vault backup: 2026-10-26 19:02:15
This commit is contained in:
parent
9173c41b79
commit
4af27deddf
25 changed files with 2780 additions and 999 deletions
|
|
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ aliases:
|
|||
- Central Intelligence Agency
|
||||
- CIA
|
||||
created: 2025-07-22
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-15
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-26
|
||||
tags:
|
||||
- Organization
|
||||
- Intelligence
|
||||
|
|
@ -22,71 +22,75 @@ relations:
|
|||
role: "Office of Security release of police techniques through LEAA"
|
||||
start: 1970
|
||||
end: 1973
|
||||
fn: 5
|
||||
fn: 10
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Bobby Ray Inman]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "deputy director"
|
||||
start: 1981-02
|
||||
end: 1982-04
|
||||
fn: 32
|
||||
fn: 37
|
||||
- type: participant_in
|
||||
with: "[[Psychological Strategy Board]]"
|
||||
role: "Member agency; the Director of Central Intelligence chaired meeting M-8"
|
||||
start: 1952-01-10
|
||||
fn: 59
|
||||
fn: 64
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Max Millikan]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Assistant Director, Research and Reports (1951); Special Consultant (1952)"
|
||||
start: 1951-01
|
||||
end: 1952-03
|
||||
fn: 60
|
||||
fn: 65
|
||||
- type: funded
|
||||
with: "[[Center for International Studies]]"
|
||||
role: "agency money reported to have set up the center in 1951; $300,000 reported in 1967"
|
||||
start: 1951
|
||||
fn: 67
|
||||
fn: 72
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Ronald Pandolfi]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1995
|
||||
role: "analyst; described as a CIA scientist (Farley, 1995) and CIA analyst (Cox Committee, 1999)"
|
||||
fn: 44
|
||||
fn: 49
|
||||
---
|
||||
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a primary intelligence-gathering organization of the United States government. In the context of psychic research, the CIA played a significant, albeit often covert, role in funding and overseeing programs aimed at exploring and utilizing psychic phenomena for intelligence purposes.[^1]
|
||||
|
||||
The CIA, particularly through its Photographic Intelligence Division, was instrumental in aerial reconnaissance efforts, especially with the U-2 spy plane, to monitor Soviet nuclear programs and later, the Israeli nuclear facility at [[Dimona]].[^2]
|
||||
|
||||
### Personnel posts, 1951 to 1973
|
||||
|
||||
In July 1951 an [[Associated Press]] item reported that [[F. Trubee Davison]], formerly Assistant Secretary of War for Air and president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]], would join the Agency on July 16 as a principal assistant to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he probably would do personnel work.[^3] A memorandum from Davison dated September 11, 1951 appears on a CIA routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^4] CIA documents of 1968, 1969 and 1972 name [[Hugh T. Cunningham]] as the Agency's Director of Training.[^5] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990 that Cunningham served in the Agency from 1947 to 1973 and that Davison, Cunningham, [[William P. Bundy]] and [[Dino Pionzio]] (deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]] in 1970) were members of the Yale society [[Skull and Bones]].[^6] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members lists Davison under the class of 1918, Cunningham (Hugh Terry) under 1934, Bundy under 1939 and Pionzio under 1950.[^7]
|
||||
|
||||
### Early Involvement in Psi Research
|
||||
|
||||
The CIA's interest in psi research dates back to the early 1970s, partly in response to rumors of extensive Soviet psi research. Following a number of scandals in the mid-1970s, including revelations of domestic spying, the CIA came under unprecedented scrutiny from Congress. This led to a preference for "clean" spying methods, making psychic intelligence an appealing, low-profile alternative to traditional human intelligence (HUMINT).[^1]
|
||||
|
||||
In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^3]
|
||||
In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^8]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Search for Behavioral Control
|
||||
|
||||
Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^4]
|
||||
Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^9]
|
||||
|
||||
### Police Technique Program Through LEAA
|
||||
|
||||
From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^5] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^5]
|
||||
From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^10] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^10]
|
||||
|
||||
Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^6] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^7]
|
||||
Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^11] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^12]
|
||||
|
||||
The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^6] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^8]
|
||||
The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^11] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^13]
|
||||
|
||||
A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^9] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^10] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^11]
|
||||
A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^14] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^15] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^16]
|
||||
|
||||
Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^12] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^13] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^14] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^15]
|
||||
Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^17] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^18] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^19] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^20]
|
||||
|
||||
### The 1977 Notifications to Institutions
|
||||
|
||||
In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^16]
|
||||
In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^21]
|
||||
|
||||
General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^17] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^18] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^19] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^20]
|
||||
General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^22] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^23] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^24] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^25]
|
||||
|
||||
The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^21]
|
||||
The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^26]
|
||||
|
||||
### Notable Operations and Impact
|
||||
|
||||
|
|
@ -108,180 +112,185 @@ Following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]]
|
|||
|
||||
### Involvement with BCCI
|
||||
|
||||
The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^22] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^22] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^23]
|
||||
The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^27] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^27] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^28]
|
||||
|
||||
In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^24] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^25] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^26]
|
||||
In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^29] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^30] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^31]
|
||||
|
||||
William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^27] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^27]
|
||||
William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^32] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^32]
|
||||
|
||||
The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^28]
|
||||
The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^33]
|
||||
|
||||
### Operations and Activities
|
||||
|
||||
The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^29] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^29]
|
||||
The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^34] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^34]
|
||||
|
||||
In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^30] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^30]
|
||||
In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^35] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^35]
|
||||
|
||||
### Deputy Director Bobby Ray Inman, 1981 to 1982
|
||||
|
||||
President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^31] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^32] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^31]
|
||||
President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^36] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^37] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^36]
|
||||
|
||||
The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^33] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^34]
|
||||
The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^38] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^39]
|
||||
|
||||
### Senior Review Panel
|
||||
|
||||
The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^35] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^35] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^36]
|
||||
The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^40] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^40] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^41]
|
||||
|
||||
### UAP Research and Secrecy
|
||||
|
||||
The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^3]
|
||||
The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^8]
|
||||
|
||||
The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^3]
|
||||
The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^8]
|
||||
|
||||
In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^3]
|
||||
In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^8]
|
||||
|
||||
### Dark Alliance Investigation
|
||||
|
||||
The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^37]
|
||||
The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^42]
|
||||
|
||||
### Contra Drug Trafficking and the Frogman Case
|
||||
|
||||
Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^38]
|
||||
Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^43]
|
||||
|
||||
Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^38] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^39]
|
||||
Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^43] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^44]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Secret 1982 Agreement with the Justice Department
|
||||
|
||||
In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^40]
|
||||
In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^45]
|
||||
|
||||
### Ilopango Obstruction
|
||||
|
||||
When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^41] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^42]
|
||||
When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^46] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^47]
|
||||
|
||||
### Inspector General Investigation
|
||||
|
||||
CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^40]
|
||||
CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^45]
|
||||
|
||||
### Hughes Electronics and the Pandolfi Estimate, 1995 to 1998
|
||||
|
||||
On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^43] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^44] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^45] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^43]
|
||||
On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^48] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^49] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^50] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^48]
|
||||
|
||||
In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^44] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^43] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^45]
|
||||
In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^49] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^48] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^50]
|
||||
|
||||
### Iran-Contra Indictments
|
||||
|
||||
Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^37]
|
||||
Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^42]
|
||||
|
||||
### Interrogation videotapes and the 2004 to 2006 directorship
|
||||
|
||||
[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^46] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^47] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^48]
|
||||
[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^51] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^52] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^53]
|
||||
|
||||
The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^49] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^49]
|
||||
The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^54] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^54]
|
||||
|
||||
Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^50] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^51]
|
||||
Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^55] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^56]
|
||||
|
||||
### Foreign Broadcast Information Service
|
||||
|
||||
The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^52] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^53] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^54]
|
||||
The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^57] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^58] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^59]
|
||||
|
||||
Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^55]
|
||||
Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^60]
|
||||
|
||||
The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^56]
|
||||
The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^61]
|
||||
|
||||
### Psychological warfare liaison, 1946 to 1952
|
||||
|
||||
In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^57]
|
||||
In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^62]
|
||||
|
||||
In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^58]
|
||||
In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^63]
|
||||
|
||||
On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^59]
|
||||
On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^64]
|
||||
|
||||
In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^60] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^61] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^62] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^63] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^64] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^65] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^66]
|
||||
In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^65] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^66] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^67] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^68] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^69] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^70] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^71]
|
||||
|
||||
The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^67] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^68] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^69]
|
||||
The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^72] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^73] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^74]
|
||||
|
||||
The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^70] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^71]
|
||||
The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^75] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^76]
|
||||
|
||||
In February 1961 [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]] wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^72]
|
||||
In February 1961 [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]] wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^77]
|
||||
|
||||
A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^73] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^74] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^75] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^76] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^77]
|
||||
A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^78] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^79] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^80] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^81] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^82]
|
||||
|
||||
### Footnotes
|
||||
|
||||
[^1]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers*. Dell, 1997.
|
||||
[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991.
|
||||
[^3]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024.
|
||||
[^4]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2.
|
||||
[^5]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5
|
||||
[^6]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053
|
||||
[^7]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041
|
||||
[^8]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9
|
||||
[^9]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3
|
||||
[^10]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445
|
||||
[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1
|
||||
[^12]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf
|
||||
[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2
|
||||
[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0
|
||||
[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1
|
||||
[^16]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
|
||||
[^17]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95.
|
||||
[^18]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
|
||||
[^19]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3.
|
||||
[^20]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1.
|
||||
[^21]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3.
|
||||
[^22]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126.
|
||||
[^23]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147.
|
||||
[^24]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12.
|
||||
[^25]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9.
|
||||
[^26]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149.
|
||||
[^27]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347.
|
||||
[^28]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
|
||||
[^29]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334.
|
||||
[^30]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341.
|
||||
[^31]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html
|
||||
[^32]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3
|
||||
[^33]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7
|
||||
[^34]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5
|
||||
[^35]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
|
||||
[^36]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1
|
||||
[^37]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
|
||||
[^38]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
|
||||
[^39]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html
|
||||
[^40]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done"
|
||||
[^41]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends"
|
||||
[^42]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm
|
||||
[^43]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html
|
||||
[^44]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
|
||||
[^45]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html
|
||||
[^46]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220
|
||||
[^47]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/
|
||||
[^48]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html
|
||||
[^49]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
|
||||
[^50]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750
|
||||
[^51]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/
|
||||
[^52]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^53]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
|
||||
[^54]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^55]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
|
||||
[^56]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html.
|
||||
[^57]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9
|
||||
[^58]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0
|
||||
[^59]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6
|
||||
[^60]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1
|
||||
[^61]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2
|
||||
[^62]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1
|
||||
[^63]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3
|
||||
[^64]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6
|
||||
[^65]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5
|
||||
[^66]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0
|
||||
[^67]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
|
||||
[^68]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
|
||||
[^69]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
|
||||
[^70]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57
|
||||
[^71]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8
|
||||
[^72]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9
|
||||
[^73]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2
|
||||
[^74]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7
|
||||
[^75]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9
|
||||
[^76]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055
|
||||
[^77]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4
|
||||
[^3]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
|
||||
[^4]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison, September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
|
||||
[^5]: CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (May 15, 1969), CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (1968) and CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, 1972). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
|
||||
[^6]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
|
||||
[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^8]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024.
|
||||
[^9]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2.
|
||||
[^10]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5
|
||||
[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053
|
||||
[^12]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041
|
||||
[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9
|
||||
[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3
|
||||
[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445
|
||||
[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1
|
||||
[^17]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf
|
||||
[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2
|
||||
[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0
|
||||
[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1
|
||||
[^21]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
|
||||
[^22]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95.
|
||||
[^23]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
|
||||
[^24]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3.
|
||||
[^25]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1.
|
||||
[^26]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3.
|
||||
[^27]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126.
|
||||
[^28]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147.
|
||||
[^29]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12.
|
||||
[^30]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9.
|
||||
[^31]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149.
|
||||
[^32]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347.
|
||||
[^33]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
|
||||
[^34]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334.
|
||||
[^35]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341.
|
||||
[^36]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html
|
||||
[^37]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3
|
||||
[^38]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7
|
||||
[^39]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5
|
||||
[^40]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
|
||||
[^41]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1
|
||||
[^42]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
|
||||
[^43]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
|
||||
[^44]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html
|
||||
[^45]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done"
|
||||
[^46]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends"
|
||||
[^47]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm
|
||||
[^48]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html
|
||||
[^49]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
|
||||
[^50]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html
|
||||
[^51]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220
|
||||
[^52]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/
|
||||
[^53]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html
|
||||
[^54]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
|
||||
[^55]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750
|
||||
[^56]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/
|
||||
[^57]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^58]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
|
||||
[^59]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^60]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
|
||||
[^61]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html.
|
||||
[^62]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9
|
||||
[^63]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0
|
||||
[^64]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6
|
||||
[^65]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1
|
||||
[^66]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2
|
||||
[^67]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1
|
||||
[^68]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3
|
||||
[^69]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6
|
||||
[^70]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5
|
||||
[^71]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0
|
||||
[^72]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
|
||||
[^73]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
|
||||
[^74]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
|
||||
[^75]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57
|
||||
[^76]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8
|
||||
[^77]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9
|
||||
[^78]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2
|
||||
[^79]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7
|
||||
[^80]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9
|
||||
[^81]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055
|
||||
[^82]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4
|
||||
|
|
|
|||
|
|
@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ summary: "The Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service was the United States gover
|
|||
start: 1941-02-26
|
||||
location: "Washington, D.C."
