The_Info_Web/50 - CONCEPTS & TECHNOLOGY/PSI_PHENOMENA/Telepathy.md

created	updated	title	aliases	tags	category	description	summary
2025-07-22	2026-10-08	Telepathy	Telepathy Thought transference Mental telepathy Telepathic communication Thought transmission Mental suggestion	Concept Psi Parapsychology	Psi Phenomenon	Telepathy is the direct mental communication of thoughts, feelings, or ideas from one mind to another without the use of conventional sensory channels.	Telepathy is the claimed direct transfer of thoughts or feelings between minds without conventional sensory channels, studied in Soviet and American government-funded psi programs.

Telepathy is the direct mental communication of thoughts, feelings, or ideas from one mind to another without the use of conventional sensory channels. It is a form of Psi ability and a subject of study within Parapsychology.

Card tests at Duke and Mental Radio

In 1930 William McDougall invited J. B. Rhine and Louisa Rhine to join the psychology department at Duke University. For more than thirty years Rhine's laboratory used the ESP cards, which bore a star, cross, square, circle, or wavy lines. To test for telepathy, an experimenter looked at each card in turn while a subject separated from the sender tried to name it. Rhine and J. G. Pratt carried out thousands of such experiments. Harold Puthoff and Russell Targ wrote that the statistical results indicated that "some individuals did indeed possess a paranormal perceptual ability."¹

The Rhine work drew criticism, which Puthoff and Targ summarized as "accusations of improper handling of statistics, error, and fraud." The most celebrated case, that of G. R. Price, ended 17 years after it began when Price retracted the accusation of fraud in an article titled "Apology to Rhine and Soal."¹ The British critic C. E. M. Hansel began from the stated assumption that "In view of the a priori arguments against it we know in advance that telepathy, etc., cannot occur," and examined the experiments for the possibility of fraud by subjects or investigators.¹

Upton Sinclair published Mental Radio, an account of telepathic experiments, in 1930. The introduction is by McDougall and the book carries a report by Walter Franklin Prince. The revised second printing carries a preface by Albert Einstein dated May 23, 1930, which states: "The results of the telepathic experiments carefully and plainly set forth in this book stand surely far beyond those which a nature investigator holds to be thinkable." Einstein added that if the facts "rest not upon telepathy, but upon some unconscious hypnotic influence from person to person, this also would be of high psychological interest."²

The Nautilus reports, 1960

In 1959 the French magazine Constellation carried an article by Jacques Bergier titled "La Transmission de Pensée, Arme de Guerre" ("Thought Transmission, a Weapon of War"). It was followed early in 1960 by an article by Gerard Messadie in Science et Vie, called "Du Nautilus" ("On the Nautilus"), which described telepathy experiments said to have been carried out aboard the U.S. nuclear submarine The Nautilus (Telepathy Project).³ A 1972 Army medical intelligence bibliography lists the piece as Messadié, "Du Nautilus," Science et Vie, Number 509, February 1960.⁴ Jim Schnabel gives the title as "The Secret of the Nautilus" and wrote that it reported that the U.S. government, in secret tests, had successfully employed telepathy to communicate with the crew of the Nautilus, its first nuclear submarine, while the vessel was beneath the Arctic ice cap, and that the project had the attention of President Dwight D. Eisenhower and involved the United States Navy, the United States Air Force, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, General Electric, Bell Labs and the RAND Corporation.⁵

Sheila Ostrander and Lynn Schroeder wrote that the French journalists splashed the story in the headlines "U.S. Navy Uses ESP on Atomic Sub!" and that ship-to-shore telepathy, "according to the French, blipped along nicely even when the Nautilus was far under water."⁶ In April 1960, according to the same authors, Leonid Vasiliev rose to speak to a gathering of top Soviet scientists in Leningrad and said: "Today the American Navy is testing telepathy on their atomic submarines."⁶ The 1972 Army medical intelligence report states that Soviet parapsychology research "was actually stimulated by" the French story and that Vasilev gave the same address in April 1960.⁷

