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--- a/META/CHANGELOG.md
+++ b/META/CHANGELOG.md
@ -1,10 +1,54 @@
 - 2026-10-07T2310 · [[_QUEUE]]
 - 2026-10-07T2310 · [[_WAVE_C_REPORT]]
 - 2026-10-07T2310 · [[George W. Bush]]
 - 2026-10-07T2309 · [[_REVIEW_F6]]
 - 2026-10-07T2308 · [[George W. Bush]]
 - 2026-10-07T2308 · [[draft_keyed]]
 - 2026-10-07T2304 · [[Operation Gladio]]
 - 2026-10-07T2304 · [[Giulio Andreotti]]
 - 2026-10-07T2303 · [[Cold War]]
 - 2026-10-07T2303 · [[Cold War]]
 - 2026-10-07T2303 · [[_REVIEW_F4]]
 - 2026-10-07T2256 · [[NASA]]
 - 2026-10-07T2256 · [[NASA]]
 - 2026-10-07T2256 · [[_REVIEW_F2]]
 - 2026-10-07T2252 · [[NASA_haiku_original]]
 - 2026-10-07T2252 · [[Markus Wolf]]
 - 2026-10-07T2252 · [[Günter Guillaume]]
 - 2026-10-07T2252 · [[Günter Guillaume]]
 - 2026-10-07T2251 · [[_REVIEW_F5]]
 - 2026-10-07T2250 · [[Fidel Castro]]
 - 2026-10-07T2250 · [[Telepathy]]
 - 2026-10-07T2250 · [[Fidel Castro]]
 - 2026-10-07T2250 · [[Telepathy]]
 - 2026-10-07T2249 · [[Great Skill Program]]
 - 2026-10-07T2249 · [[Great Skill Program]]
 - 2026-10-07T2248 · [[_REVIEW_F1]]
 - 2026-10-07T2248 · [[_REVIEW_F3]]
 - 2026-10-07T2248 · [[_REVIEW_F7]]
 - 2026-10-07T2246 · [[haiku_original]]
 - 2026-10-07T2246 · [[haiku_original]]
 - 2026-10-07T2242 · [[_FOIA_F4]]
 - 2026-10-07T2242 · [[_NOTES_F4]]
 - 2026-10-07T2241 · [[_FOIA_F2]]
 - 2026-10-07T2241 · [[_NOTES_F7]]
 - 2026-10-07T2241 · [[_FOIA_F7]]
 - 2026-10-07T2241 · [[_NOTES_F2]]
 - 2026-10-07T2241 · [[_RULES]]
 - 2026-10-07T2239 · [[_NOTES_F6]]
 - 2026-10-07T2239 · [[_FOIA_F6]]
 - 2026-10-07T2238 · [[_FOIA_F1]]
 - 2026-10-07T2238 · [[_NOTES_F1]]
 - 2026-10-07T2237 · [[_FOIA_F5]]
 - 2026-10-07T2236 · [[_NOTES_F5]]
 - 2026-10-07T2234 · [[_NOTES_F3]]
 - 2026-10-07T2234 · [[_FOIA_F3]]
 - 2026-10-07T2226 · [[_working_facts]]
 - 2026-10-07T2223 · [[Wilson-Davis Memo]]
 - 2026-10-07T2120 · [[Salvatore La Russa]]
 - 2026-10-07T2120 · [[Salvatore La Russa]]
 - 2026-10-07T2120 · [[_WAVE_C_REPORT]]
 - 2026-10-07T2120 · [[_REVIEW_E5]]
 - 2026-10-07T2113 · [[_QUEUE]]
 - 2026-10-07T2113 · [[The Nautilus (Telepathy Project)]]
 - 2026-10-07T2113 · [[Wilson-Davis Memo]]
 - 2026-10-07T2113 · [[Palantir Gotham]]
 - 2026-10-07T2113 · [[December 2017 New York Times AATIP Report]]
 - 2026-10-07T2113 · [[KONA BLUE]]
@ -39,7 +83,6 @@
 - 2026-10-07T2108 · [[_FOIA_E5]]
 - 2026-10-07T2108 · [[Bay of Pigs]]
 - 2026-10-07T2108 · [[_NOTES_E5]]
 - 2026-10-07T2107 · [[_RULES]]
 - 2026-10-07T2107 · [[McGeorge Bundy]]
 - 2026-10-07T2107 · [[Yakuza]]
 - 2026-10-07T2107 · [[McGeorge Bundy]]
@ -55,46 +98,3 @@
 - 2026-10-07T2047 · [[_NOTES_E1]]
 - 2026-10-07T2046 · [[_FOIA_E1]]
 - 2026-10-07T2045 · [[_FOIA_E2]]
 - 2026-10-07T2045 · [[_NOTES_E2]]
 - 2026-10-07T2043 · [[_FOIA_E4]]
 - 2026-10-07T2042 · [[_FOIA_E6]]
 - 2026-10-07T2042 · [[_NOTES_E6]]
 - 2026-10-07T1952 · [[Nikita Khrushchev]]
 - 2026-10-07T1952 · [[Nikita Khrushchev]]
 - 2026-10-07T1951 · [[_REVIEW_D3]]
 - 2026-10-07T1951 · [[Robert Kennedy]]
 - 2026-10-07T1951 · [[Robert Kennedy]]
 - 2026-10-07T1951 · [[_REVIEW_D6]]
 - 2026-10-07T1947 · [[Willy Brandt]]
 - 2026-10-07T1947 · [[Willy Brandt]]
 - 2026-10-07T1947 · [[_REVIEW_D1]]
 - 2026-10-07T1945 · [[Pentagon]]
 - 2026-10-07T1945 · [[Pentagon]]
 - 2026-10-07T1945 · [[_REVIEW_D4]]
 - 2026-10-07T1943 · [[U.S. Navy]]
 - 2026-10-07T1943 · [[U.S. Navy]]
 - 2026-10-07T1943 · [[_REVIEW_D5]]
 - 2026-10-07T1941 · [[IBM]]
 - 2026-10-07T1941 · [[IBM]]
 - 2026-10-07T1940 · [[_REVIEW_D2]]
 - 2026-10-07T1939 · [[Olney House Investigation]]
 - 2026-10-07T1939 · [[Eugene Horsch]]
 - 2026-10-07T1939 · [[R.C. Horsch]]
 - 2026-10-07T1939 · [[Krista Killen]]
 - 2026-10-07T1939 · [[Krista Killen]]
 - 2026-10-07T1939 · [[_REVIEW_D7]]
 - 2026-10-07T1934 · [[_NOTES_D3]]
 - 2026-10-07T1934 · [[_FOIA_D3]]
 - 2026-10-07T1931 · [[_FOIA_D1]]
 - 2026-10-07T1931 · [[_FOIA_D7]]
 - 2026-10-07T1931 · [[_NOTES_D1]]
 - 2026-10-07T1931 · [[_NOTES_D7]]
 - 2026-10-07T1930 · [[_FOIA_D4]]
 - 2026-10-07T1929 · [[_NOTES_D4]]
 - 2026-10-07T1928 · [[_NOTES_D6]]
 - 2026-10-07T1928 · [[_FOIA_D6]]
 - 2026-10-07T1928 · [[_FOIA_D2]]
 - 2026-10-07T1928 · [[_NOTES_D2]]
 - 2026-10-07T1926 · [[_FOIA_D5]]
 - 2026-10-07T1926 · [[_NOTES_D5]]
 - 2026-10-07T1858 · [[Richard Babayan]]
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Fidel
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Fidel
@ -3,8 +3,9 @@ title: Fidel Castro
 aliases:
  - Fidel Castro
  - Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz
  - Fidel Castro Ruz
 created: 2026-05-17
-updated: 2026-05-17
+updated: 2026-10-07
 category: "Political Figure"
 tags:
  - KeyFigure
@ -14,21 +15,147 @@ tags:
  - Politician
  - Military
  - ColdWar
-summary: "Leader of Cuba targeted by CIA assassination plots involving organized crime figures Sam Giancana, Johnny Rosselli, and Santos Trafficante."
+  - AntiCastro
  - ChurchCommittee
 summary: "Cuban revolutionary leader who was the target of CIA assassination plots from 1960 to 1965, including plots run through Robert Maheu and organized-crime figures, as the Church Committee documented."
 born: 1926-08-13
 died: 2016-11-25
 location: "Birán, Oriente, Cuba"
 relations:
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Cuba]]"
    start: 1959-01-01
    fn: 1
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[Robert Maheu]]"
    start: 1960-08
    fn: 8
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[Sam Giancana]]"
    start: 1960-09
    fn: 13
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[Johnny Roselli|Johnny Rosselli]]"
    start: 1960-09
    fn: 12
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[Santos Trafficante, Jr.]]"
    start: 1960-09
    fn: 13
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[Operation Mongoose]]"
    start: 1961-11-30
    fn: 21
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[Rolando Cubela]]"
    start: 1963
    fn: 19
  - type: subject_of
    with: "[[Church Committee]]"
    start: 1975-11
    fn: 6
 ---
 Fidel Castro was the leader of [[Cuba]]. In 1960, the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] initiated a series of assassination attempts against him. These operations involved [[Robert Maheu]] as a "cut-out," who contacted organized-crime leaders [[Sam Giancana]], [[Johnny Roselli|Johnny Rosselli]], and [[Santos Trafficante, Jr.]]. These individuals, in turn, enlisted the direct assistance of Cuban exiles in the assassination plots.[^1]
-### Dark Alliance Investigation
+Fidel Castro was the Cuban revolutionary who took control of the government of [[Cuba]] in January 1959 and held the country's highest office in the decades that followed.[^1] The [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] planned and attempted to kill him from 1960 onward, using organized-crime figures recruited through [[Robert Maheu]].
-Fidel Castro was the Cuban president whose government served as a foil for U.S. anti-Communist operations in [[Central America]], including the [[Contras|Contra]] war. The anti-Castro Cuban exile networks built during the [[Bay of Pigs|Bay of Pigs]] era were later repurposed by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] for Contra operations.[^2]
+### Mexico, 1956
-When the CIA needed operatives for the Contra war, it drew from the pool of anti-Castro Cuban exiles who had been trained and organized since the failed 1961 invasion. [[Felix Rodriguez]], who participated in the capture and execution of Che Guevara in [[Cuba]] under Castro's government, was sent to [[San Salvador]] to manage the Contra resupply operation at Ilopango Air Base. [[Manuel Noriega|Noriega]] brokered deals with Castro, acting as liaison between the Cuban government and U.S. intelligence. The [[Sandinistas]] in [[Nicaragua]] maintained close ties with Castro's government, which the Reagan administration cited as justification for the Contra war.[^3]
+In June 1956, agents of the Mexican [[Dirección Federal de Seguridad]] (DFS) arrested Castro and other members of a group preparing a revolution against [[Fulgencio Batista]]. An account of the case quotes a two-page DFS report, prepared three days after the arrest by [[Fernando Gutiérrez Barrios]], chief of DFS Control, that describes the detentions.[^2] The account gives the arrest date as June 21, 1956, on Mariano Escobedo street in [[Mexico City]], and says the men were taken to the DFS building on Miguel Shultz street.
 ### Washington visit, 1959
 Castro visited [[Washington, D.C.]] in April 1959. On April 19, [[Richard Nixon]], then vice president, met him in the Vice President's formal office in the Capitol. Nixon's draft summary of the conversation, which he sent to [[John Foster Dulles]] on April 24, read in part: "He seems to be sincere" and "He is either incredibly naive about Communism or under Communist discipline."[^3] A State Department memorandum recorded a Latin American newspaperman's account that Castro said Nixon had reprimanded him for revolutionary activity against the governments of [[Nicaragua]] and [[Panama]].[^4]
 ### Assassination plots, 1959 to 1965
 The Senate Select Committee's chronology records that on December 11, 1959, [[Allen Dulles]] approved "thorough consideration be given to the elimination of Fidel Castro."[^5] The [[Church Committee]]'s 1975 interim report summarized the Cuba plots in these words: "United States Government personnel plotted to kill Castro from 1960 to 1965."[^6] The report also stated that the committee had "concrete evidence of at least eight plots involving the CIA to assassinate Fidel Castro from 1960 to 1965."[^7]
 According to the Church Committee, [[Richard Bissell]] asked [[Sheffield Edwards]], director of the [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]], to locate someone who could assassinate Castro. Edwards and the operational support chief decided to rely on Maheu, a former FBI agent who had become a private investigator, to recruit someone "tough enough" for the job. The support chief testified that the CIA had used Maheu in earlier sensitive operations in which "he didn't want to have an Agency person or a government person get caught."[^8] The committee reproduced a summary, sent by [[J. Edgar Hoover]] to Attorney General [[Robert Kennedy]] on May 22, 1961, of what Edwards told the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]: that he contacted Maheu in the fall of 1960 "for the purpose of using Maheu as a 'cut-out' in contacts with Sam Giancana, a known hoodlum in the Chicago area."[^9] [[Cheri Seymour]] wrote that Maheu served as the cut-out between the CIA and the organized-crime figures, and that they in turn enlisted Cuban exiles in the plots.[^10]
 The Inspector General's report of 1967 states that Edwards and Maheu agreed that Maheu would approach [[Johnny Roselli|Johnny Rosselli]] "as the representative of businessmen with interests in Cuba who saw the elimination of Castro as the essential first step to the recovery of their investments," and that Maheu "was authorized to tell Roselli that his 'clients' were willing to pay $150,000 for Castro's removal." The same report places [[James P. O'Connell]] and Maheu with Roselli in New York City on September 14, 1960, where Maheu "made the pitch," and records an Edwards memorandum for the record of May 14, 1962: "No monies were ever paid to Roselli and Giancana."[^11] Rosselli recalled meeting Maheu in [[Beverly Hills]] in early September 1960, and the Inspector General's report placed a meeting of Maheu, Rosselli and the support chief at the Plaza Hotel in [[New York City|New York]] on September 14, 1960.[^12] The committee wrote that [[Sam Giancana]] and [[Santos Trafficante, Jr.]] entered the operation under the names "Sam Gold" and "Joe," and that the support chief identified them from an article on the attorney general's ten-most-wanted criminals list.[^13]
 A CIA memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence dated November 1970, included in the Agency's 1973 "Family Jewels" compilation, begins: "In August 1960, Mr. Richard M. Bissell approached Colonel Sheffield Edwards to determine if the Office of Security had assets that may assist in a sensitive mission requiring gangster-type action. The mission target was Fidel Castro." It records that "Sam" suggested that they "not resort to firearms but, if he could be furnished some type of potent pill," that could be placed in Castro's food or drink, and that he proposed as a "nominee" Juan Orta, a Cuban official who had been receiving kickback payments from the gambling interests. The memorandum states that the Anthony Verona project "was canceled shortly after the Bay of Pigs episode" and the pills were retrieved.[^14]
 According to the Church Committee, Edwards rejected the first batch of poison pills prepared by the CIA's [[Technical Services Division]]. The Inspector General's report records that four pills were given to the support chief on April 18, 1962, passed to [[William Harvey]], and then given to Rosselli.[^15]
 The Inspector General's report records that Dr. [[Edward Gunn]], chief of the Operations Division of the Office of Medical Services, had a notation that on August 16, 1960 he "received a box of Cuban cigars to be treated with a lethal material," which he understood to be "Fidel's favorite brand." Edwards did not recall the incident. A Technical Services Division officer (name redacted in the released copy) was "positive" that he had contaminated a full box of fifty cigars with botulinus toxin, and Gunn's notes show that he reported the cigars as ready for delivery on October 7, 1960; the report states that the notes do not show actual delivery until February 13, 1961. The report's comment states that others recalled the cigar scheme "only as an idea that was considered and then discarded."[^16] The Church Committee reported the same episode in these words: "The record does not disclose whether an attempt was made to pass the cigars to Castro."[^17] The committee's summary said the plans to assassinate Castro "using poison cigars, exploding seashells, and a contaminated diving suit did not advance beyond the laboratory phase."[^18]
 The CIA regarded AM/LASH, the cryptonym for [[Rolando Cubela]], as an important "asset" inside Cuba.[^19] The Church Committee recorded that [[Desmond FitzGerald]] and a case officer assured AM/LASH of support on November 22, 1963, the day of the [[JFK Assassination|Kennedy assassination]]. The committee also recorded that a ball-point pen rigged to deliver poison was offered to AM/LASH.[^20]
 ### Operation Mongoose, 1961 to 1962
 In November 1961 President [[John F. Kennedy]] issued a memorandum to begin [[Operation Mongoose]], directing the government to "use our available assets * * * to help Cuba overthrow the Communist regime."[^21] [[Richard Goodwin]] advised the President that Robert Kennedy "would be the most effective commander" of the operation. The President instead gave [[Edward Lansdale]] the task of coordinating it, and Robert Kennedy sat on the [[Special Group (Augmented)]] that oversaw it.[^22] The Church Committee stated that Harvey was put in charge of the CIA's [[Task Force W]] in late 1961 or early 1962, a unit that employed about 400 people at headquarters and at the Miami Station.[^22]
 A memorandum for the record in the Taylor report file of the Kennedy Library records Allen Dulles's reply that "we did have a policy, which was to overthrow Castro in one way or another."[^23]
 ### Inspector General report and the Church Committee
 A CIA Inspector General report on the plots, signed by John S. Earman and dated May 23, 1967, ran 143 pages including its cover memorandum.[^24] The Church Committee cited the report throughout as the "I.G. Report."
 ### House Select Committee on Assassinations, 1978
 On April 3, 1978, staff of the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]] met Castro in [[Havana]]. The committee's record states that Castro "assured the Committee that neither he nor his government had any involvement in the assassination of President John F. Kennedy."[^25] In its March 1979 staff report on the CIA-sponsored plots, the committee quoted Castro's interview of that day. On the question of whether his government would have killed the President, Castro said: "We just tried to defend our folks here, within our territory." On Kennedy's speech of September 7, 1963 he said: "For 3 years we had known there were plots against us," and "all these plots or attempts were part of the everyday life."[^26]
 ### Marita Lorenz and Frank Sturgis
 A Review Board research memo on [[Marita Lorenz]] describes her as a woman who allegedly was involved in a plot to poison Castro, and states that she was reported to have hidden poison pills in a jar of cold cream with the intention of killing him, and that the pills dissolved.[^27] The memo lists [[Frank Sturgis]] as also involved. It records that [[New York Daily News]] articles from 1975 and 1976 provided the basis for an independent account of the plot, and that [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] files described Lorenz as unreliable and not credible. The memo also records Lorenz's account, as told in [[Gaeton Fonzi]]'s book The Last Investigation, of a meeting at the home of [[Orlando Bosch]] before November 22, 1963, where, she said, the talk was of "take another armory."
 ### Escalante's count
 [[Fabián Escalante]], who had responsibility for Castro's security, calculated a total of 638 attempts on Castro's life.[^28]
 ### Bolivia, 1967
 [[Felix Rodriguez]] took part in the capture and execution of [[Che Guevara]] in [[Bolivia]] in October 1967. Rodriguez wrote that on October 9, 1967, at 2:15 p.m. local time, he was in a helicopter above the Bolivian jungle with Guevara's dead body tied to a stretcher on the skid, and that earlier that day he had spoken to the wounded Guevara in a small dark room, opening with the words "Che Guevara, I want to talk to you."[^29] A Director of Central Intelligence memorandum of October 11, 1967 reports that the Bolivian Second Ranger Battalion captured Guevara on October 8, that at 11:50 a.m. on October 9 the battalion received orders from Bolivian Army headquarters in [[La Paz]] to kill him, and that the orders were carried out at 1:15 p.m. A footnote to that document quotes a message sent by an officer on the scene (name not declassified) that Guevara's fate would be decided on October 9 by the highest Bolivian military authorities: "I am managing to keep him alive," he reported, "which is very hard." The volume's editorial note states that CIA contract personnel assigned to the battalion as advisers unsuccessfully attempted to prevent the execution.[^30] [[Gary Webb]] wrote that Rodriguez had been "in on the capture and execution of Che Guevara" among other paramilitary operations.[^31]
 ### Central America and the Contra war
 The independent counsel's report on the [[Iran-Contra affair]] identifies Rodriguez, also known as "Max Gomez," as active at the [[Ilopango]] air base in [[El Salvador]], near [[San Salvador]]. The report describes meetings there among [[Oliver North]], [[Salvadoran Air Force]] general [[Juan Bustillo]], Colonel [[James J. Steele]] and Rodriguez, which resulted in agreements on use of the base as a transshipment point for humanitarian assistance to the [[Contras]].[^32] Former CIA official [[Alan Fiers]] testified in 1992 that Rodriguez "was put into" El Salvador, in early 1985, "to work in the areas where we had left a void," and Webb wrote that Rodriguez, by his own account, "eventually became the overseer" of North's Contra resupply operation at the base.[^33]
 Webb wrote that in the build-up to the Contra war in [[Central America]] the Contra recruiting in [[Miami]] joined the Nicaraguan and Cuban exile communities, that Cuban veterans of the [[Bay of Pigs]] operation put up training camps for the Contras' recruits, and that Castro "had been giving the Sandinistas aid and comfort since the mid-1970s," with Cuba providing advisers to the [[Sandinistas]] on building up their army and intelligence services.[^34] Webb also wrote that the CIA director [[William Casey]] gave Congress the halting of Sandinista arms shipments to the Salvadoran guerrillas as the reason for the Reagan administration's decision to turn the CIA loose in Nicaragua, and that the Sandinistas had admitted supplying the guerrillas with arms.[^35] In 1999, according to Webb, Donald Winters, the former chief of CIA operations in Panama, told the judge hearing [[Manuel Noriega]]'s appeal that Noriega "brokered deals with South American leaders, acted as a liaison to Cuba's Fidel Castro, provided details on guerrilla and terrorist activities, and even gave the former Shah of Iran a safe haven."[^36]
 ### Cocaine charges and the 1989 trials
 Julia Preston reported that General [[Arnaldo Ochoa]] was arrested in Havana on June 12, 1989, and that at an honor tribunal he confessed to the charges against him. She quoted his testimony that "one pays for treason with one's life." A summary court-martial began June 30, and four men convicted of high treason, including Ochoa and [[Antonio de la Guardia]], were shot on July 13, 1989.[^37] Preston wrote that the treason charge "was not shown by the facts." She also reported that the Cuban government charged that de la Guardia's group had arranged for six tons of cocaine to be sent from [[Colombia]] through Cuba to the United States in the two years after April 1987. Castro said that he and [[Raul Castro]] learned of the drug activity only after the June arrests, and Preston noted that many observers doubted this.[^37]
 Preston also described a separate federal case: [[Reinaldo Ruiz]] and his son Rubén were indicted in Miami in February 1988 for smuggling cocaine supplied by the [[Medellin Cartel]] through Cuba. The two pleaded guilty and received reduced sentences for cooperating. U.S. reports said they had worked with Cuban officials but did not publicly name de la Guardia.[^37]
 ### Footnotes
-[^1]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010.
+[^1]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Book V: The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies, S. Rept. 94-755 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1976), Appendix C, Chronology, entry for 1959 (January 1, 1959). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
-[^2]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 6: "They were doing their patriotic duty"
+[^2]: María Idalia Gómez, "Fidel Castro: tres días con la DFS," EjeCentral (undated article quoting the DFS report). https://www.ejecentral.com.mx/fidel-castro-tres-dias-con-la-dfs. Sole source for the passages so cited.
-[^3]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 6, Chapter 10
+[^3]: U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960, vol. VI, Cuba, editorial note preceding Document 288, quoting Nixon's draft summary (Department of State, Central Files, 711.12/4-2459). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v06/d287
 [^4]: U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960, vol. VI, Cuba, Document 288, memorandum by the Director of the Office of Mexican and Caribbean Affairs (Department of State, Central Files, 033.3711/4-2159), April 1959. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v06/d288. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^5]: Book V, S. Rept. 94-755, Appendix C, Chronology, entry for December 11, 1959, PDF p. 98. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
 [^6]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975), p. 6. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^7]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, p. 72. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^8]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, pp. 75-76 (testimony of Bissell, June 9, 1975; Edwards, May 30, 1975; the operational support chief, May 30, 1975, pp. 8 and 158; Maheu, July 29 and 30, 1975). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^9]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, p. 128, reproducing the summary of Edwards's statements to the FBI sent by Hoover to the Attorney General on May 22, 1961. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^10]: Cheri Seymour, The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal (TrineDay, 2010). Sole source for the passages so cited; the book's text was not available for page citation.
 [^11]: Central Intelligence Agency Inspector General John S. Earman, "Report on Plots to Assassinate Fidel Castro," May 23, 1967, pp. 16-17 (National Archives, JFK Assassination Records, Record Number 104-10213-10101). https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/104-10213-10101.pdf
 [^12]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, p. 76, citing the Inspector General's report pp. 16 and 17 and testimony of Johnny Rosselli, June 24, 1975. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^13]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, p. 78, citing the Inspector General's report p. 19. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, subject "ROSELLI, Johnny," stamped November 1970, in "Family Jewels," 1973 (CIA MORI DocID 1451843, pp. 00044-00045), as reproduced in National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 222. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB222/family_jewels_full_ocr.pdf
 [^15]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, p. 81 (Edwards rejected the first batch of pills) and p. 85 (four pills given to the support chief April 18, 1962, citing the Inspector General's report pp. 46-47). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^16]: Earman, "Report on Plots to Assassinate Fidel Castro," pp. 21-22 (National Archives, Record Number 104-10213-10101). https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/104-10213-10101.pdf
 [^17]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, p. 74, citing the Inspector General's report pp. 21-22. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^18]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, p. 255, summary of findings on the assassination plots. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^19]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, p. 87. The identification of Rolando Cubela with the AM/LASH cryptonym rests on the table of contents of the Earman report (below). Earman, "Report on Plots to Assassinate Fidel Castro," CIA Inspector General, May 23, 1967, outline page, "Project AMLASH - Rolando Cubela (March 1961 - March 1966)." https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/104-10213-10101.pdf
 [^20]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, pp. 89-90. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^21]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, p. 140, quoting the presidential memorandum of November 30, 1961, and the memorandum of November 1, 1961 by Richard Goodwin. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^22]: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, pp. 140-141. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
 [^23]: U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, vol. X, Cuba, January 1961-September 1962, Document 169, memorandum for the record (Kennedy Library, National Security Files, Countries Series, Cuba, Subjects, Taylor Report). https://raw.githubusercontent.com/HistoryAtState/frus/master/volumes/frus1961-63v10.xml
 [^24]: Central Intelligence Agency Inspector General John S. Earman, "Report on Plots to Assassinate Fidel Castro," May 23, 1967, Secret/Eyes Only, 143 pp. including cover memorandum. https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/104-10213-10101.pdf ; also National Security Archive document 33578, https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/document/33578-document-19-cia-inspector-general-john-s-earman-report-plots-assassinate-fidel
 [^25]: [[Lopez Report]] (2003), appendices, House Select Committee on Assassinations staff record of the April 3, 1978 Havana session, appendix page marked 264 in the scan. https://aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/hsca/lopezrpt_2003/pdf/LopezRpt_2003_8_Appendices.pdf
 [^26]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on Assassinations, "The Evolution and Implications of the CIA-Sponsored Assassination Conspiracies Against Fidel Castro," staff report, March 1979, in Appendix to Hearings, vol. X, paras. 69-71 (quoting Interview of Fidel Castro Ruz, April 3, 1978, pp. 38-39, J.F.K. document no. 011776). https://www.history-matters.com/archive/jfk/hsca/reportvols/vol10/pdf/HSCA_Vol10_CastroPlots.pdf
 [^27]: Marita Lorenz wrap-up memo, JFK Assassination Records Review Board research file (NARA, JFK Assassination Records, ARRB research). https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/IMARR/WP-DOCS/RSRCH/LORENZ.WPD.pdf. Sole source for the passages so cited. The memo states that Lorenz's claims are reported ("reportedly") and cites Gaeton Fonzi, The Last Investigation (1993).
 [^28]: "638 ways to kill Castro," Mail & Guardian, August 2006, citing Fabián Escalante. https://mg.co.za/news/international/2006-08-09-638-ways-to-kill-castro/. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^29]: Felix I. Rodriguez and John Weisman, Shadow Warrior: The CIA Hero of a Hundred Unknown Battles (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), Prologue.
 [^30]: U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XXXI, South and Central America; Mexico, editorial note preceding Document 171, and Document 171, Memorandum from Director of Central Intelligence Helms, "Capture and Execution of Ernesto 'Che' Guevara," October 11, 1967 (Johnson Library, National Security File, Country File, Bolivia, vol. IV), including note 3. https://raw.githubusercontent.com/HistoryAtState/frus/master/volumes/frus1964-68v31.xml
 [^31]: Gary Webb, Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 13.
 [^32]: Lawrence E. Walsh, Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters, vol. I, chapter 19. https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_19.htm
 [^33]: Webb, Dark Alliance, chapter 13, quoting the testimony of Alan Fiers Jr., 1992.
 [^34]: Webb, Dark Alliance, chapter 4.
 [^35]: Webb, Dark Alliance, chapter 6.
 [^36]: Webb, Dark Alliance, Epilogue, quoting Donald Winters's statement to the court in the 1999 proceeding on Noriega's sentence.
 [^37]: Julia Preston, "The Trial that Shook Cuba," The New York Review of Books, December 7, 1989. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1989/12/07/the-trial-that-shook-cuba/. Sole source for the passages so cited.
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/George
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/George
@ -8,37 +8,181 @@ tags:
  - CIAOperations
  - TortureProgram
  - NSASurveillance
-summary: "George W. Bush was the 43rd President of the United States (2001-2009), son of former CIA Director and President George H.W. Bush; his presidency initiated the War on Terror following the September 11, 2001 attacks, launched the 2003 Iraq invasion based on false WMD intelligence, authorized the CIA's 'enhanced interrogation' torture program and black site network, and approved the NSA's warrantless mass surveillance program."