|
||||
created: 2026-10-09
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-09
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-26
|
||||
relations:
|
||||
- type: head_of
|
||||
with: "[[Lloyd Free]]"
|
||||
|
|
@ -37,81 +37,81 @@ relations:
|
|||
role: "Director"
|
||||
start: 1941-06-16
|
||||
end: 1942-04
|
||||
fn: 21
|
||||
fn: 22
|
||||
- type: head_of
|
||||
with: "[[Robert D. Leigh]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Director"
|
||||
start: 1942-07
|
||||
end: 1944-07
|
||||
fn: 23
|
||||
fn: 24
|
||||
- type: head_of
|
||||
with: "[[Charles S. Hyneman]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Director"
|
||||
start: 1944-07-27
|
||||
end: 1945-08-07
|
||||
fn: 69
|
||||
fn: 70
|
||||
- type: head_of
|
||||
with: "[[Russell M. Shepherd]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Director, fourth director of the service"
|
||||
start: 1945-08-07
|
||||
end: 1947-09-29
|
||||
fn: 90
|
||||
fn: 91
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Harold N. Graves Jr.]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Senior Administrative Officer; acting director in 1942"
|
||||
start: 1941-03
|
||||
end: 1943-12
|
||||
fn: 65
|
||||
fn: 66
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Goodwin Watson]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Head of the Analysis Section, later Analysis Division"
|
||||
start: 1941-11-17
|
||||
end: 1943-11
|
||||
fn: 24
|
||||
fn: 25
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Hans Speier]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Senior Political Analyst and head of the Central European Section; acting chief analyst after Watson's departure"
|
||||
start: 1942-03
|
||||
end: 1944-05-22
|
||||
fn: 33
|
||||
fn: 34
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Nathan Leites]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Analyst; sent to London with Watson in September 1942"
|
||||
start: 1942-09
|
||||
fn: 30
|
||||
fn: 31
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Alexander L. George]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Analyst in the Central European Section"
|
||||
fn: 36
|
||||
fn: 37
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[William E. Dodd Jr.]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Editor, hired December 1941"
|
||||
start: 1941-12
|
||||
end: 1943-11
|
||||
fn: 42
|
||||
fn: 43
|
||||
- type: investigated
|
||||
with: "[[House Un-American Activities Committee]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Named Goodwin Watson, Frederick L. Schuman and William E. Dodd Jr. in 1941 and 1943 attacks"
|
||||
start: 1941-11-18
|
||||
end: 1943-04-21
|
||||
fn: 41
|
||||
fn: 42
|
||||
- type: investigated
|
||||
with: "[[Cox Committee]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Special House committee to investigate the Federal Communications Commission"
|
||||
start: 1943-01
|
||||
end: 1945-01-02
|
||||
fn: 59
|
||||
fn: 60
|
||||
- type: owned
|
||||
with: "[[Federal Communications Commission]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
|
|
@ -125,24 +125,24 @@ relations:
|
|||
role: "Sponsoring agency after the War Department"
|
||||
start: 1946-07-31
|
||||
end: 1947-09
|
||||
fn: 80
|
||||
fn: 81
|
||||
- type: owned
|
||||
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Component of the agency, under the Assistant Director for Operations"
|
||||
start: 1947
|
||||
fn: 81
|
||||
fn: 82
|
||||
- type: head_of
|
||||
with: "[[Theodore Newcomb]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Director of the Analysis Division, succeeding Watson, per the National Archives records description"
|
||||
start: 1943-11
|
||||
fn: 27
|
||||
fn: 28
|
||||
- type: partner_of
|
||||
with: "[[Office of War Information]]"
|
||||
role: "Analysis Division used exclusively for OWI radio reporting under the April 19, 1943 agreement"
|
||||
start: 1943-04-19
|
||||
fn: 32
|
||||
fn: 33
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (FBIS) was the United States government's service for monitoring, translating and analyzing foreign radio broadcasts. It began as the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service inside the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) in 1941, passed to the [[War Department]] at the end of 1945, came under the [[Central Intelligence Group]] in 1946 and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in 1947, and in November 2005 was named as the base of expertise for the [[Open Source Center]].[^1]
|
||||
|
|
@ -151,109 +151,109 @@ The Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (FBIS) was the United States governme
|
|||
|
||||
The proposal for a government monitoring service reached the [[Defense Communications Board]] in January 1941. The [[Princeton Listening Center]] had been running since November 1939, and the [[State Department]] official [[Breckinridge Long]], the Board's State Department representative, introduced the resolution calling on the FCC to establish a monitoring service.[^2] [[Helena Huntington Smith]] wrote in *Collier's* in January 1943 that the service's "godfather was Breckinridge Long of the State Department," who took the idea to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]]. Stephen C. Mercado, who serves in the Directorate of Science and Technology, uses the same word for Long and quotes his letter of September 10, 1941 congratulating Fly.[^3] The FCC's annual report for fiscal 1941 states that the service was created in cooperation with the Defense Communications Board.[^4]
|
||||
|
||||
On February 25, 1941 [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] allotted $150,000 from his emergency fund, and the money was transferred the next day, so that the birth date of the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service (FBMS) was February 26, 1941.[^5] Daniel Bessner's dissertation on [[Hans Speier]] dates the origin to a late 1940 meeting between Roosevelt and [[Henry L. Stimson]], then Secretary of War, at which Stimson suggested a unit to monitor foreign propaganda aimed at the United States.[^6] A 1969 CIA history of the service has the idea raised in an informal late 1940 discussion between the Secretary of State and Roosevelt.[^7] The FCC's Radio Intelligence Division had been running the National Defense Activities that recorded foreign broadcasts, and the FCC was "the only group staffed and equipped" for the monitoring work.[^8]
|
||||
On February 25, 1941 [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] allotted $150,000 from his emergency fund, and the money was transferred the next day, so that the birth date of the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service (FBMS) was February 26, 1941.[^5] Daniel Bessner's dissertation on [[Hans Speier]] dates the origin to a late 1940 meeting between Roosevelt and [[Henry L. Stimson]], then Secretary of War, at which Stimson suggested a unit to monitor foreign propaganda aimed at the United States.[^6] A 1969 CIA history of the service has the idea raised in an informal late 1940 discussion between the Secretary of State and Roosevelt; the Secretary of State in late 1940 was [[Cordell Hull]].[^7][^8] The FCC's Radio Intelligence Division had been running the National Defense Activities that recorded foreign broadcasts, and the FCC was "the only group staffed and equipped" for the monitoring work.[^9]
|
||||
|
||||
The service began in an old garage at 316 F Street Northeast in Washington, and in April 1942 moved to 1424 K Street NW, where four floors were assigned to it.[^9]
|
||||
The service began in an old garage at 316 F Street Northeast in Washington, and in April 1942 moved to 1424 K Street NW, where four floors were assigned to it.[^10]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Robert D. Leigh]], who took over as director on July 15, 1942, recommended renaming the service the Broadcast Intelligence Service, on the reasoning that the name was "less unwieldy and more accurately reflected the duties of the organization." The FCC insisted on keeping the word "foreign," and on July 26, 1942 the FBMS became the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service.[^10] An FCC order of July 28, 1942 is recorded for the same change.[^11] The name was raised again in 1945. In a memorandum for the FCC of March 2, 1945, [[Charles S. Hyneman]] proposed a change to end confusion with the FBI, which reported trouble from misdirected mail, and suggested International Broadcast Intelligence Service, Broadcast Intelligence Service, Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service and Broadcast Reporting Service, explaining that "intelligence" and "reporting" described its operations better than "monitoring." The service's newsletter, *On the Beam*, reported on April 9, 1945 that the FCC had approved the change to Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service. The next month the newsletter announced that the FCC had reversed itself, and the new name was never formally adopted.[^12]
|
||||
[[Robert D. Leigh]], who took over as director on July 15, 1942, recommended renaming the service the Broadcast Intelligence Service, on the reasoning that the name was "less unwieldy and more accurately reflected the duties of the organization." The FCC insisted on keeping the word "foreign," and on July 26, 1942 the FBMS became the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service.[^11] An FCC order of July 28, 1942 is recorded for the same change.[^12] The name was raised again in 1945. In a memorandum for the FCC of March 2, 1945, [[Charles S. Hyneman]] proposed a change to end confusion with the FBI, which reported trouble from misdirected mail, and suggested International Broadcast Intelligence Service, Broadcast Intelligence Service, Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service and Broadcast Reporting Service, explaining that "intelligence" and "reporting" described its operations better than "monitoring." The service's newsletter, *On the Beam*, reported on April 9, 1945 that the FCC had approved the change to Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service. The next month the newsletter announced that the FCC had reversed itself, and the new name was never formally adopted.[^13]
|
||||
|
||||
### Princeton and the Rockefeller Foundation
|
||||
|
||||
The Princeton Listening Center was the most visible American monitoring effort before the government service existed. [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]], who had directed it, wrote in 1941 that "The Center was established in November 1939 by the School of Public and International Affairs of Princeton University, to study international broadcasting in wartime."[^13] The center's finding aid states that the project was financed by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], was conceived by the Princeton professor [[John B. Whitton]], and was administered by Graves with a committee that included [[Hadley Cantril]], William S. Carpenter, [[Harwood L. Childs]], O. W. Riegel and the engineer Brunson S. McCutchen, with quarters in a house on Alexander Street. It records the center's transcripts from November 1939 through May 1941, "until the operations of the Center were taken over by the Federal Communications Commission," and says the center continued its work until June 1941.[^14] Mercado likewise gives the center's funding as coming from the Rockefeller Foundation and its absorption by the service as occurring in June.[^15] Bessner's dissertation states that the service "had absorbed the Rockefeller-funded Princeton Listening Center, whose director, Harold Graves, became the FBIS's Senior Administrative Officer."[^16] Graves was hired to help organize the service as "the young man who had been acting as director of the Princeton Listening Post since its inception." Staff who had worked at Princeton and joined the new service included [[Jerome S. Bruner]], [[Bennett Ferrell Ellington]], [[Arthur Mathieu]] and [[Arthur Cantor]].[^17]
|
||||
The Princeton Listening Center was the most visible American monitoring effort before the government service existed. [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]], who had directed it, wrote in 1941 that "The Center was established in November 1939 by the School of Public and International Affairs of Princeton University, to study international broadcasting in wartime."[^14] The center's finding aid states that the project was financed by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], was conceived by the Princeton professor [[John B. Whitton]], and was administered by Graves with a committee that included [[Hadley Cantril]], William S. Carpenter, [[Harwood L. Childs]], O. W. Riegel and the engineer Brunson S. McCutchen, with quarters in a house on Alexander Street. It records the center's transcripts from November 1939 through May 1941, "until the operations of the Center were taken over by the Federal Communications Commission," and says the center continued its work until June 1941.[^15] Mercado likewise gives the center's funding as coming from the Rockefeller Foundation and its absorption by the service as occurring in June.[^16] Bessner's dissertation states that the service "had absorbed the Rockefeller-funded Princeton Listening Center, whose director, Harold Graves, became the FBIS's Senior Administrative Officer."[^17] Graves was hired to help organize the service as "the young man who had been acting as director of the Princeton Listening Post since its inception." Staff who had worked at Princeton and joined the new service included [[Jerome S. Bruner]], [[Bennett Ferrell Ellington]], [[Arthur Mathieu]] and [[Arthur Cantor]].[^18]
|
||||
|
||||
The Rockefeller connection was also a public relations problem. A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC, Princeton and the Rockefeller Foundation, and as the "brain child" of Whitton. Graves wrote a memo for [[Lloyd Free]] on July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment" at inaccuracies in the article, among them the "dragging in" of the Princeton Listening Post and the joint-project claim. On September 8, 1941 a syndicated column by [[Eleanor Ragsdale]] said the service was "inaugurated and pushed through by Chairman Fly of FCC."[^18]
|
||||
The Rockefeller connection was also a public relations problem. A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC, Princeton and the Rockefeller Foundation, and as the "brain child" of Whitton. Graves wrote a memo for [[Lloyd Free]] on July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment" at inaccuracies in the article, among them the "dragging in" of the Princeton Listening Post and the joint-project claim. On September 8, 1941 a syndicated column by [[Eleanor Ragsdale]] said the service was "inaugurated and pushed through by Chairman Fly of FCC."[^19]
|
||||
|
||||
On July 29, 1942 [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], wrote to FCC chairman James L. Fly that his office had "been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau," and asked for a larger volume of verbatim transcripts for hemispheric propaganda work.[^19]
|
||||
On July 29, 1942 [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], wrote to FCC chairman James L. Fly that his office had "been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau," and asked for a larger volume of verbatim transcripts for hemispheric propaganda work.[^20]
|
||||
|
||||
An administrative memorandum to FBIS officers dated January 22, 1943 recorded an exchange of correspondence with Rockefeller, the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, under which FBIS would have with his office the same relationship it had with OWI. Under the same memorandum, FBIS material reached non-government users only through one of two OWI officials, one of them [[Leo Rosten]], deputy director in charge of enemy sources, and requests for Latin American material went to officers of the Coordinator's office.[^20]
|
||||
An administrative memorandum to FBIS officers dated January 22, 1943 recorded an exchange of correspondence with Rockefeller, the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, under which FBIS would have with his office the same relationship it had with OWI. Under the same memorandum, FBIS material reached non-government users only through one of two OWI officials, one of them [[Leo Rosten]], deputy director in charge of enemy sources, and requests for Latin American material went to officers of the Coordinator's office.[^21]
|
||||
|
||||
### Directors and the Analysis Division
|
||||
|
||||
Free, editor of the [[Public Opinion Quarterly]] and a Princeton man, assumed office as director on June 16, 1941. He established contacts with the [[BBC]] very soon after taking office, with the idea of attaching a staff to the BBC, and in December 1941 he was still in London when the Pearl Harbor attack came.[^21] Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over the Washington office on December 7, 1941.[^22] Free resigned in April 1942 to accept an Army commission, and he was military attaché at the United States Embassy in Switzerland for most of the war years.[^23]
|
||||
Free, editor of the [[Public Opinion Quarterly]] and a Princeton man, assumed office as director on June 16, 1941. He established contacts with the [[BBC]] very soon after taking office, with the idea of attaching a staff to the BBC, and in December 1941 he was still in London when the Pearl Harbor attack came.[^22] Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over the Washington office on December 7, 1941.[^23] Free resigned in April 1942 to accept an Army commission, and he was military attaché at the United States Embassy in Switzerland for most of the war years.[^24]
|
||||
|
||||