In a report dated March 26, 1960 to Defense Minister Rodion Malinovsky, quoted by I. V. Tsykunov, Igor Poletaev wrote that Vasiliev had told him the American armed forces had adopted telepathy for communication with submarines, and that a test with the Nautilus under polar ice had produced 70 percent correct symbols; the report adds that without discussing the reliability of the reports the danger of such a weapon was too great to ignore.⁸ Tsykunov suggests the Vasiliev address was given in May rather than April, and the translated Znanie-Sila report of Gleb Anfilov places a Vasiliev lecture mentioning the Nautilus at the Leningrad Scientists Club on June 15, 1960.⁸⁹

Ostrander and Schroeder wrote that the U.S. Navy denied the story.⁶ Gregory wrote that Rhine stated that "authoritative sources in Washington denied all knowledge of such 'experiments'."³ The 1972 report says "the US Navy subsequently denied the reports of telepathic testing on atomic submarines."⁷ Schnabel wrote that an Air Force officer named in the story denied that any such incident had taken place, that the skipper of the Nautilus insisted the submarine had been in dry dock during the period said to have been spent conducting telepathy tests, that Bergier, who Schnabel wrote had apparently had connections to French intelligence services, backpedalled when questioned, and that Messadié later admitted he had probably been fooled.⁵ A 1975 Defense Intelligence Agency report stated that the Nautilus "experiments" "probably were mythical," but that the claims had one tangible consequence: Soviet authorities allowed Vasilev, a professor of physiology and holder of the Order of Lenin, to publish his own earlier work, in which decades previously he "had proven to his own satisfaction that radio-type brain waves did not mediate telepathy."¹⁰

In September 1963 the Sunday supplement This Week printed "The Great Nautilus ESP Hoax," in which, according to the Parapsychology Foundation, Pauwels and Bergier admitted they "had elaborated on reports they had heard, but not verified"; Captain William R. Anderson said the Nautilus was in dock at Portsmouth on the date the authors gave, and Colonel William H. Bowers said the experiment attributed to him never took place.¹¹

Schnabel wrote that in the East the story had a different reception: the Soviets "seemed to swallow it whole," and official American denials "only served to confirm their suspicions that the entire episode had occurred just as reported, and had been a deep military secret."⁵ Ostrander and Schroeder wrote that whether or not the American tests happened, the reports were enough to set the Soviets going on ESP tests with their own submarines.⁶ Eduard Naumov asked the two authors, "Is the Nautilus story really untrue?" and they wrote that "Who knows?" was their best answer.⁶ According to Schnabel, Naumov announced to Western researchers at a conference in Moscow in 1968 that the Red Navy had replicated the entire Nautilus experiment successfully, using one of its own submarines, and that Soviet military researchers had developed a method for telepathically tapping into other people's psychic communications.¹²

Soviet research under Vasiliev and Kogan

The 1972 report describes Vasilev as a professor of physiology at the Leningrad State University and corresponding member of the Soviet Academy of Medical Sciences who headed a laboratory for biocommunications research there from 1962.⁷¹³ The Ullman, Krippner and Vaughan book Dream Telepathy describes him as the founder of Russia's first parapsychology laboratory at the University of Leningrad in 1959 and gives his death as 1966.¹⁴ Schnabel wrote that Vasiliev would argue that "the discovery of the energy underlying ESP will be equivalent to the discovery of atomic energy," and that by the early sixties he was heading a well-funded parapsychology laboratory.⁵ The 1972 report states that in 1963 Vasilev claimed successful long-distance telepathic experiments between Leningrad and Sevastopol, a distance of 1,200 miles, using an ultra-short-wave (UHF) radio transmitter.⁷

Vasiliev's monograph Experiments in Mental Suggestion appeared in English in 1963 and was reprinted in 2002 with a foreword by Arthur Hastings and an introduction by Anita Gregory dated 1976.³¹⁵ Puthoff and Targ wrote that most of the experiments in that book aimed at long-distance communication combined with behavior modification, such as putting people at a distance to sleep through hypnosis.¹ Schnabel wrote that Vasiliev's work soon concentrated on "remote-influencing" experiments, for example a telepathic sender trying to put a distant receiver to sleep at a randomly selected time.⁵ Gregory's introduction states that Vasiliev's work on telepathy had been discontinued because of the official Marxist party line of the time, and that his records were preserved in the archives of the Bekhterev Institute for Brain Research in Leningrad.³