+  - ArbustoEnergy
  - HarkenEnergy
  - TexasRangers
  - Caterair
  - SkullAndBones
  - BCCI
 aliases:
  - "George Walker Bush"
 summary: "George W. Bush was the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009; his administration launched the Iraq invasion, authorized the CIA detention and interrogation program and the NSA's Stellar Wind surveillance program."
 created: 2026-05-15
-updated: 2026-05-15
+updated: 2026-10-07
 born: 1946-07-06
 location: "New Haven, Connecticut"
 relations:
  - type: relative_of
    with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]"
    role: "son"
    fn: 1
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
    start: "1968"
    fn: 3
  - type: member_of
    with: "[[Texas Air National Guard]]"
    start: "1968-05"
    end: "1973-10"
    role: "111th Fighter Interceptor Squadron"
    fn: 8
  - type: head_of
    with: "[[Arbusto Energy]]"
    role: "partnerships controlled by Bush"
    start: "1979"
    fn: 5
  - type: funded
    with: "[[James R. Bath]]"
    reverse: true
    start: "1979"
    role: "$50,000 investment in Arbusto '79 and Arbusto '80"
    fn: 5
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Harken Energy]]"
    start: "1986"
    end: "1993-10-26"
    fn: 7
  - type: investigated
    with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
    reverse: true
    start: "1991"
    end: "1993-10"
    role: "inquiry into Bush's June 1990 sale of Harken stock; no enforcement action"
    fn: 15
  - type: owned
    with: "[[Texas Rangers]]"
    start: "1989"
    end: "1998"
    role: "limited partner in the group that bought the club; stake rose to 11.8 percent"
    fn: 16
  - type: director_of
    with: "[[Caterair International]]"
    fn: 17
 ---
-George Walker Bush was born on July 6, 1946, in New Haven, Connecticut, the eldest son of [[George H.W. Bush]] and Barbara Bush. He served as the 43rd President of the United States from January 20, 2001 to January 20, 2009, and previously as Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000. His presidency was defined by the [[September 11]] terrorist attacks of 2001 and the subsequent "[[War on Terror]]," which produced two wars, a comprehensive expansion of U.S. domestic surveillance authorities, and an authorized program of torture that constituted the most significant institutional violation of U.S. legal and treaty obligations in the modern intelligence era.[^1]
+George Walker Bush was the 43rd President of the United States, serving from January 20, 2001 to January 20, 2009.[^1][^2] He was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on July 6, 1946, the eldest son of [[George H.W. Bush]] and [[Barbara Bush]],[^1][^2] and was elected Governor of Texas on November 8, 1994 and re-elected on November 3, 1998.[^1] His presidency is associated with the [[September 11]] attacks and the "[[War on Terror]]" that followed. Under his administration the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] ran a detention and interrogation program, the [[National Security Agency|NSA]] conducted surveillance under presidential authorizations outside the warrant procedure of the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]], and United States forces invaded [[Iraq]] in March 2003.
-### Pre-Presidential Background
+### Education and early business career
-George W. Bush attended [[Yale University]] (B.A. 1968) and [[Harvard]] Business School (M.B.A. 1975). He served as a pilot in the Texas Air National Guard from 1968-1973, a period characterized by disputed questions about fulfillment of service obligations that became a recurring political issue. He entered the oil industry in Texas ([[Arbusto Energy]], later merged into [Harken Energy]]) before entering politics. His father George H.W. Bush had served as CIA Director (1976-1977), Vice President (1981-1989), and President (1989-1993), giving the younger Bush direct family familiarity with the intelligence community at the highest levels.[^2]
+Bush received a bachelor's degree in history from [[Yale University]] in 1968 and a Master of Business Administration from [[Harvard]] Business School in 1975.[^1] He entered Yale in 1964 and became president of the [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] fraternity.[^2] Yale's Class of 1968 included Bush and the journalist [[Jacques Leslie]].[^3] He enlisted in the [[Texas Air National Guard]] in 1968, two weeks before graduation, at the end of his draft deferment,[^2] and served as an F-102 fighter pilot.[^1] He was discharged from the Air Force Reserve on November 21, 1974.[^2]
-### 9/11 and the Decision for War
+After Harvard he moved back to Midland, Texas, and began a career in the energy business.[^1] [[Craig Unger]] wrote that Bush's company, [[Arbusto Energy]], did not start operations until March 1979, several months after Bush lost his 1978 congressional race, and that Bush had listed Arbusto on his resume during that campaign.[^4] The [[Houston Chronicle]] reported in 1992 that [[Bush Exploration]], the general partner in the Arbusto limited partnerships, "went through several mergers, eventually evolving into Harken Energy Corp."[^5] Unger wrote that in 1986 the Dallas energy firm [[Harken Energy]], then known as Harken Oil and Gas and partly owned by Harvard University and [[George Soros]], bought Bush's company for $2.25 million in stock, and that Bush received roughly $600,000, a seat on the board, and a consultancy paying between $50,000 and $120,000 a year.[^4] Harken's 1993 annual report states that Bush had served as a consultant to Harken since April 1987.[^6] Unger quoted Harken founder Phil Kendrick: "His name was George Bush. That was worth the money they paid him."[^4] Bush resigned from Harken's board of directors effective October 26, 1993, and terminated the consulting agreement; Harken's proxy statement of April 25, 1994 and its annual report of March 28, 1994 record the resignation, and the annual report lists a Form 8-K filed November 19, 1993 on the subject.[^7][^6]
-The September 11, 2001 attacks, in which [[al-Qaeda]] operatives hijacked four commercial aircraft and killed approximately 2,977 people, defined the Bush presidency. Within weeks of the attacks, Bush authorized the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] to build a global counterterrorism infrastructure including the detention and interrogation program that would become the source of the most serious legal controversies of his administration.
+### Texas Air National Guard
-The decision to invade [[Iraq]] in March 2003 was based on intelligence assessments that [[Saddam Hussein]] possessed weapons of mass destruction (biological, chemical, and potentially nuclear). The intelligence case was built around the testimony of an Iraqi defector codenamed "[[Curveball]]" ([[Rafid Ahmed Alwan al-Janabi]]), whose claims of mobile biological weapons laboratories were assessed by the [[BND]] and passed to the [[CIA]], despite significant internal doubts about his reliability. The CIA's finished assessments - the October 2002 [[National Intelligence Estimate]] on Iraq's WMD programs - overstated certainty about Iraqi WMD capabilities in ways that subsequent investigations attributed to politicized pressure from the Office of the Vice President ([[Dick Cheney]]) and the Office of Special Plans established under Undersecretary of Defense [[Douglas Feith]].
+The panel that reviewed the [[CBS News]] broadcast described Bush as having served in the 111th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, commanded by [[Jerry B. Killian]], from May 1968 to October 1973.[^8] FactCheck.org reported in February 2004 that Bush's last recorded day of service was July 30, 1973 and that he was released with an honorable discharge eight months before the end of the six-year term for which he had signed up.[^9] In a February 2004 NBC interview Bush said: "I got an honorable discharge, and I did show up in Alabama."[^9]
-No weapons of mass destruction were found in Iraq following the invasion. The Iraq Survey Group's final report (September 2004) concluded that Saddam Hussein's WMD programs had effectively ended in the early 1990s and that intelligence assessments had been fundamentally wrong.[^1]
+The [[White House]] released summaries of Bush's Texas Air National Guard service records and pay documents on February 10, 2004. Democracy Now! reported that the documents included "payroll sheets never before made public," and that the release came amid questions about an alleged gap in his service between May 1972 and May 1973.[^10]
-### Enhanced Interrogation and CIA Black Sites
+On September 8, 2004, the CBS News program "60 Minutes Wednesday" broadcast a segment, produced by [[Mary Mapes]], that presented four documents allegedly from the personal files of Killian, commander of the squadron in which Bush served.[^8] An independent review panel of former Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]] and former Associated Press chief executive [[Louis Boccardi]], appointed by CBS on September 22, 2004, dated its report January 5, 2005, and CBS issued it on January 10, 2005.[^8][^11] The panel wrote: "The Panel has not been able to conclude with absolute certainty whether the Killian documents are authentic or forgeries." It also wrote that the problems with the segment "were caused primarily by a myopic zeal to be the first news organization to broadcast what was believed to be a new story about President Bush's TexANG service." The first of the panel's listed defects was "The failure to obtain clear authentication of any of the Killian documents from any document examiner."[^8] The panel identified the source of the documents as retired Texas Army National Guard Lieutenant Colonel [[Bill Burkett]].[^8] In a statement of January 10, 2005, CBS chairman [[Leslie Moonves]] announced that Mapes was terminated, and that [[Josh Howard]], Mary Murphy and [[Betsy West]] were relieved of their duties and asked to resign.[^11]
-Following the capture of al-Qaeda operatives beginning in 2002, the CIA requested and received legal authorization from the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Office of Legal Counsel]] (OLC) for a program of "[[enhanced interrogation techniques]]" that included waterboarding, sleep deprivation, confinement in small spaces, stress positions, and other methods that the U.S. government had previously characterized as torture when used by other states. The OLC memos authorizing these techniques (the "[[Torture Memos]]," authored primarily by [[John Yoo]] and [[Jay Bybee]]) redefined the legal standard for torture in ways that senior legal scholars and international law experts subsequently condemned as bad-faith legal analysis.
+### Arbusto, Harken and the Texas Rangers
-The CIA operated a network of "black sites" - secret detention facilities in countries including [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Thailand]], and [[Afghanistan]] - outside normal legal accountability. Approximately 100 detainees were held in the black site network; a smaller number, including [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], were subjected to waterboarding and the full enhanced interrogation program. The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s study of the CIA's detention and interrogation program, released in summary form in December 2014 after years of controversy, concluded that the program produced little to no actionable intelligence not available through other means and that the CIA had systematically misled Congress, the [[White House]], and the public about its effectiveness.[^2]
+In 1992 the Houston Chronicle reported that [[James R. Bath]], a Houston investor, had put $50,000 into limited partnerships "controlled by George W. Bush," Arbusto '79 and Arbusto '80.[^5] The newspaper wrote: "There is no available evidence to show whether the money came from Saudi interests." The Chronicle reported that Bush said that, to his knowledge, Bath's investment was from personal funds and that no Saudi money was invested in Arbusto.[^5] Unger quotes Bath on the same point: "One hundred percent of those funds were mine. It was a purely personal investment," and Bath adds that Salem bin Laden and Khalid bin Mahfouz "never met Bush."[^4] Unger wrote that Bath "put up $50,000 for 5 percent of the stock" of Arbusto and describes him as Bush's National Guard friend, and that critics have asserted that money may have gone from Khalid bin Mahfouz and Salem bin Laden through Bath into Arbusto, but that "no hard evidence has ever been found to back up that charge."[^4]
-### NSA Warrantless Surveillance
+The same Chronicle article reported that, in sworn depositions, Bath said he "represented four prominent Saudis as a trustee," one of whom was Saudi Sheik Salem M. Binladen. According to a 1976 trust agreement, as the newspaper reported it, "drawn shortly after Bush was appointed director of the Central Intelligence Agency, Saudi Sheik Salem M. Binladen appointed Bath as his business representative in Houston." The Chronicle reported that Bath was the sole director of Skyway Aircraft Leasing Ltd., which a court document showed to be owned by [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]], and that Bath purchased the Houston Gulf Airport on behalf of Binladen in 1977. It also reported that Bath had "previously denied having worked for the CIA," and that according to [[Bill White]], a former real estate business associate of Bath who had litigated against him, Bath said he had assisted the CIA in a liaison role with Saudi Arabia since 1976. The Chronicle reported that the [[Financial Crimes Enforcement Network]] and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] were reviewing accusations that Bath guided Saudi money to Houston to influence United States policy.[^5]
-Bush authorized a program known as "[[Stellar Wind]]" (later "President's Surveillance Program") that allowed the [[NSA]] to collect telephone and internet communications of Americans in contact with persons overseas without obtaining the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]] warrants required by the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] (FISA). The program was revealed publicly by the New York Times in December 2005. The revelation led to significant congressional controversy, emergency retroactive legal justifications, and later became the template for the bulk collection authorities expanded under the FISA Amendments Act of 2008. [[Edward Snowden]]'s 2013 disclosures established that Stellar Wind was among the early programs in a broader NSA surveillance architecture that had expanded substantially beyond its original authorization.[^1]
+Unger wrote that Bath, who served in the Texas Air National Guard, befriended the young Bush, who began pilot training in 1970 at [[Ellington Air Force Base]], that in the mid-1970s Bush introduced Bath to his father, and that by 1976 Salem bin Laden had appointed Bath his American business representative.[^4] Unger wrote that the press speculated about Bath's connections to the Bush family, to [[John Connally]], to the CIA, to [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] and to figures in the Iran-Contra affair, and that Bath denied to Time that he was in the CIA but later said: "There's all sorts of degrees of civilian participation [in the CIA]."[^4] [[Pete Brewton]] wrote that in 1976 Bath started an airplane company, Jim Bath and Associates, with Johnson M. "Jack" Taylor, and that several months after its founding Bath "was named as a trustee for Sheikh Salem bin Laden of Saudi Arabia," with the job of handling all of bin Laden's North American investments and operations, citing Bath's resume.[^12] [[Jonathan Beaty]] and S. C. Gwynne wrote that Bill White, whom Beaty had flown in for debriefing during his research for Time magazine, alleged that his former business partner Bath "was a CIA agent with strange ties to both BCCI and President George Bush." In their account White told Beaty that Bath said he had been recruited "by George Bush himself in 1976, when Bush was director of the agency," that Bath and "George, Jr.," flew in the same Air National Guard unit, and that Bath said Bush wanted him involved with the Arabs and in the aviation business. They wrote that White also said Bath had been investigated by the Drug Enforcement Administration, and that most of Bath's investments, including Skyways Aircraft Company, "were really fronts for Mahfouz and other Saudis connected with BCCI." White's account of his falling out with Bath was an "admittedly adversarial relationship," in the authors' words.[^13]
-### Footnotes
+Harken, in Unger's account, drew investors linked to BCCI. Unger wrote that in 1987 Arkansas investment banker [[Jackson Stephens]] began raising $25 million from the [[Union Bank of Switzerland]] to invest in Harken, that the deal fell through, and that Stephens then introduced Harken to the Jeddah real estate investor [[Abdullah Taha Bakhsh]], whose investment gave him 17.6 percent of Harken's stock; Unger adds that Bakhsh, Khalid bin Mahfouz and Harken denied that Bakhsh's role had anything to do with BCCI.[^4] The Chronicle reported in 1992 that Bakhsh was among Harken's top shareholders and that Harken had been granted offshore drilling rights off [[Bahrain]].[^5] Unger wrote that in January 1990 Harken, which had never drilled outside the United States, won exclusive offshore drilling rights in Bahrain over [[Amoco]], that Bush said he thought the Bahrain deal "was a bad idea" and "had no idea that BCCI figured into Harken's financial dealings," and that Bush "went along with it when the final vote came."[^4] Unger wrote that neither Bush nor Harken had direct contact with bin Mahfouz or BCCI.[^4]
-[^1]: Woodward, Bob. *Plan of Attack.* Simon & Schuster, 2004.
+Bush sold 212,140 shares of Harken stock on June 22, 1990, at $4 per share, for $848,560.[^14][^15] Harken announced a loss of $23.2 million on August 20, 1990.[^15] A Securities and Exchange Commission memorandum drafted for the files on April 9, 1991, as the [[Center for Public Integrity]] reported it, noted that Bush had on four occasions filed late [[Form 4]] reports for Harken stock transactions worth more than $1 million. The tardiest, 34 weeks late, reported the June 22, 1990 sale.[^14] Salon reported that the SEC did not receive the Form 4 for the sale until March 4, 1991.[^15] In an October 1993 memorandum, the [[Securities and Exchange Commission|SEC]] stated that "the investigation has been terminated as to the conduct of Mr. Bush, and that, at this time, no enforcement action is contemplated with respect to him." The same memorandum said that the termination "must in no way be construed as indicating that the party has been exonerated or that no action may ultimately result."[^15]
-[^2]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. *Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program.* December 9, 2014.
+
 In April 1989 Bush and a group of partners bought the [[Texas Rangers]] baseball club from [[Eddie Chiles|Chiles]] for $86 million. Bush borrowed $500,000 from a Midland bank to buy a 1.8 percent stake.[^16] In 1998 [[Tom Hicks]] bought the team for $250 million. The partners had raised Bush's stake to 11.8 percent, and his share of the proceeds was $14.9 million on an investment of $606,302.[^16] The Center for Public Integrity also reported that [[Richard Rainwater]], who had put far more money into the club, received $25 million.[^16]
 ### Caterair and the Carlyle Group
 The [[Carlyle Group]] co-founder [[David Rubenstein]] addressed the Los Angeles County Employees Retirement Association in April 2003, and the remarks were recorded. Democracy Now! broadcast the recording on July 3, 2003, and introduced it as concerning [[Caterair International]], on whose board of directors Bush served.[^17] Rubenstein said that Carlyle bought the airline catering business from [[Marriott]] and lost its investors' money after the Gulf War, that someone asked him to put on the board a man who was "down on his luck a bit," and that the man "spent three years" on the board. In the recording, Rubenstein said: "His name is George W. Bush. He became President of the United States."[^17] Joe Conason, writing in [[Salon]], called the arrangement "the comfy sinecure" that Carlyle provided to Bush.[^17] Briody, the author of [[The Iron Triangle]], stated on the same broadcast that George H.W. Bush had worked for Carlyle as a senior adviser since 1998, and that [[Fred Malek]] put Bush on the Caterair board as a favor and received in return favors from the administration, in Briody's words "certain F.A.A. restrictions and things like that for the airline business."[^17]
 ### Skull and Bones
 Bush was a member of [[Skull and Bones]], the Yale senior society. Leslie wrote in Salon in March 2000 that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones."[^3] Leslie reported that [[Bill Minutaglio]], in his biography *First Son*, recorded that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping ritual himself.[^3] Leslie wrote that the elder Bush's membership in Bones "probably was the sole reason George W. was chosen," a view he presented as his own.[^3]
 ### September 11 and the August 6, 2001 briefing
 The September 11, 2001 attacks were carried out by hijackers of [[al-Qaeda]]. On August 6, 2001, Bush received a [[President's Daily Brief]] item titled "Bin Ladin Determined To Strike in US." The [[National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States]] reported that it was the 36th item briefed that year relating to Bin Ladin or al Qaeda, and "the first devoted to the possibility of an attack in the United States." The Commission wrote: "The President told us the August 6 report was historical in nature."[^18]
 The [[Joint Inquiry]] of the House and Senate intelligence committees produced a final section, commonly called the "28 pages," that was classified after its 2002 publication. The [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] announced on July 15, 2016 that the Obama administration had decided to declassify "the Joint Inquiry's only wholly classified section."[^19] The committee chairman, [[Devin Nunes]], said: "this section does not put forward vetted conclusions, but rather unverified leads that were later fully investigated by the Intelligence Community."[^19] The website 28pages.org states that when the joint inquiry report was published in 2002, the 28 pages "were fully redacted at the insistence of the George W. Bush administration."[^20]
 ### Detention and interrogation program
 On September 17, 2001, Bush signed a covert action Memorandum of Notification "granting the CIA unprecedented counterterrorism authorities," including authority to capture and detain individuals. The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s study of the program, released in summary in December 2014, records that the memorandum "made no reference to interrogations or coercive interrogation techniques."[^21]
 The [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Office of Legal Counsel]] issued two memoranda dated August 1, 2002. The first, from Assistant Attorney General [[Jay Bybee]] to [[John Rizzo]], Acting General Counsel of the CIA, concerned the interrogation of [[Abu Zubaydah]]. It states that it "memorializes our previous oral advice, given on July 24, 2002 and July 26, 2002, that the proposed conduct would not violate this prohibition," refers to ten techniques to be used in what the CIA had described as an "increased pressure phase," and concludes: "we conclude that the interrogation procedures that you propose would not violate Section 2340A." It states that the memorandum is "our best reading of the law" and that "there are no cases construing this statute."[^22] The second, addressed to White House Counsel [[Alberto Gonzales]], concluded that "Physical pain amounting to torture must be equivalent in intensity to the pain accompanying serious physical injury, such as organ failure, impairment of bodily function, or even death," and that "under the current circumstances, necessity or self-defense may justify interrogation methods that might violate Section 2340A."[^23] [[John Yoo]], then a deputy assistant attorney general, sent a July 13, 2002 letter to the CIA's acting general counsel on the subject.[^21] These opinions are commonly called the "[[Torture Memos]]."
 The Committee found that the Office of Legal Counsel "relied on CIA representations," that the Department of Justice "did not conduct independent analysis or verification of the information it received from the CIA," and that "Those representations were inaccurate in material respects."[^21] Its first finding reads: "The CIA's use of its enhanced interrogation techniques was not an effective means of acquiring intelligence or gaining cooperation from detainees."[^21] Its finding on the techniques reads: "The interrogations of CIA detainees were brutal and far worse than the CIA represented to policymakers and others."[^21] Internal CIA records describe the waterboarding of [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] as evolving into a "series of near drownings."[^21] The study reports that the CIA restricted access to the program until September 6, 2006, "by which time 117 of the 119 known detainees had already entered CIA custody."[^21]
 On the President's knowledge, the Committee found: "According to CIA records, no CIA officer, up to and including CIA Directors George Tenet and Porter Goss, briefed the president on the specific CIA [[enhanced interrogation techniques]] before April 2006."[^21] The study records that, when briefed in April 2006, the president "expressed discomfort with the 'image of a detainee, chained to the ceiling, clothed in a diaper, and forced to go to the bathroom on himself.'"[^21] Its seventh finding reads: "The CIA impeded effective White House oversight and decision-making."[^21] The CIA's June 2013 response to the study quotes Bush's memoir as stating that he discussed the program "with then-DCIA Tenet in 2002, prior to application of the techniques on Abu Zubaydah, and personally approved the techniques." The Committee's text adds that a memoir by former CIA acting general counsel John Rizzo disputes this account, and quotes Rizzo as writing that the one senior national security official of that period "who I did not believe was knowledgeable about the E.I.T.s was President Bush himself."[^21] The CIA's response states that "CIA records are contradictory and incomplete regarding when the President was briefed, but President Bush himself says he was briefed in 2002, before any techniques were used."[^21]
 The CIA operated detention facilities outside the United States. The study redacts the host countries. The [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled on July 24, 2014, in the case of [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]], that [[Poland]] had hosted a secret CIA prison.[^24] Reports and litigation also associate detention sites with [[Romania]], [[Thailand]], and [[Afghanistan]].
 ### Warrantless surveillance
 Bush authorized a program that the NSA protected under the cover term [[Stellar Wind|STELLARWIND]], which the inspectors general called the President's Surveillance Program (PSP).[^25] The Stellar Wind program was first authorized by the President on October 4, 2001, in a Top Secret Presidential Authorization issued to the Secretary of Defense, and the NSA General Counsel was read into the program on that day.[^25] The last Presidential Authorization expired on February 1, 2007.[^25] The inspectors general wrote that the President "authorized the NSA to intercept, without judicial approval or oversight, the content of international communications involving many U.S. persons."[^25] The program's collection portion was revealed in [[The New York Times]] and publicly confirmed by the President in December 2005.[^25] The NSA Inspector General was not read into the program until August 2002; according to the NSA General Counsel at the time, the President would not allow the Inspector General to be briefed before that date.[^25]
 The Department of Justice Inspector General found it "extraordinary and inappropriate that a single DoJ attorney, John Yoo, was relied upon to conduct the initial legal assessment of the PSP," and that the lack of oversight of Yoo's work "contributed to a legal analysis of the PSP that, at a minimum, was factually flawed."[^25] The inspectors general concluded that the collection under the PSP and under FISA afterward "resulted in unprecedented collection of communications content and metadata."[^25] Title III of the [[FISA Amendments Act of 2008]] required reviews by the inspectors general of the DoD, DoJ, CIA, NSA and ODNI, and the joint report is dated July 10, 2009.[^25]
 The collection was authorized by presidential orders rather than by the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]]. On June 27, 2013 The Guardian published a top-secret draft report by the NSA's inspector general and reported that the collection of bulk internet metadata began under the Stellar Wind program.[^26] The Guardian had identified [[Edward Snowden]] on June 9, 2013 as the source of its NSA disclosures.[^27]
 ### Iraq
 The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence's 2004 report on prewar intelligence about the weapons programs of [[Saddam Hussein]] found that "A series of failures, particularly in analytic trade craft, led to the mischaracterization of the intelligence." The report concluded that the assessment that Iraq "is reconstituting its nuclear program" was not supported by the intelligence provided to the Committee. The report concerned the October 2002 [[National Intelligence Estimate]] on Iraq's weapons programs, and concluded that most of its key judgments were "either overstated, or were not supported by, the underlying intelligence reporting."[^28]
 The [[Iraq Survey Group]]'s 2004 report, the Comprehensive Report of the Special Advisor to the Director of Central Intelligence, stated that Saddam Hussein wanted to recreate Iraq's weapons of mass destruction capability, "which was essentially destroyed in 1991," after sanctions were removed, and that "Saddam Husayn ended the nuclear program in 1991 following the Gulf war. ISG found no evidence to suggest concerted efforts to restart the program."[^29]
 The [[Robb-Silberman Commission]], reporting on March 31, 2005, found that "Virtually all of the Intelligence Community's information on Iraq's alleged mobile biological weapons facilities was supplied by a source, code-named '[[Curveball]],' who was a fabricator."[^30] The Commission described "a story of Defense Department collectors who abdicated their responsibility to vet a critical source; of Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) analysts who placed undue emphasis on the source's reporting," and of Intelligence Community leaders who failed to tell policymakers about Curveball's flaws in the weeks before war.[^30] [[Rafid Ahmed Alwan al-Janabi]] told The Guardian in 2011 that he was Curveball, that he had told a German official about mobile bioweapons trucks throughout 2000 after the [[BND]], the German intelligence service, approached him, and that he fabricated the accounts to bring down Saddam Hussein's government.[^31]
 The Senate Armed Services Committee minority staff report of October 21, 2004, prepared for Senator [[Carl Levin]], stated that the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy had inappropriately produced an alternative analysis, exaggerating a connection between Iraq and al-Qaida, as the Department of Defense Inspector General summarized it.[^32] The Robb-Silberman Commission concluded: "We conclude that it was the paucity of intelligence and poor analytical tradecraft, rather than political pressure, that produced the inaccurate pre-war intelligence assessments."[^30] It reported that "analysts universally asserted that in no instance did political pressure cause them to skew or alter any of their analytical judgments," and also wrote: "it is hard to deny the conclusion that intelligence analysts worked in an environment that did not encourage skepticism about the conventional wisdom." It summarized the post-war findings of the Iraq Survey Group: "The ISG found no evidence that Iraq had tried to reconstitute its capability to produce nuclear weapons after 1991."[^30]
 The Department of Defense Inspector General's report of February 9, 2007, requested by Senators [[Pat Roberts]] and Carl Levin, reviewed the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy headed by [[Douglas Feith]], including the Policy Counter Terrorism Evaluation Group and the Policy Support Office. The report states: "The actual Office of Special Plans had no responsibility for and did not perform any of the activities examined in this review." Its results section states that the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy "developed, produced, and then disseminated alternative intelligence assessments on the Iraq and al-Qaida relationship, which included some conclusions that were inconsistent with the consensus of the Intelligence Community, to senior decision-makers. While such actions were not illegal or unauthorized, the actions were, in our opinion, inappropriate." The Under Secretary of Defense for Policy did not concur, stating that the actions were not intelligence activities and, even if they were, would be appropriate because they responded to direction from the Deputy Secretary of Defense.[^32] At the Senate Armed Services Committee hearing of February 9, 2007, Chairman Levin read the conclusion of his October 2004 report: "An alternative intelligence assessment process was established in the Office of Under Secretary for Policy, Douglas Feith, that was predisposed to find a significant relationship between Iraq and al Qaeda."[^33] Senators [[Chuck Hagel]] and [[Olympia Snowe]], in additional views to the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence's second report, wrote: "We endorse the DoD IG's finding that the OUSDP personnel's actions were inappropriate."[^34]
 The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence's second report, on whether public statements by officials were substantiated, was approved by a vote of 10 to 5 on April 1, 2008 and released on June 5, 2008. The report reviewed five speeches, including that of Vice President [[Dick Cheney]] in Nashville on August 26, 2002, and states that the Vice President's August 2002 speech was not reviewed by the intelligence community and that intelligence officials could not find evidence that the President's September 2002 address to the United Nations General Assembly was reviewed by it.[^34] Its Conclusion 12 states: "Statements and implications by the President and Secretary of State suggesting that Iraq and al-Qa'ida had a partnership, or that Iraq had provided al-Qa'ida with weapons training, were not substantiated by the intelligence." Its Conclusion 15 states: "Statements by the President and the Vice President indicating that Saddam Hussein was prepared to give weapons of mass destruction to terrorist groups for attacks against the United States were contradicted by available intelligence information."[^34] Senator [[Jay Rockefeller]] told the Senate that "the committee did conclude that the administration repeatedly presented intelligence as fact, when in reality it was unsubstantiated and often contradicted what they were saying, or even was nonexistent."[^35] Senator [[Orrin Hatch]], joined by Vice Chairman [[Kit Bond]] and Senator [[Richard Burr]], wrote in additional views that the Phase Two investigations "devolved from the beginning into partisan disagreement."[^34]
 Mark Danner wrote in 2006 that the memorandum of a July 2002 meeting with [[Tony Blair]] recorded the head of British intelligence, "C," reporting on his Washington visit, and that Washington was engaged in a campaign to see to it that "the intelligence and facts" would be "fixed around the policy."[^36] The memorandum, dated July 23, 2002 and written by [[Matthew Rycroft]], was first published by [[The Sunday Times]] on May 1, 2005 and records: "Bush wanted to remove Saddam, through military action, justified by the conjunction of terrorism and WMD. But the intelligence and facts were being fixed around the policy."[^37]
 [^1]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived, georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov). Sworn in January 20, 2001 and January 20, 2005; 46th Governor of Texas; born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968; F-102 fighter pilot in the Texas Air National Guard; Master of Business Administration from Harvard Business School in 1975; moved back to Midland to begin a career in the energy business; assembled the partners who bought the Texas Rangers in 1989; elected Governor of Texas on November 8, 1994 and re-elected on November 3, 1998. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/president/biography.html
 [^2]: Biography.com, "George W. Bush." Eldest son of George H.W. and Barbara Bush, presidency, Yale enrollment in 1964, Delta Kappa Epsilon presidency, Texas Air National Guard enlistment in 1968, Air Force Reserve discharge on November 21, 1974. https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
 [^3]: Jacques Leslie, "Yale," Salon, March 1, 2000. Leslie identifies himself as a member of the Yale Class of 1968 who was asked to join Skull and Bones, and cites Bill Minutaglio's biography *First Son* for the account of Bush's tapping. Sole source for the Minutaglio account. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
 [^4]: Craig Unger, *House of Bush, House of Saud* (Scribner, 2004), pp. 32 to 33 (Bath, Bush and the CIA denial), 100 (Bath's statement and the Arbusto allegation), 115 (Bath's $50,000 and the March 1979 start of operations), 116 to 117 (the 1986 Harken deal and Kendrick), 118 (no direct contact with BCCI), 119 to 120 (Stephens, Union Bank of Switzerland, Bakhsh), 121 to 122 (Bahrain). The Bath, Bakhsh and Bahrain passages rest on Unger's cited reporting, including the Wall Street Journal, 1991.