Leigh, for fourteen years president of [[Bennington College]], took over on July 15, 1942, with Graves as acting director in the intervening months. He was paid $1,000 more than the $8,000 Free had received, and the appropriation bill had to be amended to legalize the salary.[^23]
|
||||
Leigh, for fourteen years president of [[Bennington College]], took over on July 15, 1942, with Graves as acting director in the intervening months. He was paid $1,000 more than the $8,000 Free had received, and the appropriation bill had to be amended to legalize the salary.[^24]
|
||||
|
||||
The Analysis Division was the service's research core. In November 1941 [[Goodwin Watson]] of [[Columbia University]] entered on duty to head the Analysis Section, which Free and Graves had recruited him to lead.[^24] Watson testified in April 1943 that his connection with the commission dated from November 15, 1941.[^25] The section became the Analysis Division in 1942.[^26] A records description of the service gives November 15, 1941 as the start of Watson's directorship of the division and November 15, 1943 as the day [[Theodore Newcomb]] succeeded him; Newcomb was second only to Watson in the division by February 1943.[^27][^28] In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants and trainees, with 17 of the positions filled, and the planned table was never reached.[^29] In September 1942 Watson and [[Nathan Leites]] went to London to set up an analysis operation working with the [[Office of War Information]], and a two-man staff remained there through the war.[^30] The division's German Section began the weekly *Central European Radio Analysis* in January 1943, and the *Radio Report on the Far East* first appeared on August 24, 1942.[^31]
|
||||
The Analysis Division was the service's research core. In November 1941 [[Goodwin Watson]] of [[Columbia University]] entered on duty to head the Analysis Section, which Free and Graves had recruited him to lead.[^25] Watson testified in April 1943 that his connection with the commission dated from November 15, 1941.[^26] The section became the Analysis Division in 1942.[^27] A records description of the service gives November 15, 1941 as the start of Watson's directorship of the division and November 15, 1943 as the day [[Theodore Newcomb]] succeeded him; Newcomb was second only to Watson in the division by February 1943.[^28][^29] In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants and trainees, with 17 of the positions filled, and the planned table was never reached.[^30] In September 1942 Watson and [[Nathan Leites]] went to London to set up an analysis operation working with the [[Office of War Information]], and a two-man staff remained there through the war.[^31] The division's German Section began the weekly *Central European Radio Analysis* in January 1943, and the *Radio Report on the Far East* first appeared on August 24, 1942.[^32]
|
||||
|
||||
On April 19, 1943 Robert D. Leigh announced an agreement under which the Bureau of Research and Analysis of the Overseas Operations Branch of the Office of War Information would use the Analysis Division exclusively for reporting and analyzing radio broadcasts, and the division would move to the Social Security Building. On May 13 Harold N. Graves Jr. said that the division would "function as an integral part of OWI" while continuing its other duties. In a letter to Leigh of June 18, 1943, [[Eugene Katz]], identified as the head of the OWI division, wrote that relations with the Analysis Division were "so friendly" that nothing warranted a formal reappraisal of the agreement.[^32]
|
||||
On April 19, 1943 Robert D. Leigh announced an agreement under which the Bureau of Research and Analysis of the Overseas Operations Branch of the Office of War Information would use the Analysis Division exclusively for reporting and analyzing radio broadcasts, and the division would move to the Social Security Building. On May 13 Harold N. Graves Jr. said that the division would "function as an integral part of OWI" while continuing its other duties. In a letter to Leigh of June 18, 1943, [[Eugene Katz]], identified as the head of the OWI division, wrote that relations with the Analysis Division were "so friendly" that nothing warranted a formal reappraisal of the agreement.[^33]
|
||||
|
||||
### Hans Speier and the Central European Section
|
||||
|
||||
Hans Speier reached the service through the research project he ran with [[Ernst Kris]] at the [[New School for Social Research]]. Speier sent the project's first report a week after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and Free and Watson read his work "with the greatest of interest." In February 1942 Watson offered him a post as Senior Political Analyst and head of the Central European Section, and the Analysis Division was the "heart" of the service.[^33] Graves had written to Speier and Kris on December 23, 1941 about their reports and encouraged them to send more, and Free wrote to Speier on January 31, 1942.[^34] The Civil Service Commission informed Speier on May 26, 1942, two months after he entered the division, that he had been rated eligible for the post of Senior Political Analyst.[^35]
|
||||
Hans Speier reached the service through the research project he ran with [[Ernst Kris]] at the [[New School for Social Research]]. Speier sent the project's first report a week after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and Free and Watson read his work "with the greatest of interest." In February 1942 Watson offered him a post as Senior Political Analyst and head of the Central European Section, and the Analysis Division was the "heart" of the service.[^34] Graves had written to Speier and Kris on December 23, 1941 about their reports and encouraged them to send more, and Free wrote to Speier on January 31, 1942.[^35] The Civil Service Commission informed Speier on May 26, 1942, two months after he entered the division, that he had been rated eligible for the post of Senior Political Analyst.[^36]
|
||||
|
||||
Speier brought colleagues into the division, including [[Alexander L. George]], Leites and the psychologist Henry Kellermann.[^36] Watson praised Speier's "extraordinarily good job of analysis," and wrote that he knew "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him."[^36] Watson left under pressure from opponents of the New Deal, after which Speier became acting chief analyst with thirty people under him.[^37] Bessner cites a letter from Newcomb to Colonel S. A. Greenwell of December 4, 1943 for Speier's replacing Watson as Acting Chief Analyst.[^38] Speier moved from the service to the Office of War Information on May 22, 1944, under [[Wallace Carroll]].[^39]
|
||||
Speier brought colleagues into the division, including [[Alexander L. George]], Leites and the psychologist Henry Kellermann.[^37] Watson praised Speier's "extraordinarily good job of analysis," and wrote that he knew "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him."[^37] Watson left under pressure from opponents of the New Deal, after which Speier became acting chief analyst with thirty people under him.[^38] Bessner cites a letter from Newcomb to Colonel S. A. Greenwell of December 4, 1943 for Speier's replacing Watson as Acting Chief Analyst.[^39] Speier moved from the service to the Office of War Information on May 22, 1944, under [[Wallace Carroll]].[^40]
|
||||
|
||||
On October 29, 1943 Speier wrote a memorandum predicting much of Hitler's speech for the anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch. Seventeen of twenty-five predictions were correct. Speier gave the memo to an OWI contact, [[Mark Abrams]], who brought it to the attention of Representative [[Joseph Martin]] and Senator [[Alexander Wiley]], and they used most of its content in a radio broadcast.[^40]
|
||||
On October 29, 1943 Speier wrote a memorandum predicting much of Hitler's speech for the anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch. Seventeen of twenty-five predictions were correct. Speier gave the memo to an OWI contact, [[Mark Abrams]], who brought it to the attention of Representative [[Joseph Martin]] and Senator [[Alexander Wiley]], and they used most of its content in a radio broadcast.[^41]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Dies Committee and the 1943 Rider
|
||||
|
||||
The first congressional attack came from [[Martin Dies]], chairman of the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. On November 18, 1941, the day after Watson entered on duty, Dies wrote to James L. Fly expressing "deep concern" over the selection of a man who had written in favor of the Soviet Union, and naming thirteen organizations he called communist fronts.[^41] Fly replied that Watson belonged to only one of them, Consumers Union. The House passed an appropriation bill with a rider denying salary to the named employees, including [[Frederick L. Schuman]] and [[William E. Dodd Jr.]], who had been hired as an editor in December 1941. The Senate Appropriations Committee deleted the rider, and Watson testified before that committee on February 4, 1942.[^42]
|
||||
The first congressional attack came from [[Martin Dies]], chairman of the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. On November 18, 1941, the day after Watson entered on duty, Dies wrote to James L. Fly expressing "deep concern" over the selection of a man who had written in favor of the Soviet Union, and naming thirteen organizations he called communist fronts.[^42] Fly replied that Watson belonged to only one of them, Consumers Union. The House passed an appropriation bill with a rider denying salary to the named employees, including [[Frederick L. Schuman]] and [[William E. Dodd Jr.]], who had been hired as an editor in December 1941. The Senate Appropriations Committee deleted the rider, and Watson testified before that committee on February 4, 1942.[^43]
|
||||
|
||||
In a House speech on February 1, 1943, Dies listed 39 "communists" holding government posts, with Dodd, Watson and Schuman at the head of the list.[^43] On February 4, 1943 [[Joe Hendricks]] of Florida gave notice of an amendment to the House Post Office and Treasury appropriations bill forbidding payment of the thirty-nine named employees, among them Watson, Schuman and Dodd. On February 5 the House, in the Committee of the Whole, rejected it, 130 to 137 on a division and 146 to 153 on tellers, and then agreed, 163 to 111 on tellers, to a separate amendment naming only [[William Pickens]].[^44] Dies accused the employees of "un-American beliefs."[^45] Mercado writes that Dies may have been provoked by FBIS reports that his statements were being praised in Nazi Germany, and that Vice President [[Henry A. Wallace]] had said Dies's statements "might as well come from Goebbels himself as far as their practical effect is concerned."[^46] [[House Resolution 105]], adopted February 9, 1943, authorized the Committee on Appropriations, "acting through a special subcommittee," to examine charges of unfitness based on association with organizations whose aims were subversive. The subcommittee was Congressman [[John H. Kerr]] (chairman), [[Albert Gore Sr.|Albert Gore]], [[Clinton P. Anderson]], [[D. Lane Powers]] and [[Frank B. Keefe]], with Major Matt H. Allen as counsel, and Watson's testimony opens at its sitting of Friday, April 9, 1943.[^47] On March 31, 1943 Dies told the House that a subcommittee headed by [[Joe Starnes]] of Alabama, whom he called his "distinguished and able colleague," would make a report.[^48] On April 7 Kerr told the House that the committee had been asking for six weeks for the full evidence and had been able to get it for only "3 of the 38 men who are charged in this resolution." Dies replied, "You have evidence on 10."[^49] The subcommittee took testimony in executive session from the three men. Its report of April 21, 1943 found Watson and Dodd unfit for government employment and stated that it "does not find sufficient evidence to support a recommendation of unfitness" as to Schuman; Roop's history names the three men found guilty of "subversive activity" and "unfit" as Dodd, Watson and the Interior Department official [[Robert Morss Lovett]]. The subcommittee's hearings and H. Rept. No. 448 of May 14, 1943 were printed by the Government Printing Office.[^50][^51] The subcommittee was later accused of having prepared its final report before the men were called to testify.[^50]
|
||||
In a House speech on February 1, 1943, Dies listed 39 "communists" holding government posts, with Dodd, Watson and Schuman at the head of the list.[^44] On February 4, 1943 [[Joe Hendricks]] of Florida gave notice of an amendment to the House Post Office and Treasury appropriations bill forbidding payment of the thirty-nine named employees, among them Watson, Schuman and Dodd. On February 5 the House, in the Committee of the Whole, rejected it, 130 to 137 on a division and 146 to 153 on tellers, and then agreed, 163 to 111 on tellers, to a separate amendment naming only [[William Pickens]].[^45] Dies accused the employees of "un-American beliefs."[^46] Mercado writes that Dies may have been provoked by FBIS reports that his statements were being praised in Nazi Germany, and that Vice President [[Henry A. Wallace]] had said Dies's statements "might as well come from Goebbels himself as far as their practical effect is concerned."[^47] [[House Resolution 105]], adopted February 9, 1943, authorized the Committee on Appropriations, "acting through a special subcommittee," to examine charges of unfitness based on association with organizations whose aims were subversive. The subcommittee was Congressman [[John H. Kerr]] (chairman), [[Albert Gore Sr.|Albert Gore]], [[Clinton P. Anderson]], [[D. Lane Powers]] and [[Frank B. Keefe]], with Major Matt H. Allen as counsel, and Watson's testimony opens at its sitting of Friday, April 9, 1943.[^48] On March 31, 1943 Dies told the House that a subcommittee headed by [[Joe Starnes]] of Alabama, whom he called his "distinguished and able colleague," would make a report.[^49] On April 7 Kerr told the House that the committee had been asking for six weeks for the full evidence and had been able to get it for only "3 of the 38 men who are charged in this resolution." Dies replied, "You have evidence on 10."[^50] The subcommittee took testimony in executive session from the three men. Its report of April 21, 1943 found Watson and Dodd unfit for government employment and stated that it "does not find sufficient evidence to support a recommendation of unfitness" as to Schuman; Roop's history names the three men found guilty of "subversive activity" and "unfit" as Dodd, Watson and the Interior Department official [[Robert Morss Lovett]]. The subcommittee's hearings and H. Rept. No. 448 of May 14, 1943 were printed by the Government Printing Office.[^51][^52] The subcommittee was later accused of having prepared its final report before the men were called to testify.[^51]
|
||||
|
||||
On May 17, 1943 Frank B. Keefe of Wisconsin read excerpts of Watson's testimony to the House. Keefe quoted Watson's 1934 article "The Great Choice, Reformation or Transformation," and said that, asked about it, Watson answered "I just do not believe in that any more. That was the effusion of an academic mind written in 1934," and "I disavow myself of that sort of philosophy."[^52] The printed hearings record Watson's answer on the article as that it was an academic idea that had appealed to him at the time and that "I do not now believe it to be true," and record Keefe's question whether he had ever published an article disavowing it, to which Watson answered "That is true" (that he had not).[^53] Kerr told the House on May 18 that the employees "have no property rights in their offices" and that "One Congress can take away their rights given them by another."[^54]
|
||||
On May 17, 1943 Frank B. Keefe of Wisconsin read excerpts of Watson's testimony to the House. Keefe quoted Watson's 1934 article "The Great Choice, Reformation or Transformation," and said that, asked about it, Watson answered "I just do not believe in that any more. That was the effusion of an academic mind written in 1934," and "I disavow myself of that sort of philosophy."[^53] The printed hearings record Watson's answer on the article as that it was an academic idea that had appealed to him at the time and that "I do not now believe it to be true," and record Keefe's question whether he had ever published an article disavowing it, to which Watson answered "That is true" (that he had not).[^54] Kerr told the House on May 18 that the employees "have no property rights in their offices" and that "One Congress can take away their rights given them by another."[^55]
|
||||
|
||||
The House approved the rider a second time. The Senate rejected it four times before accepting it, 48 to 32. The President signed the appropriation bill while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional.[^55] The rider became Section 304 of the Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, which halted pay for the three men after November 15, 1943 unless the President reappointed them with the advice and consent of the Senate.[^56]
|
||||
The House approved the rider a second time. The Senate rejected it four times before accepting it, 48 to 32. The President signed the appropriation bill while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional.[^56] The rider became Section 304 of the Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, which halted pay for the three men after November 15, 1943 unless the President reappointed them with the advice and consent of the Senate.[^57]
|
||||
|
||||
In [[United States v. Lovett]], decided June 3, 1946, the Supreme Court held Section 304 unconstitutional. Justice Black wrote that "legislative trials and punishments were too dangerous to liberty to exist in the nation of free men they envisioned." He continued: "And so they proscribed bills of attainder. Section 304 is one."[^57] The judgment ran for Lovett, Watson and Dodd.
