vault backup: 2026-10-09 14:36:14

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service.md

@@ -37,81 +37,81 @@ relations:
     role: "Director"
     start: 1941-06-16
     end: 1942-04
-    fn: 20
+    fn: 21
   - type: head_of
     with: "[[Robert D. Leigh]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Director"
     start: 1942-07
     end: 1944-07
-    fn: 22
+    fn: 23
   - type: head_of
     with: "[[Charles S. Hyneman]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Director"
     start: 1944-07-27
     end: 1945-08-07
-    fn: 55
+    fn: 69
   - type: head_of
     with: "[[Russell M. Shepherd]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Director, fourth director of the service"
     start: 1945-08-07
     end: 1947-09-29
-    fn: 76
+    fn: 90
   - type: employed_by
     with: "[[Harold N. Graves Jr.]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Senior Administrative Officer; acting director in 1942"
     start: 1941-03
     end: 1943-12
-    fn: 51
+    fn: 65
   - type: employed_by
     with: "[[Goodwin Watson]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Head of the Analysis Section, later Analysis Division"
     start: 1941-11-17
     end: 1943-11
-    fn: 23
+    fn: 24
   - type: employed_by
     with: "[[Hans Speier]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Senior Political Analyst and head of the Central European Section; acting chief analyst after Watson's departure"
     start: 1942-03
     end: 1944-05-22
-    fn: 28
+    fn: 33
   - type: employed_by
     with: "[[Nathan Leites]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Analyst; sent to London with Watson in September 1942"
     start: 1942-09
-    fn: 26
+    fn: 30
   - type: employed_by
     with: "[[Alexander L. George]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Analyst in the Central European Section"
-    fn: 31
+    fn: 36
   - type: employed_by
     with: "[[William E. Dodd Jr.]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Editor, hired December 1941"
     start: 1941-12
     end: 1943-11
-    fn: 36
+    fn: 42
   - type: investigated
     with: "[[House Un-American Activities Committee]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Named Goodwin Watson, Frederick L. Schuman and William E. Dodd Jr. in 1941 and 1943 attacks"
     start: 1941-11-18
     end: 1943-04-21
-    fn: 35
+    fn: 41
   - type: investigated
     with: "[[Cox Committee]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Special House committee to investigate the Federal Communications Commission"
     start: 1943-01
     end: 1945-01-02
-    fn: 45
+    fn: 59
   - type: owned
     with: "[[Federal Communications Commission]]"
     reverse: true
@@ -125,13 +125,24 @@ relations:
     role: "Sponsoring agency after the War Department"
     start: 1946-07-31
     end: 1947-09
-    fn: 66
+    fn: 80
   - type: owned
     with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Component of the agency, under the Assistant Director for Operations"
     start: 1947
-    fn: 67
+    fn: 81
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Theodore Newcomb]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Director of the Analysis Division, succeeding Watson, per the National Archives records description"
+    start: 1943-11
+    fn: 27
+  - type: partner_of
+    with: "[[Office of War Information]]"
+    role: "Analysis Division used exclusively for OWI radio reporting under the April 19, 1943 agreement"
+    start: 1943-04-19
+    fn: 32
 ---
 
 The Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (FBIS) was the United States government's service for monitoring, translating and analyzing foreign radio broadcasts. It began as the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service inside the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) in 1941, passed to the [[War Department]] at the end of 1945, came under the [[Central Intelligence Group]] in 1946 and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in 1947, and in November 2005 was named as the base of expertise for the [[Open Source Center]].[^1]
@@ -154,89 +165,95 @@ The Rockefeller connection was also a public relations problem. A [[Baltimore Su
 
 On July 29, 1942 [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], wrote to FCC chairman James L. Fly that his office had "been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau," and asked for a larger volume of verbatim transcripts for hemispheric propaganda work.[^19]
 
+An administrative memorandum to FBIS officers dated January 22, 1943 recorded an exchange of correspondence with Rockefeller, the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, under which FBIS would have with his office the same relationship it had with OWI. Under the same memorandum, FBIS material reached non-government users only through one of two OWI officials, one of them [[Leo Rosten]], deputy director in charge of enemy sources, and requests for Latin American material went to officers of the Coordinator's office.[^20]
+
 ### Directors and the Analysis Division
 
-Free, editor of the [[Public Opinion Quarterly]] and a Princeton man, assumed office as director on June 16, 1941. He established contacts with the [[BBC]] very soon after taking office, with the idea of attaching a staff to the BBC, and in December 1941 he was still in London when the Pearl Harbor attack came.[^20] Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over the Washington office on December 7, 1941.[^21] Free resigned in April 1942 to accept an Army commission, and he was military attaché at the United States Embassy in Switzerland for most of the war years.[^22]
+Free, editor of the [[Public Opinion Quarterly]] and a Princeton man, assumed office as director on June 16, 1941. He established contacts with the [[BBC]] very soon after taking office, with the idea of attaching a staff to the BBC, and in December 1941 he was still in London when the Pearl Harbor attack came.[^21] Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over the Washington office on December 7, 1941.[^22] Free resigned in April 1942 to accept an Army commission, and he was military attaché at the United States Embassy in Switzerland for most of the war years.[^23]
 
-Leigh, for fourteen years president of [[Bennington College]], took over on July 15, 1942, with Graves as acting director in the intervening months. He was paid $1,000 more than the $8,000 Free had received, and the appropriation bill had to be amended to legalize the salary.[^22]
+Leigh, for fourteen years president of [[Bennington College]], took over on July 15, 1942, with Graves as acting director in the intervening months. He was paid $1,000 more than the $8,000 Free had received, and the appropriation bill had to be amended to legalize the salary.[^23]
 
-The Analysis Division was the service's research core. In November 1941 [[Goodwin Watson]] of [[Columbia University]] entered on duty to head the Analysis Section, which Free and Graves had recruited him to lead.[^23] The section became the Analysis Division in 1942.[^24] In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants and trainees, with 17 of the positions filled, and the planned table was never reached.[^25] In September 1942 Watson and [[Nathan Leites]] went to London to set up an analysis operation working with the [[Office of War Information]], and a two-man staff remained there through the war.[^26] The division's German Section began the weekly *Central European Radio Analysis* in January 1943, and the *Radio Report on the Far East* first appeared on August 24, 1942.[^27]
+The Analysis Division was the service's research core. In November 1941 [[Goodwin Watson]] of [[Columbia University]] entered on duty to head the Analysis Section, which Free and Graves had recruited him to lead.[^24] Watson testified in April 1943 that his connection with the commission dated from November 15, 1941.[^25] The section became the Analysis Division in 1942.[^26] A records description of the service gives November 15, 1941 as the start of Watson's directorship of the division and November 15, 1943 as the day [[Theodore Newcomb]] succeeded him; Newcomb was second only to Watson in the division by February 1943.[^27][^28] In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants and trainees, with 17 of the positions filled, and the planned table was never reached.[^29] In September 1942 Watson and [[Nathan Leites]] went to London to set up an analysis operation working with the [[Office of War Information]], and a two-man staff remained there through the war.[^30] The division's German Section began the weekly *Central European Radio Analysis* in January 1943, and the *Radio Report on the Far East* first appeared on August 24, 1942.[^31]
+
+On April 19, 1943 Robert D. Leigh announced an agreement under which the Bureau of Research and Analysis of the Overseas Operations Branch of the Office of War Information would use the Analysis Division exclusively for reporting and analyzing radio broadcasts, and the division would move to the Social Security Building. On May 13 Harold N. Graves Jr. said that the division would "function as an integral part of OWI" while continuing its other duties. In a letter to Leigh of June 18, 1943, [[Eugene Katz]], identified as the head of the OWI division, wrote that relations with the Analysis Division were "so friendly" that nothing warranted a formal reappraisal of the agreement.[^32]
 
 ### Hans Speier and the Central European Section
 
-Hans Speier reached the service through the research project he ran with [[Ernst Kris]] at the [[New School for Social Research]]. Speier sent the project's first report a week after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and Free and Watson read his work "with the greatest of interest." In February 1942 Watson offered him a post as Senior Political Analyst and head of the Central European Section, and the Analysis Division was the "heart" of the service.[^28] Graves had written to Speier and Kris on December 23, 1941 about their reports and encouraged them to send more, and Free wrote to Speier on January 31, 1942.[^29] The Civil Service Commission informed Speier on May 26, 1942, two months after he entered the division, that he had been rated eligible for the post of Senior Political Analyst.[^30]
+Hans Speier reached the service through the research project he ran with [[Ernst Kris]] at the [[New School for Social Research]]. Speier sent the project's first report a week after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and Free and Watson read his work "with the greatest of interest." In February 1942 Watson offered him a post as Senior Political Analyst and head of the Central European Section, and the Analysis Division was the "heart" of the service.[^33] Graves had written to Speier and Kris on December 23, 1941 about their reports and encouraged them to send more, and Free wrote to Speier on January 31, 1942.[^34] The Civil Service Commission informed Speier on May 26, 1942, two months after he entered the division, that he had been rated eligible for the post of Senior Political Analyst.[^35]
 
-Speier brought colleagues into the division, including [[Alexander L. George]], Leites and the psychologist Henry Kellermann.[^31] Watson praised Speier's "extraordinarily good job of analysis," and wrote that he knew "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him."[^31] Watson left under pressure from opponents of the New Deal, after which Speier became acting chief analyst with thirty people under him.[^32] Speier moved from the service to the Office of War Information on May 22, 1944, under [[Wallace Carroll]].[^33]
+Speier brought colleagues into the division, including [[Alexander L. George]], Leites and the psychologist Henry Kellermann.[^36] Watson praised Speier's "extraordinarily good job of analysis," and wrote that he knew "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him."[^36] Watson left under pressure from opponents of the New Deal, after which Speier became acting chief analyst with thirty people under him.[^37] Bessner cites a letter from Newcomb to Colonel S. A. Greenwell of December 4, 1943 for Speier's replacing Watson as Acting Chief Analyst.[^38] Speier moved from the service to the Office of War Information on May 22, 1944, under [[Wallace Carroll]].[^39]
 
-On October 29, 1943 Speier wrote a memorandum predicting much of Hitler's speech for the anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch. Seventeen of twenty-five predictions were correct. Speier gave the memo to an OWI contact, [[Mark Abrams]], who brought it to the attention of Representative [[Joseph Martin]] and Senator [[Alexander Wiley]], and they used most of its content in a radio broadcast.[^34]
+On October 29, 1943 Speier wrote a memorandum predicting much of Hitler's speech for the anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch. Seventeen of twenty-five predictions were correct. Speier gave the memo to an OWI contact, [[Mark Abrams]], who brought it to the attention of Representative [[Joseph Martin]] and Senator [[Alexander Wiley]], and they used most of its content in a radio broadcast.[^40]
 
 ### The Dies Committee and the 1943 Rider
 
-The first congressional attack came from [[Martin Dies]], chairman of the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. On November 18, 1941, the day after Watson entered on duty, Dies wrote to James L. Fly expressing "deep concern" over the selection of a man who had written in favor of the Soviet Union, and naming thirteen organizations he called communist fronts.[^35] Fly replied that Watson belonged to only one of them, Consumers Union. The House passed an appropriation bill with a rider denying salary to the named employees, including [[Frederick L. Schuman]] and [[William E. Dodd Jr.]], who had been hired as an editor in December 1941. The Senate Appropriations Committee deleted the rider, and Watson testified before that committee on February 4, 1942.[^36]
+The first congressional attack came from [[Martin Dies]], chairman of the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. On November 18, 1941, the day after Watson entered on duty, Dies wrote to James L. Fly expressing "deep concern" over the selection of a man who had written in favor of the Soviet Union, and naming thirteen organizations he called communist fronts.[^41] Fly replied that Watson belonged to only one of them, Consumers Union. The House passed an appropriation bill with a rider denying salary to the named employees, including [[Frederick L. Schuman]] and [[William E. Dodd Jr.]], who had been hired as an editor in December 1941. The Senate Appropriations Committee deleted the rider, and Watson testified before that committee on February 4, 1942.[^42]
 
-In a House speech on February 1, 1943, Dies listed 39 "communists" holding government posts, with Dodd, Watson and Schuman at the head of the list. A new rider was attached to a House Post Office and Treasury appropriations bill.[^37] Dies accused the employees of "un-American beliefs."[^38] Mercado writes that Dies may have been provoked by FBIS reports that his statements were being praised in Nazi Germany, and that Vice President [[Henry A. Wallace]] had said Dies's statements "might as well come from Goebbels himself as far as their practical effect is concerned."[^39] A special subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee under Congressman [[John H. Kerr]] took testimony in executive session from the three men. Its report of April 21, 1943 found three employees guilty of "subversive activity" and "unfit" for government service: Dodd, Watson and the Interior Department official [[Robert Morss Lovett]].[^40] The subcommittee was later accused of having prepared its final report before the men were called to testify.[^40]
+In a House speech on February 1, 1943, Dies listed 39 "communists" holding government posts, with Dodd, Watson and Schuman at the head of the list.[^43] On February 4, 1943 [[Joe Hendricks]] of Florida gave notice of an amendment to the House Post Office and Treasury appropriations bill forbidding payment of the thirty-nine named employees, among them Watson, Schuman and Dodd. On February 5 the House, in the Committee of the Whole, rejected it, 130 to 137 on a division and 146 to 153 on tellers, and then agreed, 163 to 111 on tellers, to a separate amendment naming only [[William Pickens]].[^44] Dies accused the employees of "un-American beliefs."[^45] Mercado writes that Dies may have been provoked by FBIS reports that his statements were being praised in Nazi Germany, and that Vice President [[Henry A. Wallace]] had said Dies's statements "might as well come from Goebbels himself as far as their practical effect is concerned."[^46] [[House Resolution 105]], adopted February 9, 1943, authorized the Committee on Appropriations, "acting through a special subcommittee," to examine charges of unfitness based on association with organizations whose aims were subversive. The subcommittee was Congressman [[John H. Kerr]] (chairman), [[Albert Gore Sr.|Albert Gore]], [[Clinton P. Anderson]], [[D. Lane Powers]] and [[Frank B. Keefe]], with Major Matt H. Allen as counsel, and Watson's testimony opens at its sitting of Friday, April 9, 1943.[^47] On March 31, 1943 Dies told the House that a subcommittee headed by [[Joe Starnes]] of Alabama, whom he called his "distinguished and able colleague," would make a report.[^48] On April 7 Kerr told the House that the committee had been asking for six weeks for the full evidence and had been able to get it for only "3 of the 38 men who are charged in this resolution." Dies replied, "You have evidence on 10."[^49] The subcommittee took testimony in executive session from the three men. Its report of April 21, 1943 found Watson and Dodd unfit for government employment and stated that it "does not find sufficient evidence to support a recommendation of unfitness" as to Schuman; Roop's history names the three men found guilty of "subversive activity" and "unfit" as Dodd, Watson and the Interior Department official [[Robert Morss Lovett]]. H. Rept. No. 448, dated May 14, 1943, is printed in the Hearings.[^50][^51] The subcommittee was later accused of having prepared its final report before the men were called to testify.[^50]
 
-The House approved the rider a second time. The Senate rejected it four times before accepting it, 48 to 32. The President signed the appropriation bill while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional.[^41] The rider became Section 304 of the Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, which halted pay for the three men after November 15, 1943 unless the President reappointed them with the advice and consent of the Senate.[^42]
+On May 17, 1943 Frank B. Keefe of Wisconsin read excerpts of Watson's testimony to the House. Keefe quoted Watson's 1934 article "The Great Choice, Reformation or Transformation," and said that, asked about it, Watson answered "I just do not believe in that any more. That was the effusion of an academic mind written in 1934," and "I disavow myself of that sort of philosophy."[^52] The printed hearings record Watson's answer on the article as that it was an academic idea that had appealed to him at the time and that "I do not now believe it to be true," and record Keefe's question whether he had ever published an article disavowing it, to which Watson answered "That is true" (that he had not).[^53] Kerr told the House on May 18 that the employees "have no property rights in their offices" and that "One Congress can take away their rights given them by another."[^54]
 
-In [[United States v. Lovett]], decided June 3, 1946, the Supreme Court held Section 304 unconstitutional. Justice Black wrote that "legislative trials and punishments were too dangerous to liberty to exist in the nation of free men they envisioned." He continued: "And so they proscribed bills of attainder. Section 304 is one."[^43] The judgment ran for Lovett, Watson and Dodd.
+The House approved the rider a second time. The Senate rejected it four times before accepting it, 48 to 32. The President signed the appropriation bill while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional.[^55] The rider became Section 304 of the Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, which halted pay for the three men after November 15, 1943 unless the President reappointed them with the advice and consent of the Senate.[^56]
 
-Other staff were drawn into the same attacks. [[Peter Rhodes]], [[Audrey Menefee]] and Speier were attacked on the House floor. Fly wrote to [[J. Edgar Hoover]] on April 28, 1942 that one informant had described the New York school where Speier taught as a "refuge for exiled European communists," and a counter-report called it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities."[^44]
+In [[United States v. Lovett]], decided June 3, 1946, the Supreme Court held Section 304 unconstitutional. Justice Black wrote that "legislative trials and punishments were too dangerous to liberty to exist in the nation of free men they envisioned." He continued: "And so they proscribed bills of attainder. Section 304 is one."[^57] The judgment ran for Lovett, Watson and Dodd.
+
+Other staff were drawn into the same attacks. [[Peter Rhodes]], [[Audrey Menefee]] and Speier were attacked on the House floor. Fly wrote to [[J. Edgar Hoover]] on April 28, 1942 that one informant had described the New York school where Speier taught as a "refuge for exiled European communists," and a counter-report called it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities."[^58]
 
 ### The Cox Committee
 
-The most serious confrontation with Congress came from [[Eugene Cox]], a Georgia congressman who had been an enthusiastic supporter of the FCC. The FCC referred a case about an Atlanta radio station's representation to the Justice Department and urged prosecution of Cox, and Cox retaliated by seeking an investigation of the FCC. In early 1943 the House named him chairman of a special committee, and he appointed [[Eugene Garey]], a New York lawyer, as chief investigator.[^45]
+The most serious confrontation with Congress came from [[Eugene Cox]], a Georgia congressman who had been an enthusiastic supporter of the FCC. The FCC referred a case about an Atlanta radio station's representation to the Justice Department and urged prosecution of Cox, and Cox retaliated by seeking an investigation of the FCC. In early 1943 the House named him chairman of a special committee, and he appointed [[Eugene Garey]], a New York lawyer, as chief investigator.[^59]
 
