^21] Israel supplied Iran throughout: according to Ben-Menashe, Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]] formed the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]] in the fall of 1980 to run the trade, and the defense minister, Colonel [[Mohammed Jalali]], met [[Robert Gates]] in Kansas City in July 1987 for assurances that supply would continue.[^14]
### Iran-Contra
The arms-for-hostages channel of the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] opened in August 1985 with 96 [[TOW Missile|TOW]] missiles shipped from Israeli stocks through Nimrodi, [[David Kimche]] and [[Al Schwimmer]], with [[Manucher Ghorbanifar]] as the Iranian intermediary and [[Adnan Khashoggi]] providing bridge loans. [[Oliver North]] brought in Secord and [[Albert Hakim]], an Iranian-born dealer who had sold defense goods to the Shah's government, to run [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|the Enterprise]], which marked up the weapons and took about 48 million dollars from the sales; about 2,000 TOW missiles reached Iran in all. In October 1986 Hakim negotiated in Geneva with a relative of [[Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani]], speaker of the parliament, a nine-point plan that went beyond anything the [[White House]] had authorized.[^10][^15] On November 3, 1986, the Lebanese magazine *Al-Shiraa* published the arms sales, and the next day Rafsanjani described to parliament the visit of [[Robert McFarlane]] and North to Tehran that May with a Bible signed by Reagan.[^10]
The arms-for-hostages channel of the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] opened in August 1985 with 96 [[TOW Missile|TOW]] missiles shipped from Israeli stocks through Nimrodi, [[David Kimche]] and [[Al Schwimmer]], with [[Manucher Ghorbanifar]] as the Iranian intermediary and [[Adnan Khashoggi]] providing bridge loans. [[Oliver North]] brought in Secord and [[Albert Hakim]], an Iranian-born dealer who had sold defense goods to the Shah's government, to run [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|the Enterprise]], which marked up the weapons and took about 48 million dollars from the sales; about 2,000 TOW missiles reached Iran in all. In October 1986 Hakim negotiated in Geneva with a relative of [[Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani]], speaker of the parliament, a nine-point plan that went beyond anything the [[White House]] had authorized.[^17][^22] On November 3, 1986, the Lebanese magazine *Al-Shiraa* published the arms sales, and the next day Rafsanjani described to parliament the visit of [[Robert McFarlane]] and North to Tehran that May with a Bible signed by Reagan.[^17]
The [[Hashemi Sting]] of 1985 and 1986, a [[U.S. Customs]] and [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] operation run with the office of [[Rudolph Giuliani]], used Cyrus Hashemi, himself indicted in 1984 for arms sales to Iran, as its informant against dealers selling to Iran while the government's own sales were under way. He died suddenly after his role became known to those he had helped entrap; no inquiry concluded that there was foul play.[^12][^7]
The [[Hashemi Sting]] of 1985 and 1986, a [[U.S. Customs]] and [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] operation run with the office of [[Rudolph Giuliani]], used Cyrus Hashemi, himself indicted in 1984 for arms sales to Iran, as its informant against dealers selling to Iran while the government's own sales were under way. He died suddenly after his role became known to those he had helped entrap; no inquiry concluded that there was foul play.[^19][^14]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Kinzer, Stephen. *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War.* Times Books, 2013; Grose, Peter. *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles.* Houghton Mifflin, 1994.
[^2]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network.* Sheridan Square Press, 1992.
[^3]: "SAVAK," *Encyclopaedia Britannica.* https://www.britannica.com/topic/SAVAK ; Risen, James. *State of War: The Secret History of the CIA and the Bush Administration.* Free Press, 2006.
[^4]: "Yaakov Nimrodi," obituaries, July 2016, as cited on the linked page.
[^5]: Powers, Thomas. *The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA.* Knopf, 1979.
[^6]: Trento, Joseph J. *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network.* Carroll and Graf, 2005.
[^7]: Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War*.
[^8]: Sick, Gary. *October Surprise: America's Hostages in Iran and the Election of Ronald Reagan.* Times Books, 1991.
[^9]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers: The Secret History of America's Psychic Spies.* Dell, 1997.
[^10]: Walsh, Lawrence E. *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters.* 1993; Walsh, Lawrence E. *Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-Up.* Norton, 1997; Secord, Richard, with Jay Wurts. *Honored and Betrayed.* Wiley, 1992.
[^11]: "Probe by House finds no 'October surprise,'" *The Baltimore Sun,* January 13, 1993. https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1993-01-13-1993013111-story.html
[^12]: Parry, Robert. *Trick or Treason: The October Surprise Mystery.* Sheridan Square Press, 1993.
[^13]: Unger, Craig. *Den of Spies.* 2024; Barnes, Ben, interview, *The New York Times,* March 2023.
[^14]: Friedman, Alan. *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq.* Bantam, 1993.
[^15]: U.S. Congress, Joint Committees on Iran-Contra. *Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair.* 100th Congress, 1st Session, 1987.
[^1]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Volume X, Iran, 1951-1954, Document 449, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449
[^2]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Volume X, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954 ("The five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413
[^3]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V. https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^4]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Volume X, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411
[^5]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Volume X, Documents 489 and 490, August 5, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490
[^6]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Volume X, Document 496, September 21, 1954 (text of the single-article bill; signatories Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Francaise des Petroles). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496
[^7]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Volume X, Document 502, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954; ratified by the Iranian Senate October 28, 1954). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502
[^8]: Kinzer, Stephen. *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War.* Times Books, 2013; Grose, Peter. *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles.* Houghton Mifflin, 1994.
[^9]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network.* Sheridan Square Press, 1992.