|
||||
In [[United States v. Lovett]], decided June 3, 1946, the Supreme Court held Section 304 unconstitutional. Justice Black wrote that "legislative trials and punishments were too dangerous to liberty to exist in the nation of free men they envisioned." He continued: "And so they proscribed bills of attainder. Section 304 is one."[^58] The judgment ran for Lovett, Watson and Dodd.
|
||||
|
||||
Other staff were drawn into the same attacks. [[Peter Rhodes]], [[Audrey Menefee]] and Speier were attacked on the House floor. Fly wrote to [[J. Edgar Hoover]] on April 28, 1942 that one informant had described the New York school where Speier taught as a "refuge for exiled European communists," and a counter-report called it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities."[^58]
|
||||
Other staff were drawn into the same attacks. [[Peter Rhodes]], [[Audrey Menefee]] and Speier were attacked on the House floor. Fly wrote to [[J. Edgar Hoover]] on April 28, 1942 that one informant had described the New York school where Speier taught as a "refuge for exiled European communists," and a counter-report called it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities."[^59]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Cox Committee
|
||||
|
||||
The most serious confrontation with Congress came from [[Eugene Cox]], a Georgia congressman who had been an enthusiastic supporter of the FCC. The FCC referred a case about an Atlanta radio station's representation to the Justice Department and urged prosecution of Cox, and Cox retaliated by seeking an investigation of the FCC. In early 1943 the House named him chairman of a special committee, and he appointed [[Eugene Garey]], a New York lawyer, as chief investigator.[^59]
|
||||
The most serious confrontation with Congress came from [[Eugene Cox]], a Georgia congressman who had been an enthusiastic supporter of the FCC. The FCC referred a case about an Atlanta radio station's representation to the Justice Department and urged prosecution of Cox, and Cox retaliated by seeking an investigation of the FCC. In early 1943 the House named him chairman of a special committee, and he appointed [[Eugene Garey]], a New York lawyer, as chief investigator.[^60]
|
||||
|
||||
The committee requisitioned the FBIS personnel files. Leigh reported, in his January 1945 article in [[Harper's Magazine]], that the truck took away "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," which had no duplicates, and held them for more than a year.[^60] Ten FBIS employees were subpoenaed at 8:00 a.m. after working all night, and Leigh called the questioning that followed "Star Chamber testimony."[^60]
|
||||
The committee requisitioned the FBIS personnel files. Leigh reported, in his January 1945 article in [[Harper's Magazine]], that the truck took away "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," which had no duplicates, and held them for more than a year.[^61] Ten FBIS employees were subpoenaed at 8:00 a.m. after working all night, and Leigh called the questioning that followed "Star Chamber testimony."[^61]
|
||||
|
||||
The committee found one actual irregularity at FBIS, a night clerical shift in which a sick employee drew pay while coworkers marked her present. It publicized that case and also charged that FBIS was "masquerading" as a war agency, that it used "intelligence" in its name to misrepresent its operations, and that it was no more than a "glorified news gathering agency."[^61] Counsel for the committee also charged that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities."[^62]
|
||||
The committee found one actual irregularity at FBIS, a night clerical shift in which a sick employee drew pay while coworkers marked her present. It publicized that case and also charged that FBIS was "masquerading" as a war agency, that it used "intelligence" in its name to misrepresent its operations, and that it was no more than a "glorified news gathering agency."[^62] Counsel for the committee also charged that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities."[^63]
|
||||
|
||||
The Washington Post ran a series of sixteen editorials critical of the committee. An FCC member who usually opposed Fly's views and was sympathetic to Cox agreed to petition the Speaker to dismiss him as chairman, and Cox resigned after an emotional speech. [[Clarence F. Lea]] of California took over the committee, fired Garey, and promised the FCC a fair hearing.[^63]
|
||||
The Washington Post ran a series of sixteen editorials critical of the committee. An FCC member who usually opposed Fly's views and was sympathetic to Cox agreed to petition the Speaker to dismiss him as chairman, and Cox resigned after an emotional speech. [[Clarence F. Lea]] of California took over the committee, fired Garey, and promised the FCC a fair hearing.[^64]
|
||||
|
||||
FBIS officials testified in May 1944. Leigh made the principal statement, [[Stewart Hensley]] described the wire service, [[Ellis G. Porter]] described the publications, and Harold N. Graves Jr., who had left FBIS and was a naval officer by then, described the Analysis Division. The Lea committee's final report of January 2, 1945 cleared FBIS of wrongdoing and stated that it was rendering an efficient and worthwhile service. Two members, [[Louis E. Miller]] of Missouri and [[Richard B. Wigglesworth]] of Massachusetts, filed a dissenting minority report expressing "grave doubt" as to the value of FBIS materials. In his own minority report Wigglesworth, a member of the Appropriations Committee, charged that Fly and Leigh had violated the law by soliciting aid in congressional appropriations for the FCC, and stated that it was "but fair to assume" that the select committee's inquiry was "largely responsible" for a two-million-dollar cut in the FCC's appropriation for fiscal 1945.[^64] The majority report, quoted in *On the Beam* on February 3, 1945, stated that "Obviously the United States could not conduct an intelligent program for counteracting enemy propaganda without a reasonably accurate knowledge of that propaganda."[^65]
|
||||
FBIS officials testified in May 1944. Leigh made the principal statement, [[Stewart Hensley]] described the wire service, [[Ellis G. Porter]] described the publications, and Harold N. Graves Jr., who had left FBIS and was a naval officer by then, described the Analysis Division. The Lea committee's final report of January 2, 1945 cleared FBIS of wrongdoing and stated that it was rendering an efficient and worthwhile service. Two members, [[Louis E. Miller]] of Missouri and [[Richard B. Wigglesworth]] of Massachusetts, filed a dissenting minority report expressing "grave doubt" as to the value of FBIS materials. In his own minority report Wigglesworth, a member of the Appropriations Committee, charged that Fly and Leigh had violated the law by soliciting aid in congressional appropriations for the FCC, and stated that it was "but fair to assume" that the select committee's inquiry was "largely responsible" for a two-million-dollar cut in the FCC's appropriation for fiscal 1945.[^65] The majority report, quoted in *On the Beam* on February 3, 1945, stated that "Obviously the United States could not conduct an intelligent program for counteracting enemy propaganda without a reasonably accurate knowledge of that propaganda."[^66]
|
||||
|
||||
### Budget Cuts and Leigh's Departure
|
||||
|
||||
The budget was the next weapon. A newsletter by Leigh on February 15, 1944 reported that the House Appropriations Committee would eliminate 30 percent of the service's budget from July onward, and noted that the committee had given no reason. Leigh wrote that "[t]he obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC for reasons well known and [to] the Dodd-Watson case." Leigh resigned that summer.[^66] The House Appropriations Committee recommended a cut of 25 percent for each FCC department. The Senate Appropriations Committee, under Senator [[Kenneth McKellar]], demanded proof of the service's value, and then recommended a cut of $500,000 that both houses approved.[^67]
|
||||
The budget was the next weapon. A newsletter by Leigh on February 15, 1944 reported that the House Appropriations Committee would eliminate 30 percent of the service's budget from July onward, and noted that the committee had given no reason. Leigh wrote that "[t]he obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC for reasons well known and [to] the Dodd-Watson case." Leigh resigned that summer.[^67] The House Appropriations Committee recommended a cut of 25 percent for each FCC department. The Senate Appropriations Committee, under Senator [[Kenneth McKellar]], demanded proof of the service's value, and then recommended a cut of $500,000 that both houses approved.[^68]
|
||||
|
||||
Leigh wrote in *Harper's* that no congressional statement gave the real reason for the cut, and that Fly was ruled out of order when he tried to state it to the Senate Appropriations Committee. He quoted a member of Congress, speaking privately: "Surely it was a punitive cut. Larry Fly has been defiant of Congress for a long time. He has been openly defiant. Now his chickens have come home to roost." The CIA's history of the service describes the cut as made to punish Fly and the FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's request that the Department of Justice prosecute Cox.[^68] Hyneman became director on July 27, 1944 and served until August 7, 1945, when [[Russell M. Shepherd]] became the fourth director.[^69]
|
||||
Leigh wrote in *Harper's* that no congressional statement gave the real reason for the cut, and that Fly was ruled out of order when he tried to state it to the Senate Appropriations Committee. He quoted a member of Congress, speaking privately: "Surely it was a punitive cut. Larry Fly has been defiant of Congress for a long time. He has been openly defiant. Now his chickens have come home to roost." The CIA's history of the service describes the cut as made to punish Fly and the FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's request that the Department of Justice prosecute Cox.[^69] Hyneman became director on July 27, 1944 and served until August 7, 1945, when [[Russell M. Shepherd]] became the fourth director.[^70]
|
||||
|
||||
In the second half of 1944 the service abandoned most of its analytical work. A liaison study of April 1944 found that State, War, the Foreign Economic Administration and the [[Office of Strategic Services]] were reluctant to give up the analytical publications but would drop them and keep the Daily Report if they had to choose, and the Special Reports Section of six analysts in the OWI office was abolished on December 31, 1944. Only the Far East Division under Audrey Menefee kept analytical work. Certain quarters protested in November 1944; Hyneman answered that State should set up a Russian analysis team to use the service's materials and recommended that it obtain the retiring Soviet expert Charles Prince. On January 17, 1945 [[Geroid T. Robinson]] of the OSS wrote to Hyneman to express regret that the analytical work had been discontinued, and added that he hoped the Daily Report would carry more Soviet radio material.[^70] The Soviet Embassy in Washington had asked for copies of the Daily Report as early as November 11, 1942, with State Department approval, and in London the service received the daily Soviet communique directly from TASS.[^71]
|
||||
In the second half of 1944 the service abandoned most of its analytical work. A liaison study of April 1944 found that State, War, the Foreign Economic Administration and the [[Office of Strategic Services]] were reluctant to give up the analytical publications but would drop them and keep the Daily Report if they had to choose, and the Special Reports Section of six analysts in the OWI office was abolished on December 31, 1944. Only the Far East Division under Audrey Menefee kept analytical work. Certain quarters protested in November 1944; Hyneman answered that State should set up a Russian analysis team to use the service's materials and recommended that it obtain the retiring Soviet expert Charles Prince. On January 17, 1945 [[Geroid T. Robinson]] of the OSS wrote to Hyneman to express regret that the analytical work had been discontinued, and added that he hoped the Daily Report would carry more Soviet radio material.[^71] The Soviet Embassy in Washington had asked for copies of the Daily Report as early as November 11, 1942, with State Department approval, and in London the service received the daily Soviet communique directly from TASS.[^72]
|
||||
|
||||
### War Department Custody, 1945 to 1946
|
||||
|
||||
A draft executive order survives among the service's files, undated and bearing the name of [[Harry S. Truman]], to transfer its functions to the State Department and to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service. The draft was apparently prepared by Shepherd and perhaps by State Department representatives, and it was never approved by the Secretary of State.[^72]
|
||||
A draft executive order survives among the service's files, undated and bearing the name of [[Harry S. Truman]], to transfer its functions to the State Department and to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service. The draft was apparently prepared by Shepherd and perhaps by State Department representatives, and it was never approved by the Secretary of State.[^73]
|
||||
|
||||
On September 19, 1945 the House Appropriations Committee voted to rescind part of the National Defense Activities appropriation. On 26 September the FCC announced that FBIS would go out of existence within thirty days, and sent thirty-day notices to employees. On 1 December a conference committee reported a compromise rescinding half the remaining money, $465,000, which both houses approved on 3 December. FBIS operations came to a close on December 10, 1945.[^73]
|
||||
On September 19, 1945 the House Appropriations Committee voted to rescind part of the National Defense Activities appropriation. On 26 September the FCC announced that FBIS would go out of existence within thirty days, and sent thirty-day notices to employees. On 1 December a conference committee reported a compromise rescinding half the remaining money, $465,000, which both houses approved on 3 December. FBIS operations came to a close on December 10, 1945.[^74]
|
||||
|
||||