 [^5]: Jerry Urban, "Bush Said Friend's Arbusto Investment Was His Own, Not Saudi Money," *Houston Chronicle*, June 4, 1992. Sole source for the sworn-deposition, trust-agreement and Bill White passages, which the newspaper attributes to court documents and to the litigants. Reproduced at https://911timeline.s3.amazonaws.com/1990s/houstonchronicle060492.html
 [^6]: Harken Energy Corporation, Form 10-K for 1993, filed March 29, 1994 (SEC accession 0000950134-94-000289), Item 10, "Certain Matters Involving Directors and Executive Officers," and the list of Form 8-K reports. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000289.txt
 [^7]: Harken Energy Corporation, Schedule 14A proxy statement filed April 25, 1994 (SEC accession 0000950134-94-000454): "Effective as of October 26, 1993 Mr. George W. Bush resigned as a Class B Director of the Company." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000454.txt
 [^8]: Report of the Independent Review Panel (Dick Thornburgh and Louis D. Boccardi) on the September 8, 2004 "60 Minutes Wednesday" segment "For the Record" concerning President Bush's Texas Air National Guard service, January 5, 2005, pp. 1 (the 111th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, May 1968 to October 1973, and the four documents), 3 to 5 (executive summary: "The Panel has not been able to conclude with absolute certainty whether the Killian documents are authentic or forgeries"; "myopic zeal"; defects 1 to 10). Archived copy of the CBS News posting: https://web.archive.org/web/2005id_/http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/pdf/complete_report/CBS_Report.pdf
 [^9]: FactCheck.org, "New Evidence Supports Bush Military Service (Mostly)," February 2004, including Bush's NBC interview. https://www.factcheck.org/2004/02/new-evidence-supports-bush-military-service-mostly/
 [^10]: Democracy Now!, "White House Opens Bush Military Records, Questions Remain," headlines, February 11, 2004. https://democracynow.org/2004/2/11/headlines/white_house_opens_bush_military_records_questions_remain
 [^11]: CBS News, statement of Leslie Moonves on the Independent Review Panel's report, January 10, 2005 (archived copy at cbsnews.com). The statement names the panel as Dick Thornburgh and Louis Boccardi, notes the 224-page report, and announces that Mary Mapes was terminated and that Josh Howard, Mary Murphy and Betsy West were relieved of their duties and asked to resign. https://web.archive.org/web/20050115000000/http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/pdf/complete_report/cbs_response.pdf
 [^12]: Pete Brewton, *The Mafia, CIA & George Bush* (S.P.I. Books, 1992), p. 221, citing "Resume of Jim R. Bath." Sole source for the Jim Bath and Associates account as Brewton gives it.
 [^13]: Jonathan Beaty and S. C. Gwynne, *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI* (Random House, 1993), pp. 226 to 230, giving the account of Bill White. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^14]: Knut Royce, "Bush violated security laws four times, SEC report says," Center for Public Integrity, October 4, 2000. The article describes the April 9, 1991 SEC memorandum and its figures. https://publicintegrity.org/politics/bush-violated-security-laws-four-times-sec-report-says/
 [^15]: Salon, "Harken," July 13, 2002, quoting the SEC memorandum of October 1993 and the Harken loss announcement. https://www.salon.com/2002/07/13/harken/
 [^16]: Center for Public Integrity, "How George W. Bush scored big with the Texas Rangers." https://publicintegrity.org/politics/how-george-w-bush-scored-big-with-the-texas-rangers/
 [^17]: Democracy Now!, "Exclusive: Why The Carlyle Group Pushed George W. Bush Off Its Board," broadcast and rush transcript, July 3, 2003. Includes the recording of David Rubenstein's April 2003 remarks, Joe Conason's column in Salon, and the remarks of Dan Briody. Sole source for the Rubenstein remarks and for Briody's account of Fred Malek. https://www.democracynow.org/2003/7/3/democracy_now_exclusive_why_the_carlyle
 [^18]: National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, *The 9/11 Commission Report* (GPO, 2004), pp. 260-261, including the text of the August 6, 2001 Presidential Daily Brief item. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-911REPORT/pdf/GPO-911REPORT.pdf
 [^19]: House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, "Intel Committee publishes declassified '28 pages,'" July 15, 2016, including the statement of Chairman Devin Nunes. https://intelligence.house.gov/2016/07/15/intel-committee-publishes-declassified-28-pages/
 [^20]: 28pages.org, statement on the classification history of the 28 pages. Sole source for the classification attribution to the George W. Bush administration. https://28pages.org/
 [^21]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program*, S. Rept. 113-288 (declassified December 2014): Findings and Conclusions (#1, #3, #5, #6, #7), the Memorandum of Notification of September 17, 2001, p. 39 and notes 17 and 178 (the April 2006 briefing, Bush's memoir, the CIA's June 2013 response and the Rizzo memoir), and the Yoo letter of July 13, 2002. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
 [^22]: Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, Memorandum for John Rizzo, Acting General Counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency, "Interrogation of al Qaeda Operative," August 1, 2002 (signed by Jay S. Bybee), pp. 1 and 18. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/olc/legacy/2010/08/05/memo-bybee2002.pdf
 [^23]: Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, Memorandum for Alberto R. Gonzales, Counsel to the President, "Standards of Conduct for Interrogation under 18 U.S.C. §§ 2340-2340A," August 1, 2002, PDF pp. 1, 2 and 46. https://www.justice.gov/olc/file/886061/dl
 [^24]: Open Society Justice Initiative, case page for *Al-Nashiri v. Poland*, summarizing the European Court of Human Rights judgment of July 24, 2014. https://www.justiceinitiative.org/litigation/al-nashiri-v-poland/mk
 [^25]: Inspectors General of the Department of Defense, Department of Justice, Central Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency and Office of the Director of National Intelligence, *Report on the President's Surveillance Program*, July 10, 2009, Volume I and the Department of Justice Office of Inspector General volume, as released April 24, 2015 in *New York Times Co. v. U.S. Department of Justice*, No. 14 Civ. 3776 (S.D.N.Y.). Preface (Title III), cover term (p. 12), the NSA General Counsel read in on October 4, 2001 (PDF p. 35), the NSA Inspector General read in August 2002, the Presidential Authorizations list and expiry of February 1, 2007, the Yoo findings, and the conclusions on "unprecedented collection." ACLU-hosted copy. https://assets.aclu.org/live/uploads/document/foia/StellarWind_IG_Report_OCRd_reduced.pdf
 [^26]: Glenn Greenwald and Spencer Ackerman, "NSA collected US email records in bulk for more than two years under Obama," The Guardian, June 27, 2013, publishing a top-secret draft report by the NSA inspector general. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/27/nsa-data-mining-authorised-obama
 [^27]: Glenn Greenwald, Ewen MacAskill and Laura Poitras, "Edward Snowden: the whistleblower behind the NSA surveillance revelations," The Guardian, June 9, 2013. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/09/edward-snowden-nsa-whistleblower-surveillance
 [^28]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Report on the U.S. Intelligence Community's Prewar Intelligence Assessments on Iraq*, S. Rept. 108-301 (2004), p. 14 (Conclusion 1). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-108srpt301/pdf/CRPT-108srpt301.pdf
 [^29]: Special Advisor to the Director of Central Intelligence, *Comprehensive Report of the Special Advisor to the DCI on Iraq's WMD* (the Duelfer report), September 30, 2004, "Regime Strategic Intent" and "Nuclear" key findings. Archived copy of the CIA posting: https://web.archive.org/web/2012id_/https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/general-reports-1/iraq_wmd_2004/Comp_Report_Key_Findings.pdf
 [^30]: Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction, *Report to the President of the United States*, March 31, 2005, pp. 45, 48, 50 and 51. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-WMD/pdf/GPO-WMD.pdf
 [^31]: Martin Chulov and Helen Pidd, "Defector admits to WMD lies that triggered Iraq war," The Guardian, February 15, 2011. Sole source for Janabi's account of his dealings with the BND. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/15/defector-admits-wmd-lies-iraq-war
 [^32]: Department of Defense Office of Inspector General, *Review of the Pre-Iraqi War Activities of the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy*, Report No. 07-INTEL-04, February 9, 2007 (declassified), Executive Summary, pp. i and ii. https://irp.fas.org/agency/dod/ig020907-decl.pdf
 [^33]: Senate Committee on Armed Services, hearing "Briefing on the Department of Defense Inspector General's Report on the Activities of the Office of Special Plans Prior to the War in Iraq," S. Hrg. 110-232, February 9, 2007, opening statement of Chairman Levin, quoting the conclusion of the committee minority staff report of October 2004. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-110shrg35438/pdf/CHRG-110shrg35438.pdf
 [^34]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Report on Whether Public Statements Regarding Iraq by U.S. Government Officials Were Substantiated by Intelligence Information*, S. Rept. 110-345 (June 5, 2008), pp. 1 to 2 (the five speeches and the intelligence review of them), Conclusion 12 (p. 71), Conclusion 15 (p. 82), Additional Views of Chairman Rockefeller (p. 89), Additional Views of Senators Hagel and Snowe (pp. 97 to 98) and Additional Views of Senator Hatch joined by Vice Chairman Bond and Senator Burr (p. 166). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/110345.pdf
 [^35]: Congressional Record, Senate, June 5, 2008, pp. S5133-S5135 (Sen. Rockefeller on prewar Iraq intelligence). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2008_cr/rock060508.html
 [^36]: Mark Danner, "The Secret Way to War," *The New York Review of Books*, April 6, 2006. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2006/04/06/the-secret-way-to-war/
 [^37]: Matthew Rycroft to David Manning, "Iraq: Prime Minister's meeting, 23 July," as published in "The secret Downing Street memo," *The Sunday Times*, May 1, 2005 (archived copy). https://web.archive.org/web/2005id_/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-1593607,00.html
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Giulio
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Giulio
@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ tags:
 born: 1919-01-14
 died: 2013-05-06
 location: "Rome, Italy"
-summary: "Giulio Andreotti was Italy's seven-time Prime Minister and dominant Democrazia Cristiana figure who refused to negotiate for Aldo Moro's release in 1978, disclosed the existence of Operation Gladio to parliament in October 1990, and was acquitted of Mafia association charges after an eight-year trial."
+summary: "Giulio Andreotti was Italy's seven-time Prime Minister who refused to negotiate for Aldo Moro's release in 1978, acknowledged Operation Gladio in 1990, and was acquitted of Mafia association charges."
 ---
 Giulio Andreotti was born on January 14, 1919, in Rome. He served as Prime Minister of Italy seven times between 1972 and 1992, more than any other postwar Italian leader, and was the preeminent figure of the [[Democrazia Cristiana]] party's right wing for four decades. Known as "Il Divo" and "Il Gobbo" (the Hunchback), he was a master of the opaque center of Italian power who simultaneously wielded institutional authority, intelligence connections, and political longevity of a kind unique in Western European democracy. He died in Rome on May 6, 2013.[^1]
@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ The refusal was justified as a constitutional principle that the state could not
 ### Gladio Disclosure
-On October 24, 1990, in response to questioning by magistrate [[Felice Casson]] and parliamentary demands following Casson's discovery of the [[Operation Gladio|Gladio]] documentation, Andreotti - serving as Prime Minister for the sixth time - confirmed to the Italian Parliament that a secret NATO stay-behind network had existed in Italy since 1956. His disclosure, carefully calibrated to acknowledge the network's existence while limiting information about its political operations, triggered the parliamentary and European investigations that followed.[^2]
+Andreotti, serving as Prime Minister for the sixth time, first acknowledged the [[Operation Gladio|Gladio]] stay-behind structure to the parliamentary Stragi commission on August 3, 1990, saying its activities had continued until 1972; a document he sent the commission on October 18 showed it still active. On October 24, 1990, answering interpellations in the Chamber of Deputies, he described the NATO-framework network and said he had revised the document after magistrate [[Felice Casson]] wrote to the commission's chairman.[^3] The network dated from a 1956 accord between the Italian military intelligence service SIFAR and the CIA, according to the commission's 1992 report.[^4] His disclosure, carefully calibrated to acknowledge the network's existence while limiting information about its political operations, triggered the parliamentary and European investigations that followed.[^2]
 ### Mafia Trial
@ -52,3 +52,5 @@ The Court of Cassation's final ruling acquitted Andreotti of the murder charge a
 [^1]: Pansa, Giampaolo. *Il revisionista.* Rizzoli, 2009. Flamini, Gianni. *Il Partito del Golpe.* Bovolenta, 1982-1985.
 [^2]: Ganser, Daniele. *NATO's Secret Armies: Operation GLADIO and Terrorism in Western Europe.* Frank Cass, 2005. Willan, Philip. *Puppetmasters: The Political Use of Terrorism in Italy.* Constable, 1991.
 [^3]: Camera dei deputati, X Legislatura, *Discussioni*, seduta del 24 ottobre 1990 (no. 537), *Resoconto stenografico*, pp. 71561-71562. Translated from the Italian. https://legislature.camera.it/_dati/leg10/lavori/stenografici/sed0537/sed0537.pdf
 [^4]: Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi, *Relazione sull'inchiesta condotta sulle vicende connesse all'operazione Gladio*, Doc. XXIII n. 51, approved April 14-15, 1992, pp. 12-13, 29-30. Translated from the Italian. https://www.parlamento.it/service/PDF/PDFServer/BGT/909971.pdf
--- a/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Günter
+++ b/PEOPLE/(A-G)/Günter
@ -2,51 +2,204 @@
 aliases:
  - Günter Guillaume
  - Gunter Guillaume
  - Günther Guillaume
  - Guenther Guillaume
  - Günter Karl Heinz Guillaume
 category: "Intelligence & Government"
 tags:
  - Person
  - Germany
  - Stasi
  - EastGermany
  - HauptverwaltungAufklaerung
  - ColdWar
  - Intelligence
  - Espionage
-  - 1960s
+  - SocialDemocraticParty
-  - 1970s
+  - WillyBrandt
-summary: "Günter Guillaume was a Stasi agent who emigrated to West Germany in 1956, built a career in the SPD, became Chancellor Willy Brandt's personal aide, and whose exposure as a spy in April 1974 forced Brandt's resignation in one of the Cold War's most politically damaging intelligence operations."
+summary: "Günter Guillaume was a Stasi officer who emigrated to West Germany in 1956, became personal aide to Chancellor Willy Brandt, and whose arrest in April 1974 preceded Brandt's resignation."
 born: 1927-02-01
 died: 1995-04-10
-location: "East Berlin, East Germany"
+location: "Eggersdorf bei Berlin, Germany"
 created: 2026-05-01
 updated: 2026-10-07
 relations:
  - type: employed_by
    with: "Stasi"
    start: 1954
    end: 1974
    role: "Officer in Special Deployment (OibE); Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung codename Hansen"
    fn: 5
  - type: employed_by
    with: "Federal Chancellery"
    start: 1970
    end: 1974
    role: "Referent for trade union liaison, then party liaison aide to Chancellor Willy Brandt"
    fn: 3
  - type: member_of
    with: "Social Democratic Party"
    start: 1957
    end: 1974
    fn: 10
  - type: informant_for
    with: "Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung"
    start: 1954
    end: 1974
    role: "codename Hansen"
    fn: 3
  - type: spouse_of
    with: "Christel Guillaume"
    start: 1951
    fn: 1
  - type: relative_of
    with: "Pierre Boom"
    role: "son"
    fn: 1
  - type: investigated
    with: "Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz"
    reverse: true
    start: 1973
    end: 1974
    fn: 37
  - type: participant_in
    with: "Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf"
    start: 1974
    end: 1975
    role: "defendant, treason trial before the 4th Criminal Senate"
    fn: 50
 ---
-Günter Guillaume was born February 1, 1927, in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]. He joined the [[Communist Party of Germany]] (KPD) as a young man and after World War II worked in the East German state apparatus. He was recruited by the [[Stasi]]'s foreign intelligence directorate, the [[Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung]] (HVA), and assigned a long-term penetration operation targeting [[West Germany|West German]] political structures. He died April 10, 1995, in East Berlin.[^1]
+Günter Guillaume was born February 1, 1927, in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]], and died April 10, 1995, in Eggersdorf bei Berlin.[^1][^2] He was an officer of the [[Stasi]], the [[East Germany|East German]] Ministry for State Security, and in the early 1970s served in the [[Federal Chancellery]] as the personal aide for party affairs to [[West Germany|West German]] Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]]. His arrest in April 1974 was followed by Brandt's resignation.[^2]
-### The Cover Identity and Western Penetration
+### Training and Recruitment
-In May 1956, Guillaume emigrated to West Germany along with his wife Christel (also a Stasi agent) posing as refugees fleeing the GDR. They settled in Frankfurt and Guillaume joined the [[Social Democratic Party]] (SPD). The cover story was well-constructed: Guillaume presented himself as a disillusioned East German committed to West German democracy, and his apparent convictions allowed him to build genuine relationships within the SPD's political networks over the following years.
+The Stasi trained Günter and [[Christel Guillaume]] in East Germany during the 1950s as candidates for defection to the West, and Günter was an Officer in Special Deployment (Offizier im besonderen Einsatz, OibE) of the ministry. The Stasi's foreign intelligence directorate, the [[Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung]] (HVA), registered the couple under the codenames "Hansen" for Günter and "Heinze" for Christel, on September 9, 1954, and October 30, 1958, respectively; the entries survive in the HVA's SIRA databases, which archivists of the [[Stasi-Unterlagen-Archiv]] decoded in the 1990s.[^3] His assignment is recorded as "Integration und Aufklärung der SPD" (integration into and reconnaissance of the SPD).[^4]
-Guillaume worked in Frankfurt SPD party organization and eventually moved to the federal level. His competence, loyalty, and political reliability brought him to the attention of senior SPD figures. By 1970 he had been brought into the Chancellor's office as an administrator and in 1972 became a personal aide to Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]], with responsibility for party liaison and some administrative duties. He accompanied Brandt on official travel and had access to sensitive communications.[^1]
+[[Markus Wolf]], who directed the HVA, wrote that the couple went to West Germany in the mid-1950s on the service's orders under their real names, that Christel's Dutch mother had already moved to Frankfurt, which spared them refugee camps and questioning by Western intelligence services, and that they were told to open and run sources inside the [[Social Democratic Party]].[^5]
-### Exposure and Arrest
+He was born into a Berlin family and attended primary school from 1933 to 1941, then trained as a photographer, with the details of the sequence unclear because he gave contradictory accounts. He joined the NSDAP on April 20, 1944, left photography about autumn 1944 for three months in the Reichsarbeitsdienst, and was conscripted into the Wehrmacht on January 6, 1945. In May 1945 he spent about six weeks in British captivity and then worked as a farm laborer in Schleswig-Holstein until the end of the year. In 1946 he returned to East Berlin, where he worked as a photographer and last as a technical editor at the publisher [[Volk und Wissen]], again with contradictory statements about those years. He became a member of the FDGB trade union federation in 1950. On May 12, 1951 he married Christel Margarete Ingeborg Boom at the Leisnig registry office, and the couple moved to Lehnitz near Berlin the same year.[^1] The security declaration and the refugee-intake file gave different accounts of his years at Volk und Wissen: the intake file gave 1953 to 1955 as picture editor, the declaration 1951 to 1955 as technical editor.[^6] The two records of Christel's birth differ: one gives October 6, 1927, the other November 6, 1927 in Allenstein.[^7] He joined the [[Communist Party of Germany]] (KPD) as a young man.
-The [[Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz]] (BfV), West Germany's domestic counterintelligence service, had been investigating Guillaume since at least 1973 on the basis of intercepted signals intelligence that suggested his connection to East German intelligence. In April 1974, the BfV informed Chancellor Brandt of the evidence against his aide.
+### Emigration and the SPD, 1956 to 1969
-Brandt continued to use Guillaume in his work while the investigation was completed - a decision subsequently criticized by the BfV and others as having prolonged Guillaume's access to sensitive material. Guillaume was arrested on April 24, 1974. His wife Christel was arrested simultaneously.
+On May 12 and 13, 1956 the couple crossed into West Berlin near Hohen Neuendorf-Frohnau and flew to the Federal Republic. On May 13, 1956 they took a flat in [[Frankfurt]]. They did not pass through an emergency-admission camp and were taken in at the flat of Christel's mother, the Dutch national [[Erna Boom]], at Finkenhofstraße 29; police registration followed on July 1, 1956. Guillaume applied for residence on September 13, 1956, and the permit was granted on December 3, 1956.[^1] The cover story of a family reunification with a mother-in-law who had moved to Frankfurt presented the pair as refugees from the GDR.[^8] The [[Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz]] (BfV) memoranda of May 1973 listed the entry without the admission camp, the late application of September 13, 1956, and the gap to the police registration of July 1, 1956 among the features it treated as suspicious.[^9]
-Guillaume reportedly told his arresting officers "I am a citizen of the GDR and an officer of the National People's Army. I ask you to respect my honour as an officer" - a statement that was widely reported and confirmed the intelligence nature of his work.[^1]
+On August 15, 1956 the couple opened a typing bureau in the shared flat, which added copying and photocopying on September 1, 1956 and ran until April 1, 1957.[^1][^10] Guillaume also helped his mother-in-law run a coffee shop with a retail trade in coffee and chocolate in Frankfurt-Sachsenhausen that she had founded on July 9, 1956, and from July 1, 1957 the two ran it as a joint business that also sold sweets, tobacco products and spirits; the retail business was deregistered in May 1963.[^1] The family business has been described as a snack bar.[^11] A coffee and tobacco shop called Boom am Dom served as a contact point for East German agents.[^8] Wolf wrote that Günter passed information on microfilm in empty cigar tubes that a courier collected in his mother-in-law's shop, and that the HVA kept one-way radio contact with the couple at fixed times on set days of the month.[^12]
-### Political Consequences
+Guillaume joined the SPD in 1957 and became managing secretary of the SPD sub-district (Unterbezirk) of Frankfurt on March 1, 1964, a post he held until April 30, 1968; from May 1968 until he left for Bonn on December 31, 1969 he was managing secretary of the SPD city-council group in Frankfurt, sat on the city council from October 1968, and served in electoral district 140 as the campaign representative of Federal Minister [[Georg Leber]].[^1][^13] Christel worked as a secretary in the SPD's Hesse-South district until 1964 and then in the Hesse state chancellery in Wiesbaden, first as secretary to State Secretary [[Willi Birkelbach]]; from February 1971 she worked in Hesse's representation in Bonn until her arrest.[^1] Wolf wrote that she became head of Birkelbach's office in the early 1960s and that secret NATO documents reached his desk.[^14]
-Brandt resigned as Chancellor on May 7, 1974, citing his personal responsibility for negligence in security. His decision was influenced both by the objective seriousness of the penetration and by the political atmosphere the affair had created. His successor as Chancellor was [[Helmut Schmidt]].
+Between July 30, 1969, and April 8, 1974, he transmitted 23 items on internal SPD matters, twelve on government policy and nine on trade union questions; the historian Daniela Münkel assesses his intelligence value to the Stasi as not outstanding and him as unquestionably not a top source. The HVA was allowed to destroy its entire file holdings during the dissolution of the Stasi in 1989 and 1990.[^3] Wolf wrote that Guillaume's information and assessments had a quite different significance from the secret documents reaching the HVA through other sources, and that Guillaume helped shape the détente between the Federal Republic and the GDR by showing the HVA Brandt's will for peace.[^15]
-The Guillaume affair damaged [[Ostpolitik]] by removing its principal architect at a critical moment. It also exposed the vulnerability of West German political parties to long-term Stasi penetration operations and generated a reassessment of counterintelligence practices.[^1]
+### Chancellery Posting, 1969 to 1972
-### Trial and Exchange
+Guillaume worked in the 1969 election campaign organization of the transport minister Georg Leber, who proposed him for a post in the Chancellery; [[Herbert Ehrenberg]], who headed the Chancellery's economic and social policy department, looked for an aide for liaison with trade unions and employers' associations.[^3][^4][^1] Wolf wrote that Guillaume presented himself to the head of the Chancellery, [[Horst Ehmke]], three weeks after Brandt's election as Chancellor, and that Ehmke saw no reason to refuse his sponsors.[^16]
-Guillaume was tried in West Germany on charges of espionage and treason. He was convicted in December 1975 and sentenced to thirteen years in prison. Christel Guillaume received an eight-year sentence. He was held in West German custody until October 1981, when he and his wife were exchanged for Western agents held in East Germany in a spy exchange negotiated between the two German states.
+The Chancellery's inquiries raised reservations at the security group of the [[Bundeskriminalamt]] and at the [[Bundesnachrichtendienst]] (BND).[^4] The BND answered the Chancellery on December 16, 1969.[^17] On December 17, 1969 a BND telex reported that a BND card entry of April 1954 said Guillaume had traveled the Federal Republic on behalf of the publisher Volk und Wissen to establish contacts with publishers, printers and persons and then infiltrate them from the east.[^18] The BND also knew that Volk und Wissen served as a residency (Residentur) for members of the Ministry for State Security; its president, [[Gerhard Wessel]], testified that the Chancellery's question had been aimed at Guillaume personally.[^19] Wessel was ill on December 23, 1969, and a telex of that date from the BND president gave the Chancellery the background instead. State secretary [[Egon Bahr]], who stood in for the head of the Chancellery, noted by hand on the telex that "Selbst wenn Sie einen positiven Eindruck haben, bleibt ein gewisses Sicherheitsrisiko, gerade hier" (even if you have a positive impression, a certain security risk remains, precisely here).[^20] Ehmke testified that Bahr had evidently assumed Guillaume would be hired if he made a proper impression in the planned interview, and that this was a misunderstanding, since the interview was meant to gather comparison material and the BfV check still had to follow.[^19] Wolf wrote that Bahr remained suspicious and told Ehmke he might be wronging Guillaume but that Guillaume's past made it extremely risky to take him into the Chancellery, and that the warning went unheard.[^21]
-Guillaume returned to East Germany, where he worked for a time in the Stasi's training programs before East Germany's collapse in 1989-1990. He published a memoir after reunification and died in East Berlin in 1995.[^1]
+Ehmke and the Chancellery's security official Schlichter interviewed Guillaume on January 7, 1970, with Ehrenberg present, and Guillaume countersigned the record on January 12, 1970.[^19] The BfV completed a comprehensive card check that it reported to the Chancellery security official on January 27, 1970.[^22] The appointment took effect on January 1, 1970, and Guillaume took up service on January 28, 1970.[^23] He was cleared for classified material up to the level Geheim on May 12, 1970.[^4] Wolf wrote that Guillaume was responsible for receiving and forwarding the incoming messages and the courier mail arriving by helicopter, that the BND staff quickly grew used to his evident standing with the government's leadership, and that with the consent of the Verfassungsschutz he soon received the formal clearance for the highest level of classified material.[^24] On November 30, 1972, an internal order assigned him to the office of the Chancellor, where he took over the party and parliamentary-group liaison portfolio held by the administrative official Reuschenbach.[^25] Wolf wrote that Reuschenbach, a campaign manager running for the Bundestag, proposed Guillaume as his successor and that from January 1, 1973 Guillaume was the personal aide for party matters, attending the SPD executive and parliamentary-group meetings.[^26]
 ### The BND, the BfV and the Mercker Commission
 The Second Inquiry Committee of the [[Bundestag]] found that it would have been sensible for the BND president to pass on the BND's knowledge about Volk und Wissen to Ehmke, since a reference to the publisher was in the card report on Guillaume. Nollau testified that he had not mentioned to Genscher the source reports of the Untersuchungsausschuß Freiheitlicher Juristen or of the BND, which had not seemed weighty to him, and that he would have presented the letter of the UfJ of November 22, 1955 had its wording been known to him, because it was truly weighty.[^27] The committee heard the expert Mercker testify that the BND held material on Guillaume that, under the guidelines, should have been passed to the BfV, and that the principle of passing such domestic-policy material to the BfV had not always been observed.[^28]
 Mercker was one of three members of the [[Mercker Commission]], which under a contract of May 31, 1968 with the Federal Republic, represented by the head of the Chancellery [[Karl Carstens]], reviewed complaints by BND staff and tips from outsiders about irregularities in the BND. Its members were the former state secretary Mercker, the former ministerial director Raab and the former lieutenant general Zerbel. The first part of its report of July 24, 1969 dealt with the complaints. The government's published excerpt of the second part, transmitted to the Bundestag on December 3, 1974, records the commission's findings that the BND's effectiveness in reconnaissance against the East had steadily declined and that staff had expressed suspicion that leading BND officials were cooperating with the adversary; the commission found that the staff based this suspicion on specific facts and their assessment, and the government added that the BND's new leadership had followed up the hints and the suspicions had not been confirmed. The commission also found that security reasons, in particular the accusation of enemy control (Feindsteuerung), had too readily been used against inconvenient staff. Its recommendations included intensive Chancellery supervision of the BND to prevent it from becoming a state within the state. The government stated that the full report "ist auch heute nicht zu einer vollständigen Veröffentlichung geeignet" (is not suitable even today for full publication).[^29]
 A separate government commission on preventive security (Vorbeugender Geheimschutz), composed of the former state secretaries Birckholtz, Eschenburg, Maassen and Mercker, was established by cabinet resolutions of May 14 and 29, 1974, began work on May 31, 1974, and handed its report on the security questions raised by the Guillaume case to the government on November 18, 1974; the Chancellor [[Helmut Schmidt]] forwarded it to the Bundestag by letter of December 3, 1974.[^30]
 ### Warnings and Surveillance, 1973
 Wolf wrote that the HVA's longtime West Berlin source Wilhelm Gronau of the DGB's Ostbüro was arrested in autumn 1972 while meeting his East German instructor, and that the instructor carried a note with the name Guillaume.[^31] The Second Inquiry Committee recorded that the first suspicions against Guillaume were recognized in April 1973 and hardened during May, and that the BfV's memoranda of May 11 and 17, 1973 recommended surveillance.[^32] Wolf wrote that the BfV was certain of Guillaume's identity "nicht später als März 1973" (no later than March 1973).[^33]
 Wolf described how the BfV identified Guillaume through radio traffic. He wrote that in the 1950s the HVA used a Soviet cipher system until it learned that Western services had broken it with computers and could match telegrams to recipients; the HVA withdrew the system and judged that the early telegrams to the Guillaumes allowed no conclusions about their identity, but overlooked the birthday and New Year greetings the service sent its staff. A BfV official handling unattributed radio messages, in canteen talk with a colleague who remembered the name Guillaume from the Gronau case, recalled a recipient whose name began with G, who had become active in the late 1950s, had access to the SPD and was important enough to receive greeting telegrams from East Berlin. He compared the dates of the greetings with the birthdays in the Guillaume family, and Wolf wrote that from then on everything was clear.[^34] Intercepted and decrypted East German radio messages with birthday greetings and a "Glückwunsch zum zweiten Mann" ("congratulations to the second man") matched Günter Guillaume and his son, born in Frankfurt, to the same dates, and that the indications then reached the BfV president, [[Günther Nollau]], who recognized an urgent suspicion although no evidence usable in court existed.[^35]
 The case file went through the BfV leadership to its president on May 23, 1973, and a meeting on May 28, 1973 concluded that an urgent suspected case existed that cautious surveillance had to clarify and that the material was not sufficient for proceedings by the Federal Prosecutor.[^36] On May 29, 1973, at 10:30, Nollau briefed the interior minister, [[Hans-Dietrich Genscher]], with the head of the minister's office, [[Klaus Kinkel]], present. All three testified that Nollau named a special intelligence method and an unexplained five-month gap in Guillaume's curriculum vitae before his move to the Federal Republic as grounds; Genscher said he must inform the Chancellor at once, which Nollau first refused and then also approved. Genscher and Kinkel testified that Nollau named only these two grounds. Nollau testified that he could not say what further details he mentioned and, asked whether he had told Genscher that Guillaume was an agent, answered "not in those words, but with that opinion." The committee found that Genscher and Kinkel did not learn that Nollau and the BfV experts were convinced that Guillaume was a spy still active, and found credible Nollau's statement that he knew the matter better than Genscher.[^37]
 Genscher informed Brandt in two conversations, on May 29 after a coalition meeting and on May 30, 1973. Brandt testified that Genscher told him the suspicion came from a source of a special kind reaching back to the 1950s, that he took it seriously but thought the suspicion very unlikely because Ehmke had told him in 1970 or 1971 that Guillaume had been thoroughly checked, and that he did not recall mentioning that. According to the committee, the interior minister relayed the BfV's advice to leave Guillaume in his place and give no warning by changing his function or behavior toward him, and Brandt agreed to the surveillance. In the same conversation Brandt raised whether Guillaume should accompany him on his Norway holiday; Genscher said he would ask Nollau and brought the answer the next day that nothing should change, since the suspect might otherwise be warned.[^38] Genscher and Nollau gave conflicting accounts of a telephone call on May 30, 1973: Genscher said he asked Nollau whether the Norway plan should change and Nollau said it should not; Nollau insisted he learned of the trip only after it began in early July. The committee stated that the conflict could not be resolved. Grabert confirmed that Brandt told him of the matter on June 4, 1973, and a BfV file note of July 4, 1973 records that Guillaume was on holiday with the Chancellor.[^39]
 The Chancellery sent Guillaume a telex with secret information for Brandt on July 4, 1973.[^4] Wolf wrote that Guillaume accompanied Brandt to Norway at the end of June 1973, handled all correspondence for several weeks, and was shown on television at the cipher machine reading a telex.[^40] Chancellery telexes to Brandt's residence, including secret ones, ran through Guillaume's hands.[^8] Wolf wrote that the HVA never received the films of the copied Norway documents: Christel handed them to her courier "Anita", the two women noticed they were being followed, and the courier dropped the package from a Rhine bridge into the water. He wrote that the prosecution at the trial assumed the papers had reached East Berlin, that Guillaume confirmed that version, and that he himself stayed silent about it for the time being.[^41]
 Wolf wrote that the discrepancies between Genscher and Nollau led to a suspicion, in Bonn as well, that insiders had deliberately let Brandt walk into disaster, that Genscher was already talking with the opposition leader [[Helmut Kohl]] about a CDU-FDP coalition, and that Nollau, who had maintained until his death that he warned clearly, was declared the culprit.[^42] Genscher and Kinkel testified in Wolf's own trial in 1993 that Nollau had informed them only of a vague suspicion.[^43]
 ### Arrest and Resignation, 1974
 Guillaume and his wife were arrested on April 24, 1974 in their apartment in Bonn. The minority opinion of the Second Inquiry Committee, written by the CDU/CSU member Gerster, records the arrest of the personal aide of Chancellor Willy Brandt, Günter Guillaume, and his wife, whom it names "Christine, geb. Boom," on suspicion of intelligence activity. The majority report gives the wife's name as Christel.[^44] Elizabeth Pond reported in 1981 that after his arrest Guillaume confirmed proudly that he was an officer in the East German Army.[^11] The words widely reported from the arrest are: "I am a citizen of the GDR and an officer of the National People's Army. I ask you to respect my honour as an officer."