The 1972 report states that the Soviet drive to harness telepathic communication "is said to come from the Soviet military and the KGB," and that the Soviet Union was reported to have twenty or more centers for the study of parapsychological phenomena, with an annual budget estimated in 1967 at over 12 million rubles.⁷ Ostrander and Schroeder wrote that a 1963 Kremlin edict gave top priority to the biological sciences, which in the USSR include parapsychology, and that the annual budget for the Soviet centers in 1967 was estimated at 12 to 20 million rubles ($13 million to $21 million).⁶

I. M. Kogan raised three questions at a 1965 meeting of the Bionics Department of the Presidium of the Soviet Academy of Sciences: whether telepathy was possible in principle, whether it contradicted natural laws, and whether the observed facts agreed with the concept of electromagnetic fields.¹⁰ Puthoff and Targ wrote that Kogan's "main interest has been to quantify the channel capacity of the paranormal channel," and that he found "the bit rate decreases from 0.1 bit/s for laboratory experiments to 0.005 bit/s for his 1000-km intercity experiments."¹ Schnabel wrote that Kogan, like most Soviet researchers, assumed that psi was a low-frequency radio system built into human brains, and gave the same figures, with 0.1 bit per second equal to about one five-letter word every five minutes.⁵ The 1975 report lists Kogan's article "Is Telepathy Possible," Radiotekhnika 21, no. 1 (1966), pages 8 to 14.¹⁰

F. P. Tarasenko replied in the same journal in 1967 that Kogan's calculations should not be considered proof of the magnetic nature of telepathic signals or of the existence of telepathy, which "may be given only by experimental research," but that if telepathy exists and takes place by radio waves, the range of wavelengths to examine is 100 to 1,000 km. Tarasenko added that the Shannon formula Kogan used is valid only under certain conditions that may not be satisfied in this case, so the power estimates are low, and that the correction would not affect Kogan's conclusions.¹⁶

In Czechoslovakia in the mid-1960s, Schnabel wrote, Milan Ryzl conducted an experiment along Kogan's communications-oriented lines in which the psychic Pavel Stepanek repeatedly guessed each bit of a randomly generated 50-bit sequence, and after several days and twenty thousand guesses Ryzl was confident that Stepanek had the whole sequence right.⁵

Dream telepathy at Maimonides

At the Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn, Montague Ullman, Stanley Krippner, and later Charles Honorton ran a series of experiments on telepathy in dreams. In week-long sessions, Puthoff and Targ wrote, a number of subjects had dreams that "consistently were highly descriptive of pictorial material that a remote sender was looking at throughout the night."¹ Ullman and Krippner, with Alan Vaughan, published the series as Dream Telepathy in 1973.¹⁴ The 1972 report says Ullman, after a 1970 trip to the Soviet bloc, observed Soviet long-distance telepathy experiments in which results were analyzed through electroencephalographic data and through the transmission of data in Morse code.⁷

Stanford Research Institute EEG experiments, 1973 to 1974

The Stanford Research Institute program was led by Puthoff and Targ. In a paper in Nature published October 18, 1974, they reported experiments with Uri Geller, who was shielded in a double-walled copper-screen Faraday cage while attempting to reproduce drawings made at remote locations, and with Pat Price, who described remote outdoor scenes.¹⁷ They also ran pilot studies in which a sender in one room was stimulated with flashing light while the EEG of a receiver, in a shielded room about 7 meters away, was recorded.¹¹⁷

Puthoff and Targ reported that spectrum analyses gave no evidence of EEG driving in any receiver, but that of six subjects "one subject (H.H.) showed a consistent alpha blocking effect." Data came from seven sets of 36 trials. The receiver's alpha power during flashes at 16 per second was 24 percent lower on average (P < 0.04) and 28 percent lower at peak (P < 0.03) than in the no-flash condition, and the 6 flashes per second condition moved in the same direction without statistical significance. Subjects' guesses were at chance, and the authors wrote that arousal "occurred only at the noncognitive level of awareness."¹⁷