Mercado writes that the last Daily Report appeared on December 4, 1945, and that the FCC terminated the service the following day.[^74] The FCC's annual report for fiscal 1946 says FBIS was "discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945."[^75]
|
||||
Mercado writes that the last Daily Report appeared on December 4, 1945, and that the FCC terminated the service the following day.[^75] The FCC's annual report for fiscal 1946 says FBIS was "discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945."[^76]
|
||||
|
||||
The War Department then stepped in. On December 13, 1945 Shepherd told the FCC that the War Department had requested an executive order transferring FBIS to the Military Intelligence Division effective January 1, 1946. On 21 December Secretary of War [[Robert P. Patterson]] wrote to [[Paul Porter]], chairman of the FCC, asking that FBIS personnel transfer on 31 December. Porter accepted on 27 December, and the service resumed on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship. Shepherd asked that operations continue until the transfer, and only token operations followed, with little monitoring and no publications. No document authorizing continued operations has been found, although "permission may have been given orally."[^76]
|
||||
The War Department then stepped in. On December 13, 1945 Shepherd told the FCC that the War Department had requested an executive order transferring FBIS to the Military Intelligence Division effective January 1, 1946. On 21 December Secretary of War [[Robert P. Patterson]] wrote to [[Paul Porter]], chairman of the FCC, asking that FBIS personnel transfer on 31 December. Porter accepted on 27 December, and the service resumed on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship. Shepherd asked that operations continue until the transfer, and only token operations followed, with little monitoring and no publications. No document authorizing continued operations has been found, although "permission may have been given orally."[^77]
|
||||
|
||||
### Central Intelligence Group and the Name
|
||||
|
||||
In January 1946 President Harry S. Truman created the Central Intelligence Group (CIG) by executive order. In February [[Hoyt Vandenberg]], then Assistant Chief of Staff for G-2, gave [[Sidney W. Souers]] a memorandum proposing that the CIG choose the agency to direct the service, and a committee of five, drawn from the CIG and the remaining Intelligence Advisory Board members, was formed to study it.[^77][^78]
|
||||
In January 1946 President Harry S. Truman created the Central Intelligence Group (CIG) by executive order. In February [[Hoyt Vandenberg]], then Assistant Chief of Staff for G-2, gave [[Sidney W. Souers]] a memorandum proposing that the CIG choose the agency to direct the service, and a committee of five, drawn from the CIG and the remaining Intelligence Advisory Board members, was formed to study it.[^78][^79]
|
||||
|
||||
The ad hoc committee recommended that FBIS remain with the War Department, but that its operating organization be liquidated and rebuilt, because its publications circulated too widely and its personnel had not been screened for security. The War Department refused, arguing that operating a monitoring service was properly a CIG function, and proposed that the State Department take it over. State declined, and a State memorandum signed by [[William L. Langer]] on May 27, 1946 accepted CIG sponsorship.[^79]
|
||||
The ad hoc committee recommended that FBIS remain with the War Department, but that its operating organization be liquidated and rebuilt, because its publications circulated too widely and its personnel had not been screened for security. The War Department refused, arguing that operating a monitoring service was properly a CIG function, and proposed that the State Department take it over. State declined, and a State memorandum signed by [[William L. Langer]] on May 27, 1946 accepted CIG sponsorship.[^80]
|
||||
|
||||
The Director of Central Intelligence "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and personnel were transferred to the CIG on 3 November.[^80] NARA gives August 5, 1946 as the date of transfer to the CIG, and November 1, 1946 as the date its agency was abolished, with "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946" as the successor.[^81]
|
||||
The Director of Central Intelligence "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and personnel were transferred to the CIG on 3 November.[^81] NARA gives August 5, 1946 as the date of transfer to the CIG, and November 1, 1946 as the date its agency was abolished, with "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946" as the successor.[^82]
|
||||
|
||||
The name shifted during this period. A March 1946 CIG memorandum still uses the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service name.[^82] Shepherd's notice of October 31, 1946 announcing the personnel transfer of 3 November stated that the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, with publications and letterheads changed accordingly.[^83] On December 31, 1946 [[Edwin L. Sibert]], in charge of the CIG Office of Operations, informed the staff that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, and in a wire of January 2, 1947 designated Shepherd Chief, FBIB.[^84] By May and June 1947 CIG papers refer to the branch by that name. Colonel [[Lawrence K. White]], acting chief of the branch, met with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press in May 1947.[^85] A 1970 CIA history places a notice of July 28, 1947 telling field bureaus that they would no longer bear the "confusing name" of the branch, but would retain the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service, and that offices outside Washington were to camouflage their connection with CIG.[^86] A footnote in Mercado's article dates the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service to 1967.[^87]
|
||||
The name shifted during this period. A March 1946 CIG memorandum still uses the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service name.[^83] Shepherd's notice of October 31, 1946 announcing the personnel transfer of 3 November stated that the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, with publications and letterheads changed accordingly.[^84] On December 31, 1946 [[Edwin L. Sibert]], in charge of the CIG Office of Operations, informed the staff that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, and in a wire of January 2, 1947 designated Shepherd Chief, FBIB.[^85] By May and June 1947 CIG papers refer to the branch by that name. Colonel [[Lawrence K. White]], acting chief of the branch, met with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press in May 1947.[^86] A 1970 CIA history places a notice of July 28, 1947 telling field bureaus that they would no longer bear the "confusing name" of the branch, but would retain the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service, and that offices outside Washington were to camouflage their connection with CIG.[^87] A footnote in Mercado's article dates the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service to 1967.[^88]
|
||||
|
||||
### Central Intelligence Agency, 1947 onward
|
||||
|
||||
The [[National Security Act of 1947]] transformed the CIG into the CIA, and the successor is recorded as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^81] The service came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^88]
|
||||
The [[National Security Act of 1947]] transformed the CIG into the CIA, and the successor is recorded as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^82] The service came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^89]
|
||||
|
||||
Within the agency the service sat under the Assistant Director for Operations, Sibert. Shepherd proposed in a memorandum of November 5, 1946 that the service take up propaganda analysis, estimating 35 employees at $150,000 a year. The Assistant Director presented a scaled-down project to the PRC on January 6, 1947, approving Shepherd's program but making clear that FBIS would not take over "interpretative analysis." The reduced request was for a staff of twelve at $61,000 a year. White was announced as deputy chief of FBIS on January 9, 1947. A Special Reports Division was approved on February 13, 1947 on an experimental basis, began work on March 28, 1947 and issued its first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts on April 15, 1947. The early years of analysis under the CIA are described as "stormy."[^89] Shepherd resigned on September 29, 1947, and Colonel White became chief.[^90]
|
||||
Within the agency the service sat under the Assistant Director for Operations, Sibert. Shepherd proposed in a memorandum of November 5, 1946 that the service take up propaganda analysis, estimating 35 employees at $150,000 a year. The Assistant Director presented a scaled-down project to the PRC on January 6, 1947, approving Shepherd's program but making clear that FBIS would not take over "interpretative analysis." The reduced request was for a staff of twelve at $61,000 a year. White was announced as deputy chief of FBIS on January 9, 1947. A Special Reports Division was approved on February 13, 1947 on an experimental basis, began work on March 28, 1947 and issued its first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts on April 15, 1947. The early years of analysis under the CIA are described as "stormy."[^90] Shepherd resigned on September 29, 1947, and Colonel White became chief.[^91]
|
||||
|
||||
The service also had a working relationship with the BBC monitoring service. In June 1946 Shepherd spent three weeks in London with BBC officials, and met [[Malcolm Frost]], then chief of the BBC Monitoring Service, who proposed that the American service begin paying its share of the monitoring cost, perhaps $250,000 a year, or supply the BBC with enough material from its own monitoring to balance the books.[^91] The BBC service then employed 385 persons at a cost of $650,000 a year. After further negotiation, Frost informed the service on October 15, 1947 that the BBC had obtained authority and funds to sign an agreement.[^92]
|
||||
The service also had a working relationship with the BBC monitoring service. In June 1946 Shepherd spent three weeks in London with BBC officials, and met [[Malcolm Frost]], then chief of the BBC Monitoring Service, who proposed that the American service begin paying its share of the monitoring cost, perhaps $250,000 a year, or supply the BBC with enough material from its own monitoring to balance the books.[^92] The BBC service then employed 385 persons at a cost of $650,000 a year. After further negotiation, Frost informed the service on October 15, 1947 that the BBC had obtained authority and funds to sign an agreement.[^93]
|
||||
|
||||
After 1957 the service "had come of age as an established CIA unit." On March 23, 1961 the Directorate of Intelligence and the Assistant Director for Operations instructed FBIS to accept responsibility for propaganda indications, and that FBIS and the BBC together monitored broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961, a figure that rose to 115 by the spring of 1963.[^93]
|
||||
After 1957 the service "had come of age as an established CIA unit." On March 23, 1961 the Directorate of Intelligence and the Assistant Director for Operations instructed FBIS to accept responsibility for propaganda indications, and that FBIS and the BBC together monitored broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961, a figure that rose to 115 by the spring of 1963.[^94]
|
||||
|
||||
### Daily Report and Records
|
||||
|
||||
The Daily Report, the service's translation series, first appeared on November 18, 1941.[^94] Ellis G. Porter, a former newspaper editor, joined the staff in January 1942 to direct its publication.[^95] A Daily Report of the Far Eastern Section dated January 3, 1946 is in Record Group 262, Entry 25, Box 1, and the first issue of the new Daily Report was published that month.[^96]
|
||||
The Daily Report, the service's translation series, first appeared on November 18, 1941.[^95] Ellis G. Porter, a former newspaper editor, joined the staff in January 1942 to direct its publication.[^96] A Daily Report of the Far Eastern Section dated January 3, 1946 is in Record Group 262, Entry 25, Box 1, and the first issue of the new Daily Report was published that month.[^97]
|
||||
|
||||
The wartime records are held in [[Record Group 262]], including the daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts for 1941 to 1945, daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American and European sections for 1941 to 1946, the weekly reviews, the *Radio Reports on the Far East* for 1942 to 1945, and program schedules for 1942 to 1947. The Foreign Broadcast Information Branch records for 1947 and 1948 are in Record Group 263, Records of the Central Intelligence Agency.[^97]
|
||||
The wartime records are held in [[Record Group 262]], including the daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts for 1941 to 1945, daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American and European sections for 1941 to 1946, the weekly reviews, the *Radio Reports on the Far East* for 1942 to 1945, and program schedules for 1942 to 1947. The Foreign Broadcast Information Branch records for 1947 and 1948 are in Record Group 263, Records of the Central Intelligence Agency.[^98]
|
||||
|
||||
### Open Source Center, 2005
|
||||
|
||||
|
|
@ -266,95 +266,96 @@ On November 8, 2005 [[John D. Negroponte]], the Director of National Intelligenc
|
|||
[^3]: Helena Huntington Smith, "It Pays to Listen," *Collier's*, January 30, 1943, pp. 43-44, which states "Its godfather was Breckinridge Long of the State Department, who foresaw that we might one day be cut off from accustomed sources of news in foreign countries. He took it up with Chairman Fly of the FCC." https://archive.org/details/colliers111janspri_201908. Stephen C. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), on Assistant Secretary of State Breckinridge Long, "godfather" of FBIS, and his letter of September 10, 1941 to FCC chairman James L. Fly. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^4]: Federal Communications Commission, Seventh Annual Report, fiscal year 1941, section on the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service, "created February 26, 1941, by the Federal Communications Commission in cooperation with the Defense Communications Board." https://archive.org/details/fcc_DOC-308657A1.