-The committee requisitioned the FBIS personnel files. Leigh reported, in his January 1945 article in [[Harper's Magazine]], that the truck took away "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," which had no duplicates, and held them for more than a year.[^46] Ten FBIS employees were subpoenaed at 8:00 a.m. after working all night, and Leigh called the questioning that followed "Star Chamber testimony."[^46]
+The committee requisitioned the FBIS personnel files. Leigh reported, in his January 1945 article in [[Harper's Magazine]], that the truck took away "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," which had no duplicates, and held them for more than a year.[^60] Ten FBIS employees were subpoenaed at 8:00 a.m. after working all night, and Leigh called the questioning that followed "Star Chamber testimony."[^60]
 
-The committee found one actual irregularity at FBIS, a night clerical shift in which a sick employee drew pay while coworkers marked her present. It publicized that case and also charged that FBIS was "masquerading" as a war agency, that it used "intelligence" in its name to misrepresent its operations, and that it was no more than a "glorified news gathering agency."[^47] Counsel for the committee also charged that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities."[^48]
+The committee found one actual irregularity at FBIS, a night clerical shift in which a sick employee drew pay while coworkers marked her present. It publicized that case and also charged that FBIS was "masquerading" as a war agency, that it used "intelligence" in its name to misrepresent its operations, and that it was no more than a "glorified news gathering agency."[^61] Counsel for the committee also charged that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities."[^62]
 
-The Washington Post ran a series of sixteen editorials critical of the committee. An FCC member who usually opposed Fly's views and was sympathetic to Cox agreed to petition the Speaker to dismiss him as chairman, and Cox resigned after an emotional speech. [[Clarence F. Lea]] of California took over the committee, fired Garey, and promised the FCC a fair hearing.[^49]
+The Washington Post ran a series of sixteen editorials critical of the committee. An FCC member who usually opposed Fly's views and was sympathetic to Cox agreed to petition the Speaker to dismiss him as chairman, and Cox resigned after an emotional speech. [[Clarence F. Lea]] of California took over the committee, fired Garey, and promised the FCC a fair hearing.[^63]
 
-FBIS officials testified in May 1944. Leigh made the principal statement, [[Stewart Hensley]] described the wire service, [[Ellis G. Porter]] described the publications, and Harold N. Graves Jr., who had left FBIS and was a naval officer by then, described the Analysis Division. The Lea committee's final report of January 2, 1945 cleared FBIS of wrongdoing and stated that it was rendering an efficient and worthwhile service. Two members, [[Louis E. Miller]] of Missouri and [[Richard B. Wigglesworth]] of Massachusetts, filed a dissenting minority report expressing "grave doubt" as to the value of FBIS materials. In his own minority report Wigglesworth, a member of the Appropriations Committee, charged that Fly and Leigh had violated the law by soliciting aid in congressional appropriations for the FCC, and stated that it was "but fair to assume" that the select committee's inquiry was "largely responsible" for a two-million-dollar cut in the FCC's appropriation for fiscal 1945.[^50] The majority report, quoted in *On the Beam* on February 3, 1945, stated that "Obviously the United States could not conduct an intelligent program for counteracting enemy propaganda without a reasonably accurate knowledge of that propaganda."[^51]
+FBIS officials testified in May 1944. Leigh made the principal statement, [[Stewart Hensley]] described the wire service, [[Ellis G. Porter]] described the publications, and Harold N. Graves Jr., who had left FBIS and was a naval officer by then, described the Analysis Division. The Lea committee's final report of January 2, 1945 cleared FBIS of wrongdoing and stated that it was rendering an efficient and worthwhile service. Two members, [[Louis E. Miller]] of Missouri and [[Richard B. Wigglesworth]] of Massachusetts, filed a dissenting minority report expressing "grave doubt" as to the value of FBIS materials. In his own minority report Wigglesworth, a member of the Appropriations Committee, charged that Fly and Leigh had violated the law by soliciting aid in congressional appropriations for the FCC, and stated that it was "but fair to assume" that the select committee's inquiry was "largely responsible" for a two-million-dollar cut in the FCC's appropriation for fiscal 1945.[^64] The majority report, quoted in *On the Beam* on February 3, 1945, stated that "Obviously the United States could not conduct an intelligent program for counteracting enemy propaganda without a reasonably accurate knowledge of that propaganda."[^65]
 
 ### Budget Cuts and Leigh's Departure
 
-The budget was the next weapon. A newsletter by Leigh on February 15, 1944 reported that the House Appropriations Committee would eliminate 30 percent of the service's budget from July onward, and noted that the committee had given no reason. Leigh wrote that "[t]he obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC for reasons well known and [to] the Dodd-Watson case." Leigh resigned that summer.[^52] The House Appropriations Committee recommended a cut of 25 percent for each FCC department. The Senate Appropriations Committee, under Senator [[Kenneth McKellar]], demanded proof of the service's value, and then recommended a cut of $500,000 that both houses approved.[^53]
+The budget was the next weapon. A newsletter by Leigh on February 15, 1944 reported that the House Appropriations Committee would eliminate 30 percent of the service's budget from July onward, and noted that the committee had given no reason. Leigh wrote that "[t]he obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC for reasons well known and [to] the Dodd-Watson case." Leigh resigned that summer.[^66] The House Appropriations Committee recommended a cut of 25 percent for each FCC department. The Senate Appropriations Committee, under Senator [[Kenneth McKellar]], demanded proof of the service's value, and then recommended a cut of $500,000 that both houses approved.[^67]
 
-Leigh wrote in *Harper's* that no congressional statement gave the real reason for the cut, and that Fly was ruled out of order when he tried to state it to the Senate Appropriations Committee. He quoted a member of Congress, speaking privately: "Surely it was a punitive cut. Larry Fly has been defiant of Congress for a long time. He has been openly defiant. Now his chickens have come home to roost." The CIA's history of the service describes the cut as made to punish Fly and the FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's request that the Department of Justice prosecute Cox.[^54] Hyneman became director on July 27, 1944 and served until August 7, 1945, when [[Russell M. Shepherd]] became the fourth director.[^55]
+Leigh wrote in *Harper's* that no congressional statement gave the real reason for the cut, and that Fly was ruled out of order when he tried to state it to the Senate Appropriations Committee. He quoted a member of Congress, speaking privately: "Surely it was a punitive cut. Larry Fly has been defiant of Congress for a long time. He has been openly defiant. Now his chickens have come home to roost." The CIA's history of the service describes the cut as made to punish Fly and the FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's request that the Department of Justice prosecute Cox.[^68] Hyneman became director on July 27, 1944 and served until August 7, 1945, when [[Russell M. Shepherd]] became the fourth director.[^69]
 
-In the second half of 1944 the service abandoned most of its analytical work. A liaison study of April 1944 found that State, War, the Foreign Economic Administration and the [[Office of Strategic Services]] were reluctant to give up the analytical publications but would drop them and keep the Daily Report if they had to choose, and the Special Reports Section of six analysts in the OWI office was abolished on December 31, 1944. Only the Far East Division under Audrey Menefee kept analytical work. Certain quarters protested in November 1944; Hyneman answered that State should set up a Russian analysis team to use the service's materials and recommended that it obtain the retiring Soviet expert Charles Prince. On January 17, 1945 [[Geroid T. Robinson]] of the OSS wrote to Hyneman to express regret that the analytical work had been discontinued, and added that he hoped the Daily Report would carry more Soviet radio material.[^56] The Soviet Embassy in Washington had asked for copies of the Daily Report as early as November 11, 1942, with State Department approval, and in London the service received the daily Soviet communique directly from TASS.[^57]
+In the second half of 1944 the service abandoned most of its analytical work. A liaison study of April 1944 found that State, War, the Foreign Economic Administration and the [[Office of Strategic Services]] were reluctant to give up the analytical publications but would drop them and keep the Daily Report if they had to choose, and the Special Reports Section of six analysts in the OWI office was abolished on December 31, 1944. Only the Far East Division under Audrey Menefee kept analytical work. Certain quarters protested in November 1944; Hyneman answered that State should set up a Russian analysis team to use the service's materials and recommended that it obtain the retiring Soviet expert Charles Prince. On January 17, 1945 [[Geroid T. Robinson]] of the OSS wrote to Hyneman to express regret that the analytical work had been discontinued, and added that he hoped the Daily Report would carry more Soviet radio material.[^70] The Soviet Embassy in Washington had asked for copies of the Daily Report as early as November 11, 1942, with State Department approval, and in London the service received the daily Soviet communique directly from TASS.[^71]
 
 ### War Department Custody, 1945 to 1946
 
-A draft executive order survives among the service's files, undated and bearing the name of [[Harry S. Truman]], to transfer its functions to the State Department and to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service. The draft was apparently prepared by Shepherd and perhaps by State Department representatives, and it was never approved by the Secretary of State.[^58]
+A draft executive order survives among the service's files, undated and bearing the name of [[Harry S. Truman]], to transfer its functions to the State Department and to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service. The draft was apparently prepared by Shepherd and perhaps by State Department representatives, and it was never approved by the Secretary of State.[^72]
 
-On September 19, 1945 the House Appropriations Committee voted to rescind part of the National Defense Activities appropriation. On 26 September the FCC announced that FBIS would go out of existence within thirty days, and sent thirty-day notices to employees. On 1 December a conference committee reported a compromise rescinding half the remaining money, $465,000, which both houses approved on 3 December. FBIS operations came to a close on December 10, 1945.[^59]
+On September 19, 1945 the House Appropriations Committee voted to rescind part of the National Defense Activities appropriation. On 26 September the FCC announced that FBIS would go out of existence within thirty days, and sent thirty-day notices to employees. On 1 December a conference committee reported a compromise rescinding half the remaining money, $465,000, which both houses approved on 3 December. FBIS operations came to a close on December 10, 1945.[^73]
 
-Mercado writes that the last Daily Report appeared on December 4, 1945, and that the FCC terminated the service the following day.[^60] The FCC's annual report for fiscal 1946 says FBIS was "discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945."[^61]
+Mercado writes that the last Daily Report appeared on December 4, 1945, and that the FCC terminated the service the following day.[^74] The FCC's annual report for fiscal 1946 says FBIS was "discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945."[^75]
 
-The War Department then stepped in. On December 13, 1945 Shepherd told the FCC that the War Department had requested an executive order transferring FBIS to the Military Intelligence Division effective January 1, 1946. On 21 December Secretary of War [[Robert P. Patterson]] wrote to [[Paul Porter]], chairman of the FCC, asking that FBIS personnel transfer on 31 December. Porter accepted on 27 December, and the service resumed on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship. Shepherd asked that operations continue until the transfer, and only token operations followed, with little monitoring and no publications. No document authorizing continued operations has been found, although "permission may have been given orally."[^62]
+The War Department then stepped in. On December 13, 1945 Shepherd told the FCC that the War Department had requested an executive order transferring FBIS to the Military Intelligence Division effective January 1, 1946. On 21 December Secretary of War [[Robert P. Patterson]] wrote to [[Paul Porter]], chairman of the FCC, asking that FBIS personnel transfer on 31 December. Porter accepted on 27 December, and the service resumed on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship. Shepherd asked that operations continue until the transfer, and only token operations followed, with little monitoring and no publications. No document authorizing continued operations has been found, although "permission may have been given orally."[^76]
 
 ### Central Intelligence Group and the Name
 
-In January 1946 President Harry S. Truman created the Central Intelligence Group (CIG) by executive order. In February [[Hoyt Vandenberg]], then Assistant Chief of Staff for G-2, gave [[Sidney W. Souers]] a memorandum proposing that the CIG choose the agency to direct the service, and a committee of five, drawn from the CIG and the remaining Intelligence Advisory Board members, was formed to study it.[^63][^64]
+In January 1946 President Harry S. Truman created the Central Intelligence Group (CIG) by executive order. In February [[Hoyt Vandenberg]], then Assistant Chief of Staff for G-2, gave [[Sidney W. Souers]] a memorandum proposing that the CIG choose the agency to direct the service, and a committee of five, drawn from the CIG and the remaining Intelligence Advisory Board members, was formed to study it.[^77][^78]
 
-The ad hoc committee recommended that FBIS remain with the War Department, but that its operating organization be liquidated and rebuilt, because its publications circulated too widely and its personnel had not been screened for security. The War Department refused, arguing that operating a monitoring service was properly a CIG function, and proposed that the State Department take it over. State declined, and a State memorandum signed by [[William L. Langer]] on May 27, 1946 accepted CIG sponsorship.[^65]
+The ad hoc committee recommended that FBIS remain with the War Department, but that its operating organization be liquidated and rebuilt, because its publications circulated too widely and its personnel had not been screened for security. The War Department refused, arguing that operating a monitoring service was properly a CIG function, and proposed that the State Department take it over. State declined, and a State memorandum signed by [[William L. Langer]] on May 27, 1946 accepted CIG sponsorship.[^79]
 
-The Director of Central Intelligence "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and personnel were transferred to the CIG on 3 November.[^66] NARA gives August 5, 1946 as the date of transfer to the CIG, and November 1, 1946 as the date its agency was abolished, with "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946" as the successor.[^67]
+The Director of Central Intelligence "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and personnel were transferred to the CIG on 3 November.[^80] NARA gives August 5, 1946 as the date of transfer to the CIG, and November 1, 1946 as the date its agency was abolished, with "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946" as the successor.[^81]
 
-The name shifted during this period. A March 1946 CIG memorandum still uses the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service name.[^68] Shepherd's notice of October 31, 1946 announcing the personnel transfer of 3 November stated that the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, with publications and letterheads changed accordingly.[^69] On December 31, 1946 [[Edwin L. Sibert]], in charge of the CIG Office of Operations, informed the staff that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, and in a wire of January 2, 1947 designated Shepherd Chief, FBIB.[^70] By May and June 1947 CIG papers refer to the branch by that name. Colonel [[Lawrence K. White]], acting chief of the branch, met with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press in May 1947.[^71] A 1970 CIA history places a notice of July 28, 1947 telling field bureaus that they would no longer bear the "confusing name" of the branch, but would retain the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service, and that offices outside Washington were to camouflage their connection with CIG.[^72] A footnote in Mercado's article dates the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service to 1967.[^73]
+The name shifted during this period. A March 1946 CIG memorandum still uses the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service name.[^82] Shepherd's notice of October 31, 1946 announcing the personnel transfer of 3 November stated that the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, with publications and letterheads changed accordingly.[^83] On December 31, 1946 [[Edwin L. Sibert]], in charge of the CIG Office of Operations, informed the staff that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, and in a wire of January 2, 1947 designated Shepherd Chief, FBIB.[^84] By May and June 1947 CIG papers refer to the branch by that name. Colonel [[Lawrence K. White]], acting chief of the branch, met with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press in May 1947.[^85] A 1970 CIA history places a notice of July 28, 1947 telling field bureaus that they would no longer bear the "confusing name" of the branch, but would retain the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service, and that offices outside Washington were to camouflage their connection with CIG.[^86] A footnote in Mercado's article dates the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service to 1967.[^87]
 
 ### Central Intelligence Agency, 1947 onward
 
-The [[National Security Act of 1947]] transformed the CIG into the CIA, and the successor is recorded as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^67] The service came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^74]
+The [[National Security Act of 1947]] transformed the CIG into the CIA, and the successor is recorded as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^81] The service came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^88]
 
-Within the agency the service sat under the Assistant Director for Operations, Sibert. Shepherd proposed in a memorandum of November 5, 1946 that the service take up propaganda analysis, estimating 35 employees at $150,000 a year. The Assistant Director presented a scaled-down project to the PRC on January 6, 1947, approving Shepherd's program but making clear that FBIS would not take over "interpretative analysis." The reduced request was for a staff of twelve at $61,000 a year. White was announced as deputy chief of FBIS on January 9, 1947. A Special Reports Division was approved on February 13, 1947 on an experimental basis, began work on March 28, 1947 and issued its first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts on April 15, 1947. The early years of analysis under the CIA are described as "stormy."[^75] Shepherd resigned on September 29, 1947, and Colonel White became chief.[^76]
+Within the agency the service sat under the Assistant Director for Operations, Sibert. Shepherd proposed in a memorandum of November 5, 1946 that the service take up propaganda analysis, estimating 35 employees at $150,000 a year. The Assistant Director presented a scaled-down project to the PRC on January 6, 1947, approving Shepherd's program but making clear that FBIS would not take over "interpretative analysis." The reduced request was for a staff of twelve at $61,000 a year. White was announced as deputy chief of FBIS on January 9, 1947. A Special Reports Division was approved on February 13, 1947 on an experimental basis, began work on March 28, 1947 and issued its first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts on April 15, 1947. The early years of analysis under the CIA are described as "stormy."[^89] Shepherd resigned on September 29, 1947, and Colonel White became chief.[^90]
 
-The service also had a working relationship with the BBC monitoring service. In June 1946 Shepherd spent three weeks in London with BBC officials, and met [[Malcolm Frost]], then chief of the BBC Monitoring Service, who proposed that the American service begin paying its share of the monitoring cost, perhaps $250,000 a year, or supply the BBC with enough material from its own monitoring to balance the books.[^77] The BBC service then employed 385 persons at a cost of $650,000 a year. After further negotiation, Frost informed the service on October 15, 1947 that the BBC had obtained authority and funds to sign an agreement.[^78]
+The service also had a working relationship with the BBC monitoring service. In June 1946 Shepherd spent three weeks in London with BBC officials, and met [[Malcolm Frost]], then chief of the BBC Monitoring Service, who proposed that the American service begin paying its share of the monitoring cost, perhaps $250,000 a year, or supply the BBC with enough material from its own monitoring to balance the books.[^91] The BBC service then employed 385 persons at a cost of $650,000 a year. After further negotiation, Frost informed the service on October 15, 1947 that the BBC had obtained authority and funds to sign an agreement.[^92]
 
-After 1957 the service "had come of age as an established CIA unit." On March 23, 1961 the Directorate of Intelligence and the Assistant Director for Operations instructed FBIS to accept responsibility for propaganda indications, and that FBIS and the BBC together monitored broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961, a figure that rose to 115 by the spring of 1963.[^79]
+After 1957 the service "had come of age as an established CIA unit." On March 23, 1961 the Directorate of Intelligence and the Assistant Director for Operations instructed FBIS to accept responsibility for propaganda indications, and that FBIS and the BBC together monitored broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961, a figure that rose to 115 by the spring of 1963.[^93]
 