Schnabel wrote that Puthoff and Targ, with the idea that psi information would often be too subtle to register consciously, tried to augment ordinary telepathy with electroencephalograph devices, with a sender blasted by a strobe light and a receiver in an electrically shielded room wired with an EEG. In his account the design was "a souped-up version of the Nautilus story, the idea being to interest the CIA or the Navy in a possible telepathic system for long-distance communication, perhaps with submerged submarine crews." He wrote that six receivers were tried, that only Hella Hammid's EEG patterns seemed to change when the sender was trying to send psi information, and that her brain waves showed slightly depressed alpha rhythms and slightly enhanced beta rhythms.¹⁸

The journal's leading article of the same issue reported that three referees had reviewed the paper. One believed it should not be published, one did not feel strongly either way, and one was guardedly in favour. The referees criticized the design and the target selection, describing the choice of a target by "opening a dictionary at random" as "a naive, vague and unnecessarily controversial approach to randomisation." The article also stated that the paper "does not present any evidence whatsoever for Geller's alleged abilities to bend metal rods by stroking them, influence magnets at a distance, make watches stop or start by some psychokinetic force and so on."¹⁹

The 1986 joint communique on ganzfeld research

Honorton's ganzfeld method, described by Puthoff and Targ in 1976, placed the subject in a homogeneous visual field, made by Ping-Pong ball halves over the eyes, with white noise through earphones, while a sender in another room viewed color slides. Subjects described the material viewed by the sender.¹

Ray Hyman, who had published a critical appraisal of the ganzfeld database in 1985, and Honorton were invited to lunch together at the 1986 meeting of the Parapsychological Association, according to Jessica Utts, and decided to coauthor a joint communique, which appeared in the Journal of Parapsychology in 1986.²⁰ Its abstract reads: "We agree that there is an overall significant effect in this data base that cannot reasonably be explained by selective reporting or multiple analysis. We continue to differ over the degree to which the effect constitutes evidence for psi, but we agree that the final verdict awaits the outcome of future experiments conducted by a broader range of investigators and according to more stringent standards."²¹ The text also states that "significant outcomes have been produced by a number of different investigators."²² According to Utts, Hyman and Honorton devoted eight pages to recommendations for future experiments, covering controls against sensory leakage, documentation of randomization methods, reporting of judging and feedback protocols, control for multiple analyses, and advance specification of the number of trials and the type of experiment.²⁰ Daryl Bem and Honorton wrote in 1994 that the "stringent standards" requirement "has been met by the autoganzfeld studies."²¹ Hyman wrote in 1994 that the autoganzfeld studies "do comply with most of the" "stringent standards" spelled out in the communique, and named the inadequate testing of the randomization procedures as one surprising exception.²³

Telepathic interrogation claims

Within the Stargate Project, telepathy was explored as a method of interrogation. Schnabel wrote that in 1980 a Central Intelligence Agency technical operations specialist named Norm Everhart brought a photograph to Fort Meade of a man who, Schnabel wrote, had been identified as a KGB "illegal" travelling on a Scandinavian passport. The man was arrested by South African counterintelligence and held under interrogation in Cape Town, where neither the South Africans nor a group of Western counterintelligence officers could get answers. A CIA counterintelligence officer named Jim Morris asked whether the Grill Flame psychics could help, and wanted to know how the man was decoding messages assumed to be sent by shortwave radio.²⁴

In Schnabel's account Ken Bell, in a trance, described a man in pajama-like gray clothes on the second floor of an apartment building in a city bordered by an immense amount of water, with two other people. Skip Atwater suggested that Bell "talk" to the KGB man, telepathically coaxing the information out of him. Bell tried, but "the KGB man was a rock" and the session ended with no result. Morris confirmed the room, the gray clothes and the two interrogators. In an afternoon session Bell, by Schnabel's account, relayed the names of the man's son Sergei and daughter Svetlana, supplied by Morris, and the man appeared to respond.²⁴ Schnabel wrote that Bell, in asking the man about his possessions, learned about a pocket calculator, and that later Mel Riley was run in a session against the same target and also came up with a pocket calculator. Schnabel wrote that the South Africans first answered that they had found no such thing, then admitted that one of their group had found a calculator among the man's possessions and taken it home, and that no one ever confirmed whether it had been used to decode messages.²⁵