 Brandt wrote that on the morning of April 24, 1974, on his return from Cairo, he was greeted with the news that one of his Chancellery advisers had been arrested as a spy, that it did not immediately occur to him that he would have to resign, and that his decision matured "without undue haste" and was finally taken on May 6. He wrote that he had "taken advice which, looking back, I should not have taken."[^45]
 The Bundeskriminalamt delivered a dossier to Brandt on May 1, 1974, containing claims from his bodyguards that Guillaume had brought women to him. Brandt met SPD leaders at Bad Münstereifel on May 4 and informed the SPD leadership on the morning of May 5.[^46] Brandt's resignation letter reached the federal president, [[Gustav Heinemann]], on the evening of May 6, 1974, and states that he takes "die politische Verantwortung für Fahrlässigkeiten im Zusammenhang mit der Agentenaffäre Guillaume" (political responsibility for negligence in connection with the Guillaume agent affair).[^46] The resignation became public at midnight. Brandt explained the decision to the SPD parliamentary group on May 7. The Bundestag elected Helmut Schmidt as his successor on May 16, 1974.[^46] The years of Guillaume's service were the years of Brandt's [[Ostpolitik]], the normalization of relations between East and West Germany.[^11] Wolf wrote that the resignation after the arrest of "our scout" Guillaume was something for which he was still blamed.[^47]
 The East German security service analyzed the resignation in a report of May 14, 1974, titled "Entwicklung der Krise der Koalition und zum Verfall der Autorität Willy Brandts." Its conclusion reads "Der Fall Guillaume war nur der äußere Anlaß zum Rücktritt Brandts von seiner Funktion als Bundeskanzler" (The Guillaume case was only the outward occasion for Brandt's resignation from the office of Chancellor).[^48] In 1972 the Stasi bribed two members of the Bundestag, whose votes allowed Brandt to survive a no-confidence motion of the CDU/CSU on April 27, 1972.[^48][^3] Wolf wrote that he recalled the CDU deputy [[Julius Steiner]] as a mediocre source who had received regular payments, and that the opposition was unexpectedly two votes short.[^49]
 ### Trial and Exchange, 1975 to 1981
 Guillaume was tried for treason before the 4th Criminal Senate of the [[Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf]]. Brandt testified there on October 1, 1974.[^50] A draft letter to the Rhineland-Palatinate minister-president Helmut Kohl on the question of an exchange of Guillaume is dated September 9, 1974.[^50] On December 15, 1975 the court convicted Guillaume of treason and sentenced him to thirteen years in prison; his wife Christel received eight years.[^51][^3] The Chancellery recorded the announcement of the judgment in a memorandum of December 16, 1975.[^50] Guillaume's sentence of thirteen years for treason was reported in 1981 as having been imposed in 1975.[^52]
 Christel Guillaume was released in March 1981, in an exchange described as the first East-West spy swap in twenty months, after West Germany pardoned her. East Germany had repeatedly sought Guillaume's return, while West Germany insisted that he serve his full sentence.[^11] Reports in September 1981 described a six-nation swap that would include Guillaume, which Bonn did not officially confirm at the time.[^53] West Germany released Guillaume on October 1, 1981 in an exchange with East Germany, under which, according to a source, about 3,000 East Germans would be allowed to join relatives in West Germany.[^52] Leaked terms of the exchange were that East Germany would release 35 imprisoned West German spies and political prisoners and grant 3,000 exit visas, with France, Denmark and South Africa each releasing an East-bloc agent, and that West Germany would pay $65.2 million and release at least two spies; as carried out, France, Denmark and South Africa kept their Eastern agents for the time being. Guillaume was "placed in a delivery van and hustled eastward," and the East German intermediary was the lawyer [[Wolfgang Vogel]].[^54]
 ### Later Life and Family
 After his return to the GDR, Guillaume gave several lectures on his operation at the MfS school, and the Stasi celebrated the pair with a two-hour documentary under the title "Auftrag erfüllt" (Mission Accomplished). The memoirs of [[Werner Grossmann]], the last head of the HVA, describe the effect of the affair on [[Erich Honecker]] as a "Guillaume-Syndrom": Honecker feared a second case and asked [[Erich Mielke]] to shut down further agents in the Chancellery.[^3]
 Guillaume published his account in 1988 as *Die Aussage: wie es wirklich war* (The Statement: As It Really Was), recorded by Günter Karau and published by the Militärverlag der DDR in East Berlin. A second edition followed in 1990 from Universitas in Munich, and a third in 1993 from Ullstein.[^55]
 Christel Guillaume, born Boom, died in Berlin; her death was reported on March 25, 2004.[^56] Their son, [[Pierre Boom|Pierre Tobias Charles Guillaume]], was born in Frankfurt on April 8, 1957, and published *Der fremde Vater* (The Stranger Father) under the name Pierre Boom with Aufbau-Verlag in 2004.[^1][^57] Pierre Boom's father was arrested at the family's Bonn apartment on April 24, 1974, and returned to the GDR on October 1, 1981.[^58]
 ### Footnotes
-[^1]: Wolf, Markus, with Anne McElvoy. *Man Without a Face: The Autobiography of Communism's Greatest Spymaster.* Times Books, 1997 (Wolf, who directed the HVA and oversaw the Guillaume operation, discusses it in his memoir). Brandt, Willy. *People and Politics: The Years 1960-1975.* Little, Brown and Company, 1978.
+[^1]: Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache 7/3083, Unterrichtung durch die Bundesregierung, letter of the Chancellor dated December 3, 1974, https://dserver.bundestag.de/btd/07/030/0703083.pdf, PDF pp. 7 and 8 (report of the commission Vorbeugender Geheimschutz, section A.I: biography, birth in Berlin on February 1, 1927; school 1933 to 1941; NSDAP membership from April 20, 1944; Reichsarbeitsdienst; Wehrmacht January 6, 1945; British captivity; 1946 return to East Berlin and Volk und Wissen; FDGB 1950; marriage May 12, 1951 at Leisnig to Christel Margarete Ingeborg Boom, born November 6, 1927 in Allenstein; crossing May 12/13, 1956; flat of Erna Boom, Finkenhofstraße 29; residence application September 13, 1956 and permit December 3, 1956; typing bureau August 15, 1956 to April 1, 1957; coffee shop founded July 9, 1956; joint business from July 1, 1957; retail trade deregistered May 1963; son Pierre Tobias Charles born April 8, 1957; Frankfurt SPD offices and Leber's constituency post; Christel's career). German original: "Günter Karl Heinz Guillaume wurde am 1. 2. 1927 in Berlin geboren." "Am 20. 4. 1944 war G. Mitglied der NSDAP geworden." "Die Angaben über seine Beschäftigungsverhältnisse in dieser Zeit sind allerdings widersprüchlich." "Am 8. 4. 1957 war nämlich der Sohn Pierre Tobias Charles der Eheleute G. geboren worden."
 [^2]: Bundesarchiv, "Die Affäre Guillaume" (essay by Daniela Münkel), https://www.bundesarchiv.de/themen-entdecken/online-entdecken/themenbeitraege/die-affaere-guillaume/. States the OibE designation, the arrest of April 24, 1974 in Bonn, the 1927 birth year and the death on April 10, 1995 in Eggersdorf bei Berlin. German original: "Guillaume starb am 10. April 1995 in Eggersdorf bei Berlin."
 [^3]: Bundesarchiv, "Die Affäre Guillaume" (essay by Daniela Münkel), same URL. Gives the Stasi training as defector candidates, the 1969 Leber recommendation, the 1970 appointment as "Referent für die Verbindungen zu den Gewerkschaften" and the 1972 promotion to "Parteireferent", the codenames with BStU, MfS, HV A, MD, Nr. 6, SIRA-TDB 12, SE 7303399, SIRA-TDB 21, ZV 8209795 and SIRA-TDB, ZV 8259394, the 23 SPD, 12 government-policy and nine trade-union items from July 30, 1969 to April 8, 1974, the destruction of the HV A files in 1989 and 1990, the Stasi-school lectures, the documentary "Auftrag erfüllt", the December 1975 sentences of 13 and eight years, the 1981 release, the 1972 bribery of two Bundestag members, and the Großmann and Honecker passage citing Herbstritt, Bundesbürger im Dienst der DDR-Spionage, p. 312. German original: "Überliefert sind dort die beiden Decknamen "Hansen" (Günter Guillaume) und "Heinze" (Christel Guillaume) sowie ihr Erfassungsdatum bei der HV A: 9. September 1954 für "Hansen" und 30. Oktober 1958 für "Heinze"." And: "Insgesamt war der nachrichtendienstliche Wert von Guillaume für das MfS nicht herausragend, er war zweifellos keine Spitzenquelle."
 [^4]: Bundesarchiv, Geschichtsgalerie "Günter Guillaume: Der Spion, den niemand stoppte" (text by Barbara Groß and image captions), https://www.bundesarchiv.de/themen-entdecken/online-entdecken/geschichtsgalerien/guenter-guillaume-der-spion-den-niemand-stoppte/. States the mission "Integration und Aufklärung der SPD", the proposal through Leber and contact with Herbert Ehrenberg, the reservations of the Sicherungsgruppe of the Bundeskriminalamt and of the BND, the retroactive hire on January 1, 1970 after the conversation with Ehmke, and carries the captions "Ermächtigung Günter Guillaumes für den Zugang zu Verschlusssachen der Geheimhaltungsgrade VS-Vertraulich und Geheim, 12. Mai 1970," "Fernmeldenachricht des Bundeskanzleramtes (Bonn) an Günter Guillaume mit geheimen Informationen für Bundeskanzler Willy Brandt, 4. Juli 1973," and "Am 24. April 1974, wurden der damalige Kanzler-Referent Günter Guillaume und seine Ehefrau Christel in ihrer Wohnung in Bonn verhaftet."
 [^5]: Wolf, Markus, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg: Erinnerungen*, Munich: Ullstein, 2005 (German-language edition of the memoir; the English edition is *Man Without a Face*, New York: Times Books, 1997), Internet Archive lending copy spionagechefimge0000wolf, printed p. 264. German original: "Günter Guillaume und seine Frau Christel waren wie Dutzende anderer junger Menschen Mitte der 50er Jahre im Auftrag meines Dienstes unter ihrem richtigen Namen in die Bundesrepublik gegangen." "Das Ehepaar war von uns beauftragt, Quellen innerhalb der SPD zu erschließen und zu »führen«". Sole source for the passages so cited. The page numbers of this edition differ from those of the English edition.
 [^6]: Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache 7/3246, Bericht und Antrag des 2. Untersuchungsausschusses (zu Drucksache 7/2193), February 19, 1975, https://dserver.bundestag.de/btd/07/032/0703246.pdf, PDF p. 66. German original: "Im Notaufnahmeverfahren hatte Guillaume angegeben, von 1949 bis 1953 als Fotograf und von 1953 bis 1955 als Bildredakteur im Verlag „Volk und Wissen" gearbeitet zu haben." And: "In der Sicherheitserklärung gab Guillaume an, von 1951 bis 1955 im Verlag „Volk und Wissen" als technischer Redakteur tätig gewesen zu sein."
 [^7]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 23: "Die Ehefrau Christel G., geb. 6. Oktober 1927"; Drucksache 7/3083, PDF p. 7: born "am 6. 11. 1927 in Allenstein/Ostpreußen".
 [^8]: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, "Fall G. mit Folgen," https://www.fes.de/news/fall-g-mit-folgen. Gives the 1956 family-reunification legend, the coffee and tobacco shop Boom am Dom, and the Chancellery telexes through Guillaume's hands during the Norway holiday. Sole source for the Boom am Dom detail and the telex statement.
 [^9]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 36 (the points of the BfV memoranda of May 11 and 17, 1973). German original: "Die Einreise der Eheleute Guillaume am 13. Mai 1956 ohne die Inanspruchnahme des Notaufnahmelagers Gießen und die Zeitdifferenz zwischen der Einreise und dem Notaufnahmeantrag, der erst am 13. September 1956 in Gießen einging, zeige an, daß der schriftliche Antrag einer gründlichen und langen Vorbereitung bedurfte."
 [^10]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 19. German original: "Dort eröffnete er mit seiner Frau am 15. August 1956 ein Schreibbüro". Also: "Nachdem Guillaume 1957 in die SPD eingetreten war ... wurde er am 1. März 1964 Geschäftsführer für den Unterbezirk Frankfurt der SPD."
 [^11]: Pond, Elizabeth, "East, West Germany trade spies; West plays 'waiting game'," The Christian Science Monitor, March 23, 1981, https://www.csmonitor.com/1981/0323/032355.html. Quoted: "Just before her release, Christel Guillaume was pardoned by West Germany." Also: "In the first East-West spy swap in 20 months, the wife of East Germany's most famous secret agent has been returned to East Germany." Also: "After his arrest Guillaume confirmed proudly that he was an officer in the East German Army." And: "East Germany has tried repeatedly to get master spy Gunter Guillaume back, but West Germany is insisting that he serve his full 13-year sentence." The snack bar is described in the same article.
 [^12]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed p. 265. German original: "Die Informationen ließ er uns per Mikrofilm in leeren Zigarrenhülsen zukommen, die ein Kurier im Laden seiner Schwiegermutter entgegennahm. Einseitigen Funkkontakt zu den Guillaumes hielten wir zu festgelegten Zeiten an bestimmten Monatstagen." Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^13]: Drucksache 7/3083, PDF p. 8 (March 1, 1964 to April 30, 1968 as Geschäftsführer of the Unterbezirk Frankfurt; from May 1968 Geschäftsführer of the SPD-Stadtverordnetenfraktion; Stadtverordnetenversammlung from October 1968; Wahlkreisbeauftragter of Georg Leber in Wahlkreis 140; departure for Bonn December 31, 1969); Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 19 (SPD entry 1957).
 [^14]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed pp. 264 and 265. German original: "Christel Guillaume war als erste erfolgreich: Sie wurde Anfang der 60er Jahre Büroleiterin bei Willi Birkelbach." Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^15]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed pp. 267 and 268. German original: "Guillaumes Informationen und Wertungen hatten eine ganz andere Bedeutung als die Geheimdokumente, die uns über unsere anderen Quellen erreichten." "es ist keine Übertreibung, wenn ich sage, daß er die Entspannung zwischen Bundesrepublik und DDR mitgeprägt hat". Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^16]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed p. 263. German original: "Drei Wochen nach Willy Brandts Wahl zum Bundeskanzler am 21. Oktober 1969 stellte sich dem Chef des Kanzleramts ein Mann namens Günter Guillaume vor." "Kanzleramtschef Horst Ehmke sah keinen Grund, Guillaumes Befürwortern ihren Wunsch abzuschlagen". The Federal Government's report (Drucksache 7/3083, PDF p. 9, section Einstellungsvorgang) places the proposal by Ehrenberg in the 1969 reorganization of the Chancellery. Sole source for Wolf's account of the presentation.
 [^17]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 24 ("die von der Unterabteilung des BND am 16. Dezember 1969 gegebene Antwort").
 [^18]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 67 (telex of the BND received December 17, 1969, reporting a card entry of April 1954). German original: "dass nach einer auf ihren Wahrheitsgehalt nicht mehr überprüfbaren Karteinotierung des BND vom April 1954 Günter Guillaume im Auftrage des Verlags „Volk und Wissen" die Bundesrepublik bereist haben solle, Verbindungen zu Verlagen, Druckereien und Personen herzustellen und diese dann östlich zu infiltrieren."
 [^19]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 25 (testimony of Wessel on the question to the BND and on Volk und Wissen as "Residentur für Mitglieder des Ministeriums für Staatssicherheit"; testimony of Ehmke on Bahr's note; the interview of January 7, 1970 with Ehmke, Schlichter and Ehrenberg, record countersigned by Guillaume on January 12, 1970). German original: "Weiterhin verfügte der BND über die Erkenntnis, daß der Verlag „Volk und Wissen" als Residentur für Mitglieder des Ministeriums für Staatssicherheit diente."
 [^20]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 25 (the telex of the BND president of December 23, 1969, shown to Bahr in view of a possible vacation deputization, and his handwritten note) and PDF p. 68 (Schlichter's note of December 23, 1969 that Wessel had fallen ill and would respond by telex). German original of the note: "Selbst wenn Sie einen positiven Eindruck haben, bleibt ein gewisses Sicherheitsrisiko, gerade hier".
 [^21]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed pp. 265 and 266. German original: "Nur Egon Bahr blieb mißtrauisch und erklärte Ehmke gegenüber, möglicherweise tue er Guillaume Unrecht, aber dessen Vergangenheit lasse es als äußerst riskant erscheinen, ihn ins Kanzleramt aufzunehmen. Seine Warnung verhallte ungehört". Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^22]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 28 (the BfV's comprehensive card check, summarized on January 26, 1970 and handed to the Chancellery security official Schlichter on January 27, 1970).
 [^23]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 23 (hire "zum 1. Januar 1970") and PDF p. 29 ("Guillaume trat seinen Dienst im Bundeskanzleramt am 28. Januar 1970 an.").
 [^24]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed p. 267. German original: "für Empfang und Weiterleitung der eingehenden Nachrichten und der per Hubschrauber eintreffenden Kurierpost zuständig. Die BND-Leute gewöhnten sich schnell daran, daß Guillaume offensichtlich das Vertrauen der Regierungsspitze genoß. Mit Zustimmung des Verfassungsschutzes erhielt er kurz darauf auch die formelle Genehmigung zum Umgang mit Verschlußsachen der höchsten Geheimhaltungsstufe." Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^25]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 34. German original: "Durch Hausanordnung vom 30. November 1972 wurde Guillaume dem Büro des Bundeskanzlers zugeteilt." The passage states that he had taken over months earlier the portfolio of the administrative official Reuschenbach for links to the party and parliamentary group.
 [^26]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed p. 268. German original: "Ab dem 1. Januar 1973 war er als persönlicher Referent für Parteifragen dem Kanzlerbüro zugeteilt". Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^27]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 25 (the committee's finding: "Es wäre sinnvoll gewesen, wenn der Präsident des Bundesnachrichtendienstes seinen Erkenntnisstand über den Verlag „Volk und Wissen" weitergegeben hätte") and PDF p. 37 (Nollau on the UfJ and BND source reports: "denn dieses sei wirklich gravierend gewesen").
 [^28]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 49. German original: "Der Sachverständige Mercker hat dazu bestätigt, daß das Prinzip der Abgabe an den BfV bei innenpolitischen Vorgängen nicht immer eingehalten worden sei. So habe auch im Fall Guillaume der BND Material über Guillaume gehabt, daß er nach den Richtlinien an das BfV hätte abgeben müssen."
 [^29]: Drucksache 7/3083, PDF pp. 2 and 39 to 42 (government statement and excerpt of the second part of the Mercker report of July 24, 1969: contract of May 31, 1968 with the head of the Chancellery Carstens; members Mercker, Raab, Zerbel; findings on the decline of the BND's effectiveness against the East, on staff suspicion of leading officials, on the use of security reasons against inconvenient staff and on Chancellery supervision), with the Second Inquiry Committee's reference to the recommendation of intensive supervision "daß der BND zum Staat im Staate werde" in Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 46. German original of the government's statement: "Der Bericht der Mercker-Kommission ist auch heute nicht zu einer vollständigen Veröffentlichung geeignet." German original of the government's remark: "Die neue Leitung des Dienstes ist den Hinweisen nachgegangen. Die Vermutungen haben sich nicht bestätigt." Of the commission: "Dieser Eindruck ist offensichtlich auch dadurch verstärkt worden, daß vielfach allzu schnell und allzu offensichtlich unzutreffenderweise Sicherheitsgründe, insbesondere der Vorwurf der Feindsteuerung zur Begründung von Maßnahmen gegen unbequeme Mitarbeiter herangezogen worden ist."
 [^30]: Drucksache 7/3083, PDF pp. 1, 3 and 6 (cabinet resolutions of May 14 and 29, 1974; appointment by letter of May 30, 1974; start of work May 31, 1974; report dated November 11, 1974 and handed over November 18, 1974; letter of the Chancellor of December 3, 1974).
 [^31]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed pp. 269 and 274. German original: "Im Herbst 1972 wurde Wilhelm Gronau vom Ostbüro des DGB, eine unserer ältesten Quellen in West-Berlin, verhaftet, als er sich mit seinem DDR-Instrukteur traf." Also: the instructor "einen Spickzettel mit sich geführt hatte, auf dem er sich unter anderem den Namen Guillaume notiert hatte". Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^32]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF pp. 35 and 36. German original: "Die ersten Verdachtsmomente gegen Günter Guillaume wurden im April 1973 erkannt und verdichteten sich im Laufe des Monats Mai".
 [^33]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed p. 269. German original: "Es kann nicht später als März 1973 gewesen sein, daß der Verfassungsschutz sich über Guillaumes Identität als Spion der DDR endgültig im klaren war." Sole source for the passages so cited; the committee's finding is at Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 35.
 [^34]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed pp. 274 and 275. German original: "Was wir außerdem zu berücksichtigen vergaßen, waren die Geburtstags- und Neujahrsglückwünsche, die unser Dienst an seine Mitarbeiter zu schicken pflegte." "Der Beamte nahm sich die Akte mit den Telegrammen vor und verglich die Daten der Glückwünsche mit den Geburtstagen der Familie Guillaume. Von da an war alles klar." Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^35]: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, "Fall G. mit Folgen," https://www.fes.de/news/fall-g-mit-folgen. German original: "einst abgefangene und dechiffrierte DDR-Funksprüche mit Geburtstagsgrüßen und einem „Glückwunsch zum zweiten Mann" passten taggenau auf Günter Guillaume und dessen in Frankfurt zur Welt gekommenen Sohn." And: "Kaum wurden die Indizien beim Verfassungsschutz bis zu Präsident Günther Nollau weitergereicht, erkannte dieser einen dringenden Verdacht, doch es fehlten handfeste, gerichtsverwertbare Beweise." Sole source for the radio intercept passage.
 [^36]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 36 (forwarding on May 23, 1973 via the vice president to the BfV president; meeting of May 28, 1973).
 [^37]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF pp. 37 and 38 (briefing of Genscher by Nollau on May 29, 1973 at 10:30 with Kinkel present; the two grounds, a "besondere nachrichtendienstliche Methode" and a gap of five months in the curriculum vitae; Nollau's first refusal and subsequent approval of informing the Chancellor; the testimony of Genscher, Kinkel and Nollau on what was conveyed; Nollau's answer "Nicht mit diesen Worten, aber mit dieser Meinung.").
 [^38]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF pp. 39 and 40 (the two conversations of May 29 and 30, 1973; Brandt's testimony 16/93 to 16/99, 16/121; the advice to leave Guillaume in place; the Norway question and the answer that nothing should change). German original: "gab der Bundesminister des Innern unter Berufung auf den Präsidenten des Bundesamtes für Verfassungsschutz dem Bundeskanzler auf dessen Frage hin den Rat des Verfassungsschutzes weiter, Guillaume am Platz zu belassen".
 [^39]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 40 (the contradiction between Genscher and Nollau on the telephone call of May 30, 1973, which "nicht auszuräumen war"; Grabert's confirmation of June 4, 1973; the BfV note of July 4, 1973 that Guillaume was on holiday with the Chancellor; Bardenhewer's recollection that Nollau had recommended taking Guillaume along). Sole source for the May 30 telephone accounts.
 [^40]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed pp. 269 and 270. German original: "Als wäre nichts gewesen, blieb Guillaume Brandts enger Vertrauter und begleitete ihn Ende Juni 1973 auf dessen Urlaub nach Norwegen, wo er für mehrere Wochen sämtliche Aufgaben des persönlichen Referenten und Büroleiters erledigte. Aller Schriftverkehr ging durch seine Hände; es gibt Fernsehaufnahmen, wo man Guillaume am Chiffriergerät ein eben eingegangenes Fernschreiben lesen sieht." Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^41]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed pp. 272 to 274. German original: "Den Inhalt der Norwegen-Dokumente erfuhren wir erst, als sie Gegenstand des Prozesses gegen das Ehepaar Guillaume wurden. Der Grund dafür ist, daß wir die Filmrollen mit den Kopien der Papiere, die Christel Guillaume ihrem Kurier »Anita« aushändigte, nie erhielten." "Zuletzt wählte sie die geringere Gefahr und ließ das Päckchen von einer Rheinbrücke ins Wasser fallen". Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^42]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed pp. 275 to 277. German original: "Die Diskrepanzen in den Aussagen des Innenministers und des obersten Verfassungsschützers ließen nicht nur in Bonn den Verdacht aufkommen, Eingeweihte hätten Brandt bewußt ins Unheil tappen lassen." "Daß der ehrgeizige Politiker Genscher angesichts der Regierungskrise in jenen Tagen bereits mit Helmut Kohl, dem Oppositionsführer, Gespräche über eine CDU-FDP-Koalition führte, ist ebensowenig ein Geheimnis". Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^43]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed p. 277. German original: "Ihre diesbezüglichen Aussagen in meinem Prozeß 1993 waren wenig erhellend und beschränkten sich im wesentlichen darauf, daß sie von Nollau lediglich über einen »vagen Verdacht« informiert worden seien." Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^44]: Drucksache 7/3246, PDF p. 62 (section "Auffassung der Minderheit," the CDU/CSU minority opinion of Abgeordneter Gerster). German original: "Am 24. April 1974 wurden der persönliche Mitarbeiter des damaligen Bundeskanzlers Willy Brandt, Günter Guillaume und seine Ehefrau Christine, geb. Boom, wegen des dringenden Tatverdachts nachrichtendienstlicher Tätigkeit verhaftet." Christel G., geb. Boom, is named in the majority text at PDF p. 23.
 [^45]: Brandt, Willy, *People and Politics: The Years 1960-1975*, Boston: Little, Brown, 1978, p. 450 (Internet Archive lending copy peoplepoliticsth00bran; index entry "Guillaume, Günther, 450"). Quoted: "On the morning of 24 April 1974, when I returned from Cairo, I was greeted with the news that one of my Chancellery advisers had been arrested as a spy." "my decision to resign matured without undue haste. It was finally taken on 6 May." "There is no doubt that I took advice which, looking back, I should not have taken."
 [^46]: Brandt Stiftung, "Der Rücktritt Willy Brandts," published May 6, 2024, https://willy-brandt.de/en/neuigkeiten/der-ruecktritt-willy-brandts/. Covers the Bundeskriminalamt dossier of May 1, the Bad Münstereifel meeting of May 4, the announcement to the SPD leadership, the letter received by the federal president on the evening of May 6, the midnight announcement, the May 7 explanation to the SPD parliamentary group, and the election of Helmut Schmidt "einen Tag später" after May 15, 1974. German original of the letter: "übernehme die politische Verantwortung für Fahrlässigkeiten im Zusammenhang mit der Agentenaffäre Guillaume".
 [^47]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed p. 262. German original: "der Rücktritt Willy Brandts nach der Verhaftung unseres Kundschafters Günter Guillaume." The sentence reads that he did not yet suspect that nine months later would happen "was man mir bis heute anlastet". Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^48]: Bundesbeauftragter für die Stasi-Unterlagen, Stasi-Mediathek, "Bericht zur 'Entwicklung der Krise der Koalition und zum Verfall der Autorität Willy Brandts'," BArch, MfS, ZAIG, Nr. 5023, Bl. 3-17, dated May 14, 1974, https://www.stasi-mediathek.de/fileadmin/pdf/dok1534.pdf. The editorial introduction states the 1956 emigration, the 1972 post, the arrest of April 24, 1974, the 1975 sentences of 13 and eight years, and the 1972 payments to two Bundestag members. German original of the conclusion: "Der Fall Guillaume war nur der äußere Anlaß zum Rücktritt Brandts von seiner Funktion als Bundeskanzler." Sole source for the bribery claim apart from the Bundesarchiv essay, which repeats it.