|
||||
[^5]: Roop, Part I, p. 9, on the President's allotment of $150,000 on February 25, 1941, its transfer the next day, the "birth date" of the service on February 26, 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^6]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 132, which describes "a late 1940 meeting between Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson and FDR" and the allocation of $150,000 on February 25, 1941. Stimson was Secretary of War from July 1940; Roop (note 7) gives the Secretary of State without naming him. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
|
||||
[^6]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 132, which describes "a late 1940 meeting between Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson and FDR" and the allocation of $150,000 on February 25, 1941. Stimson was Secretary of War from July 10, 1940 (National Archives, RG 107 finding aid); his term as Secretary of State ended March 4, 1933, and Cordell Hull held that office from March 4, 1933 to November 20, 1944 (Office of the Historian, Biographies of the Secretaries of State). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
|
||||
[^7]: Roop, Part I, pp. 5-6, quoting the account that "Toward the end of 1940 the Secretary of State, in an informal discussion with President Roosevelt, suggested that a government unit should be established to monitor and analyze propaganda beamed to the United States." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^8]: Roop, Part I, p. 9, on the FCC's Radio Intelligence Division and its National Defense Activities, quoting the FCC as "the only group staffed and equipped" for the monitoring work. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^9]: Roop, Part I, p. 9, on the service's beginnings "in an old garage at 316 F Street Northeast," and p. 49, "In April a move was made to 1424 K St., N.W., where four floors were assigned to FBMS." Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," photograph caption, "FBIS headquarters from 1942-1947 at 1424 K Street, NW, in Washington." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^10]: Roop, Part I, pp. 49-50, on Leigh taking over "on 15 July 1942," his recommendation of the name Broadcast Intelligence Service, the phrase "less unwieldy and more accurately reflected the duties of the organization," the FCC's insistence on "foreign," and the change of July 26, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^11]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, "Records of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service," Record Group 262, administrative history, which gives "FCC order, July 28, 1942." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. The same guide's history line reads "Federal Broadcast Intelligence Service, 1942," which is an apparent typographical error.
|
||||
[^12]: Roop, Part I, p. 259, on Hyneman's memorandum for the FCC of March 2, 1945 proposing alternative names to avoid confusion with the FBI, the preference for Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service, the report in *On the Beam* of April 9, 1945, and, on p. 260, the reversal and the statement that the new name was "never formally adopted." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^13]: Harold N. Graves Jr., *War on the Short Wave* (Foreign Policy Association, Headline Books No. 30, 1941), Acknowledgments.
|
||||
[^14]: Princeton University Library, "Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941" (AC015), finding aid, Scope and Contents and Biographical / Historical notes. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015 (EAD at https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015.xml). The finding aid states that the project "was financed by the Rockefeller Foundation," that the center "continued its work successfully until June, 1941," and that its published book was *Propaganda by Short Wave*, edited by Harwood L. Childs and John B. Whitton (Princeton University Press, 1942).
|
||||
[^15]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the Princeton Listening Center's launch in November 1939 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, and on its absorption by FBIS in June. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^16]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 133, on the absorption of the Princeton Listening Center and Graves's post as Senior Administrative Officer. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
|
||||
[^17]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, describing Graves as "the young man who had been acting as director of the Princeton Listening Post since its inception" and naming the Princeton staff; Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article, Graves's memo of July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment," the "dragging in" of the Princeton Listening Post, the "brain child" description, and the Eleanor Ragsdale column of September 8, 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^18]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^19]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 24: Nelson A. Rockefeller to James L. Fly, July 29, 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22, quoted as "We have been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau of the Monitoring Service of your Commission." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^20]: FBIS Administrative Memorandum No. 16, "To Officers of the FBIS," January 22, 1943. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP82-00177R000300410017-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp82-00177r000300410017-3
|
||||
[^21]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, on Free's editorship of the *Public Opinion Quarterly*, and "Mr. Free assumed office as Director on 16 June 1941" (p. 11); p. 35, on Free's contacts with BBC officials "very soon after he assumed office with the idea of attaching a staff to BBC." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^22]: Roop, Part I, pp. 36-37, quoting "With Lloyd Free still in London, Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over at 316 F St. on 7 December 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^23]: Roop, Part I, pp. 48-50, on Free's resignation in April 1942 "to accept a commission in the Army," his service as military attache in the United States Embassy in Switzerland, the appointment of Leigh of Bennington College, the $1,000 difference from Free's $8,000 salary and the appropriation bill provision, and Graves as Acting Director until Leigh took over on July 15, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^24]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Free and Graves's recruitment of Goodwin Watson of Columbia University, who "entered upon duty 17 November 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^25]: Hearings before the Special Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., acting under H. Res. 105 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1943), p. 2. https://archive.org/details/1943-watson-dodd-lovett
|
||||
[^26]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Analysis Section becoming the Analysis Division. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^27]: Central Intelligence Agency Reading Room, Records of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (National Archives records description, compiled by Walter W. Weinstein): "Goodwin Watson was Director of the Division from November 15, 1941, until November 15, 1943, when he was succeeded by Theodore Newcomb." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp08t00376r000100250001-1
|
||||
[^28]: Roop, Part I, p. 122, on Newcomb, "who was second only to Watson in the Analysis Division," in a note of February 15, 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
|
||||
[^29]: Roop, Part I, p. 57, "In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants, and trainees, but with only 17 of the positions filled," and p. 58, "the planned table of organization was never reached." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^30]: Roop, Part I, p. 46, that Watson and Leites "were sent to London in September 1942" to set up analysis, and that "a two-man analysis staff remained" through the war. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^31]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the Central European Radio Analysis, begun January 1943 by the German Section, and the Radio Report on the Far East, first published August 24, 1942 (RG 262, Entry 34, Box 1). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^32]: Roop, Part I, pp. 121-122 (Leigh's announcement of April 19, 1943; Graves on May 13, 1943; Eugene Katz's letter of June 18, 1943). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
|
||||
[^33]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 132-133, on Speier's report sent "a week after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor," Free and Watson's reading of his work "with the greatest of interest," the February 1942 offer, and the Analysis Division as the "heart" of the service.
|
||||
[^34]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 132, note 51, citing Harold Graves to Hans Speier and Ernst Kris, December 23, 1941, and Lloyd Free to Hans Speier, January 31, 1942, RG 262, Entry 2, Box 66. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
|
||||
[^35]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 134, which places the letter of May 26, 1942 two months after Speier entered the Analysis Division and quotes it as stating that, "as a result of investigation," he had "been rated eligible on suitability for the position of Senior Political Analyst" (note 59: United States Civil Service Commission to Hans Speier, May 26, 1942, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
|
||||
[^36]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 135, on Speier's colleagues George, Leites and Henry Kellermann and on Watson's praise, with the quoted phrases "extraordinarily good job of analysis" and "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him" (note 62).
|
||||
[^37]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 138 and p. 143 (note 90), on Watson leaving "under pressure from enemies of the New Deal" and Speier becoming acting chief analyst, overseeing thirty people.
|
||||
[^38]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 143 and note 90 (Theodore Newcomb to Col. S. A. Greenwell, December 4, 1943; Speier's Application for Federal Employment, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5): "Speier replaced Watson as Acting Chief Analyst."
|
||||
[^39]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 145, on Speier's transfer on "May 22, 1944" from the Analysis Division to the Office of War Information, with Wallace Carroll as his immediate superior.
|
||||
[^40]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 136-137, on the memorandum of October 29, 1943, the seventeen of twenty-five predictions, Mark Abrams, Representative Joseph Martin and Senator Alexander Wiley.
|
||||
[^41]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Dies's letter to Fly of November 18, 1941, which expressed "deep concern" and named thirteen organizations. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^42]: Roop, Part I, pp. 190-191, on Fly's reply that Watson "belonged to only one of the 13 organizations Dies named," the Senate Appropriations Committee's deletion of the rider, Dodd's hiring as an editor in December 1941, and Watson's testimony of February 4, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Roop and Mercado spell the analyst's surname "Schumann"; Bessner writes "Schuman."
|
||||
[^43]: Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, on Dies's House speech of February 1, 1943, listing 39 "communists," with Dodd, Watson and Schumann at the head of the list. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^44]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 623-624 (House, February 4, 1943, notice of the amendment naming thirty-nine employees), and pp. 645, 655 and 656 (House, February 5, 1943). Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, states that a rider "immediately was attached" to the appropriation bill after Dies's speech. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_january-06-march-01-1943_89
|
||||
[^45]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Congressman Dies accusing three FBIS employees, among dozens of civil servants, of "un-American beliefs." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^46]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," quoting Vice President Henry Wallace on Dies. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^47]: Hearings (as above), pp. iii-v and 1 (the text of H. Res. 105 and the membership; first sitting April 9, 1943, "pursuant to adjournment on Wednesday, April 7, 1943"). https://archive.org/details/1943-watson-dodd-lovett
|
||||
[^48]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 2788-2789 (House, March 31, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_march-02-april-05-1943_89
|
||||
[^49]: Congressional Record, 78th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 89, p. 3068 (House, April 7, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_april-06-may-13-1943_89
|
||||
[^50]: Roop, Part I, pp. 192-193, on the subcommittee under Congressman Kerr, which started hearings on April 2, 1943 and reported on 21 April, the findings of "subversive activity" and "unfit," the three named men, and the statement that the subcommittee "was later accused of having its final report prepared before the men were called to testify." Roop states that the subcommittee was named by the Un-American Activities Committee. The printed hearings give the authority as House Resolution 105, adopted February 9, 1943, directed to the Committee on Appropriations (Hearings, pp. iii-v), and give the sitting at which Watson's testimony begins as April 9, 1943, against Roop's April 2. *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), likewise describes a special subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee, appointed under a House resolution, whose report is H. Rep. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess. The Monthly Catalog lists H. Rept. 448 (May 14, 1943, pursuant to H. Res. 105, "submitted by Mr. Kerr") on Watson, Dodd and Lovett; a February 1943 newspaper report names Kerr, a North Carolina Democrat, as chairman of the subcommittee. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303.
|
||||
[^51]: Hearings (as above), Appendix D, H. Rept. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 327-334, including the finding that Schuman's case did not support a recommendation of unfitness and the findings on Watson and Dodd.
|
||||
[^52]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 4554-4555 (House, May 17, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-14-june-14-1943_89
|
||||
[^53]: Hearings (as above), pp. 100-105 and 118-119.
|
||||
[^54]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, p. 4583 (House, May 18, 1943), the page cited in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946).
|
||||
[^55]: Roop, Part I, p. 193, on the Senate's four rejections, its approval of the rider by 48 to 32, and the President's signature while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional.
|
||||
[^56]: Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, section 304, 57 Stat. 431, 450, as quoted in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946). Roop, Part I, p. 193, note, gives the effective cutoff as November 21, 1943, where the statute as quoted gives 15 November. The enacted text also excepted accrued leave and salary and payment for jury or armed-forces service; the text proposed in the subcommittee's report (Hearings, p. 328) omitted the November 15 date and the reappointment clause. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303.
|
||||
[^57]: *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), argued May 3-6, 1946, decided June 3, 1946, opinion of Justice Black. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303. Mercado's article gives the middle name as "Morse."
|
||||
[^58]: Roop, Part I, pp. 194-195, on the attacks on Rhodes, Menefee and Speier; Fly's letter to J. Edgar Hoover of April 28, 1942, and the two informant reports, one calling the New York school a "refuge for exiled European communists" and the other calling it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities."
|
||||
[^59]: Roop, Part I, p. 196, on Cox, the Atlanta station case, the FCC's referral to the Justice Department, the House's naming of Cox as chairman in early 1943, and the appointment of Eugene Garey as investigator.
|
||||
[^60]: Roop, Part I, p. 197, on the removal of "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," the subpoena of ten employees at 8:00 a.m., and "Star Chamber testimony," citing Leigh's article "Politicians vs. Bureaucrats" (subtitle "The case of FCC Chairman Fly and Congressman Cox"), *Harper's Magazine*, January 1945. https://harpers.org/archive/1945/01/politicians-vs-bureaucrats. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^61]: Roop, Part I, p. 198, on the single irregularity found at FBIS and the list of charges, including "masquerading," "intelligence" and "glorified news gathering agency." Mercado renders the last phrase as "glorified news agency."
|
||||
[^62]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Cox counsel's charge that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities," make it sound more like a war agency, and influence Congress to grant appropriations."