 ### Daily Report and Records
 
-The Daily Report, the service's translation series, first appeared on November 18, 1941.[^80] Ellis G. Porter, a former newspaper editor, joined the staff in January 1942 to direct its publication.[^81] A Daily Report of the Far Eastern Section dated January 3, 1946 is in Record Group 262, Entry 25, Box 1, and the first issue of the new Daily Report was published that month.[^82]
+The Daily Report, the service's translation series, first appeared on November 18, 1941.[^94] Ellis G. Porter, a former newspaper editor, joined the staff in January 1942 to direct its publication.[^95] A Daily Report of the Far Eastern Section dated January 3, 1946 is in Record Group 262, Entry 25, Box 1, and the first issue of the new Daily Report was published that month.[^96]
 
-The wartime records are held in [[Record Group 262]], including the daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts for 1941 to 1945, daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American and European sections for 1941 to 1946, the weekly reviews, the *Radio Reports on the Far East* for 1942 to 1945, and program schedules for 1942 to 1947. The Foreign Broadcast Information Branch records for 1947 and 1948 are in Record Group 263, Records of the Central Intelligence Agency.[^83]
+The wartime records are held in [[Record Group 262]], including the daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts for 1941 to 1945, daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American and European sections for 1941 to 1946, the weekly reviews, the *Radio Reports on the Far East* for 1942 to 1945, and program schedules for 1942 to 1947. The Foreign Broadcast Information Branch records for 1947 and 1948 are in Record Group 263, Records of the Central Intelligence Agency.[^97]
 
 ### Open Source Center, 2005
 
@@ -263,67 +280,81 @@ On November 8, 2005 [[John D. Negroponte]], the Director of National Intelligenc
 [^17]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, describing Graves as "the young man who had been acting as director of the Princeton Listening Post since its inception" and naming the Princeton staff; Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article, Graves's memo of July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment," the "dragging in" of the Princeton Listening Post, the "brain child" description, and the Eleanor Ragsdale column of September 8, 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
 [^18]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
 [^19]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 24: Nelson A. Rockefeller to James L. Fly, July 29, 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22, quoted as "We have been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau of the Monitoring Service of your Commission." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
-[^20]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, on Free's editorship of the *Public Opinion Quarterly*, and "Mr. Free assumed office as Director on 16 June 1941" (p. 11); p. 35, on Free's contacts with BBC officials "very soon after he assumed office with the idea of attaching a staff to BBC." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^21]: Roop, Part I, pp. 36-37, quoting "With Lloyd Free still in London, Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over at 316 F St. on 7 December 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^22]: Roop, Part I, pp. 48-50, on Free's resignation in April 1942 "to accept a commission in the Army," his service as military attache in the United States Embassy in Switzerland, the appointment of Leigh of Bennington College, the $1,000 difference from Free's $8,000 salary and the appropriation bill provision, and Graves as Acting Director until Leigh took over on July 15, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^23]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Free and Graves's recruitment of Goodwin Watson of Columbia University, who "entered upon duty 17 November 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^24]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Analysis Section becoming the Analysis Division. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^25]: Roop, Part I, p. 57, "In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants, and trainees, but with only 17 of the positions filled," and p. 58, "the planned table of organization was never reached." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^26]: Roop, Part I, p. 46, that Watson and Leites "were sent to London in September 1942" to set up analysis, and that "a two-man analysis staff remained" through the war. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^27]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the Central European Radio Analysis, begun January 1943 by the German Section, and the Radio Report on the Far East, first published August 24, 1942 (RG 262, Entry 34, Box 1). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
-[^28]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 132-133, on Speier's report sent "a week after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor," Free and Watson's reading of his work "with the greatest of interest," the February 1942 offer, and the Analysis Division as the "heart" of the service. Sole source for the offer and its date.
-[^29]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 132, note 51, citing Harold Graves to Hans Speier and Ernst Kris, December 23, 1941, and Lloyd Free to Hans Speier, January 31, 1942, RG 262, Entry 2, Box 66. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
-[^30]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 134, which places the letter of May 26, 1942 two months after Speier entered the Analysis Division and quotes it as stating that, "as a result of investigation," he had "been rated eligible on suitability for the position of Senior Political Analyst" (note 59: United States Civil Service Commission to Hans Speier, May 26, 1942, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
-[^31]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 135, on Speier's colleagues George, Leites and Henry Kellermann and on Watson's praise, with the quoted phrases "extraordinarily good job of analysis" and "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him" (note 62). Sole source for these quotations.
-[^32]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 138, on Watson leaving "under pressure from enemies of the New Deal" and Speier becoming acting chief analyst, overseeing thirty people. Sole source for the sequence.
-[^33]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 145, on Speier's transfer on "May 22, 1944" from the Analysis Division to the Office of War Information, with Wallace Carroll as his immediate superior.
-[^34]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 136-137, on the memorandum of October 29, 1943, the seventeen of twenty-five predictions, Mark Abrams, Representative Joseph Martin and Senator Alexander Wiley. Sole source for these claims.
-[^35]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Dies's letter to Fly of November 18, 1941, which expressed "deep concern" and named thirteen organizations. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^36]: Roop, Part I, pp. 190-191, on Fly's reply that Watson "belonged to only one of the 13 organizations Dies named," the Senate Appropriations Committee's deletion of the rider, Dodd's hiring as an editor in December 1941, and Watson's testimony of February 4, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Roop and Mercado spell the analyst's surname "Schumann"; Bessner writes "Schuman."
-[^37]: Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, on Dies's House speech of February 1, 1943, listing 39 "communists," and the rider attached to the House Post Office and Treasury appropriations bill. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^38]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Congressman Dies accusing three FBIS employees, among dozens of civil servants, of "un-American beliefs." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
-[^39]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," quoting Vice President Henry Wallace on Dies. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
-[^40]: Roop, Part I, pp. 192-193, on the subcommittee under Congressman Kerr, which started hearings on April 2, 1943 and reported on 21 April, the findings of "subversive activity" and "unfit," the three named men, and the statement that the subcommittee "was later accused of having its final report prepared before the men were called to testify." Roop states that the subcommittee was named by the Un-American Activities Committee; *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), describes a special subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee, appointed under a House resolution, whose report is H. Rep. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess. The Monthly Catalog lists H. Rept. 448 (May 14, 1943, pursuant to H. Res. 105, "submitted by Mr. Kerr") on Watson, Dodd and Lovett; a February 1943 newspaper report names Kerr, a North Carolina Democrat, as chairman of the subcommittee. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303.
-[^41]: Roop, Part I, p. 193, on the Senate's four rejections, its approval of the rider by 48 to 32, and the President's signature while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional.
-[^42]: Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, section 304, 57 Stat. 431, 450, as quoted in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946). Roop, Part I, p. 193, note, gives the effective cutoff as November 21, 1943, where the statute as quoted gives 15 November. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303.
-[^43]: *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), argued May 3-6, 1946, decided June 3, 1946, opinion of Justice Black. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303. Mercado's article gives the middle name as "Morse."
-[^44]: Roop, Part I, pp. 194-195, on the attacks on Rhodes, Menefee and Speier; Fly's letter to J. Edgar Hoover of April 28, 1942, and the two informant reports, one calling the New York school a "refuge for exiled European communists" and the other calling it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities." Sole source for the informant reports is Roop's account of the FBIS file.
-[^45]: Roop, Part I, p. 196, on Cox, the Atlanta station case, the FCC's referral to the Justice Department, the House's naming of Cox as chairman in early 1943, and the appointment of Eugene Garey as investigator.
-[^46]: Roop, Part I, p. 197, on the removal of "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," the subpoena of ten employees at 8:00 a.m., and "Star Chamber testimony," citing Leigh's article "Politicians vs. Bureaucrats" (subtitle "The case of FCC Chairman Fly and Congressman Cox"), *Harper's Magazine*, January 1945. https://harpers.org/archive/1945/01/politicians-vs-bureaucrats. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^47]: Roop, Part I, p. 198, on the single irregularity found at FBIS and the list of charges, including "masquerading," "intelligence" and "glorified news gathering agency." Mercado renders the last phrase as "glorified news agency."
-[^48]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Cox counsel's charge that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities," make it sound more like a war agency, and influence Congress to grant appropriations."
-[^49]: Roop, Part I, pp. 198-199, on the Washington Post's sixteen editorials, the FCC member who "agreed to petition the Speaker of the House to dismiss Cox as chairman," Cox's resignation after an emotional speech, Lea's succession, and Garey's dismissal. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Louis E. Miller (R-Mo.) and Richard B. Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) are the minority members named in *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945. Full names: Clarence Frederick Lea (D-Calif.), Louis Ebenezer Miller (R-Mo.), Richard Bowditch Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) and Kenneth Douglas McKellar (D-Tenn.), per the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress as reproduced in the unitedstates/congress-legislators dataset.
-[^50]: "Lea Probe Demands Sweeping Law Change," *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945, on the Miller and Wigglesworth minority reports and Wigglesworth's statements. https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1945/1945-01-08-BC.pdf.
-[^51]: Roop, Part I, pp. 200-201, on the May 1944 testimony of Leigh, Hensley, Porter and Graves; the Lea report of January 2, 1945 ("an efficient and worthwhile service"); the Miller and Wigglesworth minority report ("grave doubt"); and the majority passage quoted in *On the Beam* of February 3, 1945, in the note on p. 201. The hearings are *Hearings of the Special House Committee Investigating the FCC* (GPO, 1944), three volumes, with FBIS testimony beginning in Volume III, page 3439. Roop, Part I, p. 189, records Graves's resignation by the end of 1943.
-[^52]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Leigh's newsletter of February 15, 1944: "The obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC," the 30 percent figure, and Leigh's resignation "that summer." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
-[^53]: Roop, Part I, pp. 204-206, on the House Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of 25 percent for each FCC department, Senator McKellar's demand for proof, and the Senate Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of $500,000 that both houses approved. Mercado's figure of 30 percent is given at note 48.
-[^54]: Roop, Part I, pp. 206-207, on the absence of any stated congressional reason for the cut, Fly's being ruled out of order, the statement that "it was a punitive cut, made to punish Fly and FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's effrontery in asking the Department of Justice to prosecute Eugene Cox, a member of Congress," and, in the note on p. 207, Leigh's quotation of a member of Congress speaking privately, from Leigh's *Harper's Magazine* article, January 1945. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^55]: Roop, Part I, pp. 241-244, "Charles S. Hyneman, who succeeded Leigh as FBIS director on 27 July 1944," and p. 260, "from 27 July 1944 to 7 August 1945," and Shepherd's appointment as the fourth FBIS Director. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^56]: Roop, Part I, pp. 256-257 (note on the liaison study of April 29, 1944; abolition of the Special Reports Section on December 31, 1944), p. 259 (Far East Division retained "the only analytical work done in FBIS"), and pp. 267-268 (the protest of November 1944, Hyneman's response, and Robinson's letter of January 17, 1945). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^57]: Roop, Part I, p. 268, on the Soviet Embassy's request of November 11, 1942 and the TASS arrangement in London in 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^58]: Roop, Part I, p. 275, note, on the undated executive order with the name of President Truman, transferring FBIS functions to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service, "prepared by Shepherd and perhaps some representatives from State," and "never approved by the Secretary of State." Job 54-27, Box 15, CIA Records Center.
-[^59]: Roop, Part I, pp. 274-277, on the House Appropriations Committee's action of September 19, 1945, the FCC's news release of 26 September, the conference compromise of 1 December ($465,000) approved on 3 December, and the closing of operations on December 10, 1945.
-[^60]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the last Daily Report "on 4 December" and the FCC's termination "the following day." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
-[^61]: Federal Communications Commission, Twelfth Annual Report, fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, which states that FBIS "was discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945." https://archive.org/details/fcc_DOC-308665A1.
-[^62]: Roop, Part I, pp. 278-280, on Shepherd's letter of December 13, 1945 to the FCC, the token operations that followed, Patterson's letter of 21 December, Porter's reply of 27 December, the resumption on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship, and the note on p. 279 that "No documents authorizing continued operations have been found, but permission may have been given orally." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^63]: Roop, Part I, pp. 299-300, on the creation of the CIG by executive order in January 1946, the Vandenberg memorandum to Souers in February 1946, and the five-member committee. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^64]: Central Intelligence Group, "Survey of the Function of Monitoring Press and Propaganda Broadcasts of Foreign Powers," C.I.G. 1, memorandum by the Director of Central Intelligence, February 25, 1946, which states that FBIS functions were "taken over by the War Department on an interim basis on 30 December 1945." https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110003-4. Ad hoc committee report, March 18, 1946: https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110004-3.
-[^65]: Roop, Part I, pp. 301-303, on the ad hoc committee's recommendations (March 18, 1946), the War Department's refusal, the State Department's reply, C.I.G. 1/1 (April 26, 1946), C.I.G. 1/2 (May 8, 1946, signed by James S. Lay), and the State memorandum signed by William L. Langer on May 27, 1946, enclosed with C.I.G. 1/3 (June 4, 1946).
-[^66]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice, signed for the Director of Central Intelligence by Col. John Dabney, that the Director had "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and on the personnel transfer to CIG on November 3, 1946, announced on 31 October. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^67]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262, administrative history: transfer to the Central Intelligence Group, "August 5, 1946"; "Abolished: November 1, 1946"; successors "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946," "Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, CIG, January-September 1947," and "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
-[^68]: CIG, "Background on Development of Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service," memorandum for the Chief, Information Branch, March 1946. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110001-6.
-[^69]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice of October 31, 1946 that "the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), with all publications and letterheads changed accordingly." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^70]: Roop, Part I, p. 305 and note, on Sibert's statement of December 31, 1946 "informing that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)" and his wire of January 2, 1947 designating Russell Shepherd Chief, FBIB. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^71]: CIG, "'A' and 'X' Wire Services Furnished by Foreign Broadcast Information Branch," memorandum, June 10, 1947. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110015-1. Also memorandum on the May 6, 1947 interview of Colonel L. K. White, Acting Chief, FBIB, with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110022-3.
-[^72]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), p. 102, on the notice that field bureaus would no longer bear "the confusing name of Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)," and on the camouflage of their connection with CIG. The notice is dated July 28, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
-[^73]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 4: "The initial monitoring service was renamed the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service in 1942 and evolved into the Foreign Broadcast Information Service in 1967." Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304 (the notice of October 31, 1946) and the 1947 CIG memoranda already use the later name. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
-[^74]: Roop, Part I, p. 2, "FBIS took form during those six years before its adoption by the Central Intelligence Agency, and came to CIA almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^75]: Roop, Part II, pp. 151-152, on Shepherd's memorandum of November 5, 1946, the Assistant Director for Operations' presentation to the PRC on January 6, 1947, the 35-employee and $150,000 proposal, the reduced request of twelve staff at $61,000, the "stormy" early years, and the Special Reports Division (approved February 13, 1947, begun March 28, 1947, first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts April 15, 1947); p. 2, on the announcement of Col. Lawrence K. White as Deputy Chief on January 9, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
-[^76]: Roop, Part II, p. 56, "Shepherd resigned from FBIS on 29 September 1947," with Colonel White the new FBIS Chief. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. Appointment of the fourth director: Roop, Part I, p. 260. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^77]: Roop, Part II, p. 51, on Shepherd's visit to London from June 24, 1946, his meeting with "Malcolm Frost, Chief of the BBC Monitoring Service," the $250,000 figure, and the BBC Monitoring Service's 385 employees and $650,000 cost. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
-[^78]: Roop, Part II, pp. 54-56, on the Shepherd-Frost negotiations and the notice of October 15, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
-[^79]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service History, Part III: 1957-1967" (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, May 1972), p. 2, "after 1957 FBIS had come of age as an established CIA unit"; p. 19, on the March 23, 1961 instruction to accept responsibility for propaganda indications; and pp. 4-5, "FBIS and the BBC were monitoring broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961. By the spring of 1963 this number had increased to 115." https://archive.org/details/CIADirectorateOfIntelligenceHistoricalSeriesForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart319571967.
-[^80]: Roop, Part I, p. 25, on the mailing list for the Daily Report issued on November 18, 1941; Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," states that the service "published its first Daily Report of translations on 18 November 1941." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
-[^81]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, that Ellis G. Porter, "former editor of newspapers in Baltimore and Philadelphia," joined the staff in January 1942 "to direct publication of the Daily Report."
-[^82]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 39: "FBIS, Daily Report, Foreign Radio Broadcasts, Far Eastern Section, 3 January 1946, NARA, RG 262, Entry 25, Box 1," and the text that the first issue of the new Daily Report was published in January 1946. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
-[^83]: NARA, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262: "Daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts, 1941-45"; "Daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American, and European Sections, 1941-46"; "Weekly reviews of official foreign broadcasts, 1941-44"; "Radio reports on the Far East, 1942-45"; "Program schedules of foreign broadcasts, 1942-47"; and "Related Records: Records of the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, 1947-48, in RG 263." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
+[^20]: FBIS Administrative Memorandum No. 16, "To Officers of the FBIS," January 22, 1943. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP82-00177R000300410017-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp82-00177r000300410017-3
+[^21]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, on Free's editorship of the *Public Opinion Quarterly*, and "Mr. Free assumed office as Director on 16 June 1941" (p. 11); p. 35, on Free's contacts with BBC officials "very soon after he assumed office with the idea of attaching a staff to BBC." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^22]: Roop, Part I, pp. 36-37, quoting "With Lloyd Free still in London, Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over at 316 F St. on 7 December 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^23]: Roop, Part I, pp. 48-50, on Free's resignation in April 1942 "to accept a commission in the Army," his service as military attache in the United States Embassy in Switzerland, the appointment of Leigh of Bennington College, the $1,000 difference from Free's $8,000 salary and the appropriation bill provision, and Graves as Acting Director until Leigh took over on July 15, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^24]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Free and Graves's recruitment of Goodwin Watson of Columbia University, who "entered upon duty 17 November 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^25]: Hearings before the Special Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., acting under H. Res. 105 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1943), p. 2. https://archive.org/details/1943-watson-dodd-lovett
+[^26]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Analysis Section becoming the Analysis Division. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^27]: Central Intelligence Agency Reading Room, Records of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (National Archives records description, compiled by Walter W. Weinstein): "Goodwin Watson was Director of the Division from November 15, 1941, until November 15, 1943, when he was succeeded by Theodore Newcomb." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp08t00376r000100250001-1
+[^28]: Roop, Part I, p. 122, on Newcomb, "who was second only to Watson in the Analysis Division," in a note of February 15, 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
+[^29]: Roop, Part I, p. 57, "In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants, and trainees, but with only 17 of the positions filled," and p. 58, "the planned table of organization was never reached." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^30]: Roop, Part I, p. 46, that Watson and Leites "were sent to London in September 1942" to set up analysis, and that "a two-man analysis staff remained" through the war. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^31]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the Central European Radio Analysis, begun January 1943 by the German Section, and the Radio Report on the Far East, first published August 24, 1942 (RG 262, Entry 34, Box 1). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
+[^32]: Roop, Part I, pp. 121-122 (Leigh's announcement of April 19, 1943; Graves on May 13, 1943; Eugene Katz's letter of June 18, 1943). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
+[^33]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 132-133, on Speier's report sent "a week after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor," Free and Watson's reading of his work "with the greatest of interest," the February 1942 offer, and the Analysis Division as the "heart" of the service. Sole source for the offer and its date.
+[^34]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 132, note 51, citing Harold Graves to Hans Speier and Ernst Kris, December 23, 1941, and Lloyd Free to Hans Speier, January 31, 1942, RG 262, Entry 2, Box 66. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
+[^35]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 134, which places the letter of May 26, 1942 two months after Speier entered the Analysis Division and quotes it as stating that, "as a result of investigation," he had "been rated eligible on suitability for the position of Senior Political Analyst" (note 59: United States Civil Service Commission to Hans Speier, May 26, 1942, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
+[^36]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 135, on Speier's colleagues George, Leites and Henry Kellermann and on Watson's praise, with the quoted phrases "extraordinarily good job of analysis" and "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him" (note 62). Sole source for these quotations.
+[^37]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 138 and p. 143 (note 90), on Watson leaving "under pressure from enemies of the New Deal" and Speier becoming acting chief analyst, overseeing thirty people. Sole source for the sequence.
+[^38]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 143 and note 90 (Theodore Newcomb to Col. S. A. Greenwell, December 4, 1943; Speier's Application for Federal Employment, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5): "Speier replaced Watson as Acting Chief Analyst."
+[^39]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 145, on Speier's transfer on "May 22, 1944" from the Analysis Division to the Office of War Information, with Wallace Carroll as his immediate superior.
+[^40]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 136-137, on the memorandum of October 29, 1943, the seventeen of twenty-five predictions, Mark Abrams, Representative Joseph Martin and Senator Alexander Wiley. Sole source for these claims.
+[^41]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Dies's letter to Fly of November 18, 1941, which expressed "deep concern" and named thirteen organizations. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^42]: Roop, Part I, pp. 190-191, on Fly's reply that Watson "belonged to only one of the 13 organizations Dies named," the Senate Appropriations Committee's deletion of the rider, Dodd's hiring as an editor in December 1941, and Watson's testimony of February 4, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Roop and Mercado spell the analyst's surname "Schumann"; Bessner writes "Schuman."
+[^43]: Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, on Dies's House speech of February 1, 1943, listing 39 "communists," with Dodd, Watson and Schumann at the head of the list. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^44]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 623-624 (House, February 4, 1943, notice of the amendment naming thirty-nine employees), and pp. 645, 655 and 656 (House, February 5, 1943). Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, states that a rider "immediately was attached" to the appropriation bill after Dies's speech. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_january-06-march-01-1943_89
+[^45]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Congressman Dies accusing three FBIS employees, among dozens of civil servants, of "un-American beliefs." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
+[^46]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," quoting Vice President Henry Wallace on Dies. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
+[^47]: Hearings (as above), pp. iii-v and 1 (the text of H. Res. 105 and the membership; first sitting April 9, 1943, "pursuant to adjournment on Wednesday, April 7, 1943"). https://archive.org/details/1943-watson-dodd-lovett
+[^48]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 2788-2789 (House, March 31, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_march-02-april-05-1943_89
+[^49]: Congressional Record, 78th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 89, p. 3068 (House, April 7, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_april-06-may-13-1943_89
+[^50]: Roop, Part I, pp. 192-193, on the subcommittee under Congressman Kerr, which started hearings on April 2, 1943 and reported on 21 April, the findings of "subversive activity" and "unfit," the three named men, and the statement that the subcommittee "was later accused of having its final report prepared before the men were called to testify." Roop states that the subcommittee was named by the Un-American Activities Committee. The printed hearings give the authority as House Resolution 105, adopted February 9, 1943, directed to the Committee on Appropriations (Hearings, pp. iii-v), and give the sitting at which Watson's testimony begins as April 9, 1943, against Roop's April 2. *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), likewise describes a special subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee, appointed under a House resolution, whose report is H. Rep. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess. The Monthly Catalog lists H. Rept. 448 (May 14, 1943, pursuant to H. Res. 105, "submitted by Mr. Kerr") on Watson, Dodd and Lovett; a February 1943 newspaper report names Kerr, a North Carolina Democrat, as chairman of the subcommittee. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303.
+[^51]: Hearings (as above), Appendix D, H. Rept. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 327-334, including the finding that Schuman's case did not support a recommendation of unfitness and the findings on Watson and Dodd.
+[^52]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 4554-4555 (House, May 17, 1943). Sole source for the words attributed on the floor to Watson. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-14-june-14-1943_89
+[^53]: Hearings (as above), pp. 100-105 and 118-119.
+[^54]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, p. 4583 (House, May 18, 1943), the page cited in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946).
+[^55]: Roop, Part I, p. 193, on the Senate's four rejections, its approval of the rider by 48 to 32, and the President's signature while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional.
+[^56]: Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, section 304, 57 Stat. 431, 450, as quoted in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946). Roop, Part I, p. 193, note, gives the effective cutoff as November 21, 1943, where the statute as quoted gives 15 November. The enacted text also excepted accrued leave and salary and payment for jury or armed-forces service; the text proposed in the subcommittee's report (Hearings, p. 328) omitted the November 15 date and the reappointment clause. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303.
+[^57]: *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), argued May 3-6, 1946, decided June 3, 1946, opinion of Justice Black. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303. Mercado's article gives the middle name as "Morse."
+[^58]: Roop, Part I, pp. 194-195, on the attacks on Rhodes, Menefee and Speier; Fly's letter to J. Edgar Hoover of April 28, 1942, and the two informant reports, one calling the New York school a "refuge for exiled European communists" and the other calling it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities." Sole source for the informant reports is Roop's account of the FBIS file.
+[^59]: Roop, Part I, p. 196, on Cox, the Atlanta station case, the FCC's referral to the Justice Department, the House's naming of Cox as chairman in early 1943, and the appointment of Eugene Garey as investigator.
+[^60]: Roop, Part I, p. 197, on the removal of "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," the subpoena of ten employees at 8:00 a.m., and "Star Chamber testimony," citing Leigh's article "Politicians vs. Bureaucrats" (subtitle "The case of FCC Chairman Fly and Congressman Cox"), *Harper's Magazine*, January 1945. https://harpers.org/archive/1945/01/politicians-vs-bureaucrats. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^61]: Roop, Part I, p. 198, on the single irregularity found at FBIS and the list of charges, including "masquerading," "intelligence" and "glorified news gathering agency." Mercado renders the last phrase as "glorified news agency."
+[^62]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Cox counsel's charge that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities," make it sound more like a war agency, and influence Congress to grant appropriations."
+[^63]: Roop, Part I, pp. 198-199, on the Washington Post's sixteen editorials, the FCC member who "agreed to petition the Speaker of the House to dismiss Cox as chairman," Cox's resignation after an emotional speech, Lea's succession, and Garey's dismissal. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Louis E. Miller (R-Mo.) and Richard B. Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) are the minority members named in *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945. Full names: Clarence Frederick Lea (D-Calif.), Louis Ebenezer Miller (R-Mo.), Richard Bowditch Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) and Kenneth Douglas McKellar (D-Tenn.), per the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress as reproduced in the unitedstates/congress-legislators dataset.
+[^64]: "Lea Probe Demands Sweeping Law Change," *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945, on the Miller and Wigglesworth minority reports and Wigglesworth's statements. https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1945/1945-01-08-BC.pdf.
+[^65]: Roop, Part I, pp. 200-201, on the May 1944 testimony of Leigh, Hensley, Porter and Graves; the Lea report of January 2, 1945 ("an efficient and worthwhile service"); the Miller and Wigglesworth minority report ("grave doubt"); and the majority passage quoted in *On the Beam* of February 3, 1945, in the note on p. 201. The hearings are *Hearings of the Special House Committee Investigating the FCC* (GPO, 1944), three volumes, with FBIS testimony beginning in Volume III, page 3439. Roop, Part I, p. 189, records Graves's resignation by the end of 1943.
+[^66]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Leigh's newsletter of February 15, 1944: "The obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC," the 30 percent figure, and Leigh's resignation "that summer." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
+[^67]: Roop, Part I, pp. 204-206, on the House Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of 25 percent for each FCC department, Senator McKellar's demand for proof, and the Senate Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of $500,000 that both houses approved. Mercado's figure of 30 percent is given at note 48.
+[^68]: Roop, Part I, pp. 206-207, on the absence of any stated congressional reason for the cut, Fly's being ruled out of order, the statement that "it was a punitive cut, made to punish Fly and FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's effrontery in asking the Department of Justice to prosecute Eugene Cox, a member of Congress," and, in the note on p. 207, Leigh's quotation of a member of Congress speaking privately, from Leigh's *Harper's Magazine* article, January 1945. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^69]: Roop, Part I, pp. 241-244, "Charles S. Hyneman, who succeeded Leigh as FBIS director on 27 July 1944," and p. 260, "from 27 July 1944 to 7 August 1945," and Shepherd's appointment as the fourth FBIS Director. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^70]: Roop, Part I, pp. 256-257 (note on the liaison study of April 29, 1944; abolition of the Special Reports Section on December 31, 1944), p. 259 (Far East Division retained "the only analytical work done in FBIS"), and pp. 267-268 (the protest of November 1944, Hyneman's response, and Robinson's letter of January 17, 1945). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^71]: Roop, Part I, p. 268, on the Soviet Embassy's request of November 11, 1942 and the TASS arrangement in London in 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^72]: Roop, Part I, p. 275, note, on the undated executive order with the name of President Truman, transferring FBIS functions to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service, "prepared by Shepherd and perhaps some representatives from State," and "never approved by the Secretary of State." Job 54-27, Box 15, CIA Records Center.
+[^73]: Roop, Part I, pp. 274-277, on the House Appropriations Committee's action of September 19, 1945, the FCC's news release of 26 September, the conference compromise of 1 December ($465,000) approved on 3 December, and the closing of operations on December 10, 1945.
+[^74]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the last Daily Report "on 4 December" and the FCC's termination "the following day." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
+[^75]: Federal Communications Commission, Twelfth Annual Report, fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, which states that FBIS "was discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945." https://archive.org/details/fcc_DOC-308665A1.
+[^76]: Roop, Part I, pp. 278-280, on Shepherd's letter of December 13, 1945 to the FCC, the token operations that followed, Patterson's letter of 21 December, Porter's reply of 27 December, the resumption on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship, and the note on p. 279 that "No documents authorizing continued operations have been found, but permission may have been given orally." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^77]: Roop, Part I, pp. 299-300, on the creation of the CIG by executive order in January 1946, the Vandenberg memorandum to Souers in February 1946, and the five-member committee. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^78]: Central Intelligence Group, "Survey of the Function of Monitoring Press and Propaganda Broadcasts of Foreign Powers," C.I.G. 1, memorandum by the Director of Central Intelligence, February 25, 1946, which states that FBIS functions were "taken over by the War Department on an interim basis on 30 December 1945." https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110003-4. Ad hoc committee report, March 18, 1946: https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110004-3.
+[^79]: Roop, Part I, pp. 301-303, on the ad hoc committee's recommendations (March 18, 1946), the War Department's refusal, the State Department's reply, C.I.G. 1/1 (April 26, 1946), C.I.G. 1/2 (May 8, 1946, signed by James S. Lay), and the State memorandum signed by William L. Langer on May 27, 1946, enclosed with C.I.G. 1/3 (June 4, 1946).
+[^80]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice, signed for the Director of Central Intelligence by Col. John Dabney, that the Director had "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and on the personnel transfer to CIG on November 3, 1946, announced on 31 October. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^81]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262, administrative history: transfer to the Central Intelligence Group, "August 5, 1946"; "Abolished: November 1, 1946"; successors "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946," "Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, CIG, January-September 1947," and "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
+[^82]: CIG, "Background on Development of Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service," memorandum for the Chief, Information Branch, March 1946. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110001-6.
+[^83]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice of October 31, 1946 that "the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), with all publications and letterheads changed accordingly." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^84]: Roop, Part I, p. 305 and note, on Sibert's statement of December 31, 1946 "informing that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)" and his wire of January 2, 1947 designating Russell Shepherd Chief, FBIB. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^85]: CIG, "'A' and 'X' Wire Services Furnished by Foreign Broadcast Information Branch," memorandum, June 10, 1947. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110015-1. Also memorandum on the May 6, 1947 interview of Colonel L. K. White, Acting Chief, FBIB, with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110022-3.
+[^86]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), p. 102, on the notice that field bureaus would no longer bear "the confusing name of Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)," and on the camouflage of their connection with CIG. The notice is dated July 28, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
+[^87]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 4: "The initial monitoring service was renamed the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service in 1942 and evolved into the Foreign Broadcast Information Service in 1967." Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304 (the notice of October 31, 1946) and the 1947 CIG memoranda already use the later name. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
+[^88]: Roop, Part I, p. 2, "FBIS took form during those six years before its adoption by the Central Intelligence Agency, and came to CIA almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^89]: Roop, Part II, pp. 151-152, on Shepherd's memorandum of November 5, 1946, the Assistant Director for Operations' presentation to the PRC on January 6, 1947, the 35-employee and $150,000 proposal, the reduced request of twelve staff at $61,000, the "stormy" early years, and the Special Reports Division (approved February 13, 1947, begun March 28, 1947, first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts April 15, 1947); p. 2, on the announcement of Col. Lawrence K. White as Deputy Chief on January 9, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
+[^90]: Roop, Part II, p. 56, "Shepherd resigned from FBIS on 29 September 1947," with Colonel White the new FBIS Chief. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. Appointment of the fourth director: Roop, Part I, p. 260. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^91]: Roop, Part II, p. 51, on Shepherd's visit to London from June 24, 1946, his meeting with "Malcolm Frost, Chief of the BBC Monitoring Service," the $250,000 figure, and the BBC Monitoring Service's 385 employees and $650,000 cost. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
+[^92]: Roop, Part II, pp. 54-56, on the Shepherd-Frost negotiations and the notice of October 15, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
+[^93]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service History, Part III: 1957-1967" (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, May 1972), p. 2, "after 1957 FBIS had come of age as an established CIA unit"; p. 19, on the March 23, 1961 instruction to accept responsibility for propaganda indications; and pp. 4-5, "FBIS and the BBC were monitoring broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961. By the spring of 1963 this number had increased to 115." https://archive.org/details/CIADirectorateOfIntelligenceHistoricalSeriesForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart319571967.
+[^94]: Roop, Part I, p. 25, on the mailing list for the Daily Report issued on November 18, 1941; Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," states that the service "published its first Daily Report of translations on 18 November 1941." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
+[^95]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, that Ellis G. Porter, "former editor of newspapers in Baltimore and Philadelphia," joined the staff in January 1942 "to direct publication of the Daily Report."
+[^96]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 39: "FBIS, Daily Report, Foreign Radio Broadcasts, Far Eastern Section, 3 January 1946, NARA, RG 262, Entry 25, Box 1," and the text that the first issue of the new Daily Report was published in January 1946. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
+[^97]: NARA, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262: "Daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts, 1941-45"; "Daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American, and European Sections, 1941-46"; "Weekly reviews of official foreign broadcasts, 1941-44"; "Radio reports on the Far East, 1942-45"; "Program schedules of foreign broadcasts, 1942-47"; and "Related Records: Records of the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, 1947-48, in RG 263." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Office of Strategic Services.md