 [^49]: Wolf, *Spionagechef im geheimen Krieg*, printed p. 261. German original: "Ich erinnerte mich an den CDU-Parlamentarier Julius Steiner aus Baden-Württemberg, der sich zu einer mittelmäßigen Informationsquelle entwickelt hatte und dafür regelmäßige Geldzuwendungen". "Als dann das Ergebnis verkündet wurde, fehlten ihr wider Erwarten zwei Stimmen." Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^50]: Bundesarchiv, Geschichtsgalerie "Günter Guillaume: Der Spion, den niemand stoppte," same URL as note 4, image captions: "Zeugenaussage des SPD-Vorsitzenden und früheren Bundeskanzlers Willy Brandt vor dem 4. Strafsenat des Oberlandesgerichtes Düsseldorf im Prozess gegen Günter Guillaume wegen Landesverrats (Seite 1), 1. Oktober 1974"; "Schreiben (Entwurf) an den rheinland-pfälzischen Ministerpräsidenten, Dr. Helmut Kohl, zur Frage des Austauschs von Guillaume, 9. September 1974"; "Urteil des Oberlandesgerichts Düsseldorf in der Strafsache gegen Günter und Christel Guillaume, u. a. wegen Landesverrats, 15. Dezember 1975"; "Vermerk des Bundeskanzleramtes (Bonn) zur Urteilsverkündung im Prozess gegen Günter und Christel Guillaume wegen Landesverrats (Seite 1), 16. Dezember 1975".
 [^51]: Bundesarchiv, "Die Affäre Guillaume," same URL as note 2 ("Im Dezember 1975 wurde Günter Guillaume zu 13, seine Frau Christel zu acht Jahren Haft wegen Landesverrats verurteilt."), with the day from the Geschichtsgalerie caption cited at note 50.
 [^52]: New York Times, "Bonn Releases Spy in Brandt Case," October 2, 1981, dateline Bonn, Oct. 1, reproduced in CIA CREST document CIA-RDP90-00552R000202410005-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00552r000202410005-9. The article reports that Guillaume was arrested and sentenced to 13 years in prison for treason in 1975, that West Germany released him in an exchange with East Germany, that the arrangement would allow about 3,000 East Germans to join relatives in West Germany, and that Christel Guillaume, given an eight-year sentence for espionage in 1975, was released in March.
 [^53]: Pond, Elizabeth, "Complex spy swap: East German superspy for West German agents," The Christian Science Monitor, September 29, 1981, https://csmonitor.com/1981/0929/092926.html. Quoted: "Guillaume was sentenced in 1975 to 13 years' imprisonment." The article describes the swap as reported but not officially confirmed.
 [^54]: Newsweek, "An Exchange of Spies," October 12, 1981, CIA CREST document CIA-RDP90-00552R000202410002-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00552r000202410002-2. Quoted: "was placed in a delivery van and hustled eastward." "The swap that actually unfolded last week was not entirely as advertised". The article reports the leaked terms (35 imprisoned West German spies and political prisoners, 3,000 exit visas, France, Denmark and South Africa each to release an East-bloc agent, West Germany to pay $65.2 million and release at least two spies) and names Wolfgang Vogel; it states that Christel Guillaume was released "in a smaller prisoner exchange last March."
 [^55]: Guillaume, Günter, *Die Aussage: wie es wirklich war*, protocol by Günter Karau, Berlin: Militärverlag der DDR, 1988, 412 pp., Deutsche Nationalbibliothek record, https://portal.dnb.de/opac.htm?method=simpleSearch&query=Guillaume+Aussage; Munich: Universitas, 1990, 436 pp., ISBN 3800412292 (Open Library, https://openlibrary.org/books/OL1583202M); Frankfurt am Main and Berlin: Ullstein, 1993, 436 pp. (Deutsche Nationalbibliothek record).
 [^56]: Förster, Andreas, "Frau im Schatten," Berliner Zeitung, March 25, 2004, https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/article/christel-guillaume-ist-in-berlin-gestorben-sie-war-eine-erfolgreiche-agentin-der-stasi-im-westen-vor-allem-aber-war-sie-die-ehefrau-des-kanzleramtsspions-frau-im-schatten-1275787. Lede: "Christel Guillaume ist in Berlin gestorben."
 [^57]: Boom, Pierre, *Der fremde Vater: der Sohn des Kanzlerspions*, Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 2004, 415 pp., Open Library record, https://openlibrary.org/books/OL31620607M, Internet Archive title record derfremdevaterde0000boom.
 [^58]: Leinkauf, Thomas, "Der verratene Sohn," Berliner Zeitung, September 29, 2001, https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/article/der-verratene-sohn-1023905. Describes Pierre Boom as the son of Günter Guillaume, the arrest at the Bonn apartment on April 24, 1974, and the father's return to the GDR on October 1, 1981.
--- a/PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Markus
+++ b/PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Markus
@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ tags:
  - 1960s
  - 1970s
  - 1980s
-summary: "Markus Wolf (1923-2006), known as 'the man without a face,' directed the Stasi's foreign intelligence directorate (HVA) from 1952 to 1986, building one of the Cold War's most effective intelligence services through penetrations of West German government including the Guillaume operation that brought down Chancellor Willy Brandt."
+summary: "Markus Wolf (1923-2006), 'the man without a face,' directed the Stasi's foreign intelligence directorate (HVA) from 1952 to 1986, including the Guillaume penetration of Willy Brandt's office."
 born: 1923-01-19
 died: 2006-11-09
 location: "Berlin, Germany"
@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ The HVA's penetrations extended to the [[Bundesnachrichtendienst]] (BND), the Fe
 The placement of Guillaume as a personal aide to Chancellor Brandt was Wolf's most consequential operation. Guillaume, recruited before his emigration to West Germany in 1956, spent nearly two decades working his way through the Social Democratic Party's structures. By 1972 he had become a close aide to Brandt, with access to sensitive political communications and accompanying the Chancellor on foreign travel.
-When the [[Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz]] (BfV) exposed Guillaume in April 1974, and Brandt resigned in May 1974, it was one of the most spectacular results the HVA achieved. Wolf's memoir, published after the Cold War, discusses the operation with evident professional pride while acknowledging its political dimensions.[^1]
+When Guillaume was arrested in April 1974, a year after the [[Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz]] (BfV) first suspected him, and Brandt resigned in May 1974, it was one of the most spectacular results the HVA achieved. Wolf's memoir, published after the Cold War, discusses the operation with evident professional pride while acknowledging its political dimensions.[^1]
 ### Western Identification Problems
--- a/ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/NASA.md
+++ b/ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/NASA.md
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-05-15
-updated: 2026-05-15
+updated: 2026-10-07
 title: NASA
 aliases:
  - National Aeronautics and Space Administration
@ -11,39 +11,152 @@ tags:
  - USA
  - Space
  - Science
  - Parapsychology
  - RemoteViewing
  - UAP
 category: "U.S. Government"
-summary: "NASA is the U.S. civilian space agency established in 1958, whose relevance to this vault centers on the Apollo 14 Moon landing experience that prompted astronaut Edgar Mitchell to found the Institute of Noetic Sciences, early remote viewing experiments targeting space objects, and NASA's 2023 independent UAP study."
+summary: "NASA is the U.S. civilian space agency founded in 1958, which contracted for ESP teaching-machine research in the 1970s and in 2022 to 2023 commissioned an independent study of UAP."
 start: 1958-10-01
 location: "Washington, D.C. (HQ); Houston, Texas (Johnson Space Center); Cape Canaveral, Florida (Kennedy Space Center)"
 relations:
  - type: contractor_to
    with: "[[Stanford Research Institute]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1973-04
    role: "ESP teaching-machine contract NAS7-100, administered through the Jet Propulsion Laboratory"
    fn: 2
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Edgar Mitchell]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1966-04
    end: 1972
    role: "astronaut, lunar module pilot of Apollo 14"
    fn: 5
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Mark McInerney]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 2023-09-14
    role: "Director of UAP Research"
    fn: 23
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Gordon Cooper]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1959-04
    role: "Mercury astronaut"
    fn: 25
  - type: employed_by
    with: "[[Arthur Rudolph]]"
    reverse: true
    end: 1969
    role: "Saturn V program, retired from NASA in 1969"
    fn: 29
 ---
-The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the U.S. federal civilian space agency, established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act signed on July 29, 1958, and beginning operations on October 1, 1958. NASA succeeded the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and absorbed several other government research programs. Its primary mission encompasses civil aeronautics research, human spaceflight, robotic planetary exploration, and Earth observation. NASA's relevance to this vault arises through three distinct intersections: the consciousness experience of astronaut [[Edgar Mitchell]] during Apollo 14, the use of space-related targets in early government remote viewing research, and NASA's formal involvement in UAP investigation beginning in 2022.[^1]
+The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the U.S. federal civilian space agency, established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act signed on July 29, 1958, and open for business on October 1, 1958, built on the [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] (NACA).[^1] Its records include a contract for ESP teaching-machine research in the 1970s, the telepathy test that [[Edgar Mitchell]] conducted during the Apollo 14 flight, a 1977 White House request for a study of UFOs, a 2022 to 2023 study of unidentified anomalous phenomena (UAP), and the employment of wartime German rocket engineers.
-### Edgar Mitchell and the Apollo 14 Experience
+### Stanford Research Institute ESP Teaching Machine Contract
-Apollo 14 commander Edgar Mitchell had a spontaneous experience during the return voyage from the Moon in February 1971 that he later described as a sudden overwhelming sense of unity with the universe and the understanding that consciousness was somehow fundamental to reality. This experience, which Mitchell characterized as a form of samadhi drawn from Eastern spiritual traditions, led him to undertake a scientific investigation of consciousness upon his return.
+In April 1973, the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] (JPL) initiated a contract with [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI) to explore the enhancement of man/machine activities through ESP communications. The contract was initiated at the request of NASA Headquarters, which assigned JPL to monitor it and "assure an objective experimental environment."[^2] The work was performed under NASA Contract NAS7-100, JPL contract 953653 and SRI project 2613. The final report of August 1974 is credited to [[Russell Targ]], Phyllis Cole and [[Hal Puthoff]]; it describes an "ESP teaching machine," a four-state random stimulus generator that gave the subject feedback on each choice. The abstract records 148 volunteer subjects screened under various protocols, several of whom had a learning slope or mean score that departed significantly from chance expectation, and a further study of electroencephalographic output when a light was flashed in a distant room.[^2]
-In 1973, Mitchell founded the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences|Institute of Noetic Sciences (IONS)]] in Palo Alto, California, to study consciousness and what he believed were its paranormal dimensions. IONS funded and published research on remote viewing, psychokinesis, and other psi phenomena, and provided some financial and institutional support to the broader network of researchers and practitioners associated with the U.S. government's parapsychology programs.
+The NASA foreword to the report states that the SRI investigators' report (unedited by NASA or JPL) drew positive conclusions regarding ESP communications and learning. It states that JPL's review of the experiments conducted under controlled conditions, which eliminated the possibility of interaction between experimenter and observer, found "no positive evidence" of ESP or ESP learning, and that NASA had concluded "there is currently no basis" to support further investigations.[^2]
-During the Apollo 14 flight itself - without NASA authorization - Mitchell conducted an informal telepathy experiment with four subjects on Earth, attempting to transmit Zener card symbols during his allotted rest periods. The results, which Mitchell reported as statistically significant, were published in the Journal of Parapsychology in 1971. NASA did not sanction the experiment and was not informed until afterward.[^1]
+The strategic analyst [[Roger A. Beaumont]] wrote that "Three years ago, NASA paid $80,000 to see if" machines could teach ESP, adding "(they could not)" and "some pilot studies that measured brain waves during alleged telepathic/clairvoyant communications." He also described an SRI proposal, which SRI hoped to sell to NASA for $100,000, to predict precognitively the eclipses of Jupiter's four major moons by having a subject fly his consciousness to the planet. Beaumont wrote that "NASA declined."[^3]
 Puthoff and Targ later published a review of their perceptual-channel work in the Proceedings of the IEEE in March 1976. The NASA record for that paper lists the same contract, NAS7-100, as its funding source. Its abstract states that "the phenomenon is not a sensitive function of distance."[^4]
 ### Edgar Mitchell and the Apollo 14 Experiment
 Edgar Mitchell served as lunar module pilot of Apollo 14, which launched on January 31, 1971 and returned on February 9, 1971, and founded the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences|Institute of Noetic Sciences (IONS)]] in 1973, one year after retiring from government service.[^5] Mitchell described a spontaneous experience during the return voyage in February 1971, a sudden overwhelming sense of unity with the universe and the understanding that consciousness was somehow fundamental to reality, which he characterized as a form of samadhi drawn from Eastern spiritual traditions. He wrote that seeing the Earth from space "triggered a deep insight into the nature of existence."[^6] In Palo Alto, California, IONS studied consciousness and what Mitchell believed were its paranormal dimensions. A 1974 article describes Mitchell as the astronaut who "founds the Institute of Noetic Sciences" and who set out to investigate occurrences that "will not yield to rational explanation."[^7] IONS funded and published research on remote viewing, psychokinesis, and other psi phenomena, and provided some financial and institutional support to the broader network of researchers and practitioners associated with the U.S. government's parapsychology programs.
 Mitchell wrote that by 1971 he had become "an avid psychic researcher in my spare time," that he decided on the experiment "only a few weeks before lift-off," and that it "was to have been a purely personal investigation." He wrote: "I did not request permission from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) because it seemed better to do it without sanction rather than risk having permission denied."[^6] Four people on Earth, three of whom remained anonymous and the fourth of whom was [[Olaf Jonsson]] of Chicago, tried to receive the targets by telepathic communication. Mitchell described four transmission sessions during rest periods programmed into the flight, two on the way to the Moon and two on the return trip, using random numbers from 1 to 5 that he assigned, just before transmitting, to the symbols of the standard Zener cards: a cross, a square, a circle, a star and parallel wavy lines. He wrote that the launch was forty minutes late, so that "some of the sessions appeared to yield precognitive results, not telepathic ones."[^6]
 Mitchell wrote that the data were analyzed independently by [[J. B. Rhine]] of the Foundation for Research on the Nature of Man, by [[Karlis Osis]] of the American Society for Psychical Research, and by himself: "The results were statistically significant, not because any of the receivers got a large number of direct hits but because the number of hits was amazingly low. The statistical probability of scoring so few hits was about 3000:1."[^6] In a later account he described the results as "psi missing" for the days he performed the experiment and "precisely 'chance'" for the other days, with "one-in-three-thousand probability that the results were a random happening," from "only one hundred and fifty data points," and wrote that Rhine offered to run the analysis and to coauthor a paper for the June issue of the [[Journal of Parapsychology]].[^8] Mitchell also wrote that a psychic recruited for the experiment "leaked our project to reporters," that the press "seemed interested only in the headline: ASTRONAUT DOES ESP EXPERIMENT ON MOON FLIGHT," and that word that the experiment "turned out to be negative or without significance" was misinformation.[^8] In 1974 he wrote that the news leak, "the source of which is still unknown to me," led the press to Jonsson.[^6]
 Mitchell's write-up appeared as "An ESP Test From Apollo 14" in the Journal of Parapsychology, volume 35, number 2 (June 1971), pages 89 to 107.[^9] A proposal for a "direct brain action" research program, edited by [[Andrija Puharich]] from Mitchell's submission, calls the experiment "unofficial" and states that four earth-based persons tried to guess the order of symbols in Mitchell's mind, and that the results were statistically significant.[^10] A Medical Intelligence Office report stated that Mitchell made "150 separate attempts" to project his thoughts from the spacecraft to an individual on Earth, and that the results were published in the journal.[^11] Beaumont gives another account: in six sessions Mitchell "transmitted" 25 card images, and while the results exceeded statistical probability, "they were not overwhelming." Beaumont adds that "NASA was quick to disclaim official sponsorship."[^3] The Soviet authors V. P. Zinchenko, A. N. Leontiev and colleagues wrote in 1973 that Mitchell had written that the experiments were done primarily for public relations purposes, that the results were equivocal, and that the number of successes was much lower than probability theory would predict.[^12]
 ### Remote Viewing and Space Targets
-The early [[Stargate Project|STAR GATE]] remote viewing research conducted at the [[Stanford Research Institute|Stanford Research Institute (SRI)]] in the early 1970s included several experiments in which subjects attempted to describe space-related targets. In 1973, [[Ingo Swann]] was asked by researchers to describe the planet Jupiter, providing his description before NASA's Pioneer 10 spacecraft reached the planet. Swann's session, conducted on April 27, 1973, described Jupiter as having rings - a feature not then known. Pioneer 10 flew past Jupiter in December 1973; later spacecraft confirmed Jupiter has a faint ring system. This session was cited by remote viewing proponents as one of the most significant predictive examples in the SRI database, though critics disputed the interpretation of Swann's original description and its match to the later discovery.
+Remote viewing research at SRI that was later known as the [[Stargate Project|STAR GATE]] program included sessions in which subjects described space-related targets. On the evening of April 27, 1973, [[Ingo Swann]], then on the West Coast, began a psychic probe of Jupiter at 6:00 p.m. Pacific time, and [[Harold Sherman]] began his at 8:00 p.m. Central time, the two probes taking place simultaneously. Puthoff and Targ recorded the sessions, and after half an hour Swann reached Sherman by telephone to compare results. The transcript records that the probe of Jupiter was decided upon because NASA's Pioneer 10 was on its way to the planet, and it adds: "Neither Mr. Sherman nor Mr. Swann claim validity for their results," and that what verification might come from Pioneer 10 "remains to be seen."[^13]
-Similar space-target sessions were conducted with other SRI subjects during the 1972-1975 period. NASA spacecraft and planetary features were used as targets in some experiments.[^1]
+At 6:06:20 on the transcript's clock, Swann said: "Very high in the atmosphere there are crystals, they glitter, maybe the stripes are like bands of crystals, maybe like rings of Saturn, though not far out like that, very close within the atmosphere." At 6:19:55 he said: "I get the impression that that must be a band of crystals similar to the outer ones, kind of bluish. They seem to be sort of in orbit, permanent orbit down through another layer farther down which are like our clouds but moving fast."[^13] Sherman's session, recorded as Annex A of the same transcript, described Pioneer 10 as traveling on a collision course with one of the largest of Jupiter's moons unless its course were altered, and as likely to encounter powerful magnetic forces and winds of terrific velocity.[^13] NASA records Pioneer 10's closest approach to Jupiter as December 4, 1973.[^14] The JPL caption to a [[Voyager 1]] photograph states: "First evidence of a ring around the planet Jupiter is seen in this photograph taken by Voyager 1 on March 4, 1979," and describes "the extremely thin faint ring" as 30 km thick or less and invisible from Earth "because of its thinness and its transparency when viewed at any angle except straight on."[^15]
-### UAP Investigation
+[[Antoinette May]] wrote that Sherman "took off" from his Mountain View, Arkansas home and Swann from SRI, and that the two, nearly 2,300 miles apart, "described the same things," that each spoke of "glittering ice crystals, winds of terrific velocity, great mountain ranges and powerful magnetic forces," and that "the same conditions were later confirmed by the Pioneer 10 probe."[^16] Dolan M. McKelvy wrote in an Air War College paper that "Jupiter had faint rings like those of its neighbor Saturn," that "Astronomers scoffed at this claim," that [[Carl Sagan]] called it "ridiculous," and that "Nine years later, Voyager 1 sent back pictures of the Jovian rings."[^17] [[Jack Anderson]] wrote in a Washington Post column that the psychics of the SRI program had discovered "the rings around Jupiter years before their existence was scientifically established by photographs."[^18]
-In June 2022, NASA announced it was commissioning an independent study of unidentified aerial phenomena (UAP), conducted by a sixteen-member team under astrophysicist [[David Spergel]]. The NASA UAP Independent Study was distinct from the [[Department of Defense]]'s [[AARO|All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office (AARO)]] and the earlier UAP Task Force. The study team issued its report in September 2023, finding that UAP data was insufficient for scientific conclusions and recommending that NASA develop systematic observation and reporting infrastructure for UAP investigation.
+Similar space-target sessions were conducted with other SRI subjects during the 1972 to 1975 period, and NASA spacecraft and planetary features were used as targets in some of these experiments.[^19]
-NASA simultaneously announced it would appoint a Director of UAP Research, and named [[Mark McInerney]] to that position in late 2023. The NASA UAP initiative represented the first formal civilian scientific agency acknowledgment that UAP warranted systematic study, distinct from the longstanding defense-intelligence framing of the issue.[^2]
+### Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Study
-### Relevance to Parapsychology Network
+On June 9, 2022, NASA announced that it was commissioning a study team to examine unidentified anomalous phenomena (UAP) from a scientific perspective. The statement of task listed eight questions, the first of which asked "What types of scientific data currently collected and archived by NASA or other civilian government entities should be synthesized and analyzed to potentially shed light on the nature and origins of Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (UAP)?" Other questions concerned data held by non-profits and companies, new data NASA should collect, analysis techniques, "basic physical constraints" on the nature and origins of UAP, civilian airspace data, and reporting protocols and air traffic management data systems. The Science Mission Directorate, in consultation with the Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate, was to appoint the chair and members for terms of up to one year, and the terms of reference provided for approximately eight to twelve members drawn from U.S. academic, independent and commercial institutions.[^20]
-Several figures who appear in this vault's coverage of the government parapsychology programs had NASA connections beyond Mitchell. Astronaut [[Gordon Cooper]] claimed multiple UAP sightings during his Mercury and Gemini flights. [[Robert Bigelow]], whose [[Bigelow Aerospace Advanced Space Studies|Bigelow Aerospace]] was NASA's primary commercial crew habitat contractor (BEAM module, ISS installation 2016), separately operated the [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]]'s primary [[AAWSAP]] parapsychology contract through BAASS. The overlap between NASA's institutional culture - which attracted individuals with interests in frontier science - and the parapsychology research network was noted by program historians.[^1]
+On October 21, 2022, NASA announced that it had selected 16 individuals; the study began on October 24, 2022, was to run nine months and was to use unclassified data only. The NASA official responsible for orchestrating the study was Daniel Evans of the Science Mission Directorate. The team was chaired by [[David Spergel]], president of the Simons Foundation, and NASA's announcement lists [[Anamaria Berea]], [[Federica Bianco]], [[Paula Bontempi]], [[Reggie Brothers]], [[Jen Buss]], [[Nadia Drake]], [[Mike Gold]], [[David Grinspoon]], [[Scott Kelly]], [[Matt Mountain]], [[Warren Randolph]], [[Walter Scott]], [[Joshua Semeter]], [[Karlin Toner]] and [[Shelley Wright]] as the other members.[^21] The study was distinct from the [[Department of Defense]]'s [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office|All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office (AARO)]] and from the earlier UAP Task Force.
-### Footnotes
+The team's report, released on September 14, 2023, describes the team as "made up of 16 experts" and states that "we do not presently have the body of data needed to make definitive, scientific conclusions about UAP." The NASA foreword adds: "This is not a review of previous UAP incidents." The report responds to "eight charge elements that formed the Terms of Reference" and was deliberated at a public meeting on May 31, 2023.[^22] It recommends that NASA "play a prominent role in the whole-of-government effort" to understand UAP, and states that "establishing a more robust and systematic framework and data repository for UAP reporting is essential."[^22]
-[^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis.* Little, Brown and Company, 2017. Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers: The Secret History of America's Psychic Spies.* Dell, 1997.
+NASA named [[Mark McInerney]] director of UAP research on September 14, 2023 (release 23-106). The press release states that McInerney "previously served as NASA's liaison to the Department of Defense covering limited UAP activities for the agency," and that the agency was still evaluating the report's findings and recommendations at the time of release.[^23]
-[^2]: NASA Independent Study Team on Unidentified Aerial Phenomena. *UAP Independent Study Report.* NASA, September 14, 2023. Available at nasa.gov.
+
 ### Gordon Cooper and Other Astronauts
 According to a taped interview by J. L. Ferrando, [[Gordon Cooper]] said: "I can now reveal that every day, in the USA, our radar instruments capture objects of form and composition unknown to us."[^24] Cooper called for an open inquiry into UFOs, "based on his own personal experience of sighting UFOs in space and the testimony of other Mercury, Gemini and Apollo Astronauts."[^24] Cooper was selected as a Mercury astronaut in April 1959 and piloted the Faith 7 spacecraft on May 15 and 16, 1963. Cooper claimed to have seen his first UFO while flying over West Germany in 1951, "although he denied reports he had seen a UFO during his Mercury flight."[^25]
 ### Robert Bigelow and the BEAM Module
 On January 16, 2013, NASA announced a $17.8 million contract to [[Bigelow Aerospace Advanced Space Studies|Bigelow Aerospace]] to provide a Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) for a two-year technology demonstration on the International Space Station, sponsored by the Advanced Exploration Systems Program.[^26] NASA lists BEAM's launch as April 8, 2016 and its installation on the station as April 16, 2016.[^27] [[Robert Bigelow]]'s Bigelow Aerospace Advanced Space Studies, LLC (BAASS) was the awardee of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]]'s order HHM402-08-C-0072, titled Advanced Aerospace Weapon System Applications ([[AAWSAP]]), signed September 22, 2008.[^28]
 ### Operation Paperclip and the Marshall Space Flight Center
 [[Wernher von Braun]], recruited through [[Operation Paperclip]], was the first director of the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]], serving from 1960 to 1970.[^29] [[Alan Filreis]] wrote that von Braun's admissions in U.S. Army records show him to have been "an S.S. major" who frequently visited the underground rocket factory at Dora, that during one visit, according to documents shown on CNN, von Braun attended a meeting that discussed rounding up citizens off the streets of France to be brought to Dora, and that on March 23 NASA held a "Wernher von Braun birthday reception" at Marshall in Huntsville, Alabama.[^30]
 [[Arthur Rudolph]], Operations Director at the Mittelwerk underground V-2 factory, became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1954, worked in the U.S. rocket program until his retirement from NASA in 1969, and received NASA's Distinguished Service Award at his retirement.[^29] Filreis described the 1969 award as going to Rudolph "for his work as project director of the Saturn V moon rocket."[^30] The [[Office of Special Investigations]] (OSI) of the Justice Department interviewed Rudolph twice and recommended a denaturalization action; a prosecution memorandum dated April 21, 1983 went to the Deputy Assistant Attorney General, and a memorandum of December 2, 1983 concerned the "Agreement in Rudolph Case." Under the written agreement he would leave the United States and renounce his citizenship, and he agreed not to contest allegations that he participated in the persecution of unarmed civilians at Mittelwerk; the government agreed to withhold any announcement until he had departed.[^29] Rudolph went to Germany in October 1984. He denied wrongdoing, and said that he "tried to help the poor forced laborers to have their conditions improved" and that he renounced his citizenship only to avoid the sensationalism and cost of litigation in light of his health and age.[^29] Former Congresswoman [[Elizabeth Holtzman]] asked NASA to rescind the medal, and the agency refused.[^29] Filreis reports that [[Eli Rosenbaum]], who negotiated the agreement for the OSI, said that any contention that the agreement bars the government from revoking Rudolph's medals "is utter nonsense."[^30]
 In 1989 Rudolph applied at the U.S. Consulate in Hamburg for a visa to reenter the United States, and was denied. In 1990 he flew to Canada, where the Canadian authorities, alerted by OSI, briefly detained him and released him on bond pending deportation proceedings; Ohio Congressman James Traficant championed his cause. The Canadian court concluded that Rudolph "called for, made use of and directed" slave laborers at Mittelwerk. He was sent back to Germany in 1992, and then sued the Department of Justice, the Attorney General, the Secretary of State and four OSI attorneys, claiming that the government had misled him into believing it had sufficient evidence to file a denaturalization suit when a key witness had exculpated him in a sworn declaration. The OSI report states that the suit was dismissed on the ground that it was barred by sovereign immunity, and that he died in Germany in 1996.[^29] A Jewish Telegraphic Agency report carried by the Detroit Jewish News on February 26, 1993 dates the agreement to 1983 and reports that a federal judge in San Jose dismissed Rudolph's suit, in which he argued that the agreement was made under duress and contained elements of fraud, and that a Canadian court had found that he directed forced labor by foreign prisoners at Mittelwerk during 1943 to 1945.[^31]
 ### Jack Parsons and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
 The Jet Propulsion Laboratory grew from GALCIT Project No. 1 in Pasadena. The FBI's file on [[Jack Parsons]] records a letter of December 29, 1950 from the laboratory on the classification of seven Jet Propulsion Laboratory reports under GALCIT Project No. 1 that were in Parsons' possession at the end of his employment at Hughes Aircraft.[^32]
 ### Brookings Institution 1960 Report
 The report "Proposed Studies on the Implications of Peaceful Space Activities for Human Affairs," prepared by [[Donald N. Michael]] with the collaboration of Jack Baranson, Raymond A. Bauer, Richard L. Meier, Aaron B. Nadel, Herbert A. Shepard, Herbert E. Striner and Christopher Wright for NASA's Committee on Long-Range Studies, was issued by the [[Brookings Institution]] in December 1960. It states that "the discovery of intelligent life in other parts of the universe is not likely in the immediate future, it could nevertheless happen at any time," and that "Whenever it does occur its consequences for earth attitudes and values may be profound." It then recommends that a long-term research effort begin with "A continuing determination of emotional and intellectual understanding and attitudes regarding the possibility and consequences of discovering intelligent extraterrestrial life."[^33]
 A later section of the report on the implications of a discovery of extraterrestrial life states that "face-to-face meetings with it will not occur within the next twenty years (unless its technology is more advanced than ours, qualifying it to visit earth)," that "artifacts left at some point in time by these life forms might possibly be discovered through our space activities on the Moon, Mars, or Venus," and that if there is any contact in the next twenty years "it would most likely be by radio."[^33]
 ### NASA Response to the 1977 White House UFO Inquiry
 In July 1977, [[Frank Press]], the director of science and technology policy in the [[Executive Office of the President]], wrote to NASA Administrator [[Robert Frosch]] suggesting that NASA answer UFO-related mail and consider whether it should conduct an active research program on UFOs. In a letter dated December 21, 1977, Frosch agreed that NASA would continue to answer UFO mail, and he wrote that "I would therefore propose that NASA take no steps to establish research in this area or to convene a symposium on this subject."[^34] Frosch wrote that "There is an absence of tangible or physical evidence available for thorough laboratory analysis," that "we stand ready to respond to any bona fide physical evidence from credible sources," and that "institutionally, we retain an open mind, a keen sense of scientific curiosity and a willingness to analyze technical problems within our competence."[^34]
 NASA's 1978 information sheet on unidentified flying objects states that "NASA is not engaged in a research program involving these phenomena, nor is any other government agency."[^34]
 [^1]: NASA, "NASA History" (nasa.gov/history/: "Since October 1, 1958, when NASA opened for business"; NASA "was built on the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA)"); National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, signed by the President July 29, 1958, NASA History Office, history.nasa.gov/spaceact.html (National Archives Record Group 255).
 [^2]: Targ, Russell, Phyllis Cole and Harold Puthoff, "Development of Techniques to Enhance Man/Machine Communication," Final Report, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, August 1974, NASA CR-157886, contract 953653 under NAS7-100, SRI project 2613; foreword by NASA and JPL; abstract on the NASA Technical Reports Server, ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19790003559 (accession N79-11730; full text at ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19790003559/downloads/19790003559.pdf).
 [^3]: Beaumont, Roger A., "On the Strategic Potential of ESP," undated article, CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700360003-3, citing "n.a., 'Space Experiment in ESP is Described,' New York Times, February 23, 1971, p. 40." Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^4]: Puthoff, H. E., and R. Targ, "A Perceptual Channel for Information Transfer over Kilometer Distances: Historical Perspective and Recent Research," Proceedings of the IEEE, March 1976, NTRS 19760042112 (funding NAS7-100), ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19760042112.