A newswire item distributed through the FBIS wire on August 27, 1995, and forwarded by a CIA memorandum the next day, quotes Riley, a former Fort Meade remote viewer, who said his unit was asked to remote-view a KGB colonel under interrogation by South African counter-intelligence officers. Riley said: "He was a hard nut to crack. They couldn't figure out how he was getting his information out of the country. But I 'saw' him playing with a pocket calculator-type thing; it seemed to be important." As Riley tells it, the "pocket calculator" turned out to be a covert communications device, and the man broke down and cooperated after the South Africans presented the information.²⁶

Schnabel wrote of Joe McMoneagle that during a session on the covert purchase of a Soviet T-72 tank, with Atwater monitoring, McMoneagle concentrated on the captain of a ship and decided to try a "telepathic" interrogation, asking what was going on. In Schnabel's account the captain seemed unfazed by the commandos with guns, and everything was going as planned: the hijacking had merely been staged, presumably to cover the trail of the general who was selling the tank. A few weeks later, Schnabel wrote, a ship that had come from a Middle Eastern port unloaded a Soviet T-72 at the Army's tank research and development center at Aberdeen Proving Ground.²⁷ Schnabel also described a use of the technique against a target several days in the past, a man in a car with a fishing pole.²⁸

A July 1978 U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command session report on the Grill Flame program records a viewer saying: "My first thought was the new T-72 tank."²⁹

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1. Puthoff, Harold E., and Russell Targ. "A Perceptual Channel for Information Transfer over Kilometer Distances: Historical Perspective and Recent Research." Proceedings of the IEEE 64, no. 3 (March 1976): 329-354. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000200080007-7 ↩︎

2. Sinclair, Upton. Mental Radio. Revised second printing, introduction by William McDougall, preface by Albert Einstein dated May 23, 1930, report by Walter Franklin Prince. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas (copyright 1930 and 1962). https://archive.org/details/mentalradio017719mbp ↩︎

3. Gregory, Anita. Introduction (1976), p. xxx, in Vasiliev, L. L., Experiments in Mental Suggestion. Charlottesville, Virginia: Hampton Roads, 2002 (originally copyrighted 1963 by the Institute for the Study of Mental Images). Gregory states that Rhine said "authoritative sources in Washington denied all knowledge of such 'experiments'." https://archive.org/details/experimentsinmen0000vasi ↩︎

4. LaMothe, John D. "Controlled Offensive Behavior: USSR." Medical Intelligence Office, Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, ST-CS-01-169-72, DIA Task T72-01-14, July 1972. Reference 77. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001300020001-6 ↩︎

5. Schnabel, Jim. Remote Viewers: The Secret History of America's Psychic Spies. New York: Dell, 1997. Pages 90-93 (Nautilus, Bergier, Messadié, Naumov, Vasiliev, Kogan, Ryzl and Stepanek). Sole source for the passages so cited. ↩︎

6. Ostrander, Sheila, and Lynn Schroeder. Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970. Pages 6-7. https://archive.org/details/psychicdiscover00ostr ↩︎

7. LaMothe, John D. "Controlled Offensive Behavior: USSR." Medical Intelligence Office, Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, ST-CS-01-169-72, DIA Task T72-01-14, July 1972. Section II, paragraphs 1 to 9. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00792r000600360001-2 ↩︎

8. Tsykunov, I. V. "От фантазии к реальности: как история «Наутилуса» открыла гонку сверхъестественных вооружений между СССР и США" [From fantasy to reality: how the story of the Nautilus opened the race for supernatural weapons between the USSR and the USA]. Aliter, no. 20 (2023), pp. 34-55. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/ot-fantazii-k-realnosti-kak-istoriya-nautilusa-otkryla-gonku-sverhestestvennyh-vooruzheniy-mezhdu-sssr-i-ssha. Sole source for the passages so cited. ↩︎