@@ -20,49 +20,60 @@ summary: "The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the U.S. wartime intelligen
 start: 1942-06-13
 end: 1945-10-01
 location: "Washington, D.C."
+relations:
+  - type: partner_of
+    with: "[[Office of War Information]]"
+    role: "Divided the foreign information field under Executive Order 9182 and the June 13, 1942 military order"
+    start: 1942-06-13
+    fn: 1
 ---
 
-The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the United States wartime intelligence and covert operations agency established by Executive Order 9621 on June 13, 1942, under the direction of General William J. "Wild Bill" Donovan. It replaced the earlier Coordinator of Information (COI) office established July 11, 1941. The OSS coordinated intelligence gathering, ran covert operations behind enemy lines, conducted psychological warfare, and analyzed foreign intelligence. President Truman dissolved it by Executive Order 9621 on September 20, 1945, effective October 1, 1945. Much of its personnel, methodology, and organizational culture transferred directly into the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], created by the [[National Security Act of 1947]].[^1]
+The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the United States wartime intelligence and covert operations agency established by a Military Order of June 13, 1942 that redesignated the Coordinator of Information's office and placed it under the Joint Chiefs of Staff, under the direction of General William J. "Wild Bill" Donovan, whom the order appointed Director of Strategic Services. It replaced the earlier Coordinator of Information (COI) office established July 11, 1941, and the order revoked the order of July 11, 1941.[^1] The OSS coordinated intelligence gathering, ran covert operations behind enemy lines, conducted psychological warfare, and analyzed foreign intelligence. President Truman dissolved it by Executive Order 9621 on September 20, 1945, effective October 1, 1945.[^2] Much of its personnel, methodology, and organizational culture transferred directly into the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], created by the [[National Security Act of 1947]].[^3]
 
-Figures like [[Oliver J. Caldwell]] were former OSS officers who later became involved in intelligence activities related to psychic research, illustrating the continuity of personnel and interests across successive intelligence organizations.[^2]
+Figures like [[Oliver J. Caldwell]] were former OSS officers who later became involved in intelligence activities related to psychic research, illustrating the continuity of personnel and interests across successive intelligence organizations.[^4]
 
 ### Creation and British Influence
 
-The OSS was created substantially at the initiative of [[British Security Coordination]] (BSC) director [[William Stephenson]], who persuaded President Roosevelt to task Donovan with drafting the organizational blueprint. Donovan's July 1941 report to Roosevelt, which directly led to the COI and then the OSS, was shaped by his meetings with Stephenson and British Special Operations Executive (SOE) representatives. BSC trained the first OSS agents at Camp X in Ontario, Canada, and provided organizational templates drawn from SOE methodology. Donovan described BSC as "the greatest integrated secret intelligence and operations organization that has ever existed anywhere" and explicitly modeled OSS's structure on British precedents. [[Roald Dahl]] was among those who served simultaneously in BSC's Washington influence network and later compiled the official BSC history (1945).[^1]
+The OSS was created substantially at the initiative of [[British Security Coordination]] (BSC) director [[William Stephenson]], who persuaded President Roosevelt to task Donovan with drafting the organizational blueprint. Donovan's July 1941 report to Roosevelt, which directly led to the COI and then the OSS, was shaped by his meetings with Stephenson and British Special Operations Executive (SOE) representatives. BSC trained the first OSS agents at Camp X in Ontario, Canada, and provided organizational templates drawn from SOE methodology. Donovan described BSC as "the greatest integrated secret intelligence and operations organization that has ever existed anywhere" and explicitly modeled OSS's structure on British precedents. [[Roald Dahl]] was among those who served simultaneously in BSC's Washington influence network and later compiled the official BSC history (1945).[^3]
 
-Charles Howard "Dick" Ellis (1895-1975), BSC's deputy director under Stephenson, headed BSC's Washington office from 1941 and was central to OSS training and structural development. Ellis's post-war career became controversial when allegations emerged that he had made admissions during MI5/MI6 internal interrogations in the 1960s about pre-war links to German intelligence; historians remain divided on whether these admissions were accurate or coerced. He died in 1975, before the public allegations surfaced.[^1]
+The foreign information activities of the Coordinator of Information were moved to the [[Office of War Information]] by Executive Order 9182 of June 13, 1942, and the military order excluded them from the new agency. The military order also refers to the order of July 11, 1941 that had established the Coordinator's office.[^1] The Morale Operations Field Manual of January 26, 1943 listed OWI, with the State Department, the Foreign Economic Administration, the Treasury Department and the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, among the agencies that might give Morale Operations "considerable support in the execution of plans," particularly in neutral countries.[^5]
+
+Charles Howard "Dick" Ellis (1895-1975), BSC's deputy director under Stephenson, headed BSC's Washington office from 1941 and was central to OSS training and structural development. Ellis's post-war career became controversial when allegations emerged that he had made admissions during MI5/MI6 internal interrogations in the 1960s about pre-war links to German intelligence; historians remain divided on whether these admissions were accurate or coerced. He died in 1975, before the public allegations surfaced.[^3]
 
 ### Operations
 
 OSS operations ran through several branches: Research and Analysis (intelligence analysis, drawing on academics recruited from major universities), Secret Intelligence (HUMINT collection), Special Operations (sabotage and partisan warfare support), Morale Operations (psychological warfare), and X-2 (counterintelligence). OSS deployed operatives throughout occupied Europe, the [[Middle East]], and Asia. Notable operations included support for resistance movements in France, Italy, Yugoslavia, and Norway.
 