 [^5]: NASA, "Edgar Dean Mitchell (Captain, USN, Ret.) NASA Astronaut (Former)," biographical data, nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/mitchell_edgar.pdf (Group 5, April 1966; lunar module pilot, launch January 31, 1971, return February 9, 1971; "founded the Institute of Noetic Sciences in 1973, one year after retiring from government service").
 [^6]: Mitchell, Edgar D., "Introduction: From Outer Space to Inner Space," in Mitchell, ed. John White, *Psychic Exploration: A Challenge for Science*, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1974, pp. 32-34 (archive.org lending copy psychicexplorati0000unse).
 [^8]: Mitchell, Edgar, with Dwight Williams, *The Way of the Explorer: An Apollo Astronaut's Journey Through the Material and Mystical Worlds*, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996, pp. 48-49 and 60-61, with a footnote on p. 61 stating that "The results of the experiment were published in the June 1971 issue of the Journal of Parapsychology" (archive.org lending copy wayofexplorer00mitc).
 [^7]: "Boom Times on the Psychic Frontier," article catalogued March 4, 1974, CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00787R000700030001-3 (a second copy is CIA-RDP96-00787R000100030002-8).
 [^9]: Mitchell, Edgar D., "An ESP Test From Apollo 14," Journal of Parapsychology, vol. 35, no. 2 (June 1971), pp. 89-107; the page range is confirmed in the journal's 1971 index, archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-parapsychology_1971_35_index.
 [^10]: Puharich, Andrija, ed., proposal on "direct brain action" based on a submission by Captain Edgar D. Mitchell, undated (c. 1972), CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, section on the Apollo 14 experiment.
 [^11]: Medical Intelligence Office, Office of the Surgeon General, report with date of publication July 1972, CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300010001-7, footnote 82 citing "An ESP Test from Appollo 14, Journal of Parapsychology, Volume 35, Number 2, June 1971." Sole source for the 150 attempts figure.
 [^12]: Zinchenko, V. P., A. N. Leontiev, B. F. Lomov, A. R. Luria and others, "Parapsychology: Fiction or Reality?," Voprosy Filosofii (Problems of Philosophy), no. 9, 1973, translated by Maria Mihajlovic and Christopher Bird, CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500320001-3 (the author list is partly illegible in the scan). Sole source for the passage so cited.
 [^13]: "An Experimental Psychic Probe of the Planet Jupiter, 1973," transcript of the Swann and Sherman sessions of April 27, 1973 (Annex A, Sherman; Annex B, Swann, "Swann-Sherman Jupiter Touchdown Probe," printed pp. 12-13 of the PDF), Stargate collection, CIA reference NSA-RDP96X00790R000100040010-3, hosted by The Black Vault at documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/cia/NSA-RDP96X00790R000100040010-3.pdf.
 [^14]: NASA, "Pioneer 10," science.nasa.gov/mission/pioneer-10/ (key dates: "Dec. 4, 1973: Pioneer 10's closest approach to Jupiter"); NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive, Pioneer 10, nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1972-012A.
 [^15]: Jet Propulsion Laboratory, photojournal PIA01484, "First Evidence of Jupiter Ring," "taken by Voyager 1 on March 4, 1979," photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA01484.
 [^16]: May, Antoinette, "Back From Beyond," CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700210010-1 (publication date not recovered). Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^17]: McKelvy, Dolan M., "Psychic Warfare: Exploring the Mind Frontier," Air War College, Air University, CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00789R001001420001-3. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^18]: Anderson, Jack, column in the Washington Post, "'Voodoo Gap' Looms as Latest Weapons Crisis," CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200050011-3 (undated; the column is in the first person and names "my associates Dale Van Atta and Joseph Spear"; it refers to a January 1982 event). Sole source for the passage so cited.
 [^19]: Jacobsen, Annie, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*, Little, Brown and Company, 2017; Schnabel, Jim, *Remote Viewers: The Secret History of America's Psychic Spies*, Dell, 1997. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^20]: NASA, "UAP: NASA Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Independent Study," science.nasa.gov/uap (Statement of Task; Appointment of Members; Terms of Reference), as archived by the Wayback Machine, snapshot of January 8, 2023, web.archive.org/web/20230108061915/https://science.nasa.gov/uap.
 [^21]: NASA, "NASA Announces Unidentified Aerial Phenomena Study Team Members," October 21, 2022, nasa.gov/feature/nasa-announces-unidentified-aerial-phenomena-study-team-members/.
 [^22]: NASA UAP Independent Study Team, *UAP Independent Study Team Final Report*, NASA, September 14, 2023, foreword (printed p. 6), "Organization of this report" and recommendations, science.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/uap-independent-study-team-final-report.pdf.
 [^23]: NASA, press release "NASA Shares UAP Independent Study Report; Names Director," release 23-106, September 14, 2023, nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-shares-unidentified-anomalous-phenomena-independent-study-report.
 [^24]: Greenewald, John, "Astronaut Gordon Cooper Admitted That Alien Craft Are Visiting Earth," The Black Vault, March 13, 2015, theblackvault.com/casefiles/?p=665, quoting a taped interview by J. L. Ferrando. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^25]: Greenewald, John, "Astronaut Gordon Cooper Talks About UFOs on Paranormal Borderline," The Black Vault, April 6, 2016, theblackvault.com/casefiles/?p=2403, biography and "Background on UFO Sightings." Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^26]: NASA, "NASA To Test Bigelow Expandable Module On Space Station," release 13-024, January 16, 2013, nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-to-test-bigelow-expandable-module-on-space-station/.
 [^27]: NASA, "Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM)," nasa.gov/international-space-station/bigelow-expandable-activity-module-beam/ (mission overview: launch 4/8/16, installation 4/16/16).
 [^28]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Standard Form 1449, order HHM402-08-C-0072, signed September 22, 2008, awardee Bigelow Aerospace Advanced Space Studies, LLC, released in FOIA-00269-2018, documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/dia/AAWSAP/FOIA-00269-2018-.pdf.
 [^29]: U.S. Department of Justice, Criminal Division, *Striving for Accountability in the Aftermath of the Holocaust: The Office of Special Investigations*, chapter "Arthur Rudolph - An Honored Rocket Scientist," pp. 331-340 and notes 4-6, 10, 13-15 (note 6: von Braun, "first Director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, serving from 1960 to 1970"; note 13: "Dec. 2, 1983 memo to DAAG Richard from Director Sher re 'Agreement in Rudolph Case'"; note 15: "NASA Refuses to Rescind Award," Washington Post, February 12, 1985), justice.gov/sites/default/files/criminal/legacy/2011/03/14/12-2008osu-accountability.pdf.
 [^30]: Filreis, Alan, "NASA's Nazis," Literature of the Holocaust, writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/Holocaust/nasa-nazis.html (the essay's date is not on the page; it refers to a CNN documentary broadcast "in March of last year"). Sole source for the von Braun reception and the Rosenbaum statement.
 [^31]: "U.S. Court Dismisses Ex-Nazi's Suit," Jewish Telegraphic Agency report, Detroit Jewish News, February 26, 1993, Bentley Historical Library copy, digital.bentley.umich.edu/djnews/djn.1993.02.26.001/52/download_text (retrieved from the Wayback Machine). Sole source for the San Jose dismissal.
 [^32]: FBI, "John Whiteside Parsons," file 65-59589, Part 2, report on a December 29, 1950 letter from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, archive.org/details/JohnParsons.
 [^33]: Michael, Donald N., with Jack Baranson, Raymond A. Bauer, Richard L. Meier, Aaron B. Nadel, Herbert A. Shepard, Herbert E. Striner and Christopher Wright, *Proposed Studies on the Implications of Peaceful Space Activities for Human Affairs*, Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C., December 1960, NASA NTRS 19640053196, ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19640053196 (PDF page 58 for the summary passage; PDF pages 242-243, printed pp. 182-183, for the section on the discovery of extraterrestrial life).
 [^34]: NASA Headquarters, Office of External Relations, Information Sheet 78-1, "Unidentified Flying Objects," 1978, quoting Frosch's letter of December 21, 1977 to Frank Press; copy from the Department of Defense reading room as archived by the Wayback Machine (snapshot 2022-11-13) of www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/FOID/Reading%20Room/UFOsandUAPs/nasa_u1.pdf.
--- a/PROJECTS/INTELLIGENCE_OPERATIONS/Operation
+++ b/PROJECTS/INTELLIGENCE_OPERATIONS/Operation
@ -20,9 +20,9 @@ tags:
  - 1970s
  - 1980s
 category: "Intelligence Operation"
-summary: "Operation Gladio was the Italian component of a NATO-sponsored network of secret stay-behind armies established across Western Europe by the CIA and British intelligence after World War II to conduct resistance and sabotage operations in the event of a Soviet invasion, whose members in Italy were linked to the right-wing terrorist bombings of the 'strategy of tension' from the late 1960s through the 1980s, exposed publicly by Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti in October 1990."
+summary: "Operation Gladio was the Italian branch of the NATO stay-behind networks set up by the CIA and British intelligence after World War II, whose members were linked to the bombings of the strategy of tension."
 start: 1956-01-01
-end: 1990-10-01
+end: 1990-11-27
 location: "Rome, Italy (primary); Brussels, Belgium (NATO coordination)"
 ---
@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ The strategy of tension investigations repeatedly intersected with the [[Propaga
 ### The 1990 Disclosure
-Italian Prime Minister [[Giulio Andreotti]] disclosed Gladio's existence to Parliament on October 24, 1990, in a statement acknowledging the stay-behind network's existence and providing a partial account of its operations and membership. The disclosure was forced by an investigation conducted by magistrate [[Felice Casson]], who had obtained documents establishing the Gladio network's existence and connection to the Peteano bombing while investigating that case.
+Italian Prime Minister [[Giulio Andreotti]] first acknowledged the structure to the parliamentary commission on terrorism and massacres (the Stragi commission) on August 3, 1990, saying that according to the services its NATO-model activities had continued "until 1972". On October 18, 1990 he sent the commission a document, "Il cosiddetto SID parallelo, il caso Gladio", which showed the structure still active in 1990; the commission's 1992 report called the two statements contradictory. The SISMI director [[Fulvio Martini]] had issued a circular on August 8, 1990 redirecting Gladio toward the fight against drugs. On October 24, 1990 Andreotti addressed the Chamber of Deputies, describing a NATO-framework "safeguard network, both informational and of reaction", and said that after a letter from magistrate [[Felice Casson]] to the commission's chairman he had held back the document and sent a revised text within 24 hours. Casson had obtained documents establishing the Gladio network's existence and connection to the Peteano bombing while investigating that case. Andreotti decreed Gladio's dissolution on November 27, 1990.[^4][^5]
 Andreotti's disclosure triggered immediate political controversy in Italy and across Europe, where governments faced questions about whether analogous networks existed in their own countries. The [[European Parliament]] passed a resolution on November 22, 1990 condemning the stay-behind networks as a threat to democratic governance and calling on member states to investigate and disclose their networks' activities.[^2]
@ -73,3 +73,5 @@ In [[Belgium]], the stay-behind network SDRA8 was investigated in connection wit
 [^1]: Ganser, Daniele. *NATO's Secret Armies: Operation GLADIO and Terrorism in Western Europe.* Frank Cass, 2005. This is the primary comprehensive scholarly account based on official documents and parliamentary investigations. Italian Senate Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia. Final Reports, 2000-2001.
 [^2]: European Parliament. Resolution on the Gladio Affair, November 22, 1990. Colby, William, and Peter Forbath. *Honorable Men: My Life in the CIA.* Simon & Schuster, 1978 (background on CIA stay-behind organization methodology).
 [^3]: Willan, Philip. *Puppetmasters: The Political Use of Terrorism in Italy.* Constable, 1991. Flamini, Gianni. *Il Partito del Golpe.* Bovolenta, 1982-1985 (Italian documentary account of P2/Gladio intersection).
 [^4]: Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi, *Relazione sull'inchiesta condotta sulle vicende connesse all'operazione Gladio*, Doc. XXIII n. 51, approved April 14-15, 1992, pp. 12-13, 29-30. Translated from the Italian. https://www.parlamento.it/service/PDF/PDFServer/BGT/909971.pdf
 [^5]: Camera dei deputati, X Legislatura, *Discussioni*, seduta del 24 ottobre 1990 (no. 537), *Resoconto stenografico*, pp. 71561-71562. Translated from the Italian. https://legislature.camera.it/_dati/leg10/lavori/stenografici/sed0537/sed0537.pdf
--- a/PROJECTS/PSI_RESEARCH_PROGRAMS/Great
+++ b/PROJECTS/PSI_RESEARCH_PROGRAMS/Great
@ -1,29 +1,134 @@
 ---
 created: 2024-08-21
-updated: 2024-08-21
+updated: 2026-10-07
 title: Great Skill Program
 aliases:
  - Great Skill Program
  - Great Skills Program
  - Great Skills
  - Great Skill
  - GSP
  - Enlisted Great Skill Program
  - Army Strategic Intelligence Recruiting
  - Military Intelligence Enlisted Case Officer Program
 tags:
-  - U.S. Army
+  - USArmy
  - HumanIntelligence
  - SpecialAccessPrograms
-description: The Great Skill Program (GSP) identifies and develops Army recruits into soldier spies for HUMINT, CI, and Technical Intelligence. Participants are removed from standard tracking systems, allowing flexible, secretive assignments to high-security Special Access Programs, often operating without traditional military identifiers.
+  - SpecialRoster
-category: "Psi Research Program"
+  - Program
  - RemoteViewing
  - StarGate
 description: The Great Skill Program (GS or GSP) is a Department of the Army G-2 program placing experienced soldiers in HUMINT, counterintelligence and technical intelligence work; Army records of 1981 to 1984 show its personnel serviced by the Administrative Survey Detachment and used in Center Lane and Grill Flame.
 category: "Intelligence Operation"
 summary: "Great Skill Program (GS or GSP) is a secretive internal U.S. Army program to identify promising recruits and help to develop them into soldier spies."
 start: 1947
 location: "U.S. Army"
 relations:
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Luis Elizondo]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "recruited into the program after an assignment at Fort Huachuca, according to his own account"
    fn: 4
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Eugene Lessman]]"
    reverse: true
    role: "lead recruiter, according to Elizondo"
    fn: 4
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Joe McMoneagle]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1981
    role: "CW2 in the program, recommended for assignment to Fort Meade"
    fn: 15
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Frederick Atwater]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1981
    role: "CPT in the program, later listed as Mr. under ASD Great Skill"
    fn: 15
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1982
    role: "servicing command, through its Administrative Survey Detachment"
    fn: 7
 ---
-Great Skill Program (GS or GSP) is a secretive internal [[U.S. Army]] program to identify promising recruits and help to develop them into soldier spies. The focus is on Human Intelligence (HUMINT), Counterintelligence (CI), and Technical Intelligence[^2].
+The Great Skill Program (GS or GSP) is an [[U.S. Army]] program, managed by the Department of the Army G-2, that places experienced noncommissioned officers, warrant officers and officers in complex operations in human intelligence (HUMINT), counterintelligence (CI) and technical intelligence.[^1] A 2023 Army talent management guide lists [[Army Strategic Intelligence Recruiting]] as the program's later name and gives the Great Skill Program (GSP) as its former name.[^2]
-Great Skills is not a formal unit, but rather a specialized program for managing individuals with unique skills for sensitive and clandestine operations. Recruits are removed from the Human Resource Command (HRC) database (which tracks career assignments and locations of all Army personnel) and instead places them on the [[Department of the Army's Special Roster]] (DASR) effectively making these individuals invisible to the broader Army. This allows members to be assigned with more flexibility and secrecy.
+### Naming and publications
-The primary motivation is to allow these soldiers to be assigned to [[Special Access Programs]] (SAPs) with high security classification and no concern of rotation or reassignment.
+A 1978 Army publication entry titled The Military Intelligence Enlisted Case Officer Program describes it as a nickname for the enlisted Great Skill program, with copies available from HQDA (DAMI-ISH).[^3] The same index run gives January 3, 1977 for AR 614-202. The index also has an Enlisted Case Officer Program entry and a Military Intelligence Case Officers entry, both under AR 614-202.[^3]
-While not always true, members operating in these roles are almost “in the army without being in the army” and can work without uniforms, ranks, etc to protect secrecy.
+The program's origins are traced to the [[National Security Act of 1947]], and its names have changed over time.
-The program was born out of the [[National Security Act of 1947]] and has changed names throughout time (for example, in 1977 it was referred to as The Military Intelligence Enlisted Case Officer Program[^4] and is now renamed Army Strategic Intelligence Recruiting[^3]). There are ways for members of other services to operate within this program, but it’s primarily intended for Army enlisted members.
+Great Skills is not a formal unit but a means of managing individuals with unique skills for sensitive and clandestine operations. Members are removed from the Human Resource Command database, which tracks the career assignments and locations of Army personnel, and placed on the [[Department of the Army's Special Roster]], which keeps them out of view of the broader Army and allows assignment with more flexibility and secrecy. The arrangement allows members to serve in high-classification special access programs without concern for rotation or reassignment, and members in these roles can work without uniforms or rank to protect secrecy. There are ways for members of other services to operate within the program.
 ### Footnotes
-[^1]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent.* 2024, p. 32 - note: Elizondo incorrectly names this program "Great Skills" and "Grey Fox" in the text.
+### Recruitment in the Elizondo account
-[^2]: [Army Enlistment overview](https://armyreenlistment.com/site/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Special-Assignments-February-2019.pdf)
+
-[^3]: [Army Talent Management](https://talent.army.mil/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/TBCA-Program-Guide_Phase-8.pdf)
+[[Luis Elizondo]], a former Army counterintelligence agent, has given an account of his own recruitment into the program.[^4] He writes that he was offered an officer commission after college but enlisted instead, because an officer commission would have left his specialty to the Army's needs. He says he was then trained as a counterintelligence special agent.[^5] His second assignment was with the [[902d Military Intelligence Group]] out of Fort Meade, Maryland, but his duty station was Fort Huachuca, Arizona.[^5]
-[^4]: [Army military publication](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Military_Publications/LiQzp6onTXkC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=great%20skill%20)
+
 About a year later, Elizondo writes, Lieutenant Colonel [[Michael Seage]] recommended him for a specialized cadre he had never heard of, the Army's Great Skills program.[^4] At a motel in the Arizona desert, he was interviewed by [[Eugene Lessman]], whom he calls the lead recruiter for unconventional work in the Army.[^4] Elizondo writes that Lessman had served in Vietnam with the [[Special Operations Group]] and in [[Project Phoenix]], and that Lessman was a civilian intelligence case officer working for the Army. He identifies Lessman's designation as MICACP, which he expands as Military Intelligence Civilian Accepted Career Program.[^4]
 In Elizondo's account, Lessman described the program as recruiting young soldiers with special talents and training them as soldier spies. Lessman then asked him about remote viewing, which Elizondo says he did not know.[^4]
 Elizondo writes that Lessman told him the Great Skills program was also called Grey Fox. He also writes that Lessman recruited soldiers into the [[Stargate Project]] in what Elizondo calls the remains of that operation, and that it was never made clear whether that work was part of Grey Fox's official mission.[^4]
 Elizondo later writes that he was released from his enlisted obligations and became a civilian official working for the Army, though he says the [[National Security Agency|NSA]] paid him for that work. He says he never learned whether Lessman intended him to be one of his remote viewers or was only assessing him.[^6]
 ### Personnel arrangements and cover, 1982
 A memorandum of September 22, 1982 from the Security Support Detachment of the 902d Military Intelligence Group to LTC [[Robert Jachim]] explored cover options for [[Detachment G]] under a pending reorganization. Its author wrote that Congress had denied National Foreign Intelligence Board money to the Army in the FY 83 budget to continue investigating the parapsychological (psi) phenomenon, and that Congress evidently considered the DIA [[Grill Flame]] program sufficient for that purpose. The memo records that the commanding general of INSCOM had decided to continue using INSCOM psi resources in an intelligence collection role without NFIB money, with a $250,000 effort in FY 83 for which no program funds had been identified.[^7]
 The memo offered three redesignation options: sponsorship by the NSA, with Detachment G personnel forming a division in the CONUS Military Intelligence Group or in the Security Support Detachment; sponsorship by the 902d Military Intelligence Group, as a sixth division of the Security Support Detachment named the "Security Systems Planning and Review Division"; or transfer to the INSCOM headquarters support detachment as a "Security Readiness and Mobilization Planning Division" under the ADCSOPS/OPSEC. Each carried a nickname representing the true mission.[^7]
 On personnel, the memo states that Great Skill Program members in Detachment G were serviced by the [[Administrative Survey Detachment]], while other Detachment G "open system" personnel were serviced by the Ops Group personnel section. Great Skill Program members would continue to be serviced by the Administrative Survey Detachment in a reorganization. Open system personnel could be serviced by the joined organization or be placed on the Department of the Army's Special Roster (DASR) and serviced by the Administrative Survey Detachment, and the author recommended that everyone be serviced by that detachment.[^7]
 Under the heading "COVER FOR STATUS," the memo states that Detachment G must completely sever all direct ties with Project Grill Flame, ADCSOPS/HUMINT, the Ops Group and the designation "Det G". It proposes a cover front of at least one officer and a secretary to "live the cover", with only the detachment commander or division chief, an operations and security officer and the secretary identified overtly. It also lists returning all Detachment G telephone numbers to the telephone company, replacing the sign on the building with the cover name, removing all desk nameplates except three, placing maps and mobilization planning manuals on desks, sanitizing the area of every reference to the behavioral sciences, and requiring everyone to dress with a coat and tie or in uniform during normal duty hours to correspond with the cover story. As a Great Skill or DASR member, an individual's travel for education would be covered by cover orders published by the Administrative Survey Detachment, which would disassociate the individual from the true organization.[^7]
 A March 23, 1982 tasking, forwarded over the signature of Major General [[Albert Stubblebine]] as commander of INSCOM, asked the 902d Military Intelligence Group to evaluate whether INSCOM's participation in Grill Flame needed to be protected by a Special Access Program. Among the items to review was "Cover for status/operations (DASR)".[^8]
 Records of November 1984 describe the Great Skill asset in the [[Center Lane]] project as a source of continuing risk, along with the association with the Administrative Survey Detachment that the DASR required.[^9] An October 1983 personnel assignments record states that information about Great Skill spaces is maintained by the commander of the Administrative Survey Detachment.[^10] An August 30, 1984 list of required coordination for the transfer of Center Lane to the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] includes the entries "ASD (DASR)" and "GS slot procedures", with badges, identification and cover among the adjoining items.[^11] Warning notices on the Center Lane distribution were marked as a [[Special Access Programs|special access program]].[^12]
 In the 2011 revision of [[Army Regulation 614-200]], soldiers in the enlisted Intelligence Career Program are assigned in their primary military occupational specialty unless the [[Human Resource Command]] approves otherwise, and the program's objectives include providing an inventory of soldiers directly engaged in intelligence activities.[^13]
 An undated memorandum from the chief of the [[Intelligence Systems Analysis Branch]] describes the Great Skills program as a way to extend tours for military personnel. It states that Great Skills does not guarantee a person will spend a career at one location, but does guarantee a career in Great Skills, and calls the choice a career decision that could damage a return to the regular Army.[^14]
 ### Operational use, 1981 to 1984
 On May 15, 1981, Brigadier General Flynn directed a second look at the Great Skills situation involving LTC Boyce of the Administrative Survey Detachment. The directive concerned the assignment of CPT [[Frederick Atwater]] after the career course in May 1982. If no Great Skills slot could be found, Flynn would sign a letter to the commander of the [[U.S. Army Military Personnel Center]]. Flynn also agreed that CW2 [[Joe McMoneagle]] be reassigned (PCS) to Fort Meade, and he directed a review of the access list to remove anyone without a strict need-to-know.[^15]
 A February 23, 1982 memorandum from the Administrative Survey Detachment to the commander of Detachment G of the [[U.S. Army Operational Group]] at Fort Meade refers to a February 22 meeting among Jachim of Grill Flame, Hartzell, the command psychologist of INSCOM, and Smay of the Great Skill program. The memorandum is signed by LTC [[Donald R. Smay]], Chief, Great Skill Division. It records that the commander of the Administrative Survey Detachment concurred on February 23 in the use of Great Skill division recruiters to spot, approach and make a preliminary assessment of possible Grill Flame operatives among Military Intelligence warrant officers and noncommissioned officers, and requests that three Great Skill division personnel (Major Richard Hutchison, CW4 Peter Conway and SGM Harry Kreger) receive a general indoctrination in the Grill Flame mission.[^16]
 Undated working papers describe a second operational group at Fort Meade made up of Army personnel selected and trained to do remote viewing. They state that no selection criteria were available for the group and that its members were submitted to an unevaluated training program.[^17]
 On October 5, 1983, a briefing for the Secretary of the Army, John O. Marsh, records that CPT Atwater, asked his status, replied that he was a Great Skills officer working for LTC [[Brian Buzby]]. The Secretary indicated an understanding of the program and did not pursue the subject.[^18] A personnel spaces listing for Center Lane from the same period names McMoneagle and Atwater under ASD with the Great Skill designation and the civilian title Mr.[^19]
 A December 1984 record of a meeting on transferring Center Lane activities to the Defense Intelligence Agency lists satisfying Great Skills program requirements as necessary to permit detailing Great Skills personnel to the DIA, and assigns meeting with ASD on the actual detailing of personnel.[^20]
 ### Officer and enlisted scope
 The 1978 publication entry titles the program in terms of enlisted personnel.[^3] The February 2019 Army special assignments listing describes the program as one for experienced active duty NCOs, warrant officers and officers of all MOS and branches, with qualification entries of CPT or above with key developmental or command time, CW2 or above, or SGT or above with the Advanced Leader Course, a minimum age of 25, a GT score of 110 or higher, a TS/SCI clearance, and willingness to take a CI scope polygraph.[^1] Records from 1981 to 1984 describe a captain, a warrant officer, a major, a sergeant major and civilians in Great Skill roles.[^15][^16][^18][^19]
 The 2023 Talent Based Career Alignment Program guide lists Army Strategic Intelligence Recruiting as formerly the Great Skill Program. It describes an assured mid-career pathway open to junior officers attending the Captains Career Course, applications for which require officer evaluation reports. The guide says program members perform specialized worldwide intelligence operations supporting the collection requirements of the [[Department of Defense]] and other national agencies, and that no prior intelligence experience is necessary.[^2]
 [^1]: U.S. Army (armyreenlistment.com), Special Assignments, "Great Skill Program," updated February 2019, https://armyreenlistment.com/site/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Special-Assignments-February-2019.pdf (Wayback Machine capture of January 4, 2024, https://web.archive.org/web/20240104160915id_/https://armyreenlistment.com/site/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Special-Assignments-February-2019.pdf).
 [^2]: U.S. Army Talent Management Task Force, Talent Based Career Alignment Program Guide, current as of 17 March 2023 (Phase 8), "Army Strategic Intelligence Recruiting (Formerly Known as Great Skill Program (GSP))," https://talent.army.mil/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/TBCA-Program-Guide_Phase-8.pdf.
 [^3]: Headquarters, Department of the Army, Military Publications: Index of administrative publications (1978), entries on pages 26, 86 and 96, https://www.google.com/books/edition/Military_Publications/LiQzp6onTXkC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=great%20skill%20.
 [^4]: Luis Elizondo, Imminent: Inside the Pentagon's Hunt for UFOs (New York: William Morrow, 2024), pp. 31 to 33 (printed index entries: Great Skills program, 31 to 33; Grey Fox, 32 to 33; Lessman, 32 to 35; Seage, 31 to 33). Sole source for the recruitment, Lessman and Grey Fox passages.
 [^5]: Luis Elizondo, Imminent: Inside the Pentagon's Hunt for UFOs (New York: William Morrow, 2024), pp. 30 to 31. Sole source for the enlistment and assignment passages.
 [^6]: Luis Elizondo, Imminent: Inside the Pentagon's Hunt for UFOs (New York: William Morrow, 2024), pp. 32 to 38. Sole source for the release and NSA payment passage.
 [^7]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001700350013-3, Security Support Detachment, 902d Military Intelligence Group, memorandum to LTC Jachim, "Detachment G Reorganization," September 22, 1982, paragraphs 2 to 5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700350013-3.
 [^8]: CIA-RDP96-00788R002000170002-1, Headquarters, U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command, "OPSEC Support for Project GRILL FLAME," with attached tasking dated March 23, 1982, paragraphs 1 and 2c, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r002000170002-1.
 [^9]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001500090028-8, Memorandum for Record, "CENTER LANE Discussion with INSCOM Command Group," November 27, 1984, paragraph c, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001500090028-8.
 [^10]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001700300005-7, Memorandum for Record, "Personnel Assignments," October 3, 1983 (archive record date), https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700300005-7.
 [^11]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001500090052-1, Memorandum for Record, "Required Coordination for CENTER LANE Transfer to DIA," August 30, 1984, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001500090052-1.
 [^12]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001500090030-5, "CENTER LANE Support to INSCOM Subsequent to Transfer," October 22, 1984 (archive record date), warning notice "CENTER LANE SPECIAL ACCESS PROGRAM," https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001500090030-5.
 [^13]: Army Regulation 614-200, Enlisted Assignments and Utilization Management, Rapid Action Revision, 11 October 2011, paragraphs 3-10a(7) and 6-2a(4) (Intelligence Career Program), Wayback Machine capture of http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/r614_200.pdf, https://web.archive.org/web/2015id_/http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/r614_200.pdf.
 [^14]: CIA-RDP96-00789R001100020003-5, memorandum "Personnel Continuity" from the Chief, Intelligence Systems Analysis Branch, undated, paragraphs 2 and 4, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r001100020003-5.
 [^15]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001200180001-0, Memorandum for the Record, "Update Briefing for DCG-I," May 15, 1981, paragraphs 5 to 7, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001200180001-0.
 [^16]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001200060023-9, U.S. Army Administrative Survey Detachment, INSCOM, memorandum to the Commander, Detachment G, U.S. Army Operational Group, "Request for Indoctrination Authorization," February 23, 1982, paragraphs 1 to 4 and signature block, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001200060023-9.
 [^17]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001100110007-2, undated working papers, "Psi Operational Capability," section on the second operational group at Ft. Meade, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001100110007-2.
 [^18]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001700270014-1, "Secretary of the Army Briefing 5 October 1983," memorandum of October 12, 1983, questions and answers, item 1(a), https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700270014-1.
 [^19]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001700300002-0, "CENTER LANE Personnel Spaces," listing lines e and f, archive record date August 2, 1983, with spaces required in April 1984, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700300002-0.
 [^20]: CIA-RDP96-00788R001500020011-3, "Meeting on the Transfer of CENTER LANE Activities to DIA," archive record date December 19, 1984, action item e, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001500020011-3.
--- a/TECHNOLOGY/Cold
+++ b/TECHNOLOGY/Cold
@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
---
+---
 category: "Esoteric & Historical Concept"
 tags:
  - Concept
@ -7,34 +7,173 @@ tags:
  - KGB
  - Intelligence
  - CovertOperations
-summary: "The Cold War (1947-1991) was the period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union that is the overarching context for most of the intelligence operations, covert programs, and clandestine financial networks documented throughout this vault."