[^10]: "SAVAK," *Encyclopaedia Britannica.* https://www.britannica.com/topic/SAVAK ; Risen, James. *State of War: The Secret History of the CIA and the Bush Administration.* Free Press, 2006.
[^11]: "Yaakov Nimrodi," obituaries, July 2016, as cited on the linked page.
[^12]: Powers, Thomas. *The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA.* Knopf, 1979.
[^13]: Trento, Joseph J. *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network.* Carroll and Graf, 2005.
[^14]: Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War*.
[^15]: Sick, Gary. *October Surprise: America's Hostages in Iran and the Election of Ronald Reagan.* Times Books, 1991.
[^16]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers: The Secret History of America's Psychic Spies.* Dell, 1997.
[^17]: Walsh, Lawrence E. *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters.* 1993; Walsh, Lawrence E. *Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-Up.* Norton, 1997; Secord, Richard, with Jay Wurts. *Honored and Betrayed.* Wiley, 1992.
[^18]: "Probe by House finds no 'October surprise,'" *The Baltimore Sun,* January 13, 1993. https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1993-01-13-1993013111-story.html
[^19]: Parry, Robert. *Trick or Treason: The October Surprise Mystery.* Sheridan Square Press, 1993.
[^20]: Unger, Craig. *Den of Spies.* 2024; Barnes, Ben, interview, *The New York Times,* March 2023.
[^21]: Friedman, Alan. *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq.* Bantam, 1993.
[^22]: U.S. Congress, Joint Committees on Iran-Contra. *Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair.* 100th Congress, 1st Session, 1987.

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60 - PLACES/US_STATES/New Jersey.md
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@ -6,12 +6,12 @@ tags:
- CubanExiles
- Extremism
- StandardOil
summary: "The state across the Hudson from New York, in the vault the base of the Cuban Nationalist Movement, the paper home of a sham church used by a child-abuse ring, Standard Oil's corporate seat, and a breeding ground of the Terrorgram and 764 cases."
summary: "State across the Hudson from New York, linked in the vault to the Cuban Nationalist Movement, a sham church used by a child-abuse ring, Standard Oil's corporate seat, and the Terrorgram and 764 cases."
created: 2026-09-22
updated: 2026-09-22
---
New Jersey lies between [[New York City]] and [[Philadelphia]] and holds Princeton, Fort Dix, Picatinny Arsenal, Teterboro Airport and the corporate seat of Standard Oil of New Jersey, "later Exxon," whose "extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the [[Rockefeller family|Rockefeller family]]'s interests," [[Nelson Rockefeller]] joining the board of its subsidiary Creole Petroleum in the 1930s; in June 1954 [[John Foster Dulles]] told his brother that Standard Oil of New Jersey executives had met Allen "about 'the small country down south,'" [[Guatemala]]. In March 1964 the authorizations for Operation Brother Sam included "assembly of 110 tons of ammunition in New Jersey" for the Brazilian coup, after which "Standard Oil of New Jersey obtained new Amazon concessions."[^1]
New Jersey lies between [[New York City]] and [[Philadelphia]] and holds Princeton, Fort Dix, Picatinny Arsenal, Teterboro Airport and the corporate seat of Standard Oil of New Jersey, "later Exxon," whose "extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the [[Rockefeller family|Rockefeller family]]'s interests," [[Nelson Rockefeller]] joining the board of its subsidiary Creole Petroleum in the 1930s; in June 1954 [[Allen Dulles]] told his brother [[John Foster Dulles]] that he was seeing Standard Oil of New Jersey men that morning about "the small country down south," [[Guatemala]]. In March 1964 the authorizations for Operation Brother Sam included "assembly of 110 tons of ammunition in New Jersey" for the Brazilian coup, after which "Standard Oil of New Jersey obtained new Amazon concessions."[^1]
### The Cuban Nationalist Movement

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70 - DISPATCHES/2026-10-14 Crossed This Bridge.md Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
---
title: "Crossed This Bridge"
date: 2026-10-14
status: published
summary: "The 1953 grand jury inquiry into the oil cartel ran with a committee that included the CIA; within two years the Iranian consortium had narrowed the case to marketing."
entities:
- "[[Standard Oil]]"
- "[[Department of Justice]]"
- "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
- "[[National Security Council]]"
- "[[Harry S. Truman]]"
- "[[Frank Church]]"
- "[[Iran]]"
tags:
- StandardOil
- OilCartel
- Iran
- Antitrust
---
# Crossed This Bridge
The Justice Department's report to the [[National Security Council]] of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice." It said the grand jury's secrecy made it preferable to "a Congressional or inter-departmental committee," and that "the pending investigation is being conducted with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice, specifically concerned with problems of sensitivity and the international repercussions of the inquiry."[^1] It warned that a decision to end the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^2]
On January 12, 1953, eight days before leaving office, President [[Harry S. Truman]] wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] that "the interest of national security might be best served at this time" by resolving the questions "in the context of civil litigation rather than in the context of a criminal proceeding," and asked that "appropriate steps be taken to cause the termination of the pending grand jury proceedings."[^2]
The Iranian consortium was assembled after the 1953 coup. On August 19, 1954 an Antitrust Division attorney wrote that the participants' plan "goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based," and the division saw in it "a continuation of the cartel pattern." The Attorney General "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20" and approved the plan. On September 15, 1954 he "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^3]
[^1]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32. https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^2]: *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security*, p. 33.
[^3]: *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security*, preface by Sen. Frank Church, pp. VII-VIII (quoting the Antitrust Division memorandum of August 19, 1954 and the memorandum to Barnes of September 15, 1954).