-Allen Dulles directed OSS operations in Switzerland from November 1942 through the war's end, developing a European intelligence network that became the foundation for the CIA's clandestine service. He subsequently became CIA Director from 1953 to 1961.[^1]
+Allen Dulles directed OSS operations in Switzerland from November 1942 through the war's end, developing a European intelligence network that became the foundation for the CIA's clandestine service. He subsequently became CIA Director from 1953 to 1961.[^3]
 
-The agency drew heavily on the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] for monitored Japanese broadcasts. In September 1941 [[Breckinridge Long]] wrote to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]] that the service "has a counterpart in the organization of which Mr. Donovan is the head," and assumed that the information was "made instantly available to some of his people" in the [[William J. Donovan]] organization.[^3] On August 13, 1942 Dr. Charles B. Fah, acting chief of the Far Eastern Section, wrote to FBIS director [[Robert D. Leigh]] that the section "has found the various reports of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service of the Federal Communications Commission indispensable in our work."[^3] On November 16, 1942 [[William L. Langer]], director of the Research and Analysis Branch, wrote to Leigh that "Without the monitoring service of the Federal Communications Commission, our knowledge of current events in Japan would be meager."[^4] After the 1944 budget cut, Langer wrote on April 22, 1944 that recent developments had "led to a curtailment of the output of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service."[^5] On January 17, 1945 [[Geroid T. Robinson]] of the agency wrote to [[Charles S. Hyneman]] to express regret that the service's analytical work had been discontinued, and added that he hoped the Daily Report would carry more Soviet radio material.[^6]
+The agency drew heavily on the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] for monitored Japanese broadcasts. In September 1941 [[Breckinridge Long]] wrote to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]] that the service "has a counterpart in the organization of which Mr. Donovan is the head," and assumed that the information was "made instantly available to some of his people" in the [[William J. Donovan]] organization.[^6] On August 13, 1942 Dr. Charles B. Fah, acting chief of the Far Eastern Section, wrote to FBIS director [[Robert D. Leigh]] that the section "has found the various reports of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service of the Federal Communications Commission indispensable in our work."[^6] On November 16, 1942 [[William L. Langer]], director of the Research and Analysis Branch, wrote to Leigh that "Without the monitoring service of the Federal Communications Commission, our knowledge of current events in Japan would be meager."[^7] After the 1944 budget cut, Langer wrote on April 22, 1944 that recent developments had "led to a curtailment of the output of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service."[^8] On January 17, 1945 [[Geroid T. Robinson]] of the agency wrote to [[Charles S. Hyneman]] to express regret that the service's analytical work had been discontinued, and added that he hoped the Daily Report would carry more Soviet radio material.[^9]
 
 ### The Truth Drug Program
 
-The OSS established a "truth drug" committee under Dr. [[Winfred Overholser]], head of [[St. Elizabeth's Hospital]] in Washington, which tried and rejected [[mescaline]], several barbiturates, and scopolamine before settling in spring 1943 on [[marijuana|cannabis indica]] as the most promising substance. Testing ran in cooperation with the [[Manhattan Project]], which supplied the first dozen subjects; oral delivery failed and the committee found cigarettes the most effective vehicle. [[George Hunter White|George White]], an Army captain who had come to OSS from the [[Federal Bureau of Narcotics]], conducted the first field test on New York gangster [[August Del Gracio]] on May 27, 1943, then tested the technique on suspected Communist soldiers at camps outside [[Atlanta]], [[Memphis]], and [[New Orleans]]. The program seeded the CIA's postwar [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|ARTICHOKE]] and [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] work, which began by getting the old OSS files out and approaching the same George White.[^7]
+The OSS established a "truth drug" committee under Dr. [[Winfred Overholser]], head of [[St. Elizabeth's Hospital]] in Washington, which tried and rejected [[mescaline]], several barbiturates, and scopolamine before settling in spring 1943 on [[marijuana|cannabis indica]] as the most promising substance. Testing ran in cooperation with the [[Manhattan Project]], which supplied the first dozen subjects; oral delivery failed and the committee found cigarettes the most effective vehicle. [[George Hunter White|George White]], an Army captain who had come to OSS from the [[Federal Bureau of Narcotics]], conducted the first field test on New York gangster [[August Del Gracio]] on May 27, 1943, then tested the technique on suspected Communist soldiers at camps outside [[Atlanta]], [[Memphis]], and [[New Orleans]]. The program seeded the CIA's postwar [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|ARTICHOKE]] and [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] work, which began by getting the old OSS files out and approaching the same George White.[^10]
 
 ### Weapons and Behavioral Science
 
-[[Stanley Lovell]], a Boston industrialist and self-described "saucepan chemist," headed OSS Research and Development through Division 19 of [[James Conant]]'s National Defense Research Committee, producing devices such as the "Aunt Jemima" explosive disguised as pancake mix and the "Who? Me?" harassment substance, and pursuing several schemes to assassinate [[Adolf Hitler]]. Donovan also commissioned a psychoanalytic study of Hitler from psychoanalyst [[Walter Langer]], who predicted his suicide, and brought in [[Harvard University|Harvard]] psychologist [[Henry Murray]] to build an OSS recruit-assessment system in only fifteen days, a milestone as the first systematic American effort to evaluate personality to predict future behavior.[^7]
+[[Stanley Lovell]], a Boston industrialist and self-described "saucepan chemist," headed OSS Research and Development through Division 19 of [[James Conant]]'s National Defense Research Committee, producing devices such as the "Aunt Jemima" explosive disguised as pancake mix and the "Who? Me?" harassment substance, and pursuing several schemes to assassinate [[Adolf Hitler]]. Donovan also commissioned a psychoanalytic study of Hitler from psychoanalyst [[Walter Langer]], who predicted his suicide, and brought in [[Harvard University|Harvard]] psychologist [[Henry Murray]] to build an OSS recruit-assessment system in only fifteen days, a milestone as the first systematic American effort to evaluate personality to predict future behavior.[^10]
 
 ### Dissolution and CIA Transition
 
-Truman dissolved the OSS on October 1, 1945, distributing its functions to the State Department (Research and Analysis) and the War Department (Strategic Services Unit, which preserved the clandestine service infrastructure). The Central Intelligence Agency was created by the National Security Act of 1947, signed July 26, 1947, and formally established September 18, 1947. The institutional culture Donovan developed - including the use of academic, journalistic, and cultural figures as intelligence assets; the cultivation of foreign service networks; and the use of proprietary companies as operational covers - became standard CIA practice after the transition.[^1]
+Truman dissolved the OSS on October 1, 1945, distributing its functions to the State Department (Research and Analysis) and the War Department (Strategic Services Unit, which preserved the clandestine service infrastructure). Executive Order 9621 transferred the Research and Analysis Branch and the Presentation Branch to an Interim Research and Intelligence Service in the Department of State, which was abolished at the close of business on December 31, 1945.[^2] The Central Intelligence Agency was created by the National Security Act of 1947, signed July 26, 1947, and formally established September 18, 1947. The institutional culture Donovan developed - including the use of academic, journalistic, and cultural figures as intelligence assets; the cultivation of foreign service networks; and the use of proprietary companies as operational covers - became standard CIA practice after the transition.[^3]
 
 ### Emigre Scholars
 
-The Office of Strategic Services considered the [[New School for Social Research]] "the best collection of German, left-leaning intellectuals in the United States." Over two hundred students who had studied at the school's University in Exile worked for the government during the war, and New School scholars were involved in more than twenty-five government-associated projects routed through [[Rockefeller Foundation]] intermediaries.[^8]
+The Office of Strategic Services considered the [[New School for Social Research]] "the best collection of German, left-leaning intellectuals in the United States." Over two hundred students who had studied at the school's University in Exile worked for the government during the war, and New School scholars were involved in more than twenty-five government-associated projects routed through [[Rockefeller Foundation]] intermediaries.[^11]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
-[^1]: Smith, Bradley F. *The Shadow Warriors: O.S.S. and the Origins of the C.I.A.* Basic Books, 1983. Troy, Thomas F. *Donovan and the CIA: A History of the Establishment of the Central Intelligence Agency*. CIA Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1981. "British Security Coordination: The Secret History of British Intelligence in the Americas, 1940-45." Fromm International Publishing, 1998.
-[^2]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
-[^3]: Stephen C. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), on Long's letter of September 1941 and Fah's letter of August 13, 1942. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
-[^4]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Langer's letter to Leigh of November 16, 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
-[^5]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Langer's letter to Leigh of April 22, 1944, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
-[^6]: Roop, Part I, pp. 267-268. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
-[^7]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 1.
-[^8]: Daniel Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 137-138, citing Claus-Dieter Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile: Refugee Scholars and the New School for Social Research (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), pp. 139-149, 165-167. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
+[^1]: Military Order, "Office of Strategic Services," June 13, 1942, Federal Register, June 16, 1942, 7 F.R. 4469-4470, paragraphs 1 to 5. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-06-16/pdf/FR-1942-06-16.pdf
+[^2]: Executive Order 9621, "Termination of the Office of Strategic Services and Disposition of Its Functions," September 20, 1945, Federal Register, September 22, 1945, 10 F.R. 12033-12035. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1945-09-22/pdf/FR-1945-09-22.pdf
+[^3]: Smith, Bradley F. *The Shadow Warriors: O.S.S. and the Origins of the C.I.A.* Basic Books, 1983. Troy, Thomas F. *Donovan and the CIA: A History of the Establishment of the Central Intelligence Agency*. CIA Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1981. "British Security Coordination: The Secret History of British Intelligence in the Americas, 1940-45." Fromm International Publishing, 1998.
+[^4]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
+[^5]: Office of Strategic Services, Morale Operations Field Manual, Strategic Services Field Manual No. 2, January 26, 1943, section on other U.S. agencies, item d.
+[^6]: Stephen C. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), on Long's letter of September 1941 and Fah's letter of August 13, 1942. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
+[^7]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Langer's letter to Leigh of November 16, 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
+[^8]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Langer's letter to Leigh of April 22, 1944, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
+[^9]: Roop, Part I, pp. 267-268. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
+[^10]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 1.
+[^11]: Daniel Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 137-138, citing Claus-Dieter Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile: Refugee Scholars and the New School for Social Research (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), pp. 139-149, 165-167. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Office of War Information.md