+  - NSC68
  - Containment
  - PsiResearch
  - StargateProject
  - StayBehindNetworks
 aliases:
  - The Cold War
  - Cold War era
 summary: "The Cold War was the 1947 to 1991 rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union that produced containment doctrine, the CIA covert-action charter and the psychic espionage programs."
 created: 2026-05-14
-updated: 2026-05-14
+updated: 2026-10-07
 relations:
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[George Kennan]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1946
    role: "author of the Long Telegram and of the article signed X"
    fn: 3
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[James Harold Doolittle]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1954
    role: "chairman of the Special Study Group that reported on the CIA's covert activities"
    fn: 14
  - type: participant_in
    with: "[[Giulio Andreotti]]"
    reverse: true
    start: 1990
    end: 1990
    role: "Prime Minister of Italy who made the August 3, October 18 and October 24, 1990 statements on the Gladio stay-behind network and decreed its dissolution on November 27, 1990"
    fn: 29
 ---
-The Cold War was the period of geopolitical competition, ideological conflict, and arms race between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] that lasted from approximately 1947 - when the Truman Doctrine committed the United States to containing Soviet expansion - to 1991, when the Soviet Union dissolved. Neither superpower engaged in direct armed conflict; instead, both waged proxy wars, funded insurgencies, conducted covert operations, developed psychological warfare techniques, and competed for influence across every continent. The term "cold" denoted the absence of direct "hot" military confrontation between the two powers.[^1]
+The Cold War was the rivalry between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] that began in 1947 and ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. It combined ideological conflict, an arms race and a contest for influence on every continent. The two powers did not fight each other directly. They fought proxy wars, funded insurgencies, ran covert operations and developed psychological warfare techniques. The term "cold" denoted the absence of direct "hot" military confrontation between them.[^1]
-### Origins and Structure
+### Containment and the covert charter
-The Cold War emerged from the wartime alliance between the United States, United Kingdom, and Soviet Union that had defeated [[Nazi Germany]] in [[World War II]]. Fundamental disagreements over the post-war order in [[Europe]] - particularly over the status of [[Germany]], [[Poland]], and Eastern Europe - quickly developed into systemic antagonism. The United States' development and use of nuclear weapons in 1945, and the Soviet Union's successful nuclear test in 1949, established the strategic logic of mutually assured destruction that defined the conflict's fundamental deterrence structure.[^1]
+The Cold War emerged from the wartime alliance between the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union that had defeated [[Nazi Germany]] in [[World War II]]. Disagreements over the postwar order in [[Europe]], particularly over the status of [[Germany]] and [[Poland]], developed into systemic antagonism. The United States used nuclear weapons in 1945. On September 23, 1949, [[Harry S. Truman]] announced: "We have evidence that within recent weeks an atomic explosion occurred in the U.S.S.R."[^2]
-The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] was created by the [[National Security Act of 1947]] to centralize American foreign intelligence collection and covert action. The CIA's founding personnel came largely from the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services]]. Soviet intelligence, consolidated in the [[KGB]] (Committee for State Security) in 1954, had been conducting aggressive intelligence operations in the United States since the 1930s through networks that included the Cambridge Five in Britain and atomic spy rings that provided the Soviet Union with classified nuclear weapons data.[^2]
+On February 22, 1946, [[George Kennan]], the chargé d'affaires in [[Moscow]], sent the [[Long Telegram|long telegram]] to the Secretary of State. It said that Soviet leaders "learned to seek security only in patient but deadly struggle for total destruction of rival power, never in compacts and compromises with it." Its summary described "a political force committed fanatically to the belief that with US there can be no permanent modus vivendi."[^3] In July 1947 the [[Foreign Affairs]] journal printed "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" over the signature "X". The article held that "the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[^4]
-### Covert Operations Framework
+On March 12, 1947, Truman told a joint session of [[United States Congress|Congress]]: "I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."[^5]
-The Cold War produced an unprecedented expansion of covert operations as an instrument of foreign policy. The CIA's covert action programs operated under presidential findings and congressional oversight that was, until the Church Committee reforms of 1975-1976, minimal. Key Cold War CIA covert operations documented in this vault include: the 1953 [[Operation Ajax]] in [[Iran]]; the Bay of Pigs invasion of [[Cuba]] (1961); the Phoenix Program in [[Vietnam]]; [[Operation Condor]] in [[Latin America]]; the Contra resupply program in [[Nicaragua]]; [[Operation Cyclone]] in [[Afghanistan]]; and the MKULTRA mind control research program.[^2]
+The [[National Security Act of 1947]], approved July 26, 1947, provided in section 102(a) that there "is hereby established under the National Security Council a Central Intelligence Agency with a Director of Central Intelligence, who shall be the head thereof," and in section 102(d)(5) that the agency would "perform such other functions and duties related to intelligence affecting the national security as the National Security Council may from time to time direct."[^6] The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] centralized American foreign intelligence collection and covert action, and its founding personnel came largely from the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services]]. Soviet intelligence was consolidated in the [[KGB]] (Committee for State Security) in 1954. It had run operations in the United States since the 1930s, through networks that included the [[Cambridge Five]] in Britain and atomic spy rings that supplied the Soviet Union with classified nuclear weapons data.[^7] The KGB's corresponding programs included active measures (dezinformatsiya), political influence operations, and the funding and training of allied intelligence services and insurgent movements in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
-The KGB's corresponding programs included active measures (dezinformatsiya), political influence operations, and the funding and training of allied intelligence services and insurgent movements in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
+On December 17, 1947, the [[National Security Council]] approved NSC 4-A, which directed the Director of Central Intelligence, under section 102(d)(5) of the National Security Act, to "initiate and conduct, within the limit of available funds, covert psychological operations designed to counteract Soviet and Soviet-inspired activities which constitute a threat to world peace and security."[^8]
-### Parapsychology Programs
+The directive of June 18, 1948, NSC 10/2, on the [[Office of Special Projects]] defined covert operations in paragraph 5 as activities "so planned and executed that any US Government responsibility for them is not evident to unauthorized persons and that if uncovered the US Government can plausibly disclaim any responsibility for them." Its listed activities included those related to "propaganda," "preventive direct action, including sabotage," and "subversion against hostile states." The definition excluded "armed conflict by recognized military forces, espionage, counter-espionage, and cover and deception for military operations." Paragraph 6 stated that the directive superseded NSC 4-A.[^9]
-Both superpowers devoted resources to researching claimed [[Extrasensory Perception|extrasensory]] and psychokinetic capabilities during the Cold War, driven by concern that the adversary might exploit any genuine psychic capabilities for intelligence collection. Soviet research into what Moscow termed "psychotronics" or "biological communications" was tracked by Western intelligence. The CIA funded ESP research from the early 1950s and ultimately supported the decade-long [[Stargate Project]] (various designations, early 1970s to 1995), which employed [[Remote Viewing|remote viewing]] as an intelligence tool at Fort Meade, Maryland.[^1]
+The Hughes-Ryan Amendment, section 32 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1974 (December 30, 1974), added section 662 to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. Section 662(a) provided that no appropriated funds could be expended by or on behalf of the Central Intelligence Agency "for operations in foreign countries, other than activities intended solely for obtaining necessary intelligence, unless and until the President finds that each such operation is important to the national security of the United States and reports, in a timely fashion, a description and scope of such operation to the appropriate committees of the Congress."[^10] The [[Church Committee]] investigated the agency's covert activities in 1975 and 1976.
-### End of the Cold War
+### NSC-68 and the Psychological Strategy Board
-The Cold War ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991. Contributing factors included the economic exhaustion produced by military competition with the United States, the political reforms initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika programs, the collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe in 1989, and the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] on November 9, 1989. The institutional structures created by the Cold War - including the CIA, the national security state, and the alliance relationships documented in this vault - persisted long after its end and shaped the post-Cold War intelligence landscape.[^2]
+The [[NSC-68]] report of April 14, 1950, a report to the National Security Council by its Executive Secretary, contained a section on the Kremlin that stated: "The fundamental design of those who control the Soviet Union and the international communist movement is to retain and solidify their absolute power, first in the Soviet Union and second in the areas now under their control."[^11]
 On April 4, 1951, President Truman established the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] by directive to the Secretaries of State and Defense and to the Director of Central Intelligence. The directive gave as its goal "more effective planning, coordination and conduct, within the framework of approved national policies, of psychological operations." The Board, made up of the Under Secretary of State, the Deputy Secretary of Defense and the Director of Central Intelligence, reported to the National Security Council.[^12]
 ### The flying saucer panel of 1953
 In January 1953 a panel of scientific consultants, known as the [[Robertson Panel]] after its chairman [[Howard P. Robertson]], met to review reports of [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena|unidentified flying objects]] for the CIA. The report is signed by Robertson as chairman and by [[Luis W. Alvarez]], [[Lloyd V. Berkner]], [[Samuel Goudsmit]] and [[Thornton Page]], and [[J. Allen Hynek]] attended the sessions. The panel proposed an educational program with two aims, training and debunking. The debunking aim would result in "reduction in public interest" in flying saucers. The report gave the reason: "Such a program should tend to reduce the current gullibility of the public and consequently their susceptibility to clever hostile propaganda." The report added: "The Panel noted that the general absence of Russian propaganda based on a subject with so many obvious possibilities for exploitation might indicate a possible Russian official policy." The report's list of evidence reviewed names Project GRUDGE and Project BLUE BOOK as "code names for ATIC study of subject," a reference to the [[Air Technical Intelligence Center]] (ATIC).[^13]
 ### The Doolittle Report
 On July 26, 1954, President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] wrote to [[James Harold Doolittle]] asking him to chair a panel of consultants for "a comprehensive study of the covert activities of the Central Intelligence Agency, in particular those carried out under the terms of NSCID #5 of August 28, 1951, and NSC 5412 of March 15, 1954." [[William B. Franke]], [[Morris Hadley]] and [[William D. Pawley]] sat with Doolittle, with [[S. Paul Johnston]] as executive director, and the president asked that the report be made to him personally and classified TOP SECRET. The group reported as the Special Study Group under a letter to the president of September 30, 1954.[^14]
 The report's introduction stated: "It is now clear that we are facing an implacable enemy whose avowed objective is world domination by whatever means and at whatever cost. There are no rules in such a game. Hitherto acceptable norms of human conduct do not apply. If the United States is to survive, long-standing American concepts of 'fair play' must be reconsidered. We must develop effective espionage and counterespionage services and must learn to subvert, sabotage and destroy our enemies by more clever, more sophisticated and more effective methods than those used against us. It may become necessary that the American people be made acquainted with, understand and support this fundamentally repugnant philosophy."[^14] The same page asked for "an aggressive covert psychological, political and paramilitary organization more effective, more unique and, if necessary, more ruthless than that employed by the enemy."[^14]
 ### Field operations
 The Cold War produced an unprecedented expansion of covert operations as an instrument of foreign policy. The CIA's history of the August 1953 coup against Iranian premier [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]] in [[Iran]], known as [[Operation Ajax]] and designated TPAJAX in the agency's files, was written by [[Donald Wilber]]. The [[National Security Archive]]'s published excerpt states: "Written in March 1954 by Donald Wilber, one of the operation's chief planners, the 200-page document is essentially an after-action report."[^15]
 On April 17, 1961, the landings of the Cuban Expeditionary Force at the [[Bay of Pigs]] on the southern coast of [[Cuba]] "began as scheduled at 1 a.m."[^16] On November 25, 1975, according to the NSA Archive, four delegations of Southern Cone secret police chieftains gathered in Santiago, [[Chile]], at the invitation of the Chilean intelligence service [[DINA]], in a meeting whose confidential agenda called for something similar to INTERPOL "but dedicated to Subversion." The archive states that the officials from [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], Chile, [[Paraguay]] and [[Uruguay]] agreed to form "a system of collaboration," and that CIA intelligence reports called it [[Operation Condor]] in [[Latin America]].[^17]
 On July 19, 1971, [[William Colby]], director of [[CORDS]], testified on the [[Phoenix Program]] in [[Vietnam]] before the Foreign Operations and Government Information Subcommittee of the [[House Committee on Government Operations]], which held hearings on July 15, 16, 19, 21 and August 2, 1971.[^18] Representatives [[Ogden Reid]] and [[Paul McCloskey]] questioned him, and [[K. Barton Osborn]], who had served in Vietnam as an intelligence operative, testified that "I never knew in the course of all those operations any detainee to live through his interrogation. They all died."[^19] According to the subcommittee's 1972 report, official figures furnished by Colby showed 20,587 suspected Vietcong infrastructure members killed from the beginning of 1968 through May 1971, and Osborn contradicted Colby's testimony that, while the forerunner programs had involved assassinations, such was no longer the case. The same report stated the committee's concern over "serious moral considerations of U.S. support for a program that has allegedly included torture, murder, and inhumane treatment of South Vietnamese civilians."[^19]
 The Contra resupply program in [[Nicaragua]] was the subject of a [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] subcommittee investigation begun in early 1986 by Senator [[John Kerry]]. The subcommittee's report of December 1988 stated: "it is clear that individuals who provided support for the Contras were involved in drug trafficking, the supply network of the Contras was used by drug trafficking organizations, and elements of the Contras themselves knowingly received financial and material assistance from drug traffickers. In each case, one or another agency of the U.S. government had information regarding the involvement either while it was occurring, or immediately thereafter."[^20] The report listed four companies that the [[Department of State]]'s [[Nicaraguan Humanitarian Assistance Office]] paid to supply the [[Contras]], [[SETCO Air]], [[DIACSA]], [[Frigorificos de Puntarenas]] and [[Vortex]], and stated that in each case federal law enforcement had received information, before the Department of State contracted with the company, that the individuals controlling it were involved in narcotics.[^21]
 The covert aid to the Afghan insurgents that became [[Operation Cyclone]] in [[Afghanistan]] began with a Special Coordination Committee meeting of June 26, 1979, chaired by [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], at which Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] reported that ties with Afghan dissident leaders had been established in [[Pakistan]]. President [[Jimmy Carter]] signed two Presidential Findings on Afghanistan on July 3, 1979. The first authorized the CIA to "support insurgent propaganda and other psychological operations in Afghanistan; establish radio access to the Afghan population through third country facilities;" and "provide unilaterally or through third countries as appropriate support to Afghan insurgents, either in the form of cash or non-military supplies." The second, worldwide in scope, authorized the CIA to "expose the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and its leadership as despotic and subservient to the Soviet Union."[^22] A memorandum of February 21, 1980 from Turner to the chairman of the Special Coordination Committee recorded a second Finding of November 7, 1979 authorizing procurement advice and communications equipment, and a third of December 28, 1979 authorizing lethal military equipment.[^23] The December 28 Finding listed Afghanistan as its scope with the description: "Provide lethal military equipment either directly or through third countries to the Afghan opponents of the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan."[^24]
 At a joint hearing of the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research on August 3, 1977, Director of Central Intelligence Turner reported the discovery of seven boxes of documents on Project [[MKULTRA]], "a closely held CIA project conducted from 1953-1964," and stated that MKULTRA was an "umbrella project" under which sensitive subprojects were funded, "involving among other things research on drugs and behavioral modification."[^25] Turner reported 149 MKULTRA subprojects, among them six involving tests on unwitting subjects, and one group of single subprojects in "such areas as effects of electro-shock, harassment techniques for offensive use, analysis of extrasensory perception, gas propelled sprays and aerosols, and four subprojects involving crop and material sabotage."[^26] Senator [[Edward Kennedy]] attributed the January 1973 destruction of the records to Director [[Richard Helms]]: "The records of all these activities were destroyed in January 1973, at the instruction of then CIA Director Richard Helms."[^27] Turner's statement described the 1953 death of [[Frank Olson]], a civilian Army employee at [[Fort Detrick]], about a week after he had "unwittingly consumed LSD administered to him as an experiment at a meeting of LSD researchers called by CIA."[^25] Turner told the committees that the newly located finance folders had been sent to the Retired Records Center in 1970 and "escaped retrieval and destruction in 1973," and quoted the 1963 Inspector General report: "Present practice is to maintain no records of the planning and approval of test programs."[^28]
 ### Stay-behind networks
 The [[NATO]] stay-behind networks, known in [[Italy]] as [[Operation Gladio]], were prepared to operate after an invasion or occupation. On August 2, 1990, during a session of the [[Italian Chamber of Deputies|Chamber of Deputies]] on the [[Bologna station bombing]], Prime Minister [[Giulio Andreotti]] accepted an order of the day presented by deputies [[Giulio Quercini]], [[Aldo Tortorella]], [[Luciano Violante]] and others that committed the government to inform Parliament within 60 days of the existence, characteristics and purposes of a parallel and hidden structure said to have operated inside the military intelligence service. Because Andreotti proposed a more confidential venue, the sponsors agreed that the commission on terrorism and the massacres, chaired by Senator [[Libero Gualtieri]], would receive the documentation.[^29]
 On August 3, 1990 Andreotti was heard by that commission, the [[Commissione Stragi|Italian parliamentary commission on terrorism and the massacres]]. He said that the activities, set up on the NATO model for the case of an attack on or occupation of Italy, had continued until 1972 according to the services, after which they were judged unnecessary, and that he would present a detailed report prepared by the General Staff.[^29] On October 18, 1990 he sent the commission the document titled "Il cosiddetto SID parallelo-il caso Gladio," from which the commission learned that the activities he had considered abandoned in 1972 were still continuing.[^30] On October 24, 1990 Andreotti addressed the Chamber of Deputies (session 537 of the Tenth Legislature) in reply to interpellations, describing an institution within the NATO framework that provided for an informational and reaction network in the event of occupation by enemy forces. He told the Chamber that after a letter from the Venice magistrate [[Felice Casson]] to Gualtieri he had asked to suspend distribution of the document, had sent back a revised text within 24 hours, and that both texts were available to the commission, and Deputy [[Antonio Bellocchio]] replied that the commission was still waiting for the earlier text.[^31]
 The commission's report of April 14 and 15, 1992 on Gladio recorded as a contradiction the declaration of August 3, 1990, that the structure had been demobilized in 1972, and the information in the October 18, 1990 document, that it was still active and operating in 1990. The same report stated that on August 8, 1990 the director of [[SISMI]] (Italian military intelligence), Admiral [[Fulvio Martini]], issued a circular directing the Gladio organization to the fight against drugs, and that on November 27, 1990 Andreotti decreed its dissolution. It described a conversion of the structure from an anti-invasion force into an information network serving the whole SISMI for internal purposes and concluded that the structure's illegitimacy grew over time. The commission had been created by law on May 17, 1988.[^30]
 The [[European Parliament]]'s joint resolution of November 22, 1990 on the Gladio affair, replacing motions B3-2021, 2058, 2068, 2078 and 2087/90, stated in recital B that "for over 40 years this organization has escaped all democratic controls and has been run by the secret services of the states concerned in collaboration with NATO." Paragraph 1 "Condemns the clandestine creation of manipulative and operational networks and Calls for a full investigation into the nature, structure, aims and all other aspects of these clandestine organizations or any splinter groups." Paragraph 2 "Protests vigorously at the assumption by certain US military personnel at SHAPE and in NATO of the right to encourage the establishment in Europe of a clandestine intelligence and operation network." Paragraph 3 "Calls on the governments of the Member States to dismantle all clandestine military and paramilitary networks."[^32] SHAPE is [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe]].
 ### Operation Paperclip
 The [[Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency]] (JIOA) ran the foreign scientist program that the National Archives describes as "initially code-named Overcast and subsequently code-named Paperclip." The JIOA was disbanded in 1962. Its Foreign Scientist Case Files for 1945 to 1958 contain "personnel dossiers on over 1,500 German and other foreign scientists, technicians, and engineers."[^33] The program brought German and Austrian specialists from the defeated [[Third Reich]] to the United States.
 ### Parapsychology programs
 Both superpowers devoted resources to researching claimed [[Extrasensory Perception|extrasensory]] and psychokinetic capabilities, driven by concern that the adversary might exploit any genuine psychic capability for intelligence collection. Soviet research that Moscow termed "psychotronics" or "biological communications" was tracked by Western intelligence. The CIA funded ESP research from the early 1950s; the MKULTRA subprojects of 1953 to 1964 included one listed as "analysis of extrasensory perception."[^26]
 The Soviet side of the psi race was the subject of a 1972 [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] study by Captain [[John D. LaMothe]] of the Medical Intelligence Office, Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, titled Controlled Offensive Behavior, USSR (ST-CS-01-169-72, July 1972). Its second section stated: "The Soviet Union is well aware of the benefits and applications of parapsychology research." The study defined controlled offensive behavior as including "Soviet research on human vulnerability as it applies to methods of influencing or altering human behavior."[^34]
 The [[SRI International]] final report of October 1978, "Advanced Threat Technique Assessment," by [[Harold Puthoff]], [[Russell Targ]], [[Edwin May]] and [[Ingo Swann]], covered April 18, 1977 to April 15, 1978 and lists the LaMothe study among its references.[^35] The American work went under several designations. In a letter of December 1982 the commanding general of the [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command|Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM), Major General [[Albert Stubblebine]], told the Army's Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence that, in keeping with the FY83 congressional decision, INSCOM's GRILL FLAME operation "ceased as of 30 September 1982." The CENTER LANE information papers for the director of the DIA, compiled March 7, 1985, include an approval history paper (TAGPA-F-SD, October 10, 1984) stating that INSCOM's psychoenergetics applications were conducted "under the GRILL FLAME Program until 30 September 1982 when Congress directed that DoD psychoenergetic activities could not be conducted within the NFIP." The same paper stated: "The effective implementation date of CENTER LANE was 3 December 1982."[^36]
 The [[Stargate Project]]'s [[Remote Viewing|remote viewing]] training was undertaken at [[Fort Meade]], Maryland, after work with SRI in California. A CIA paper on the transfer stated that "Senate conferees directed the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to transfer the 'Star Gate' program from the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) to CIA," specifying ten civilian billets and $500,000 by July 1, 1995, and that "DIA's direct involvement began later and continued until Star Gate was transferred to CIA this July." The same paper described Star Gate as "a DIA program which involved the use of paranormal phenomena, primarily 'remote viewing,' for intelligence collection," and stated that "CIA's program began in 1972, but was discontinued in 1977."[^37]
 A [[Office of Research and Development (CIA)|CIA Office of Research and Development]] working paper of June 7, 1995 (ORD-374-95) took a position against the transfer: "We oppose any action to transfer these people to CIA at this time." Its reasons included that "it is likely that the AIR review will conclude (as did the NRC) that the remote viewing operations are without utility" and that "The Inspector General of DOD strongly recommended in a 1989 memorandum that this program be terminated at DIA."[^38]
 The [[American Institutes for Research]] (AIR) evaluation, "An Evaluation of Remote Viewing: Research and Applications," dated September 29, 1995 and written by Mumford, Rose and Goslin, concluded: "Even though a statistically significant effect has been observed in the laboratory, it remains unclear whether the existence of a paranormal phenomenon, remote viewing, has been demonstrated." It also concluded: "Thus, remote viewing failed to produce actionable intelligence," and, in its final sentence of the summary, "Thus, we conclude that continued use of remote viewing in intelligence gathering operations is not warranted."[^39] A CIA briefing set for the review listed the panel as including [[Jessica Utts]], "Primary Proponent," and [[Ray Hyman]], "Primary Skeptic," with [[Lincoln Moses]], [[David Goslin]], [[Michael Mumford]] and [[Andrew Rose]].[^40]
 The CIA Director of Research and Development sent the Executive Director a memorandum on September 27, 1995 (ORD-0520-95) stating that the key recommendations of the management strategy were to "Terminate remote viewing operations within the intelligence community" and to "Terminate research and development relating to remote viewing within the intelligence community." The memorandum quoted the CIA Directorate of Intelligence as viewing "developments in parapsychology as a relatively low threat to the United States."[^41]
 ### Able Archer and the war scare
 In November 1983 NATO conducted the Able Archer nuclear release exercise. The [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]] (PFIAB) report of February 15, 1990, "The Soviet 'War Scare,'" was quoted at length in the appendix to the editorial note of [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] for 1981 to 1988, volume IV. The PFIAB wrote: "We believe that the Soviets perceived that the correlation of forces had turned against the USSR, that the US was seeking military superiority, and that the chances of the US launching a nuclear first strike" were growing, "perhaps under cover of a routine training exercise." The board also wrote that "the US intelligence community did not at the time, and for several years afterwards, attach sufficient weight to the possibility that the war scare was real."[^42]
 The board quoted two Special National Intelligence Estimates of May and August 1984, which stated: "We believe strongly that Soviet actions are not inspired by, and Soviet leaders do not perceive, a genuine danger of imminent conflict or confrontation with the United States." Elsewhere in the report the board wrote: "In cases of great importance to the survival of our nation, and especially where there is important contradictory evidence, the Board believes that intelligence estimates must be cast in terms of alternative scenarios that are subjected to comparative risk assessments. This is the critical defect in the war scare episode."[^42]
 ### The end of the Cold War
 At a joint press conference at the [[Malta summit]] on December 3, 1989, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] said: "We stated, both of us, that the world leaves one epoch of cold war and enters another epoch."[^43] The [[Berlin Wall]] fell on November 9, 1989. Contributing factors included the economic exhaustion produced by military competition with the United States, the political reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika programs, and the collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe in 1989.
 On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev announced on Soviet television: "I cease my activities in the post of the U.S.S.R. president."[^44] On December 26, 1991, the Council of Republics of the [[Supreme Soviet]] of the USSR, chaired by [[Alexander Alimzhanov]], adopted Declaration No. 142-N in connection with the creation of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]. Relying on the will expressed by the highest state bodies of eleven republics, the Council of Republics stated that with the creation of the Commonwealth the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a state and subject of international law ceased to exist, and proposed that the heads of the independent states consider succession to the Union and its bodies, an interparliamentary body of the Commonwealth, and the ratification, execution and denunciation of the Union's international treaties.[^45] The institutional structures created by the Cold War, including the CIA, the national security state and the alliance relationships, persisted after its end and shaped the post-Cold War intelligence landscape.[^7]
 ### Footnotes
 [^1]: "Cold War," *Encyclopaedia Britannica.* https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War
-[^2]: Weiner, Tim. *Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA.* Doubleday, 2007.
+[^2]: Harry S. Truman, "Statement by the President on Announcing the First Atomic Explosion in the U.S.S.R.," September 23, 1949, *Public Papers of the Presidents*, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/216/statement-president-announcing-first-atomic-explosion-ussr
 [^3]: Telegram, Chargé in the Soviet Union (Kennan) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, February 22, 1946, 9 p.m., file 861.00/2-2246, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946*, vol. VI (Washington: GPO), pp. 699 and 706. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v06
 [^4]: X [George F. Kennan], "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," *Foreign Affairs* 25 (July 1947): 566-582. Text as reproduced at https://worldjpn.net/documents/texts/docs/19470700.O1E.html
 [^5]: Harry S. Truman, "Special Message to the Congress on Greece and Turkey: The Truman Doctrine," March 12, 1947, *Public Papers of the Presidents*, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/56/special-message-congress-greece-and-turkey-truman-doctrine
 [^6]: National Security Act of 1947, Pub. L. 80-253, approved July 26, 1947, 61 Stat. 495, sec. 102(a) and (d)(5). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-61/pdf/STATUTE-61-Pg495.pdf
 [^7]: Weiner, Tim. *Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA.* Doubleday, 2007. Sole source for the OSS personnel, Cambridge Five, atomic spy ring, KGB 1954 and post-Cold War persistence sentences.