|
||||
[^63]: Roop, Part I, pp. 198-199, on the Washington Post's sixteen editorials, the FCC member who "agreed to petition the Speaker of the House to dismiss Cox as chairman," Cox's resignation after an emotional speech, Lea's succession, and Garey's dismissal. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Louis E. Miller (R-Mo.) and Richard B. Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) are the minority members named in *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945. Full names: Clarence Frederick Lea (D-Calif.), Louis Ebenezer Miller (R-Mo.), Richard Bowditch Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) and Kenneth Douglas McKellar (D-Tenn.), per the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress as reproduced in the unitedstates/congress-legislators dataset.
|
||||
[^64]: "Lea Probe Demands Sweeping Law Change," *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945, on the Miller and Wigglesworth minority reports and Wigglesworth's statements. https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1945/1945-01-08-BC.pdf.
|
||||
[^65]: Roop, Part I, pp. 200-201, on the May 1944 testimony of Leigh, Hensley, Porter and Graves; the Lea report of January 2, 1945 ("an efficient and worthwhile service"); the Miller and Wigglesworth minority report ("grave doubt"); and the majority passage quoted in *On the Beam* of February 3, 1945, in the note on p. 201. The hearings are *Hearings of the Special House Committee Investigating the FCC* (GPO, 1944), three volumes, with FBIS testimony beginning in Volume III, page 3439. Roop, Part I, p. 189, records Graves's resignation by the end of 1943.
|
||||
[^66]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Leigh's newsletter of February 15, 1944: "The obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC," the 30 percent figure, and Leigh's resignation "that summer." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^67]: Roop, Part I, pp. 204-206, on the House Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of 25 percent for each FCC department, Senator McKellar's demand for proof, and the Senate Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of $500,000 that both houses approved. Mercado's figure of 30 percent is given at note 48.
|
||||
[^68]: Roop, Part I, pp. 206-207, on the absence of any stated congressional reason for the cut, Fly's being ruled out of order, the statement that "it was a punitive cut, made to punish Fly and FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's effrontery in asking the Department of Justice to prosecute Eugene Cox, a member of Congress," and, in the note on p. 207, Leigh's quotation of a member of Congress speaking privately, from Leigh's *Harper's Magazine* article, January 1945. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^69]: Roop, Part I, pp. 241-244, "Charles S. Hyneman, who succeeded Leigh as FBIS director on 27 July 1944," and p. 260, "from 27 July 1944 to 7 August 1945," and Shepherd's appointment as the fourth FBIS Director. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^70]: Roop, Part I, pp. 256-257 (note on the liaison study of April 29, 1944; abolition of the Special Reports Section on December 31, 1944), p. 259 (Far East Division retained "the only analytical work done in FBIS"), and pp. 267-268 (the protest of November 1944, Hyneman's response, and Robinson's letter of January 17, 1945). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^71]: Roop, Part I, p. 268, on the Soviet Embassy's request of November 11, 1942 and the TASS arrangement in London in 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^72]: Roop, Part I, p. 275, note, on the undated executive order with the name of President Truman, transferring FBIS functions to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service, "prepared by Shepherd and perhaps some representatives from State," and "never approved by the Secretary of State." Job 54-27, Box 15, CIA Records Center.
|
||||
[^73]: Roop, Part I, pp. 274-277, on the House Appropriations Committee's action of September 19, 1945, the FCC's news release of 26 September, the conference compromise of 1 December ($465,000) approved on 3 December, and the closing of operations on December 10, 1945.
|
||||
[^74]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the last Daily Report "on 4 December" and the FCC's termination "the following day." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^75]: Federal Communications Commission, Twelfth Annual Report, fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, which states that FBIS "was discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945." https://archive.org/details/fcc_DOC-308665A1.
|
||||
[^76]: Roop, Part I, pp. 278-280, on Shepherd's letter of December 13, 1945 to the FCC, the token operations that followed, Patterson's letter of 21 December, Porter's reply of 27 December, the resumption on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship, and the note on p. 279 that "No documents authorizing continued operations have been found, but permission may have been given orally." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^77]: Roop, Part I, pp. 299-300, on the creation of the CIG by executive order in January 1946, the Vandenberg memorandum to Souers in February 1946, and the five-member committee. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^78]: Central Intelligence Group, "Survey of the Function of Monitoring Press and Propaganda Broadcasts of Foreign Powers," C.I.G. 1, memorandum by the Director of Central Intelligence, February 25, 1946, which states that FBIS functions were "taken over by the War Department on an interim basis on 30 December 1945." https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110003-4. Ad hoc committee report, March 18, 1946: https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110004-3.
|
||||
[^79]: Roop, Part I, pp. 301-303, on the ad hoc committee's recommendations (March 18, 1946), the War Department's refusal, the State Department's reply, C.I.G. 1/1 (April 26, 1946), C.I.G. 1/2 (May 8, 1946, signed by James S. Lay), and the State memorandum signed by William L. Langer on May 27, 1946, enclosed with C.I.G. 1/3 (June 4, 1946).
|
||||
[^80]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice, signed for the Director of Central Intelligence by Col. John Dabney, that the Director had "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and on the personnel transfer to CIG on November 3, 1946, announced on 31 October. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^81]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262, administrative history: transfer to the Central Intelligence Group, "August 5, 1946"; "Abolished: November 1, 1946"; successors "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946," "Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, CIG, January-September 1947," and "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
|
||||
[^82]: CIG, "Background on Development of Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service," memorandum for the Chief, Information Branch, March 1946. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110001-6.
|
||||
[^83]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice of October 31, 1946 that "the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), with all publications and letterheads changed accordingly." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^84]: Roop, Part I, p. 305 and note, on Sibert's statement of December 31, 1946 "informing that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)" and his wire of January 2, 1947 designating Russell Shepherd Chief, FBIB. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^85]: CIG, "'A' and 'X' Wire Services Furnished by Foreign Broadcast Information Branch," memorandum, June 10, 1947. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110015-1. Also memorandum on the May 6, 1947 interview of Colonel L. K. White, Acting Chief, FBIB, with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110022-3.
|
||||
[^86]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), p. 102, on the notice that field bureaus would no longer bear "the confusing name of Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)," and on the camouflage of their connection with CIG. The notice is dated July 28, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
|
||||
[^87]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 4: "The initial monitoring service was renamed the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service in 1942 and evolved into the Foreign Broadcast Information Service in 1967." Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304 (the notice of October 31, 1946) and the 1947 CIG memoranda already use the later name. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^88]: Roop, Part I, p. 2, "FBIS took form during those six years before its adoption by the Central Intelligence Agency, and came to CIA almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^89]: Roop, Part II, pp. 151-152, on Shepherd's memorandum of November 5, 1946, the Assistant Director for Operations' presentation to the PRC on January 6, 1947, the 35-employee and $150,000 proposal, the reduced request of twelve staff at $61,000, the "stormy" early years, and the Special Reports Division (approved February 13, 1947, begun March 28, 1947, first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts April 15, 1947); p. 2, on the announcement of Col. Lawrence K. White as Deputy Chief on January 9, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
|
||||
[^90]: Roop, Part II, p. 56, "Shepherd resigned from FBIS on 29 September 1947," with Colonel White the new FBIS Chief. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. Appointment of the fourth director: Roop, Part I, p. 260. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^91]: Roop, Part II, p. 51, on Shepherd's visit to London from June 24, 1946, his meeting with "Malcolm Frost, Chief of the BBC Monitoring Service," the $250,000 figure, and the BBC Monitoring Service's 385 employees and $650,000 cost. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
|
||||
[^92]: Roop, Part II, pp. 54-56, on the Shepherd-Frost negotiations and the notice of October 15, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
|
||||
[^93]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service History, Part III: 1957-1967" (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, May 1972), p. 2, "after 1957 FBIS had come of age as an established CIA unit"; p. 19, on the March 23, 1961 instruction to accept responsibility for propaganda indications; and pp. 4-5, "FBIS and the BBC were monitoring broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961. By the spring of 1963 this number had increased to 115." https://archive.org/details/CIADirectorateOfIntelligenceHistoricalSeriesForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart319571967.
|
||||
[^94]: Roop, Part I, p. 25, on the mailing list for the Daily Report issued on November 18, 1941; Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," states that the service "published its first Daily Report of translations on 18 November 1941." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^95]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, that Ellis G. Porter, "former editor of newspapers in Baltimore and Philadelphia," joined the staff in January 1942 "to direct publication of the Daily Report."
|
||||
[^96]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 39: "FBIS, Daily Report, Foreign Radio Broadcasts, Far Eastern Section, 3 January 1946, NARA, RG 262, Entry 25, Box 1," and the text that the first issue of the new Daily Report was published in January 1946. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^97]: NARA, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262: "Daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts, 1941-45"; "Daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American, and European Sections, 1941-46"; "Weekly reviews of official foreign broadcasts, 1941-44"; "Radio reports on the Far East, 1942-45"; "Program schedules of foreign broadcasts, 1942-47"; and "Related Records: Records of the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, 1947-48, in RG 263." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
|
||||
[^8]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Cordell Hull," Biographies of the Secretaries of State. https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell
|
||||
[^9]: Roop, Part I, p. 9, on the FCC's Radio Intelligence Division and its National Defense Activities, quoting the FCC as "the only group staffed and equipped" for the monitoring work. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^10]: Roop, Part I, p. 9, on the service's beginnings "in an old garage at 316 F Street Northeast," and p. 49, "In April a move was made to 1424 K St., N.W., where four floors were assigned to FBMS." Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," photograph caption, "FBIS headquarters from 1942-1947 at 1424 K Street, NW, in Washington." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^11]: Roop, Part I, pp. 49-50, on Leigh taking over "on 15 July 1942," his recommendation of the name Broadcast Intelligence Service, the phrase "less unwieldy and more accurately reflected the duties of the organization," the FCC's insistence on "foreign," and the change of July 26, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^12]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, "Records of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service," Record Group 262, administrative history, which gives "FCC order, July 28, 1942." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. The same guide's history line reads "Federal Broadcast Intelligence Service, 1942," which is an apparent typographical error.
|
||||
[^13]: Roop, Part I, p. 259, on Hyneman's memorandum for the FCC of March 2, 1945 proposing alternative names to avoid confusion with the FBI, the preference for Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service, the report in *On the Beam* of April 9, 1945, and, on p. 260, the reversal and the statement that the new name was "never formally adopted." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^14]: Harold N. Graves Jr., *War on the Short Wave* (Foreign Policy Association, Headline Books No. 30, 1941), Acknowledgments.
|
||||
[^15]: Princeton University Library, "Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941" (AC015), finding aid, Scope and Contents and Biographical / Historical notes. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015 (EAD at https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015.xml). The finding aid states that the project "was financed by the Rockefeller Foundation," that the center "continued its work successfully until June, 1941," and that its published book was *Propaganda by Short Wave*, edited by Harwood L. Childs and John B. Whitton (Princeton University Press, 1942).
|
||||
[^16]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the Princeton Listening Center's launch in November 1939 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, and on its absorption by FBIS in June. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^17]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 133, on the absorption of the Princeton Listening Center and Graves's post as Senior Administrative Officer. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
|
||||
[^18]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, describing Graves as "the young man who had been acting as director of the Princeton Listening Post since its inception" and naming the Princeton staff; Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article, Graves's memo of July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment," the "dragging in" of the Princeton Listening Post, the "brain child" description, and the Eleanor Ragsdale column of September 8, 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^19]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^20]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 24: Nelson A. Rockefeller to James L. Fly, July 29, 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22, quoted as "We have been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau of the Monitoring Service of your Commission." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^21]: FBIS Administrative Memorandum No. 16, "To Officers of the FBIS," January 22, 1943. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP82-00177R000300410017-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp82-00177r000300410017-3
|
||||
[^22]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, on Free's editorship of the *Public Opinion Quarterly*, and "Mr. Free assumed office as Director on 16 June 1941" (p. 11); p. 35, on Free's contacts with BBC officials "very soon after he assumed office with the idea of attaching a staff to BBC." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^23]: Roop, Part I, pp. 36-37, quoting "With Lloyd Free still in London, Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over at 316 F St. on 7 December 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^24]: Roop, Part I, pp. 48-50, on Free's resignation in April 1942 "to accept a commission in the Army," his service as military attache in the United States Embassy in Switzerland, the appointment of Leigh of Bennington College, the $1,000 difference from Free's $8,000 salary and the appropriation bill provision, and Graves as Acting Director until Leigh took over on July 15, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^25]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Free and Graves's recruitment of Goodwin Watson of Columbia University, who "entered upon duty 17 November 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^26]: Hearings before the Special Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., acting under H. Res. 105 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1943), p. 2. https://archive.org/details/1943-watson-dodd-lovett
|
||||
[^27]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Analysis Section becoming the Analysis Division. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^28]: Central Intelligence Agency Reading Room, Records of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (National Archives records description, compiled by Walter W. Weinstein): "Goodwin Watson was Director of the Division from November 15, 1941, until November 15, 1943, when he was succeeded by Theodore Newcomb." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp08t00376r000100250001-1
|
||||
[^29]: Roop, Part I, p. 122, on Newcomb, "who was second only to Watson in the Analysis Division," in a note of February 15, 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
|
||||
[^30]: Roop, Part I, p. 57, "In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants, and trainees, but with only 17 of the positions filled," and p. 58, "the planned table of organization was never reached." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^31]: Roop, Part I, p. 46, that Watson and Leites "were sent to London in September 1942" to set up analysis, and that "a two-man analysis staff remained" through the war. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^32]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the Central European Radio Analysis, begun January 1943 by the German Section, and the Radio Report on the Far East, first published August 24, 1942 (RG 262, Entry 34, Box 1). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^33]: Roop, Part I, pp. 121-122 (Leigh's announcement of April 19, 1943; Graves on May 13, 1943; Eugene Katz's letter of June 18, 1943). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
|
||||
[^34]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 132-133, on Speier's report sent "a week after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor," Free and Watson's reading of his work "with the greatest of interest," the February 1942 offer, and the Analysis Division as the "heart" of the service.