@@ -0,0 +1,270 @@
+---
+category: "Intelligence & Government"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - OfficeOfWarInformation
+  - PsychologicalWarfare
+  - PropagandaAnalysis
+  - VoiceOfAmerica
+  - OfficeOfStrategicServices
+  - ForeignBroadcastIntelligenceService
+  - PsychologicalStrategyBoard
+  - NewSchool
+  - RandCorporation
+  - ColdWar
+  - NationalArchives
+aliases:
+  - Office of War Information
+  - OWI
+  - Office of War Information (1942 to 1945)
+summary: "The Office of War Information was the federal propaganda and information agency created by Executive Order 9182 in June 1942 and abolished in December 1945, its foreign functions passing to the State Department."
+start: 1942-06-13
+end: 1945-12-31
+location: "Washington, D.C.; London; New York; San Francisco"
+created: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-09
+relations:
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Elmer Davis]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Director"
+    start: 1942-06-13
+    fn: 4
+  - type: reported_to
+    with: "[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]"
+    role: "Director acted under the direction and supervision of the President"
+    start: 1942-06-13
+    fn: 1
+  - type: reported_to
+    with: "[[Office for Emergency Management]]"
+    role: "Established within the Office for Emergency Management in the Executive Office of the President"
+    start: 1942-06-13
+    fn: 1
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Robert E. Sherwood]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Head of the Overseas Branch"
+    start: 1942-07-10
+    fn: 4
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Gardiner Cowles Jr.]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Assistant director in charge of the Domestic Branch"
+    start: 1942-07-10
+    fn: 4
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Palmer Hoyt]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Director of the Domestic Branch after Cowles's resignation"
+    start: 1943
+    fn: 12
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Archibald MacLeish]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Head of the Policy Department Branch"
+    start: 1942-07-10
+    fn: 4
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Milton Eisenhower]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Associate director and administrative officer"
+    start: 1942-07-10
+    fn: 4
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Edward W. Barrett]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Director of Overseas Operations"
+    fn: 11
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Wallace Carroll]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Deputy Director, Area I (Europe and Turkey), Overseas Operations Branch; Speier's immediate superior"
+    start: 1944-05-22
+    fn: 26
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Hans Speier]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Head of the German Committee, Area One; Propaganda Policy Adviser (Germany) from December 1944"
+    start: 1944-05-22
+    fn: 26
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Leo Rosten]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Deputy director in charge of enemy sources"
+    start: 1943-01-22
+    fn: 28
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Eugene Katz]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Head of the OWI analysis division that used the FBIS Analysis Division, per letter of June 18, 1943"
+    start: 1943-04-19
+    fn: 23
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Leonard W. Doob]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Policy Coordinator, Overseas Operations Branch"
+    fn: 11
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[C. D. Jackson]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Representing OWI as Deputy Chief, Psychological Warfare Branch, AFHQ (1943) and Deputy Chief, Psychological Warfare Division, SHAEF (1944 to 1945)"
+    start: 1943
+    end: 1945
+    fn: 32
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Voice of America]]"
+    role: "Operated the Voice of America after the Foreign Information Service was transferred to OWI"
+    start: 1942-06-13
+    end: 1945-12-31
+    fn: 34
+  - type: partner_of
+    with: "[[Office of Strategic Services]]"
+    role: "Foreign information activities divided between the two agencies by Executive Order 9182 and the military order of June 13, 1942"
+    start: 1942-06-13
+    fn: 6
+---
+
+The Office of War Information (OWI) was the federal agency for war propaganda and public information, established on June 13, 1942 by Executive Order 9182 and abolished on December 31, 1945 under Executive Order 9608.[^1][^2] A Domestic Branch handled home-front information and an Overseas Branch handled American propaganda abroad, with its radio arm the [[Voice of America]]. Its analysts included staff of the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] and exiles from the [[New School for Social Research]], and its foreign functions passed to the [[U.S. Department of State]] in 1945, with the [[United States Information Agency]] listed as successor from 1953.[^2][^3]
+
+### Creation under Executive Order 9182
+
+Executive Order 9182 of June 13, 1942 established the agency within the [[Office for Emergency Management]] in the Executive Office of the President.[^1] The order consolidated the [[Office of Facts and Figures]], the [[Office of Government Reports]], the public information powers of the Division of Information of the Office for Emergency Management, and the powers of the [[Coordinator of Information]] over gathering public information and disseminating it abroad, including those of the Foreign Information Service, Outpost, Publications and Pictorial Branches of that office. The director, appointed by the President, was to act under the direction and supervision of the President. The order created a Committee on War Information Policy with the director as chairman and representatives of the Secretaries of State, War and the Navy, the [[Joint Psychological Warfare Committee]] and the [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]]. It excluded the Western Hemisphere outside the United States and Canada from the director's authority, and it required the director to work with the [[Defense Communications Board]] on broadcasts to peoples abroad.[^1]
+
+The director was [[Elmer Davis]], the former [[Columbia Broadcasting System]] news analyst. On Friday, July 10, 1942 he announced the structure of the agency: a Domestic Branch under [[Gardiner Cowles Jr.]], president of the Iowa Broadcasting Company and publisher of the Des Moines Register and Tribune, the Minneapolis Star Journal and Look, with the title of assistant director in charge of all domestic operations; an Overseas Branch under the playwright [[Robert E. Sherwood]]; and a Policy Department Branch under [[Archibald MacLeish]], the Librarian of Congress and former director of the Office of Facts and Figures. The three branch heads, Davis and [[Milton Eisenhower]], associate director and administrative officer, formed the policy board. The Overseas Branch took over the Division of Foreign Information of the Coordinator of Information, which Sherwood had also headed, and its work centered on short-wave broadcasts to every area outside Latin America. OWI Regulation No. 1, effective July 13, 1942, set the information policy for all federal agencies.[^4]
+
+Under Cowles the Domestic Branch contained the News Bureau under [[Robert Horton]], the Radio Bureau under [[William B. Lewis]], the Bureau of Publications and Graphics under [[John R. Fleming]], the Bureau of Motion Pictures under [[Lowell Mellett]], the Bureau of Public Inquiries under [[Katherine C. Blackburn]] and a Bureau of Special Operations with [[Philip Hamblet]] as acting head. Under Sherwood the Overseas Branch contained the Outpost Bureau under [[Harold Guinzburg]], president of the Viking Press, the International Press and Radio Bureau in New York under [[Joseph Barnes]], the Bureau of Overseas Publications under [[Edward Stanley]] and the Bureau of Communications Facilities under [[Murry Brophy]].[^4]
+
+Elmer Davis wrote on August 15, 1942 that "without the service supplied by FBMS, OWI could not function," and added that "a considerable increase of coverage would be very desirable."[^5]
+
+### Split with the Office of Strategic Services
+
+The same issue of the Federal Register that printed Executive Order 9182 carried a military order of June 13, 1942. It redesignated the office of the Coordinator of Information, "exclusive of the foreign information activities transferred to the Office of War Information," as the [[Office of Strategic Services]], placed it under the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], appointed [[William J. Donovan]] its director and revoked the order of July 11, 1941 that had created the Coordinator's office.[^6]
+
+Executive Order 9312 of March 9, 1943 defined the division further. It gave OWI the task of planning and executing "all phases of the federal program of radio, press, publication, and related foreign propaganda activities," made the program for areas of military operations subject to War and Navy Department planning and to Joint Chiefs approval, placed the parts executed inside a theater of operations under the theater commander, and modified the OSS order "to the extent necessary to make this order effective."[^7]
+
+The OSS Morale Operations Field Manual of January 26, 1943 listed OWI among the agencies that could give Morale Operations "considerable support in the execution of plans," particularly in neutral countries.[^8] A War Department staff summary of May 22, 1946 recorded the Army's view that psychological warfare had been a military function performed in the war by "civilian agencies" and that establishing a Psychological Warfare Division of the Special Staff would obviate "forcing commanders in the field to have civilian agencies thrust upon them."[^9]
+
+The two agencies also drew on the same exile scholars. [[Franz Borkenau]], [[Joseph Bornstein]], [[Leo Löwenthal]] and [[Heinz Paechter]] worked for OWI. [[Felix Gilbert]], [[Emil Gumbel]], Arkadij Gurland, [[Hajo Holborn]], [[Otto Kirchheimer]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Franz Neumann]] and [[Sigmund Neumann]] worked for the OSS.[^10]
+
+### Domestic and overseas branches
+
+By the 1945 edition of the United States Government Manual the officials were Elmer Davis as director and [[Edward Klauber]] as associate director. The Domestic Operations Branch was directed by [[Neil Dalton]], with bureaus for books and magazines, foreign news, graphics, motion pictures, news, radio and special services. The Overseas Operations Branch was directed by [[Edward W. Barrett]], with [[Wallace Carroll]] as deputy director for Area I (Europe and Turkey), [[Ferdinand Kuhn]] for Area II (the British Commonwealth, the Middle East and the Soviet Union) and [[George E. Taylor]] for Area III (the Pacific and Far East), [[Leonard W. Doob]] as policy coordinator, [[Louis G. Cowan]] as chief of the New York office and [[James O. Weldon]] as chief of the Communications Facilities Bureau. Its mission in active military zones was to work "with United States and Allied military agencies in the prosecution of psychological warfare," and outposts operated in more than a score of allied and neutral nations.[^11]
+
+The agency's records at the National Archives are arranged under the same branches. The Overseas Operations Branch contained a Bureau of Overseas Intelligence, an Office of Communications Control, a Communications Facilities Bureau and an Outpost Service Bureau. Its New York office held a news and features bureau, a radio program bureau, a bureau of overseas publications and a bureau of overseas motion pictures, and its San Francisco office held an analysis and research bureau among others. The Domestic Operations Branch contained a radio bureau, a news bureau, a bureau of graphics, a bureau of field operations, a bureau of motion pictures, a book and magazine bureau and a foreign news bureau.[^3]
+
+Cowles left the Domestic Branch in 1943. In House remarks of June 29, 1943 [[Palmer Hoyt]], a Pacific coast publisher, was described as having come to Washington as Director of the Domestic Branch following Cowles's resignation.[^12] Earlier in the month, on June 15, Representative Short described the overseas division as under the guiding hand of Sherwood, whom he called "President Roosevelt's personal political servant and ghost writer."[^13] On June 17 [[Emanuel Celler]] said that Cowles, "a Republican," would remain at the agency for a few months and would be succeeded by another Republican, and that Sherwood, whose OWI salary was $9,000 a year, could earn over a hundred thousand dollars a year outside it.[^14]
+
+### The 1943 appropriation cuts
+
+On June 17, 1943 the House took up the appropriation for OWI in the war agencies bill. The budget estimate for fiscal year 1944 was $47,342,000, including a special fund of $10,000,000 contingent on need in connection with military operations, against $35,847,292 available for the current year. The House Appropriations Committee recommended $34,472,504. It allowed $22,500,000 for the Overseas Operations Branch against a request of $27,003,590, eliminating $2,290,000 for 763 added personnel and cutting present funds by $2,213,590, and $5,500,000 for the Domestic Operations Branch against a request of $8,865,906.[^15]
+
+[[Richard B. Wigglesworth]] of Massachusetts said that there had been "very widespread and very severe criticism" of the agency in both its overseas and domestic fields. He said that serious criticism had been leveled at the Hungarian, Italian, Polish and Yugoslav desks and that it had been rumored there was criticism in Army circles of the overseas work.[^16] Celler said the cut to the Overseas Branch was about $3,000,000. On June 18 he said that "one broomstick was put between the legs of the O. W. I. by the pruning done by the committee," when the House was considering a further amendment against domestic propaganda.[^14][^17]
+
+The House then voted to end the domestic operations. A weekly newspaper's Washington column of July 2, 1943 reported the vote as 55 Democrats and 150 Republicans to abolish them against 5 Republicans and 108 Democrats for continuing the work on the home front.[^18] In the Senate on June 30, 1943 Senator [[Joseph O'Mahoney]] said the House committee had recommended $5,500,000 for the Domestic Branch, that a motion had been made on the House floor to cut the Domestic Branch off altogether, that the Senate committee had allowed somewhat over $3,000,000 and $500,000 for liquidation, and that he would offer an amendment to restore $5,500,000.[^19] The National War Agencies Appropriation Act, 1944, approved July 12, 1943, appropriated $33,222,504 for OWI, of which not more than $24,000,000 could go to the Overseas Operations Branch and not more than $2,750,000 to the Domestic Operations Branch, with up to $500,000 for liquidating reduced or eliminated units and $5,000,000 withheld unless the director, with the President's approval, found it necessary for activities in conjunction with actual or projected military operations.[^20]
+
+### The analysts: Columbia, the New School and the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service
+
+The research core of the agency came from the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (FBIS). In October 1941 [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]] announced that [[Goodwin Watson]] of [[Columbia University]] would accept a P-6 post and serve as head of the Analysis Section.[^21] In February 1942 Watson offered [[Hans Speier]], whose research project at the New School, the [[Research Project on Totalitarian Communication]], had sent the monitoring service its first report a week after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the post of senior political analyst and head of the Analysis Division's Central European Section.[^22]
+
+On April 19, 1943 [[Robert D. Leigh]], the FBIS director, announced an agreement under which the Bureau of Research and Analysis of the Overseas Branch of OWI would use the FBIS Analysis Division exclusively for reporting and analyzing radio broadcasts. The division was to move to the Social Security Building. On May 13 Graves said that the division would "function as an integral part of OWI." In a letter of June 18, 1943 [[Eugene Katz]], described as the head of this OWI division, wrote that relations with the FBIS Analysis Division were "so friendly" that nothing warranted a formal reappraisal of the agreement. An FBIS history written in the late 1960s calls Watson head of the Analysis Division in December 1942.[^23] [[Daniel Bessner]] writes that in May 1943 the Analysis Division moved to OWI headquarters "retaining Watson as its director," with offices contiguous with the Overseas Operations Branch.[^24]
+
+Goodwin Watson and [[Nathan Leites]] were sent to London in September 1942 to set up an analysis operation that would work closely with OWI there and supply Washington with reports, and a two-man analysis staff remained there throughout the war.[^25] On May 22, 1944 Speier transferred from the Analysis Division to the Overseas Operations Branch under Wallace Carroll, and became head of its German Committee in Area One. In December 1944 he became Propaganda Policy Adviser (Germany).[^26]
+
+The Research Project on Totalitarian Communication had been financed by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] with $15,960 in March 1941 and $19,000 in 1942, and its roster of named researchers included Paechter. The same Rockefeller communications grants covered the [[Princeton Listening Center]] and the experimental division that [[Harold Lasswell]] ran at the [[Library of Congress]].[^27]
+
+A January 22, 1943 FBIS administrative memorandum states that FBIS material went to non-government users only through one of two OWI officials, one of them [[Leo Rosten]], deputy director in charge of enemy sources. It also records an exchange of correspondence with [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, under which FBIS would have with his office the same relationship it had with OWI.[^28] Bessner writes that Rosten served in the war as OWI liaison between Washington and Hollywood and was instrumental in persuading officials to use film for propaganda.[^29]
+
+### The Bureau of Overseas Intelligence and the social scientists
+
+The Overseas Operations Branch kept its own analysis organization. Its Bureau of Overseas Intelligence, headed in 1945 by [[Victor M. Hunt]] as acting chief, analyzed incoming intelligence for policy and operations through a Central Intelligence Division, a Regional Analysis Division that "determines its reliability" and prepared reports for the New York and San Francisco bureaus and the outposts, and a Foreign Morale Analysis Division that "prepares special reports."[^11]
+
+Social scientists sat on both sides of the arrangement with FBIS. [[Theodore Newcomb]], second to Watson in the FBIS Analysis Division, wrote on February 15, 1943 that "our relations with them (OWI analysts) are far from the best" and that the one person who would give a friendly ear was [[Otto Klineberg]], who "used to be with us and is now with them."[^30] Bessner records that members of OWI were dissatisfied with the Analysis Division's information and created their own propaganda analysis division, and that Leigh established weekly meetings between the two analysis divisions in the autumn of 1942. In a letter to Leigh of December 1942 Speier wrote that OWI's propaganda lacked "any basic strategy" and that he "cannot imagine that anybody in Germany will risk his neck for listening to such broadcasts"; he also wrote that "hardly anybody reads our Weekly Analysis" and called the OWI output "uninspired and uninspiring, unexciting and producing nothing but sleepiness." He sent his critique of the anthropologist [[Geoffrey Gorer]]'s OWI report "German Popular Psychology" to the OWI Overseas Operations Branch in October 1943.[^31]
+
+### Psychological warfare teams in Europe
+
+[[C. D. Jackson]], representing OWI, served as Deputy Chief of the Psychological Warfare Branch (PWB) at Allied Forces Headquarters in 1943, where he directed OWI propaganda leaflet and newswriting activities at Algiers, and as Deputy Chief of the [[Psychological Warfare Division]] (PWD) at [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force]] in 1944 and 1945. He directed the Allied Information Service that distributed information on the Allies' war effort to France and other liberated areas. His wartime correspondents among psychological warfare personnel included Richard Crossman, Brigadier General Robert McClure, Edward Barrett and Fred Auberjonois.[^32]
+
+The OWI report on its operations in the European theater for 1944, sent to Davis on April 18, 1945 by Philip Hamblet as director of the European Theatre of Operations, states that OWI London in the early part of 1944 devoted its chief attention to pre-D-day propaganda and worked through PWD. SHAEF's PWD drew its personnel from the British Foreign Office Political Intelligence Department and, for the American side, from OWI and the Office of Strategic Services. The report says that 279 from the OWI staff became part of PWD. PWD press teams landing on the Normandy beaches had as their primary function aid to the French press. The European News Room was operated by personnel from OWI, the British Ministry of Information and Political Intelligence Department, the Belgian Information Service and the U.S. Army, and its world news file went by Morse wireless to PWD monitoring teams in the field and to "PWD-AFHQ in Italy." OWI's American Broadcasting Station in Europe (ABSIE) went on the air on April 30, 1944. Late in 1944, when the French had re-established their own press, radio and film operations, PWD-SHAEF moved on and OWI set up its United States Information Service in France, and OWI began work with SHAEF and the Allied Control Commission on the handling of German information services.[^33]
+
+### Voice of America
+
+The first Voice of America broadcast, a fifteen-minute program in German, went out on February 24, 1942 from the Foreign Information Service of the Coordinator of Information, whose functions Executive Order 9182 transferred to OWI, and Sherwood's Overseas Branch took over that service intact.[^1][^3][^4] The service's first broadcasters were led by [[John Houseman]]. Programs were sent from New York by military aircraft to Britain, where relay stations re-transmitted them to the rest of Europe. By the Casablanca conference in 1943 the service had 27 language services and 23 transmitters, and it reached 41 languages before the war ended.[^34]