 [^8]: NSC 4-A, "Psychological Operations," approved December 17, 1947, transmitted in Souers to Hillenkoetter, December 17, 1947, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, Document 257, pp. 650-651, para. 2. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel
 [^9]: National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects (NSC 10/2), Washington, June 18, 1948, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, Document 292, pp. 714-715, paras. 5 and 6. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel
 [^10]: Foreign Assistance Act of 1974, Pub. L. 93-559, sec. 32, December 30, 1974, 88 Stat. 1795, 1804 (adding sec. 662, "Limitation on Intelligence Activities," to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961; formerly 22 U.S.C. 2422, repealed by Pub. L. 102-88, Aug. 14, 1991). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-88/pdf/STATUTE-88-Pg1795.pdf
 [^11]: "A Report to the National Security Council by the Executive Secretary (Lay)," NSC 68, April 14, 1950, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950*, vol. I, Document 85, p. 238. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v01
 [^12]: Editorial Note, "Psychological Strategy Board," directive of April 4, 1951, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, Document 60, p. 120. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel
 [^13]: "Report of Meetings of Scientific Advisory Panel on Unidentified Flying Objects Convened by Office of Scientific Intelligence, CIA, January 14-18, 1953," CIA-RDP81R00560R000100030027-0 (CIA Reading Room); the same report as CIA-UAP-002 on The Black Vault, where the quoted passage is on printed page 20 (PDF page 30), checked against the page image; signature block (Berkner, Robertson, Chairman, Alvarez, Goudsmit, Page); Tab B, "Evidence Reviewed," item 2. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/UFOFiles/pdf/CIA-UAP-002_Scientific-Advisory-Panel-on-Unidentified-Flying-Objects_Report_1952-1953.pdf
 [^14]: "Report on the Covert Activities of the Central Intelligence Agency," Special Study Group, transmitted under a letter of September 30, 1954, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100040001-5 (CIA Reading Room), including Eisenhower to Doolittle, July 26, 1954 (Appendix A); the passage quoted is in the Introduction, pp. 2-3 of the report. Also printed as "Report by the Special Study Group," *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, Document 192, pp. 542-543. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP86B00269R000100040001-5 and https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel
 [^15]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 28, Iran Declassification Project, posted November 29, 2000, excerpting the CIA history of TPAJAX by Donald Wilber (March 1954). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB28/
 [^16]: Editorial Note, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X (Cuba, January 1961-September 1962), Document 112, p. 258. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10
 [^17]: National Security Archive, Operation Condor briefing, November 26, 2025, describing the November 25, 1975 Santiago meeting. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/southern-cone/2025-11-26/operation-condor-network-transnational-repression-50-years
 [^18]: Memorandum, Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (International Security Affairs) for the Office of Special Assistant for Vietnamese Affairs, CIA, "The Geneva Conventions and the Phoenix Program," August 1971 (stating that "On 19 July 1971, Ambassador William E. Colby appeared before the House Subcommittee on Foreign Operations and Government Information to testify concerning CORDS operations in South Vietnam"), CIA-RDP80R01720R001100060018-1; House Committee on Government Operations, *U.S. Assistance Programs in Vietnam*, 92d Cong., 2d Sess. (committee print of the report, September 1972, "Hold until release date approved by full committee"), CIA-RDP74B00415R000200100010-4, p. 1 (hearings held in Washington on July 15, 16, 19, 21 and August 2, 1971). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74b00415r000200100010-4
 [^19]: *U.S. Assistance Programs in Vietnam*, House Committee on Government Operations report, 1972, CIA-RDP74B00415R000200100010-4, pp. 33 (Osborn), 34 (20,587 figure), 39 (committee concern); the report's text on Osborn's contradiction of Colby's testimony is at p. 30. The OCR of the CIA copy reads "20,587" and the quoted passages as given. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74b00415r000200100010-4
 [^20]: Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165, 100th Cong., 2d Sess. (December 1988), Introduction ("Origins and Methodology") and ch. 2, "Narcotics Traffickers and the Contras," p. 36. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
 [^21]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165, p. 43 (SETCO Air, DIACSA, Frigorificos de Puntarenas, Vortex; NHAO and GAO screening statements). https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
 [^22]: Summary of Conclusions of a Special Coordination Committee Meeting, June 26, 1979, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XII, Afghanistan, Document 53, pp. 155-157 and footnote 5 at p. 157 (the two Presidential Findings of July 3, 1979). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v12
 [^23]: Memorandum From Director of Central Intelligence Turner to the Chairman of the Special Coordination Committee, February 21, 1980, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XII, Afghanistan, Document 214, p. 593. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v12
 [^24]: Minutes of a National Security Council Meeting, December 28, 1979, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XII, Afghanistan, Document 107, p. 302 and footnote 6. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v12
 [^25]: *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st Sess., August 3, 1977, prepared statement of Admiral Stansfield Turner, p. 4. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
 [^26]: *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, August 3, 1977, Turner statement, pp. 5-6 (149 subprojects; categories 1 and 13). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
 [^27]: *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, August 3, 1977, statement of Senator Kennedy, p. 3. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
 [^28]: *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, August 3, 1977, Turner statement, pp. 4-5. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
 [^29]: Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi (established by law 17 May 1988, n. 172), *Relazione sull'inchiesta condotta sulle vicende connesse all'operazione Gladio*, Doc. XXIII n. 51, approved April 14-15, 1992, pp. 29-30 (chap. 3.5, "La pubblicizzazione e lo scioglimento di Gladio": Chamber session of August 2, 1990 and Andreotti's hearing of August 3, 1990). Translated from the Italian. https://www.parlamento.it/service/PDF/PDFServer/BGT/909971.pdf
 [^30]: Doc. XXIII n. 51, pp. 12-13 (contradiction between the August 3 declaration and the October 18, 1990 document), p. 30 (document of October 18, 1990, circular of August 8, 1990, dissolution of November 27, 1990) and p. 38 (chap. 6, Conclusioni). Translated from the Italian. https://www.parlamento.it/service/PDF/PDFServer/BGT/909971.pdf
 [^31]: Camera dei deputati, X Legislatura, *Discussioni*, seduta del 24 ottobre 1990 (no. 537), *Resoconto stenografico*, pp. 71561-71562 (statement of the President of the Council Andreotti and exchange with Deputies Staiti di Cuddia delle Chiuse and Bellocchio). Translated from the Italian. https://legislature.camera.it/_dati/leg10/lavori/stenografici/sed0537/sed0537.pdf
 [^32]: European Parliament, joint resolution replacing B3-2021, 2058, 2068, 2078 and 2087/90, "Resolution on the Gladio affair," November 22, 1990, *Official Journal of the European Communities* C 324, December 24, 1990, pp. 201-202. English text as reproduced at https://www.statewatch.org/statewatch-database/gladio-resolution-of-the-european-parliament (Wayback copy); German text of the Official Journal at https://www.cloeser.org/ext/Gladio-Entschlie%DFung_des_EP_von_1990.pdf
 [^33]: National Archives, Interagency Working Group, Record Group 330, Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency and Foreign Scientist Case Files 1945-1958 (Entry A1-1B), boxes 1-186. https://www.archives.gov/iwg/declassified-records/rg-330-defense-secretary
 [^34]: John D. LaMothe, Controlled Offensive Behavior, USSR, DIA ST-CS-01-169-72, July 1972, CIA-RDP96-00787R000100120001-9 and CIA-RDP96-00792R000600360001-2. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000100120001-9
 [^35]: Harold E. Puthoff, Russell Targ, Edwin C. May and Ingo Swann, "Advanced Threat Technique Assessment," final report covering April 18, 1977 to April 15, 1978, SRI International, October 1978, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500150001-2 (reference 6, "Controlled Offensive Behavior (U)," DIA Document No. ST-CS-01-169-72). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000500150001-2
 [^36]: CENTER LANE Information Papers, March 7, 1985, CIA-RDP96-00788R000400060001-2, including the papers "CENTER LANE Approval History" (TAGPA-F-SD, 10 Oct 84), paragraphs 2 and following, and the letter of Major General Albert N. Stubblebine, Commanding General, INSCOM, to Major General W. E. Odom, Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence, "GRILL FLAME," December 1982. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r000400060001-2
 [^37]: "Proposed Star Gate Management Strategy," CIA, 1995, CIA-RDP96-00791R000100150002-0, sec. I.A and I.B. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00791r000100150002-0
 [^38]: CIA Office of Research and Development, working paper ORD-374-95, "Star Gate - Program Status and Proposed Response to Richard D'Amato," June 7, 1995, CIA-RDP96-00791R000100160002-9, para. 2 (reasons a to c). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00791r000100160002-9
 [^39]: Michael D. Mumford, Andrew M. Rose and David A. Goslin, *An Evaluation of Remote Viewing: Research and Applications*, American Institutes for Research, September 29, 1995, Executive Summary, pp. E-4 and E-5, CIA-RDP96-00791R000200180006-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00791r000200180006-4
 [^40]: "STAR GATE" briefing slides ("Blue-Ribbon Panel"; "Proposed Management Strategy"), CIA-RDP96-00791R000200080001-8. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00791r000200080001-8
 [^41]: CIA Director of Research and Development to Executive Director, memorandum ORD-0520-95, "Star Gate - Final Response to CDA," September 27, 1995, paras. 3 and 4, CIA-RDP96-00791R000100150004-8. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00791r000100150004-8
 [^42]: President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, "The Soviet 'War Scare,'" February 15, 1990, as quoted in the appendix to the editorial note, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1981-1988*, vol. IV, pp. 1421 (first, second and SNIE quotations) and 1434 (PFIAB page ix, "critical defect" passage). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/1%20FRUS%20Appendix.pdf
 [^43]: "Joint Press Conference of President Bush and Chairman Gorbachev at the Malta Summit," December 3, 1989, transcript from the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, as reproduced by World History Commons. https://worldhistorycommons.org/joint-press-conference-president-bush-and-chairman-gorbachev-malta-summit
 [^44]: Mikhail Gorbachev, resignation address, December 25, 1991, English translation as reproduced by World History Commons (CC BY 4.0). https://worldhistorycommons.org/mikhail-gorbachevs-resignation-speech
 [^45]: Declaration of the Council of Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR No. 142-N, "in connection with the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States," December 26, 1991, signed by the Chairman of the Council of Republics A. Alimzhanov, *Vedomosti Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR* 1991, no. 52, item 1561 (operative sentence: "с созданием Содружества Независимых Государств Союз ССР как государство и субъект международного права прекращает свое существование"). Translated from the Russian. http://vedomosti.sssr.su/1991/52/#1561
--- a/TECHNOLOGY/PSI_PHENOMENA/Telepathy.md
+++ b/TECHNOLOGY/PSI_PHENOMENA/Telepathy.md
@ -1,22 +1,112 @@
 ---
 created: 2025-07-22
-updated: 2025-07-22
+updated: 2026-10-07
 title: Telepathy
 aliases:
  - Telepathy
  - Thought transference
  - Mental telepathy
  - Telepathic communication
  - Thought transmission
  - Mental suggestion
 tags:
-  - concept
+  - Concept
-  - psi
+  - Psi
-  - parapsychology
+  - Parapsychology
 description: Telepathy is the direct mental communication of thoughts, feelings, or ideas from one mind to another without the use of conventional sensory channels.
 category: "Psi Phenomenon"
-summary: "Telepathy is the claimed direct mental communication of thoughts or feelings between minds without conventional sensory channels, one of the core phenomena studied in government parapsychology programs including the Stargate Project and Soviet psi research."
+description: Telepathy is the direct mental communication of thoughts, feelings, or ideas from one mind to another without the use of conventional sensory channels.
 summary: "Telepathy is the claimed direct transfer of thoughts or feelings between minds without conventional sensory channels, studied in Soviet and American government-funded psi programs."
 ---
-[[Telepathy]] is the direct mental communication of thoughts, feelings, or ideas from one mind to another without the use of conventional sensory channels. It is a form of [[Psi|psychic]] ability and a subject of study within [[Parapsychology]].[^1]
+Telepathy is the direct mental communication of thoughts, feelings, or ideas from one mind to another without the use of conventional sensory channels. It is a form of [[Psi|psychic]] ability and a subject of study within [[Parapsychology]].
-In the context of the *Remote Viewers* narrative, telepathy gained significant attention due to the sensational 1960 French magazine article, [[The Nautilus (Telepathy Project)|"The Secret of the Nautilus,"]] which claimed successful telepathic communication with the USS Nautilus submarine. Although later debunked as a fabrication, this story spurred extensive Soviet psi research, with figures like [[Leonid Vasiliev]] and [[I. M. Kogan]] focusing on telepathy experiments. Kogan, for instance, attempted to characterize psi data transmission in terms familiar to communications specialists, concluding that psi data could be transmitted at very low bit rates.[^1]
+### Card tests at Duke and Mental Radio
-Within the [[Stargate Project|Stargate Project]], telepathy was explored, particularly in the context of "telepathic interrogations." [[Ken Bell]] famously used this technique to extract information from a [[KGB]] agent in South Africa, and [[Joe McMoneagle]] also employed it during the tracking of a Soviet T-72 tank. Experiments were also conducted at [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI]] to augment ordinary telepathy with electroencephalograph (EEG) devices, aiming to develop a telepathic system for long-distance communication, potentially with submerged submarine crews.[^1]
+In 1930 [[William McDougall]] invited [[J. B. Rhine]] and Louisa Rhine to join the psychology department at [[Duke University]]. For more than thirty years Rhine's laboratory used the ESP cards, which bore a star, cross, square, circle, or wavy lines. To test for telepathy, an experimenter looked at each card in turn while a subject separated from the sender tried to name it. Rhine and [[J. G. Pratt]] carried out thousands of such experiments. [[Harold Puthoff]] and [[Russell Targ]] wrote that the statistical results indicated that "some individuals did indeed possess a paranormal perceptual ability."[^1]
---
+The Rhine work drew criticism, which Puthoff and Targ summarized as "accusations of improper handling of statistics, error, and fraud." The most celebrated case, that of [[G. R. Price]], ended 17 years after it began when Price retracted the accusation of fraud in an article titled "Apology to Rhine and Soal."[^1] The British critic [[C. E. M. Hansel]] began from the stated assumption that "In view of the a priori arguments against it we know in advance that telepathy, etc., cannot occur," and examined the experiments for the possibility of fraud by subjects or investigators.[^1]
-[^1]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers*. Dell, 1997.
+[[Upton Sinclair]] published *Mental Radio*, an account of telepathic experiments, in 1930. The introduction is by McDougall and the book carries a report by [[Walter Franklin Prince]]. The revised second printing carries a preface by [[Albert Einstein]] dated May 23, 1930, which states: "The results of the telepathic experiments carefully and plainly set forth in this book stand surely far beyond those which a nature investigator holds to be thinkable." Einstein added that if the facts "rest not upon telepathy, but upon some unconscious hypnotic influence from person to person, this also would be of high psychological interest."[^2]
 ### The Nautilus reports, 1960
 In 1959 the French magazine *Constellation* carried an article by [[Jacques Bergier]] titled "La Transmission de Pensée, Arme de Guerre" ("Thought Transmission, a Weapon of War"). It was followed early in 1960 by an article by Georges Messadié in [[Science et Vie]], called "Du Nautilus" ("On the Nautilus"), which described telepathy experiments said to have been carried out aboard the U.S. nuclear submarine [[The Nautilus (Telepathy Project)|Nautilus]].[^3] A 1972 Army medical intelligence bibliography lists the piece as Messadié, "Du Nautilus," *Science et Vie*, Number 509, February 1960.[^4] [[Jim Schnabel]] gives the title as "The Secret of the Nautilus" and wrote that it reported that the U.S. government, in secret tests, had successfully employed telepathy to communicate with the crew of the Nautilus, its first nuclear submarine, while the vessel was beneath the Arctic ice cap, and that the project had the attention of President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and involved the [[United States Navy|Navy]], the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]], [[General Electric]], [[Bell Labs|Bell Laboratories]] and the [[RAND Corporation]].[^5]
 [[Sheila Ostrander]] and [[Lynn Schroeder]] wrote that the French journalists splashed the story in the headlines "U.S. Navy Uses ESP on Atomic Sub!" and that ship-to-shore telepathy, "according to the French, blipped along nicely even when the Nautilus was far under water."[^6] In April 1960, according to the same authors, [[Leonid Vasiliev]] rose to speak to a gathering of top Soviet scientists in Leningrad and said: "Today the American Navy is testing telepathy on their atomic submarines."[^6] The 1972 Army medical intelligence report states that Soviet parapsychology research "was actually stimulated by" the French story and that Vasilev gave the same address in April 1960.[^7]
 Ostrander and Schroeder wrote that the U.S. Navy denied the story.[^6] Gregory wrote that Rhine stated that "authoritative sources in Washington denied all knowledge of such 'experiments'."[^3] The 1972 report says "the US Navy subsequently denied the reports of telepathic testing on atomic submarines."[^7] Schnabel wrote that an Air Force officer named in the story denied that any such incident had taken place, that the skipper of the Nautilus insisted the submarine had been in dry dock during the period said to have been spent conducting telepathy tests, that Bergier, who Schnabel wrote had apparently had connections to French intelligence services, backpedalled when questioned, and that Messadié later admitted he had probably been fooled.[^5] A 1975 [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] report stated that the Nautilus "experiments" "probably were mythical," but that the claims had one tangible consequence: Soviet authorities allowed Vasilev, a professor of physiology and holder of the Order of Lenin, to publish his own earlier work, in which decades previously he "had proven to his own satisfaction that radio-type brain waves did not mediate telepathy."[^8]
 Schnabel wrote that in the East the story had a different reception: the Soviets "seemed to swallow it whole," and official American denials "only served to confirm their suspicions that the entire episode had occurred just as reported, and had been a deep military secret."[^5] Ostrander and Schroeder wrote that whether or not the American tests happened, the reports were enough to set the Soviets going on ESP tests with their own submarines.[^6] [[Eduard Naumov]] asked the two authors, "Is the Nautilus story really untrue?" and they wrote that "Who knows?" was their best answer.[^6] According to Schnabel, Naumov announced to Western researchers at a conference in Moscow in 1968 that the Red Navy had replicated the entire Nautilus experiment successfully, using one of its own submarines, and that Soviet military researchers had developed a method for telepathically tapping into other people's psychic communications.[^9]
 ### Soviet research under Vasiliev and Kogan
 The 1972 report describes Vasilev as a professor of physiology at the [[Leningrad State University|University of Leningrad]] and corresponding member of the [[Soviet Academy of Medical Sciences]] who headed a laboratory for biocommunications research there from 1962.[^7][^10] The Ullman, Krippner and Vaughan book *Dream Telepathy* describes him as the founder of Russia's first parapsychology laboratory at the University of Leningrad in 1959 and gives his death as 1966.[^11] Schnabel wrote that Vasiliev would argue that "the discovery of the energy underlying ESP will be equivalent to the discovery of atomic energy," and that by the early sixties he was heading a well-funded parapsychology laboratory.[^5] The 1972 report states that in 1963 Vasilev claimed successful long-distance telepathic experiments between Leningrad and Sevastopol, a distance of 1,200 miles, using an ultra-short-wave (UHF) radio transmitter.[^7]
 Vasiliev's monograph *Experiments in Mental Suggestion* appeared in English in 1963 and was reprinted in 2002 with a foreword by Arthur Hastings and an introduction by [[Anita Gregory]] dated 1976.[^3][^12] Puthoff and Targ wrote that most of the experiments in that book aimed at long-distance communication combined with behavior modification, such as putting people at a distance to sleep through hypnosis.[^1] Schnabel wrote that Vasiliev's work soon concentrated on "remote-influencing" experiments, for example a telepathic sender trying to put a distant receiver to sleep at a randomly selected time.[^5] Gregory's introduction states that Vasiliev's work on telepathy had been discontinued because of the official Marxist party line of the time, and that his records were preserved in the archives of the Bekhterev Institute for Brain Research in Leningrad.[^3]
 The 1972 report states that the Soviet drive to harness telepathic communication "is said to come from the Soviet military and the KGB," and that the Soviet Union was reported to have twenty or more centers for the study of parapsychological phenomena, with an annual budget estimated in 1967 at over 12 million rubles.[^7] Ostrander and Schroeder wrote that a 1963 Kremlin edict gave top priority to the biological sciences, which in the USSR include parapsychology, and that the annual budget for the Soviet centers in 1967 was estimated at 12 to 20 million rubles ($13 million to $21 million).[^6]
 [[I. M. Kogan]] raised three questions at a 1965 meeting of the Bionics Department of the Presidium of the Soviet Academy of Sciences: whether telepathy was possible in principle, whether it contradicted natural laws, and whether the observed facts agreed with the concept of electromagnetic fields.[^8] Puthoff and Targ wrote that Kogan's "main interest has been to quantify the channel capacity of the paranormal channel," and that he found "the bit rate decreases from 0.1 bit/s for laboratory experiments to 0.005 bit/s for his 1000-km intercity experiments."[^1] Schnabel wrote that Kogan, like most Soviet researchers, assumed that psi was a low-frequency radio system built into human brains, and gave the same figures, with 0.1 bit per second equal to about one five-letter word every five minutes.[^5] The 1975 report lists Kogan's article "Is Telepathy Possible," *Radiotekhnika* 21, no. 1 (1966), pages 8 to 14.[^8]
 F. P. Tarasenko replied in the same journal in 1967 that Kogan's calculations should not be considered proof of the magnetic nature of telepathic signals or of the existence of telepathy, which "may be given only by experimental research," but that if telepathy exists and takes place by radio waves, the range of wavelengths to examine is 100 to 1,000 km. Tarasenko added that the Shannon formula Kogan used is valid only under certain conditions that may not be satisfied in this case, so the power estimates are low, and that the correction would not affect Kogan's conclusions.[^13]
 In Czechoslovakia in the mid-1960s, Schnabel wrote, [[Milan Ryzl]] conducted an experiment along Kogan's communications-oriented lines in which the psychic [[Pavel Stepanek]] repeatedly guessed each bit of a randomly generated 50-bit sequence, and after several days and twenty thousand guesses Ryzl was confident that Stepanek had the whole sequence right.[^5]
 ### Dream telepathy at Maimonides
 At the [[Maimonides Medical Center]] in Brooklyn, [[Montague Ullman]], [[Stanley Krippner]], and later [[Charles Honorton]] ran a series of experiments on telepathy in dreams. In week-long sessions, Puthoff and Targ wrote, a number of subjects had dreams that "consistently were highly descriptive of pictorial material that a remote sender was looking at throughout the night."[^1] Ullman and Krippner, with Alan Vaughan, published the series as *Dream Telepathy* in 1973.[^11] The 1972 report says Ullman, after a 1970 trip to the Soviet bloc, observed Soviet long-distance telepathy experiments in which results were analyzed through electroencephalographic data and through the transmission of data in Morse code.[^7]
 ### Stanford Research Institute EEG experiments, 1973 to 1974
 The [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI]] program was led by Puthoff and Targ. In a paper in *Nature* published October 18, 1974, they reported experiments with [[Uri Geller]], who was shielded in a double-walled copper-screen Faraday cage while attempting to reproduce drawings made at remote locations, and with [[Pat Price]], who described remote outdoor scenes.[^14] They also ran pilot studies in which a sender in one room was stimulated with flashing light while the EEG of a receiver, in a shielded room about 7 meters away, was recorded.[^1][^14]
 Puthoff and Targ reported that spectrum analyses gave no evidence of EEG driving in any receiver, but that of six subjects "one subject (H.H.) showed a consistent alpha blocking effect." Data came from seven sets of 36 trials. The receiver's alpha power during flashes at 16 per second was 24 percent lower on average (P < 0.04) and 28 percent lower at peak (P < 0.03) than in the no-flash condition, and the 6 flashes per second condition moved in the same direction without statistical significance. Subjects' guesses were at chance, and the authors wrote that arousal "occurred only at the noncognitive level of awareness."[^14]
 Schnabel wrote that Puthoff and Targ, with the idea that psi information would often be too subtle to register consciously, tried to augment ordinary telepathy with electroencephalograph devices, with a sender blasted by a strobe light and a receiver in an electrically shielded room wired with an EEG. In his account the design was "a souped-up version of the Nautilus story, the idea being to interest the CIA or the Navy in a possible telepathic system for long-distance communication, perhaps with submerged submarine crews." He wrote that six receivers were tried, that only [[Hella Hammid]]'s EEG patterns seemed to change when the sender was trying to send psi information, and that her brain waves showed slightly depressed alpha rhythms and slightly enhanced beta rhythms.[^15]
 The journal's leading article of the same issue reported that three referees had reviewed the paper. One believed it should not be published, one did not feel strongly either way, and one was guardedly in favour. The referees criticized the design and the target selection, describing the choice of a target by "opening a dictionary at random" as "a naive, vague and unnecessarily controversial approach to randomisation." The article also stated that the paper "does not present any evidence whatsoever for Geller's alleged abilities to bend metal rods by stroking them, influence magnets at a distance, make watches stop or start by some psychokinetic force and so on."[^16]
 ### The 1986 joint communique on ganzfeld research
 Honorton's ganzfeld method, described by Puthoff and Targ in 1976, placed the subject in a homogeneous visual field, made by Ping-Pong ball halves over the eyes, with white noise through earphones, while a sender in another room viewed color slides. Subjects described the material viewed by the sender.[^1]
 [[Ray Hyman]], who had published a critical appraisal of the ganzfeld database in 1985, and Honorton were invited to lunch together at the 1986 meeting of the [[Parapsychological Association]], according to [[Jessica Utts]], and decided to coauthor a joint communique, which appeared in the *Journal of Parapsychology* in 1986.[^17] Its abstract reads: "We agree that there is an overall significant effect in this data base that cannot reasonably be explained by selective reporting or multiple analysis. We continue to differ over the degree to which the effect constitutes evidence for psi, but we agree that the final verdict awaits the outcome of future experiments conducted by a broader range of investigators and according to more stringent standards."[^18] The text also states that "significant outcomes have been produced by a number of different investigators."[^19] According to Utts, Hyman and Honorton devoted eight pages to recommendations for future experiments, covering controls against sensory leakage, documentation of randomization methods, reporting of judging and feedback protocols, control for multiple analyses, and advance specification of the number of trials and the type of experiment.[^17] [[Daryl Bem]] and Honorton wrote in 1994 that the "stringent standards" requirement "has been met by the autoganzfeld studies."[^18] Hyman wrote in 1994 that the autoganzfeld studies "do comply with most of the" "stringent standards" spelled out in the communique, and named the inadequate testing of the randomization procedures as one surprising exception.[^20]
 ### Telepathic interrogation claims
 Within the [[Stargate Project]], telepathy was explored as a method of interrogation. Schnabel wrote that in 1980 a [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] technical operations specialist named [[Norm Everhart]] brought a photograph to [[Fort Meade]] of a man who, Schnabel wrote, had been identified as a [[KGB]] "illegal" travelling on a Scandinavian passport. The man was arrested by South African counterintelligence and held under interrogation in Cape Town, where neither the South Africans nor a group of Western counterintelligence officers could get answers. A CIA counterintelligence officer named [[Jim Morris]] asked whether the [[Grill Flame]] psychics could help, and wanted to know how the man was decoding messages assumed to be sent by shortwave radio.[^21]
 In Schnabel's account [[Ken Bell]], in a trance, described a man in pajama-like gray clothes on the second floor of an apartment building in a city bordered by an immense amount of water, with two other people. [[Skip Atwater]] suggested that Bell "talk" to the KGB man, telepathically coaxing the information out of him. Bell tried, but "the KGB man was a rock" and the session ended with no result. Morris confirmed the room, the gray clothes and the two interrogators. In an afternoon session Bell, by Schnabel's account, relayed the names of the man's son Sergei and daughter Svetlana, supplied by Morris, and the man appeared to respond.[^21] Schnabel wrote that Bell, in asking the man about his possessions, learned about a pocket calculator, and that later [[Mel Riley]] was run in a session against the same target and also came up with a pocket calculator. Schnabel wrote that the South Africans first answered that they had found no such thing, then admitted that one of their group had found a calculator among the man's possessions and taken it home, and that no one ever confirmed whether it had been used to decode messages.[^22]
 A newswire item distributed through the FBIS wire on August 27, 1995, and forwarded by a CIA memorandum the next day, quotes Riley, a former Fort Meade remote viewer, who said his unit was asked to remote-view a KGB colonel under interrogation by South African counter-intelligence officers. Riley said: "He was a hard nut to crack. They couldn't figure out how he was getting his information out of the country. But I 'saw' him playing with a pocket calculator-type thing; it seemed to be important." As Riley tells it, the "pocket calculator" turned out to be a covert communications device, and the man broke down and cooperated after the South Africans presented the information.[^23]
 Schnabel wrote of [[Joe McMoneagle]] that during a session on the covert purchase of a Soviet T-72 tank, with Atwater monitoring, McMoneagle concentrated on the captain of a ship and decided to try a "telepathic" interrogation, asking what was going on. In Schnabel's account the captain seemed unfazed by the commandos with guns, and everything was going as planned: the hijacking had merely been staged, presumably to cover the trail of the general who was selling the tank. A few weeks later, Schnabel wrote, a ship that had come from a Middle Eastern port unloaded a Soviet T-72 at the Army's tank research and development center at Aberdeen Proving Ground.[^24] Schnabel also described a use of the technique against a target several days in the past, a man in a car with a fishing pole.[^25]
 A July 1978 [[U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command]] session report on the Grill Flame program records a viewer saying: "My first thought was the new T-72 tank."[^26]
 [^1]: Puthoff, Harold E., and Russell Targ. "A Perceptual Channel for Information Transfer over Kilometer Distances: Historical Perspective and Recent Research." *Proceedings of the IEEE* 64, no. 3 (March 1976): 329-354. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000200080007-7
 [^2]: Sinclair, Upton. *Mental Radio*. Revised second printing, introduction by William McDougall, preface by Albert Einstein dated May 23, 1930, report by Walter Franklin Prince. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas (copyright 1930 and 1962). https://archive.org/details/mentalradio017719mbp
 [^3]: Gregory, Anita. Introduction (1976), p. xxx, in Vasiliev, L. L., *Experiments in Mental Suggestion*. Charlottesville, Virginia: Hampton Roads, 2002 (originally copyrighted 1963 by the Institute for the Study of Mental Images). Gregory states that Rhine said "authoritative sources in Washington denied all knowledge of such 'experiments'." https://archive.org/details/experimentsinmen0000vasi
 [^4]: LaMothe, John D. "Controlled Offensive Behavior: USSR." Medical Intelligence Office, Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, ST-CS-01-169-72, DIA Task T72-01-14, July 1972. Reference 77. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001300020001-6
 [^5]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers: The Secret History of America's Psychic Spies*. New York: Dell, 1997. Pages 90-93 (Nautilus, Bergier, Messadié, Naumov, Vasiliev, Kogan, Ryzl and Stepanek). Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^6]: Ostrander, Sheila, and Lynn Schroeder. *Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain*. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970. Pages 6-7. https://archive.org/details/psychicdiscover00ostr
 [^7]: LaMothe, John D. "Controlled Offensive Behavior: USSR." Medical Intelligence Office, Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, ST-CS-01-169-72, DIA Task T72-01-14, July 1972. Section II, paragraphs 1 to 9. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00792r000600360001-2
 [^8]: Maire, Louis F., III, and John D. LaMothe. "Soviet and Czechoslovakian Parapsychology Research." DST-1810S-387-75, Defense Intelligence Agency, September 1975. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000500420001-2
 [^9]: Schnabel, *Remote Viewers*, p. 93. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^10]: Gregory, Introduction, p. xxx (Vasiliev's positions and honors), in Vasiliev, *Experiments in Mental Suggestion*.
 [^11]: Ullman, Montague, and Stanley Krippner, with Alan Vaughan. *Dream Telepathy*. New York: Macmillan, 1973. Page 10 (Vasiliev). https://archive.org/details/dreamtelepathy0000ullm
 [^12]: Vasiliev, L. L. *Experiments in Mental Suggestion*. Hampshire, England: Institute for the Study of Mental Images, 1963; Charlottesville, Virginia: Hampton Roads, 2002. https://archive.org/details/experimentsinmen0000vasi
 [^13]: Tarasenko, F. P. "In Regard to I. M. Kogan's Article, 'Is Telepathy Possible?'" *Radiotekhnika* 22, no. 3 (1967): 111. Foreign Technology Division translation FTD-ID(RS)T-1437-77, August 19, 1977. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA051478
 [^14]: Targ, Russell, and Harold E. Puthoff. "Information Transmission Under Conditions of Sensory Shielding." *Nature* 251 (October 18, 1974): 602-607. https://www.nature.com/articles/251602a0 Reprint at https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000100220001-8
 [^15]: Schnabel, *Remote Viewers*, pp. 154-155. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^16]: "Investigating the paranormal." Leading article, *Nature* 251 (October 18, 1974). Reprint at https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000200090024-7
 [^17]: Utts, Jessica. "Replication and Meta-Analysis in Parapsychology." *Statistical Science* 6, no. 4 (1991): 363-403. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r003100010001-6
 [^18]: Hyman, Ray, and Charles Honorton. "A Joint Communiqué: The Psi Ganzfeld Controversy." *Journal of Parapsychology* 50 (1986): 351-364, abstract at p. 351, as quoted in Bem, Daryl J., and Charles Honorton, "Does Psi Exist? Replicable Evidence for an Anomalous Process of Information Transfer," *Psychological Bulletin* 115, no. 1 (1994): 4-18 (also quoted in Utts 1991; Bem and Honorton also summarize Hyman's 1985 critique and Honorton's 1985 rejoinder). https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r003200110001-4
 [^19]: Hyman and Honorton 1986, p. 352, as quoted in Bem and Honorton 1994 (CIA-RDP96-00789R003200110001-4).
 [^20]: Hyman, Ray. "Anomaly or Artifact? Comments on Bem and Honorton." *Psychological Bulletin* 115, no. 1 (1994): 19-24. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r003200100001-5
 [^21]: Schnabel, *Remote Viewers*, pp. 42-45. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^22]: Schnabel, *Remote Viewers*, p. 46. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^23]: Central Intelligence Agency memorandum SG1I, "US Use of 'Psychic Spies' Reported," August 28, 1995, forwarding newswire item NWS-95-01267263 (FBIS wire, August 27, 1995). https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00791r000100030073-5
 [^24]: Schnabel, *Remote Viewers*, pp. 57-59. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^25]: Schnabel, *Remote Viewers*, p. 68. Sole source for the passages so cited.
 [^26]: Grill Flame remote viewing session report, July 1978, U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r000200300001-7
--- a/SOURCES/Wilson-Davis
+++ b/SOURCES/Wilson-Davis
@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ aliases:
  - Wilson-Davis Memo
  - Wilson/Davis document
  - EWD Notes 10/16/02
 category: "UFO & Anomalous Phenomena"
 tags:
  - Source
 date: 2002