9. Anfilov, Gleb. "Is Telepathy Possible?" The Soviet Review, vol. 2, no. 6 (June 1961), pp. 3-7, translated from Znanie-Sila, 1960, no. 12. https://archive.org/details/sim_russian-social-science-review_1961-06_2_6 ↩︎

10. Maire, Louis F., III, and John D. LaMothe. "Soviet and Czechoslovakian Parapsychology Research." DST-1810S-387-75, Defense Intelligence Agency, September 1975. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000500420001-2 ↩︎

11. Newsletter of the Parapsychology Foundation, "Nautilus Hoax Exposed," vol. 10, no. 6, November-December 1963, citing This Week, September 8, 1963. NSA-RDP96X00790R000100040002-2, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/nsa-rdp96x00790r000100040002-2. ↩︎

12. Schnabel, Remote Viewers, p. 93. Sole source for the passages so cited. ↩︎

13. Gregory, Introduction, p. xxx (Vasiliev's positions and honors), in Vasiliev, Experiments in Mental Suggestion. ↩︎

14. Ullman, Montague, and Stanley Krippner, with Alan Vaughan. Dream Telepathy. New York: Macmillan, 1973. Page 10 (Vasiliev). https://archive.org/details/dreamtelepathy0000ullm ↩︎

15. Vasiliev, L. L. Experiments in Mental Suggestion. Hampshire, England: Institute for the Study of Mental Images, 1963; Charlottesville, Virginia: Hampton Roads, 2002. https://archive.org/details/experimentsinmen0000vasi ↩︎

16. Tarasenko, F. P. "In Regard to I. M. Kogan's Article, 'Is Telepathy Possible?'" Radiotekhnika 22, no. 3 (1967): 111. Foreign Technology Division translation FTD-ID(RS)T-1437-77, August 19, 1977. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA051478 ↩︎

17. Targ, Russell, and Harold E. Puthoff. "Information Transmission Under Conditions of Sensory Shielding." Nature 251 (October 18, 1974): 602-607. https://www.nature.com/articles/251602a0 Reprint at https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000100220001-8 ↩︎

18. Schnabel, Remote Viewers, pp. 154-155. Sole source for the passages so cited. ↩︎

19. "Investigating the paranormal." Leading article, Nature 251 (October 18, 1974). Reprint at https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000200090024-7 ↩︎

20. Utts, Jessica. "Replication and Meta-Analysis in Parapsychology." Statistical Science 6, no. 4 (1991): 363-403. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r003100010001-6 ↩︎

21. Hyman, Ray, and Charles Honorton. "A Joint Communiqué: The Psi Ganzfeld Controversy." Journal of Parapsychology 50 (1986): 351-364, abstract at p. 351, as quoted in Bem, Daryl J., and Charles Honorton, "Does Psi Exist? Replicable Evidence for an Anomalous Process of Information Transfer," Psychological Bulletin 115, no. 1 (1994): 4-18 (also quoted in Utts 1991; Bem and Honorton also summarize Hyman's 1985 critique and Honorton's 1985 rejoinder). https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r003200110001-4 ↩︎

22. Hyman and Honorton 1986, p. 352, as quoted in Bem and Honorton 1994 (CIA-RDP96-00789R003200110001-4). ↩︎

23. Hyman, Ray. "Anomaly or Artifact? Comments on Bem and Honorton." Psychological Bulletin 115, no. 1 (1994): 19-24. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r003200100001-5 ↩︎

24. Schnabel, Remote Viewers, pp. 42-45. Sole source for the passages so cited. ↩︎

25. Schnabel, Remote Viewers, p. 46. Sole source for the passages so cited. ↩︎

26. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum SG1I, "US Use of 'Psychic Spies' Reported," August 28, 1995, forwarding newswire item NWS-95-01267263 (FBIS wire, August 27, 1995). https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00791r000100030073-5 ↩︎

27. Schnabel, Remote Viewers, pp. 57-59. Sole source for the passages so cited. ↩︎

28. Schnabel, Remote Viewers, p. 68. Sole source for the passages so cited. ↩︎

29. Grill Flame remote viewing session report, July 1978, U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command. https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r000200300001-7 ↩︎