+
+Speier wrote many of the propaganda directives aimed at Germany, most of which were broadcast over the Voice of America, and Carroll signed them.[^26]
+
+At the end of the war the service was transferred from OWI to the Department of State. A committee of private citizens appointed by the State Department and chaired by [[Arthur McMahon]] reported in late 1945. Congress reluctantly appropriated funds for the service in 1946 and 1947. The [[Smith-Mundt Act]] of 1948 gave it permanent status.[^34]
+
+### Soviet intelligence traffic
+
+A [[Venona]] cable of March 23, 1944 from San Francisco to Moscow, No. 142, addressed to "Viktor" and signed with the cover name Charon, reports that an employee of the "Office of War Information," Wechsler, said that an order had been received that day from "Carthage" to discontinue something and that another was arriving from Japanese captivity. The National Security Agency's annotation identifies Viktor as Lt. Gen. P. M. Fitin and Charon as [[Georgi Kheifets]], Soviet vice-consul in San Francisco, and reads "Possibly Robert WECHSLER, an Information Specialist with the Office of War Information, WASHINGTON, D.C." with a handwritten emendation on the released copy.[^35]
+
+### Dissolution and transfer to the State Department
+
+Executive Order 9608 of August 31, 1945 transferred the foreign functions of OWI, together with the informational functions of the [[Office of Inter-American Affairs]] performed abroad, to an interim International Information Service established in the Department of State. The functions of OWI's Bureau of Special Services and its review of publications of federal agencies went to the [[Bureau of the Budget]]. The order abolished the remaining OWI functions at the close of business on September 15, 1945, and abolished OWI and the interim service at the close of business on December 31, 1945. Residual personnel, records, property and appropriation balances went to the [[Department of the Treasury]] for final liquidation.[^2] Executive Order 9621 of September 20, 1945 divided the OSS in parallel, transferring its Research and Analysis Branch and Presentation Branch to an Interim Research and Intelligence Service in the State Department effective October 1, 1945.[^36]
+
+Foreign dissemination functions stayed in the Department of State from 1945 to 1953, when the United States Information Agency took them over. The domestic functions went to the Bureau of the Budget's Government Information Service, which held them from 1945 to 1946.[^3]
+
+### Personnel after 1945
+
+Edward W. Barrett was Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs from February 1, 1950 to February 20, 1952.[^37] On January 10, 1952 he attended the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] as a State Department participant. The meeting was chaired by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], Director of Central Intelligence, and its members included the Deputy Secretary of Defense, [[William C. Foster]], and the Under Secretary of State, [[James E. Webb]].[^38] The board had been authorized by [[Harry S. Truman]] in June 1951, and C. D. Jackson, as Special Assistant to the President from 1953 to 1954, worked closely with it and with its successor, the Operations Coordinating Board.[^39] The FRUS biographical register lists [[George A. Morgan]] as acting director of the board from 1951 to 1952; Bessner lists a George Morgan among the scholars Speier's committee consulted in 1952 and 1953.[^37][^40]
+
+Jackson also served as President of the [[Free Europe Committee]], which directed [[Radio Free Europe]], from 1951 to 1952, and took an active part in Radio Free Europe from its founding in 1949 until his death in 1964.[^32] Robert T. Holt's 1958 study of Radio Free Europe states that its daily guidance "reflects its originators' dissatisfaction with the OWI-type directive, which told writers what they could or could not say."[^41]
+
+The OWI Security Advisory Board was also reorganized. A Central Intelligence Group memorandum of July 22, 1946 closed out the Group's liaison arrangements for the board, which was being replaced by a new board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]]. The liaison officer was charged with recommending whether the new board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]]. The memorandum records that no further action by the Security Branch or the Central Planning Staff was required.[^42] In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare, with the principal member from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, "is not operable."[^43]
+
+Barrett organized a group of experts in April 1950 that included Speier, to discuss psychological strategy, tactics and organization. Speier was then a State Department consultant for psychological warfare known to James E. Webb and Barrett, and he took part in [[Project TROY]], the study at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology of Soviet jamming of American broadcasts.[^44] After the war Speier and Carroll worked together as psychological warfare consultants for the State Department and as consultants for the [[Ford Foundation]]. Between September 1952 and February 1953 the planning committee for the international communication program of MIT's Center for International Studies, headed by Speier and including Carroll, [[Jerome Bruner]], Harold Lasswell, [[Paul Lazarsfeld]], [[Edward Shils]] and [[Ithiel de Sola Pool]], consulted among others Gorer, Leites, [[Daniel Lerner]], Löwenthal and George Morgan.[^40]
+
+Speier left government service in 1948 to join the [[Rand Corporation]] and became chief of its Social Science Division. He brought several of his Analysis Division colleagues to RAND, including [[Alexander L. George]] and Leites. Rosten, a member of the 1946 RAND committee that considered candidates for its social science division, came to RAND through [[Allen Wallis]], and Bessner writes that a connection Speier made with Rosten at OWI brought Speier to RAND.[^45]
+
+### Records
+
+Record Group 208 at the National Archives holds the agency's records. The NARA description gives 3,584 cubic feet, dated 1926 to 1951 with the bulk in 1941 to 1946. Its subgroups include the Domestic Operations Branch, the Overseas Operations Branch, the New York Office and the San Francisco Office, and the general records include those of the Security Advisory Board. The finding aids are H. Stephen Helton's Preliminary Inventory PI 56 (1953) and the Helton and Forrest R. Holdcamper inventory NC 148 (1967). Related records are in RG 44 (Office of Government Reports), RG 226 (Office of Strategic Services), RG 287 (government publications) and RG 306 (United States Information Agency).[^3] Archival pulls for the agency's files include RG 208 Entry 355, box 1712, the folder for Wallace Carroll, Entry 358, box 108, for a cable of November 20, 1945 from William Stone and Ferdinand Kuhn, and Entry 6B, box 6, for the Overseas Operations Branch office files.[^46]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Executive Order 9182, "Consolidating Certain War Information Functions into an Office of War Information," June 13, 1942, Federal Register, June 16, 1942, 7 F.R. 4468 to 4469, paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 6 and 9. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-06-16/pdf/FR-1942-06-16.pdf
+[^2]: Executive Order 9608, "Providing for the Termination of the Office of War Information, and for the Disposition of Its Functions and of Certain Functions of the Office of Inter-American Affairs," August 31, 1945, Federal Register, September 1, 1945, 10 F.R. 11223, paragraphs 1 to 3. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1945-09-01/pdf/FR-1945-09-01.pdf
+[^3]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 208, Records of the Office of War Information, 208.1 administrative history (established in the Office for Emergency Management by EO 9182; Foreign Information Service of the Office of the Coordinator of Information, 1941 to 1942, among predecessors; abolished by EO 9608; successor agencies), overview (1926 to 1951, bulk 1941 to 1946, 3,584 cu. ft.), table of contents (subgroups 208.2 to 208.6) and related records. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/208.html
+[^4]: "Radio Gets Places in OWI Structure: Cowles Is Named To Key Post; Lewis In," Broadcasting, vol. 23, no. 2, July 13, 1942 (announcement by Davis of the previous Friday; the three branches, the policy board, the Domestic Branch and Overseas Branch bureaus and their heads; OWI Regulation No. 1). https://lantern.mediahist.org/catalog/broadcasting23unse_0087
+[^5]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), p. 40, quoting Davis's letter of August 15, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
+[^6]: Military Order, "Office of Strategic Services," June 13, 1942, Federal Register, June 16, 1942, 7 F.R. 4469 to 4470, paragraphs 1 to 5. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-06-16/pdf/FR-1942-06-16.pdf
+[^7]: Executive Order 9312, "Defining the Foreign Information Activities of the Office of War Information," March 9, 1943, Federal Register, March 10, 1943 (F.R. Doc. 43-3806), paragraphs 1 and 2. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000200100008-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000200100008-4
+[^8]: Office of Strategic Services, Morale Operations Field Manual, Strategic Services (Provisional), Strategic Services Field Manual No. 2, January 26, 1943, section on other U.S. agencies, item d (the State Department, OWI, FEA, the Treasury Department and the CIAA).
+[^9]: War Department General Staff, G-2, summary sheet "Establishment of Psychological Warfare Division, Special Staff," May 22, 1946, paragraphs 2c, 2f and 2g. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP64-00658A000100370008-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP64-00658A000100370008-0
+[^10]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), introduction, pp. 14 to 15 and note 16 (Borkenau, Bornstein, Löwenthal and Pächter worked for the OWI; Gilbert, Gumbel, Gurland, Holborn, Kirchheimer, Marcuse, F. Neumann and S. Neumann worked for the OSS). Sole source for the exile lists. The introductory list prints "Arkady Gurman" and note 16 prints "Gurland."
+[^11]: United States Government Manual, 1945 edition (Washington: Division of Public Inquiries, Special Services Bureau, Office of War Information), Emergency War Agencies, Office of War Information, pp. 88 to 95 (officials; Domestic Operations Branch; Overseas Operations Branch, including the Bureau of Overseas Intelligence and its Central Intelligence, Regional Analysis and Foreign Morale Analysis Divisions). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesgove033383mbp
+[^12]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, House of Representatives, June 29, 1943, remarks in the debate on the OWI appropriation ("until very recently the Director of the Domestic Branch was Mr. Gardner Cowles ... Following his resignation, Mr. Palmer Hoyt, another prominent Republican ... has left his own newspaper to come here as Director of the Domestic Branch"). Speaker not identified in the available text. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-15-july-06-1943_89
+[^13]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, House of Representatives, June 15, 1943, p. 5909, remarks of Representative Short. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-15-july-06-1943_89
+[^14]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, House of Representatives, June 17, 1943, p. 5989, remarks of Representative Celler (Cowles; Sherwood's salary; the cut to the Overseas Branch). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-15-july-06-1943_89
+[^15]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, House of Representatives, June 17, 1943, statement on the OWI items of the war agencies appropriation bill, including the exchange of Representatives Celler and Cannon of Missouri (budget estimate of $47,342,000 with a $10,000,000 contingent fund; $35,847,292 for the current year; committee recommendation of $34,472,504; Overseas Operations Branch request of $27,003,590 and allowance of $22,500,000; Domestic Operations Branch request of $8,865,906 and allowance of $5,500,000). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-15-july-06-1943_89
+[^16]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, House of Representatives, June 17, 1943, p. 5993, remarks of Representative Wigglesworth. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-15-july-06-1943_89
+[^17]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, House of Representatives, June 18, 1943, p. 6133, remarks of Representative Celler in reply to Representative Brooks. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-15-july-06-1943_89
+[^18]: Hug S. Sias, "Look at Washington," The Perquimans Weekly (Hertford, North Carolina), July 2, 1943, p. 3. https://newspapers.digitalnc.org/lccn/sn97064546/1943-07-02/ed-1/seq-3/
+[^19]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, Senate, June 30, 1943, pp. 6803 to 6804, remarks of Senator O'Mahoney on the Domestic Branch of the Office of War Information. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-15-july-06-1943_89
+[^20]: National War Agencies Appropriation Act, 1944, Public Law 139, 78th Congress, chapter 228, approved July 12, 1943, 57 Stat. 531 to 532 (Office of War Information, salaries and expenses). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-57/pdf/STATUTE-57-Pg522.pdf
+[^21]: Roop, Part I, p. 14 (Graves's October 1941 announcement that Watson would accept a P-6 and serve as head of the Analysis Section). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
+[^22]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 132 to 133 and notes 51, 54 and 55 (first report sent a week after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor; Watson's February 1942 offer of the post of Senior Political Analyst, the head of the Analysis Division's Central European Section). Sole source for the first-report date and the February 1942 offer.
+[^23]: Roop, Part I, pp. 121 to 122 (Watson as head of the Analysis Division writing on December 30, 1942; Leigh's announcement of April 19, 1943 and the move to the Social Security Building; Graves on May 13, 1943, "function as an integral part of OWI"; Eugene Katz's letter to Leigh of June 18, 1943, "so friendly"). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
+[^24]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 144 to 145 and note 99 (the Analysis Division's May 1943 move to OWI headquarters, "retaining Watson as its director"; offices contiguous with the Overseas Operations Branch). Sole source for the passages so cited.
+[^25]: Roop, Part I, p. 46 (Watson and Leites sent to London in September 1942 to establish an analysis operation working closely with OWI in London and supplying Washington with reports; "a two-man analysis staff remained throughout the war"). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
+[^26]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 145 to 146 and notes 103 to 106 (May 22, 1944 transfer from the Analysis Division to the Overseas Operations Branch under Wallace Carroll; head of the German Committee of Area One, overseeing about eight regional specialists; Propaganda Policy Adviser (Germany) from December 1944, Carroll to Thurman L. Barnard, December 4, 1944; Speier "personally wrote many of the propaganda directives targeted at Germany, most of which were broadcast over" the Voice of America; Carroll signed them). Sole source for the Speier transfer, the December 1944 post and the directives.
+[^27]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 131 and notes 46 and 47 (Rockefeller Foundation grants of $15,960 in March 1941 and $19,000 in 1942; the Rockefeller communications portfolio including the Princeton Shortwave Listening Center and Lasswell's Experimental Division for the Study of Wartime Communications at the Library of Congress; roster of the research project including "Dr. Heinz Pächter"). Sole source for the grant figures and the roster.
+[^28]: FBIS Administrative Memorandum No. 16, "To Officers of the FBIS," January 22, 1943, on the exchange of correspondence with Nelson A. Rockefeller, Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, and on the use of FBIS material through OWI officials. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP82-00177R000300410017-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp82-00177r000300410017-3
+[^29]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 191, note 89 (Rosten as OWI liaison between Washington and Hollywood; "instrumental in convincing government officials to use films for propaganda"). Sole source for the Hollywood liaison role.
+[^30]: Roop, Part I, p. 122, note (Theodore Newcomb on February 15, 1943: "Unfortunately and off the record our relations with them (OWI analysts) are far from the best. There is only one person from whom I guarantee you would get a friendly ear, Otto Klineberg. He used to be with us and is now with them."). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
+[^31]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 143 to 144 and notes 96 to 98 (Speier to Leigh, December 14, 1942; Gorer to Speier, March 3, 1943; Speier to OWI Overseas Operations Branch, October 13, 1943; the OWI propaganda analysis division; weekly meetings of autumn 1942). Sole source for the quoted remarks.
+[^32]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, finding aid for C. D. Jackson: Papers, 1931 to 1967, scope and content note (Jackson "representing the Office of War Information (OWI)" as Deputy Chief of the Psychological Warfare Branch at AFHQ in 1943 and Deputy Chief of the Psychological Warfare Division at SHAEF in 1944 to 1945; the Allied Information Service; correspondents; President of the Free Europe Committee 1951 to 1952; Radio Free Europe from 1949 to 1964). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/jackson-cd-papers.pdf
+[^33]: Office of War Information, "OWI in the ETO: A Report on the Activities of the Office of War Information in the European Theatre of Operations, January 1944 to January 1945," transmitted by Philip C. Hamblet to Elmer Davis, April 18, 1945 (OWI London and PWD; 279 OWI staff; Normandy press teams; the European News Room; ABSIE; the United States Information Service in France). https://archive.org/details/owiinetoreporton00unit
+[^34]: Voice of America Programming Handbook, third edition (1992), history section (first broadcast February 24, 1942, a fifteen-minute German program, described there as set up within OWI in the Foreign Information Service; John Houseman; relay of programs from New York to Britain by military aircraft; 27 language services and 23 transmitters by the Casablanca conference in 1943; 41 languages; transfer to the Department of State; the McMahon committee in late 1945; appropriations in 1946 and 1947; the Smith-Mundt Act of 1948). https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152840_0234
+[^35]: National Security Agency, Venona translation, San Francisco to Moscow, No. 142, March 23, 1944, "Report from Wechsler of the Office of War Information in Washington," with comments [i] to [iv]. https://archive.org/details/1944_23mar_war
+[^36]: Executive Order 9621, "Termination of the Office of Strategic Services and Disposition of Its Functions," September 20, 1945, Federal Register, September 22, 1945, 10 F.R. 12033 to 12035, paragraphs 1 and 6. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1945-09-22/pdf/FR-1945-09-22.pdf
+[^37]: Office of the Historian, Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950 to 1955, The Intelligence Community, list of persons (Barrett, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, February 1, 1950 to February 20, 1952; George Morgan, Acting Director, Psychological Strategy Board, 1951 to 1952). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons
+[^38]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6
+[^39]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, finding aid for C. D. Jackson: Records, 1953 to 1954, scope and content note (Special Assistant to the President, February 16, 1953 to March 31, 1954; the Psychological Strategy Board authorized in June 1951; the Operations Coordinating Board). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/jackson-cd-records.pdf
+[^40]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 145 (Speier and Carroll as psychological warfare consultants for the State Department and the Ford Foundation) and pp. 256 to 257 and notes 110 and 111 (planning committee of the Center for International Studies, September 1952 to February 1953, and the scholars consulted).
+[^41]: Robert T. Holt, Radio Free Europe (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1958), pp. 39 to 40. https://worldradiohistory.com/BOOKSHELF-ARH/Station-Books/Radio-Free-Europe-Holt-1958.pdf
+[^42]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9
+[^43]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0
+[^44]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 236 to 237 and notes 37 to 41 (Barrett's April 1950 group of experts "which included Speier"; Speier's consultancy known to Webb and Barrett; Project TROY). Bessner prints "William Barrett" for Barrett's first name in this passage. Sole source for Speier's membership of the group.
+[^45]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," introduction, p. 13 ("a connection that Speier made at the OWI with Leo Rosten brought Speier to the RAND Corporation"; Speier "recruited to RAND several of his AD colleagues, including Alexander L. George and Nathan Leites"); p. 135 (Speier "brought a number of his colleagues, including George and Leites, into the organization"); p. 158, note 157 (Speier "left government service to join the RAND Corporation" in 1948); p. 189 (the 1946 committee including Rosten); p. 191, note 89 (Rosten "came to RAND through Allen Wallis"). Sole source for the RAND recruitment.
+[^46]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," note 104 (RG 208, Entry 355, Records of the Office of War Information, General Records of the Chief, box 1712, folder "Wallace Carroll"; Entry 6B, box 6, Overseas Operations Branch, folder "OOB, Office of the Director," Barrett to all staff members of the Overseas Operations Branch, March 27, 1944); note 124 (William Stone and Ferdinand Kuhn to Eric Bellquist et al., November 20, 1945, Office of War Information cable, RG 208, Entry 358, box 108). Sole source for these box and folder references.

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Institute of World Affairs.md

@@ -0,0 +1,276 @@
+---
+category: "Private Organization"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - InstituteOfWorldAffairs
+  - NewSchool
+  - UniversityInExile
+  - DorisDuke
+  - IndependentAid
+  - RockefellerFoundation
+  - PolicyResearch
+  - PsychologicalWarfare
+  - PostwarReconstruction
+  - ColdWar
+aliases:
+  - Institute of World Affairs
+  - Institute of World Affairs (New School)
+  - New School Institute of World Affairs
+  - Institute of World Affairs records
+  - IWA
+summary: "A research unit of the New School for Social Research from 1943 to 1953 that produced government-commissioned postwar studies, funded in part through Doris Duke's Independent Aid."
+location: "New York, New York"
+created: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-09
+relations:
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[New School for Social Research]]"
+    role: "independent unit of the New School, redesignated Research Division in 1953"
+    start: 1943
+    end: 1953
+    fn: 1
+  - type: director_of
+    with: "[[Adolph Lowe]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "director of research"
+    start: 1942
+    end: 1953
+    fn: 1
+  - type: director_of
+    with: "[[Hans Neisser]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "acting director"
+    start: 1950
+    end: 1951
+    fn: 1
+  - type: director_of
+    with: "[[Hans Simons]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "director, per the historical note"
+    start: 1951
+    fn: 1
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Hans Staudinger]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "chairman of the Council of Research"
+    start: 1944
+    end: 1951
+    fn: 13
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Hans Staudinger]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "chairman of the Council for Research 1943 to 1953 and director or chairman of the Institute 1951 to 1953, per the Staudinger papers chronology"
+    start: 1943
+    end: 1953
+    fn: 12
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Independent Aid]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "donor listed in the historical note; Doris Duke's first foundation, incorporated 1934 and renamed the Doris Duke Foundation in October 1951"
+    start: 1943
+    end: 1951
+    fn: 5
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Doris Duke]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "funding stated by Daniel Bessner, 2013"
+    start: 1943
+    end: 1951
+    fn: 8
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Rockefeller Foundation]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "donor listed in the historical note; funded Germany's Position in European Postwar Reconstruction and Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia"
+    start: 1943
+    end: 1951
+    fn: 17
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Viking Fund]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "donor listed in the historical note"
+    start: 1943
+    end: 1951
+    fn: 26
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[U.S. Department of State]]"
+    role: "studies commissioned by the State Department"
+    start: 1946
+    end: 1951
+    fn: 29
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[United States Information Agency]]"
+    role: "contracted study of European wireless files"
+    start: 1953
+    end: 1953
+    fn: 31
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Hans Speier]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "co-organizer of the Totalitarian Communication Project, a predecessor division"
+    start: 1940
+    end: 1944
+    fn: 20
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Ernst Kris]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "co-organizer of the Totalitarian Communication Project, a predecessor division"
+    start: 1940
+    end: 1944
+    fn: 20
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Max Ascoli]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "initial planning, fund-raising and faculty research supervision"
+    end: 1942
+    fn: 1
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Eduard Heimann]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "member of the Study Group on Germany, a predecessor division"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Alvin Johnson]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "gave an address at the inaugural meeting"
+    start: 1943-11
+    fn: 4
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Jacob Marschak]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "author of a research file, Labor Economics in Totalitarian Russia"
+    fn: 16
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Leo Strauss]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "member of the Study Group on Germany, a predecessor division"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Kurt Riezler]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "member of the Study Group on Germany; researcher associated with the University in Exile"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Lewis Lorwin]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "research consultant to the New School during the Institute's final years"
+    fn: 1
+---
+
+The Institute of World Affairs was a research unit of the [[New School for Social Research]] in New York, founded in 1943 and redesignated the Research Division in 1953.[^1] During the Second World War it served as an unofficial office of information for various federal war offices, and after the war it continued to produce studies commissioned by the [[U.S. Department of State]].[^1]
+
+### Founding and financing
+
+The Institute was modeled on the [[Kiel Institute for the World Economy]], an international research organization studying the world economy, of which [[Adolph Lowe]] and [[Hans Neisser]] had been former members.[^1] Its mission statement set the goal "to perform research on international problems and to serve as a clearing house for information on foreign regions and international relations."[^1]
+
+At its founding the Institute became an independent unit of the New School and took over the collective research projects of the [[Graduate Faculty of Political and Social Science]]. It developed from two divisions within the Graduate Faculty: a [[Study Group on Germany]], whose members included [[Eduard Heimann]], [[Erich Hula]], [[Karl Mayer]], [[Albert Salomon]], [[Kurt Riezler]], [[Leo Strauss]], [[Horace Kallen]] and [[Felix Kaufmann]], and the [[Research Project on Totalitarian Communication]] organized by [[Hans Speier]] and [[Ernst Kris]].[^1] [[Max Ascoli]], an Italian legal philosopher, was involved in the initial planning, fund-raising and faculty research supervision until Lowe became director of research in 1942.[^1]
+
+The founding year is given as 1942 in one description and as 1943 in others.[^2] A folder titled "History of the Institute of World Affairs, 1943" carries the later date.[^1][^3] The inaugural meeting took place on November 17, 1943, when [[Alvin Johnson]] and Lowe gave addresses that were printed as a pamphlet, Studies of the Institute of World Affairs: The Aims and Organization of the Institute of World Affairs (1944).[^4]
+
+Prior funding for 1943 to 1951 is reported at $630,000, coming from [[Independent Aid]], the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], the [[Viking Fund]], the [[Hebrew Technical Institute]], the [[Rosenwald Foundation]] and individual donors.[^1]
+
+### Doris Duke and Independent Aid
+
+The historical note lists Independent Aid first among the Institute's donors for 1943 to 1951.[^1] Independent Aid, Inc. was the first charitable foundation established by [[Doris Duke]], daughter of [[James B. Duke]]. It was incorporated in Delaware in October 1934, shortly after Duke turned 21, and its officers voted in October 1951 to change its name to the Doris Duke Foundation.[^5][^6] The Doris Duke Charitable Foundation gives the age at which Duke formed her first charitable foundation as 23.[^7]
+
+The [[Duke University]] guide to the Independent Aid records states that Duke "had limited direct involvement" with Independent Aid and that its disbursements reflected her interests in the welfare of women and children, social work and mental health, and early family planning; recipients it names include the Center for Self-Supporting Women and Students of New York City, the Mental Hygiene Association and the Child Adoption and Placement Bureau.[^5] Day-to-day operations were administered by Marian Paschal, secretary until her death in 1946, and by her successor Georgea T. Furst; the Doris Duke Foundation guide records that board member [[Clarence E. Pickett]] served as executive secretary during the same period and that Furst had been his assistant from 1943 to 1946.[^5][^6]
+
+The Doris Duke Foundation records, which continue the Independent Aid files, hold two folders titled for the New School: "New School Refugee Fund, 1940-1946" and "New School, 1952-1959," described as containing correspondence with Independent Aid and, in the second, clippings.[^6] The folder titles name the New School and do not name the Institute.
+
+[[Daniel Bessner]], in his 2013 Duke University dissertation on Speier, describes the Institute as "a research center funded by Doris Duke."[^8]
+
+The Doris Duke Charitable Foundation dates "Service for the U.S. Government during WWII, 1944-1945" in a photograph caption that names no agency.[^7]
+
+### Directors and staff
+
+Adolph Lowe, born in Stuttgart on March 4, 1893, had been director of research and educational studies at the [[Institute of World Economics]] at Kiel from 1926 to 1930 and founded the Institute for Business Cycle Research there in 1925. He was dismissed from his post in 1933, was a Rockefeller Foundation fellow from 1933 to 1938 while a lecturer at the [[University of Manchester]], became a British subject in September 1939, and moved to the New School afterward.[^9] The historical note has him become director of research in 1942.[^1] He directed the Institute in October 1943, when Salomon asked Speier to join its council.[^10] A resignation letter from Lowe dated 1951 is filed in the correspondence series; the historical note gives 1953 for his departure from the Institute, and the Albany finding aid to his papers records that he remained a professor at the New School until 1978, "leaving only to take a one-year appointment at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem (1953)."[^1][^9][^11] He edited the posthumous works of [[Karl Mannheim]].[^2] He returned to Germany after 1982 and died in Wolfenbüttel on June 4, 1995.[^9]
+
+[[Hans Staudinger]], born in Worms in 1889, was a member of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] in the [[Reichstag]] from 1927 to 1933 and Prussian state secretary in the Ministry of Commerce in 1929, was removed from office in 1932, was held in police custody in Hamburg from June 16 to July 22, 1933, and emigrated to Belgium, where he was a consultant to [[SOFINA]] in Brussels. He became professor of economics at the [[University in Exile]] in the fall of 1934 and a naturalized U.S. citizen on September 26, 1940.[^12] The Council of Research that he chaired oversaw the Institute's research operations and is dated 1944 to 1951 in the New School's folder and historical note.[^1][^13] His papers chronology gives 1943 to 1953 for his chairmanship of the Council for Research of the Institute of World Affairs, "Director from 1951-1953," and 1951 to 1953 as chairman of the Institute. The same chronology records his service as dean of the Graduate Faculty in 1941 to 1943, 1950 to 1951 and 1955 to 1960, and an entry of September 29, 1944: "received notification of termination of appointment as 'Expert' from the U. S. War Department" ([[United States Department of War]]).[^12] The historical note states that in 1951 the Institute "fell under the direction of Hans Staudinger" and that he "had a hand in the administration of at least forty-five distinct projects, bringing in $500,000 in funds."[^1] He edited the Journal of Social Research from 1959 to 1964, became professor emeritus in 1960 and died in Manhattan on February 25, 1980.[^12]
+
+Neisser served as acting director from 1950, and [[Hans Simons]] took over the post in 1951.[^1] The Albany finding aid to the Simons papers describes him as a German-born political scholar who came to the United States in 1935 after being blacklisted by the Nazis, joined the University in Exile faculty, became an American citizen in 1940, and "was appointed president of The New School in 1945."[^14] Bessner, writing of October 1946, calls [[Bryn J. Hovde]] "the New School's president."[^15]
+
+Researchers associated with the University in Exile included [[Arnold Brecht]], [[Alfred Kähler]], [[Ernest Hamburger]], Erich Hula, Kurt Riezler and [[Frieda Wunderlich]].[^1] The [[Ibero-American Center]] was an independent division of the Institute headed by [[Frederick Haussmann]].[^1] [[Lewis Lorwin]], a sociologist and economist, was engaged as a research consultant to the New School during the Institute's final years.[^1]
+
+Eduard Heimann was a member of the Study Group on Germany.[^1] A research file titled "Labor Economics in Totalitarian Russia" by [[Jacob Marschak]], dated to the 1940s and 1950s, is held in the Institute's research project records.[^16]
+
+### Speier conflict, 1943 to 1944
+
+In October 1943 Salomon asked Speier to join the Institute's council. Speier told Salomon and Lowe, who directed the Institute, that he "would like to be helpful, if I am wanted," and asked about "the functions of the Council." Despite "repeated inquiries," Speier never heard back from either man about his duties.[^10]
+
+From Washington, where he worked for the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]], Speier wrote to Lowe in February 1944 that his experiences with the Institute had been "a series of baffling disappointments." Lowe replied that Speier's anger "came to me as a complete shock," and said he had wanted to include Speier on the council because he was "the main representative of collective research in our sociology department."[^10]
+
+On February 25, 1944 Speier wrote to Lowe: "I withdraw my declaration to serve on [the Institute's council] 'in principle' pending further information. ... In the meantime I must ask you not to consider me a member of the Council." He added that if there were "fights" in the faculty "for prestige or influence I don't want to have any part in them as a pawn."[^10] Bessner states that Speier came to believe he was being "used as a pawn in ridiculous faculty politics," citing letters to Staudinger of March 3, 1944 and to Salomon of March 5, 1944.[^10] In the letter to Salomon he called the council's members the Geheimräte (secret councilors).[^10] In a letter to Riezler of February 3, 1944 he wrote that the New School's "atmosphere of freedom has been replaced by strangely autocratic ways."[^10]
+
+### Research programs
+
+The early research papers included "International Trade in Raw Materials at Various Levels of Employment," "Germany's Position in European Postwar Reconstruction" by Brecht, Lowe, Hans Simons and Staudinger, "Technological Trends and the Flexibility of Labor" by Kähler, "Changes in the Democratic Process" led by [[Paul van Zeeland]], and "Comparative Administration" by Brecht.[^1]
+
+The reconstruction study was "funded by the Rockefeller Foundation in order to study the results of post-World War I reconstruction in Germany, with an eye toward the practical implementation of these lessons following World War II."[^17] The Former Jewish Communal Property in Germany survey was compiled and analyzed by the [[American Federation of Jews from Central Europe]].[^18] The Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia project, formed in 1941 and financed by the Rockefeller Foundation, "focused largely on labor politics in Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia."[^19]
+
+The Research Project on Totalitarian Communication, led by Speier and Kris for the Graduate Faculty's research center, ran from 1940 to 1944 and was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation.[^20] Bessner dates the end of the project to January 1943.[^21] The [[Propaganda Research Center]], 1947 to 1953, had as principal researchers [[Karl Ettinger]] and [[Saul K. Padover]], and much of its research was performed with assistance from the [[Office of Naval Research]].[^22] Its project files for 1951 to 1953 are titled Brazilian Use of INP Press Releases (1952-1953), Communist Deviations (1952), Evaluation of Filmslide Use in a Field Operation (1952), Foreign Propaganda in the United States (1951-1953), Foreign Repercussions of Domestic Race Relations (1951), Graphology in Political Intelligence (1952), Human Carriers of Communist Propaganda (1951-1952), Legal Problems Resulting from Warfare Disasters (1952), Patterns of Panic (1951-1952) and Testing State Department Movies (1952-1953).[^23] The administrative series holds materials for an April 18 and 19, 1952 conference titled Conference on International Implications of Race Relations in the United States.[^24]
+
+The Leisure-Time project ran from 1948 until 1953 and attempted to analyze the role of leisure time activity in the daily lives of workers in industrial society. Faculty and researchers involved included [[Marie Macario Bestul]], [[Phyllis Poses]], [[Gerda Golder]], [[Elizabeth Todd]], Staudinger, [[Paul Heurath]], [[Siegfried Kracauer]], [[Hilda Weiss]], [[Alexander Ringer]] and [[Laura Himovitch]].[^1] Ringer's thesis, Musical Attitudes of Metropolitan College Students, drew on questionnaires issued to students of the [[City College of New York]].[^1]
+
+The Image of America project, begun in 1945 and filed for 1947 to 1957, aimed to assess the conception of the American in a global context. It included a paper by Kracauer, "Analysis of Images," and Lorwin described it as "a total loss."[^25] The Viking Fund corresponded with Staudinger about the project and about the Leisure-Time study.[^26]
+
+The Ibero-American Center roundtable of 1944 to 1948 drew correspondence among [[Fernando de los Rios]], [[Adolfo Dorfman]], Bryn J. Hovde, Alvin Johnson, Lowe, Staudinger and [[Sumner Welles]].[^27] A study of religion in postwar Germany, initiated and led by [[Carl Mayer]], ran from 1954 to 1957 with [[Helmut R. Wagner]], [[Thomas Luckmann]] and [[Salvator Attanasio]] on the project staff.[^28]
+
+### Government contracts and grants
+
+During and after the war, the Institute and its researchers "worked closely with U.S. intelligence and war offices during World War II, a relationship that continued after the war had ended."[^29] Correspondence and conference minutes for 1946 to 1951 document the relationship with the State Department.[^29] The administrative series also holds a file on the 1950 [[Point Four Roundtable Conference]] on United States foreign policy.[^30]
+
+In 1953 the Institute took on a study of the readability of European wireless files prepared for overseas distribution by the [[International Press Service]], a study contracted and funded by the newly created [[United States Information Agency]].[^31] General correspondence for 1942 to 1946 includes the [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]] alongside the [[Woodrow Wilson Foundation]], the [[United Nations]] and the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]].[^32]
+
+The Rockefeller Foundation granted Speier and Kris $15,960 in March 1941 and an additional $19,000 in 1942 for the Totalitarian Communication project.[^21] The correspondence file for [[Joseph H. Willits]] of the Rockefeller Foundation concerns a Foundation grant for the project of Neisser titled Domestic Determinants of International Trade.[^33] A 1942 study of German academic institutions by Kris drew correspondence about the inability to secure funding for the research from the [[Carnegie Corporation]].[^34]
+
+The Viking Fund, 1940 to 1950, and its successor the [[Wenner-Gren Foundation]], 1946 to 1955, both appear in the correspondence series.[^26] The [[Ford Foundation]] (1950 to 1955), the [[Fels Fund]] (1948) and the [[Twentieth Century Fund]] (1947) have folders of their own.[^35] A folder titled for [[Nelson Rockefeller]] for 1948 to 1949 concerns the rejection of a transportation study by Staudinger and Wohl.[^36]
+
+### Publications
+
+Books published primarily by [[Cornell University Press]] include [[Gregory Bienstock]], [[Solomon M. Schwarz]] and [[Aaron Yugow]], Management in Russian Industry and Agriculture (1944); Ernst Kris and Hans Speier, German Radio Propaganda (1944); [[Ernst Fraenkel]], Military Occupation and the Rule of Law (1944); Arnold Brecht, Federalism and Regionalism in Germany: The Division of Prussia (1945); [[Joseph B. Schechtman]], European Population Transfers, 1939-1945 (1946); [[Henry W. Ehrmann]], French Labor from Popular Front to Liberation (1947); Alfred Kähler and Ernest Hamburger, Education for an Industrial Age (1948); [[Wilbert E. Moore]], Industrialization and Labor (1951); Hans Neisser and [[Franco Modigliani]], National Incomes and International Trade (1953); and [[Julius Hirsch]], New Horizons in Business (1955).[^2] Lowe edited the posthumous works of Karl Mannheim.[^2]
+
+The occasional papers were distributed directly by the Research Division. They include Alvin Johnson and Ernest Hamburger, "The Economic Problem of Germany" (1946); Hans Neisser, "The Significance of Foreign Trade for Domestic Employment" (1946); Franco Modigliani, "Fluctuations in the Savings Ratio: A Problem in Economic Forecasting" (1947); Wilbert E. Moore, "Primitives and Peasants in Industry" (1948); Arnold Brecht, "The New German Constitution" (1949); [[Henry G. Aubrey]], "Deliberate Industrialization" (1949); Helmut R. Wagner, "A New Generation of German Labor" (1956).[^2]
+
+### End of the Institute
+
+By 1953 the Institute "had been brought into closer relationship with the New School for Social Research, and redesignated as the Research Division." It last appeared in the 1954 to 1955 Graduate Faculty Bulletin. The records came to the New School Archives from the [[Raymond Fogelman Library]] in 2012.[^1][^2]
+
+Lorwin, engaged as a consultant during this period, wrote a 1953 report on the New School's research and related activities that described the Institute as having been "started with too large expectations." The research agenda's ambition and its collaborative method "led to numerous incomplete and under-performing research projects that resulted in few publications or other deliverables."[^1]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Institute of World Affairs records," NS-02-16-01, historical note, scope and contents. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/resources/235
+[^2]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Institute of World Affairs records," NS-02-16-01, abstract, dates, IWA Bibliography and immediate source of acquisition. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/resources/235
+[^3]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "History of the Institute of World Affairs, 1943," Box 1, Folder 7. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27141
+[^4]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Studies of the Institute of World Affairs: The Aims and Organization of the Institute of World Affairs, 1944," Box 16, Folder 17, a pamphlet of transcripts of addresses by Alvin Johnson and Adolph Lowe at the inaugural meeting of November 17, 1943. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27156
+[^5]: Duke University Libraries, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library, "Guide to the Independent Aid, Inc. Records, 1934-1954," RL.01439, abstract and biographical/historical note. https://archives.lib.duke.edu/catalog/uaindaid
+[^6]: Duke University Libraries, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library, "Doris Duke Foundation records, 1934-2009, bulk 1948-1982," RL.00318, abstract, scope and content, related material, and subject files "New School Refugee Fund, 1940-1946" and "New School, 1952-1959" (Boxes 50-51). https://archives.lib.duke.edu/catalog/dorisdukefound
+[^7]: Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, "Our Founder" (the age of 23; the photograph caption "Service for the U.S. Government during WWII, 1944-1945"). https://dorisduke.org/who-we-are/our-founder
+[^8]: Daniel Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), p. 164 (the Institute "a research center funded by Doris Duke"; the sentence carries no footnote citing a source for the funding, and note 2 on the page concerns other international relations centers). Sole source for the Doris Duke funding passage. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
+[^9]: M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, University at Albany, SUNY, "Adolph Lowe Papers, 1915-1996," abstract, biographical/historical note. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/ger022
+[^10]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 164-166 and notes 3-17 (Speier to Lowe, February 13, 1944; Lowe to Speier, February 23, 1944; Speier to Lowe, February 25, 1944; Speier to Riezler, February 3, 1944; Speier to Staudinger, March 3, 1944; Speier to Salomon, March 5, 1944). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
+[^11]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Lowe, Adolph, resignation letter, 1951," Box 2, Folder 2. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27144
+[^12]: M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, University at Albany, SUNY, "Hans Staudinger Papers, 1928-1980," chronology and biographical/historical note. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/ger087
+[^13]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Council of Research, 1944-1951," Institute of World Affairs records, Series 3. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27247
+[^14]: M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, University at Albany, SUNY, "Hans Simons Papers, 1906-1968," abstract and biographical/historical note. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/ger082
+[^15]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 151 (William Stone to Bryn Hovde, October 17, 1946). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
+[^16]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Marschak, Jacob. 'Labor Economics in Totalitarian Russia', 1940s-1950s," Box 12, Folder 11. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27273
+[^17]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "'Germany's Postion in European Postwar Reconstruction', 1944-1949," Box 5, Folders 32-33. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27256
+[^18]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "'Former Jewish Communal Property in Germany: a Questionnaire Survey', late 1940s-early 1950s," Box 5, Folder 31. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27255
+[^19]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia, 1941-1956," Series 3. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27285
+[^20]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Research Project on Totalitarian Communication, 1940-1944," Series 3. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27451
+[^21]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 130-131 (the Rockefeller Foundation grants of March 1941, $15,960, and 1942, $19,000; Speier and Kris, German Radio Propaganda, Oxford University Press, 1944). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
+[^22]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Propaganda Research Center, 1947-1953," Series 3. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27434
+[^23]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Projects, 1951-1953," Propaganda Research Center, Institute of World Affairs records, Series 3, with folders at https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27440 and the following records 27441 to 27450.
+[^24]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Conference on International Implications of Race Relations in the United States, 1952 Apr 18-19," Box 1, Folder 2. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27136
+[^25]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Image of America, 1947-1957," Box 7, Folders 8-9. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27261
+[^26]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Viking Fund, 1940-1950," Box 3, Folder 24, https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27216; and "Wenner-Gren Foundation (formerly Viking Fund), 1946-1955," Box 3, Folder 25, https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27217
+[^27]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Ibero-American Center Roundtable on Latin America, 1944-1948," Box 3, Folders 17-18. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27209
+[^28]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Religion in Germany Today, 1954-1957," Box 12, Folder 38. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27282
+[^29]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Department of State, 1946-1951," Series 1 scope note. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27137
+[^30]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Point Four Roundtable Conference on United States Foreign Policy, 1950," Box 1, Folder 4. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27139
+[^31]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Readability of the European Wireless Files Prepared for Overseas Distribution, 19 May-19 July 1953, by the International Press Service, USIA, 1953-1955," Box 12, Folder 37. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27281
+[^32]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "General, 1942-1946," Box 3, Folders 9-10. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27202
+[^33]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Willits, Joseph H., 1941-1952," Box 3, Folder 6. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27198
+[^34]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Kris, Ernst. 'The German Academic Institutions Under National Socialism', 1942," Box 11, Folder 19. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27469
+[^35]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Fels Fund, 1948," Box 3, Folder 15, https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27207; "Ford Foundation, 1950-1955," Box 3, Folder 16, https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27208; and "Twentieth Century Fund, 1947," Box 3, Folder 23, https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27214
+[^36]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Rockefeller, Nelson A., 1948-1949," Box 3, Folder 4. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27191