|
||||
[^35]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 132, note 51, citing Harold Graves to Hans Speier and Ernst Kris, December 23, 1941, and Lloyd Free to Hans Speier, January 31, 1942, RG 262, Entry 2, Box 66. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
|
||||
[^36]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 134, which places the letter of May 26, 1942 two months after Speier entered the Analysis Division and quotes it as stating that, "as a result of investigation," he had "been rated eligible on suitability for the position of Senior Political Analyst" (note 59: United States Civil Service Commission to Hans Speier, May 26, 1942, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
|
||||
[^37]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 135, on Speier's colleagues George, Leites and Henry Kellermann and on Watson's praise, with the quoted phrases "extraordinarily good job of analysis" and "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him" (note 62).
|
||||
[^38]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 138 and p. 143 (note 90), on Watson leaving "under pressure from enemies of the New Deal" and Speier becoming acting chief analyst, overseeing thirty people.
|
||||
[^39]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 143 and note 90 (Theodore Newcomb to Col. S. A. Greenwell, December 4, 1943; Speier's Application for Federal Employment, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5): "Speier replaced Watson as Acting Chief Analyst."
|
||||
[^40]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 145, on Speier's transfer on "May 22, 1944" from the Analysis Division to the Office of War Information, with Wallace Carroll as his immediate superior.
|
||||
[^41]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 136-137, on the memorandum of October 29, 1943, the seventeen of twenty-five predictions, Mark Abrams, Representative Joseph Martin and Senator Alexander Wiley.
|
||||
[^42]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Dies's letter to Fly of November 18, 1941, which expressed "deep concern" and named thirteen organizations. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^43]: Roop, Part I, pp. 190-191, on Fly's reply that Watson "belonged to only one of the 13 organizations Dies named," the Senate Appropriations Committee's deletion of the rider, Dodd's hiring as an editor in December 1941, and Watson's testimony of February 4, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Roop and Mercado spell the analyst's surname "Schumann"; Bessner writes "Schuman."
|
||||
[^44]: Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, on Dies's House speech of February 1, 1943, listing 39 "communists," with Dodd, Watson and Schumann at the head of the list. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^45]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 623-624 (House, February 4, 1943, notice of the amendment naming thirty-nine employees), and pp. 645, 655 and 656 (House, February 5, 1943). Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, states that a rider "immediately was attached" to the appropriation bill after Dies's speech. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_january-06-march-01-1943_89
|
||||
[^46]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Congressman Dies accusing three FBIS employees, among dozens of civil servants, of "un-American beliefs." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^47]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," quoting Vice President Henry Wallace on Dies. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^48]: Hearings (as above), pp. iii-v and 1 (the text of H. Res. 105 and the membership; first sitting April 9, 1943, "pursuant to adjournment on Wednesday, April 7, 1943"). https://archive.org/details/1943-watson-dodd-lovett
|
||||
[^49]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 2788-2789 (House, March 31, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_march-02-april-05-1943_89
|
||||
[^50]: Congressional Record, 78th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 89, p. 3068 (House, April 7, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_april-06-may-13-1943_89
|
||||
[^51]: Roop, Part I, pp. 192-193, on the subcommittee under Congressman Kerr, which started hearings on April 2, 1943 and reported on 21 April, the findings of "subversive activity" and "unfit," the three named men, and the statement that the subcommittee "was later accused of having its final report prepared before the men were called to testify." Roop states that the subcommittee was named by the Un-American Activities Committee. The printed hearings give the authority as House Resolution 105, adopted February 9, 1943, directed to the Committee on Appropriations (Hearings, pp. iii-v), and give the sitting at which Watson's testimony begins as April 9, 1943, against Roop's April 2. *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), likewise describes a special subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee, appointed under a House resolution, whose report is H. Rep. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess. The Monthly Catalog lists H. Rept. 448 (May 14, 1943, pursuant to H. Res. 105, "submitted by Mr. Kerr") on Watson, Dodd and Lovett; a February 1943 newspaper report names Kerr, a North Carolina Democrat, as chairman of the subcommittee. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303.
|
||||
[^52]: Hearings (as above), Appendix D, H. Rept. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 327-334, including the finding that Schuman's case did not support a recommendation of unfitness and the findings on Watson and Dodd.
|
||||
[^53]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 4554-4555 (House, May 17, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-14-june-14-1943_89
|
||||
[^54]: Hearings (as above), pp. 100-105 and 118-119.
|
||||
[^55]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, p. 4583 (House, May 18, 1943), the page cited in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946).
|
||||
[^56]: Roop, Part I, p. 193, on the Senate's four rejections, its approval of the rider by 48 to 32, and the President's signature while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional.
|
||||
[^57]: Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, section 304, 57 Stat. 431, 450, as quoted in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946). Roop, Part I, p. 193, note, gives the effective cutoff as November 21, 1943, where the statute as quoted gives 15 November. The enacted text also excepted accrued leave and salary and payment for jury or armed-forces service; the text proposed in the subcommittee's report (Hearings, p. 328) omitted the November 15 date and the reappointment clause. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303.
|
||||
[^58]: *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), argued May 3-6, 1946, decided June 3, 1946, opinion of Justice Black. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303. Mercado's article gives the middle name as "Morse."
|
||||
[^59]: Roop, Part I, pp. 194-195, on the attacks on Rhodes, Menefee and Speier; Fly's letter to J. Edgar Hoover of April 28, 1942, and the two informant reports, one calling the New York school a "refuge for exiled European communists" and the other calling it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities."
|
||||
[^60]: Roop, Part I, p. 196, on Cox, the Atlanta station case, the FCC's referral to the Justice Department, the House's naming of Cox as chairman in early 1943, and the appointment of Eugene Garey as investigator.
|
||||
[^61]: Roop, Part I, p. 197, on the removal of "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," the subpoena of ten employees at 8:00 a.m., and "Star Chamber testimony," citing Leigh's article "Politicians vs. Bureaucrats" (subtitle "The case of FCC Chairman Fly and Congressman Cox"), *Harper's Magazine*, January 1945. https://harpers.org/archive/1945/01/politicians-vs-bureaucrats. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^62]: Roop, Part I, p. 198, on the single irregularity found at FBIS and the list of charges, including "masquerading," "intelligence" and "glorified news gathering agency." Mercado renders the last phrase as "glorified news agency."
|
||||
[^63]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Cox counsel's charge that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities," make it sound more like a war agency, and influence Congress to grant appropriations."
|
||||
[^64]: Roop, Part I, pp. 198-199, on the Washington Post's sixteen editorials, the FCC member who "agreed to petition the Speaker of the House to dismiss Cox as chairman," Cox's resignation after an emotional speech, Lea's succession, and Garey's dismissal. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Louis E. Miller (R-Mo.) and Richard B. Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) are the minority members named in *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945. Full names: Clarence Frederick Lea (D-Calif.), Louis Ebenezer Miller (R-Mo.), Richard Bowditch Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) and Kenneth Douglas McKellar (D-Tenn.), per the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress as reproduced in the unitedstates/congress-legislators dataset.
|
||||
[^65]: "Lea Probe Demands Sweeping Law Change," *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945, on the Miller and Wigglesworth minority reports and Wigglesworth's statements. https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1945/1945-01-08-BC.pdf.
|
||||
[^66]: Roop, Part I, pp. 200-201, on the May 1944 testimony of Leigh, Hensley, Porter and Graves; the Lea report of January 2, 1945 ("an efficient and worthwhile service"); the Miller and Wigglesworth minority report ("grave doubt"); and the majority passage quoted in *On the Beam* of February 3, 1945, in the note on p. 201. The hearings are *Hearings of the Special House Committee Investigating the FCC* (GPO, 1944), three volumes, with FBIS testimony beginning in Volume III, page 3439. Roop, Part I, p. 189, records Graves's resignation by the end of 1943.
|
||||
[^67]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Leigh's newsletter of February 15, 1944: "The obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC," the 30 percent figure, and Leigh's resignation "that summer." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^68]: Roop, Part I, pp. 204-206, on the House Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of 25 percent for each FCC department, Senator McKellar's demand for proof, and the Senate Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of $500,000 that both houses approved. Mercado's figure of 30 percent is given at note 48.
|
||||
[^69]: Roop, Part I, pp. 206-207, on the absence of any stated congressional reason for the cut, Fly's being ruled out of order, the statement that "it was a punitive cut, made to punish Fly and FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's effrontery in asking the Department of Justice to prosecute Eugene Cox, a member of Congress," and, in the note on p. 207, Leigh's quotation of a member of Congress speaking privately, from Leigh's *Harper's Magazine* article, January 1945. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^70]: Roop, Part I, pp. 241-244, "Charles S. Hyneman, who succeeded Leigh as FBIS director on 27 July 1944," and p. 260, "from 27 July 1944 to 7 August 1945," and Shepherd's appointment as the fourth FBIS Director. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^71]: Roop, Part I, pp. 256-257 (note on the liaison study of April 29, 1944; abolition of the Special Reports Section on December 31, 1944), p. 259 (Far East Division retained "the only analytical work done in FBIS"), and pp. 267-268 (the protest of November 1944, Hyneman's response, and Robinson's letter of January 17, 1945). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^72]: Roop, Part I, p. 268, on the Soviet Embassy's request of November 11, 1942 and the TASS arrangement in London in 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^73]: Roop, Part I, p. 275, note, on the undated executive order with the name of President Truman, transferring FBIS functions to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service, "prepared by Shepherd and perhaps some representatives from State," and "never approved by the Secretary of State." Job 54-27, Box 15, CIA Records Center.
|
||||
[^74]: Roop, Part I, pp. 274-277, on the House Appropriations Committee's action of September 19, 1945, the FCC's news release of 26 September, the conference compromise of 1 December ($465,000) approved on 3 December, and the closing of operations on December 10, 1945.
|
||||
[^75]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the last Daily Report "on 4 December" and the FCC's termination "the following day." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^76]: Federal Communications Commission, Twelfth Annual Report, fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, which states that FBIS "was discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945." https://archive.org/details/fcc_DOC-308665A1.
|
||||
[^77]: Roop, Part I, pp. 278-280, on Shepherd's letter of December 13, 1945 to the FCC, the token operations that followed, Patterson's letter of 21 December, Porter's reply of 27 December, the resumption on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship, and the note on p. 279 that "No documents authorizing continued operations have been found, but permission may have been given orally." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^78]: Roop, Part I, pp. 299-300, on the creation of the CIG by executive order in January 1946, the Vandenberg memorandum to Souers in February 1946, and the five-member committee. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^79]: Central Intelligence Group, "Survey of the Function of Monitoring Press and Propaganda Broadcasts of Foreign Powers," C.I.G. 1, memorandum by the Director of Central Intelligence, February 25, 1946, which states that FBIS functions were "taken over by the War Department on an interim basis on 30 December 1945." https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110003-4. Ad hoc committee report, March 18, 1946: https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110004-3.
|
||||
[^80]: Roop, Part I, pp. 301-303, on the ad hoc committee's recommendations (March 18, 1946), the War Department's refusal, the State Department's reply, C.I.G. 1/1 (April 26, 1946), C.I.G. 1/2 (May 8, 1946, signed by James S. Lay), and the State memorandum signed by William L. Langer on May 27, 1946, enclosed with C.I.G. 1/3 (June 4, 1946).
|
||||
[^81]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice, signed for the Director of Central Intelligence by Col. John Dabney, that the Director had "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and on the personnel transfer to CIG on November 3, 1946, announced on 31 October. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^82]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262, administrative history: transfer to the Central Intelligence Group, "August 5, 1946"; "Abolished: November 1, 1946"; successors "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946," "Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, CIG, January-September 1947," and "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
|
||||
[^83]: CIG, "Background on Development of Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service," memorandum for the Chief, Information Branch, March 1946. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110001-6.
|
||||
[^84]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice of October 31, 1946 that "the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), with all publications and letterheads changed accordingly." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^85]: Roop, Part I, p. 305 and note, on Sibert's statement of December 31, 1946 "informing that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)" and his wire of January 2, 1947 designating Russell Shepherd Chief, FBIB. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^86]: CIG, "'A' and 'X' Wire Services Furnished by Foreign Broadcast Information Branch," memorandum, June 10, 1947. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110015-1. Also memorandum on the May 6, 1947 interview of Colonel L. K. White, Acting Chief, FBIB, with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110022-3.
|
||||
[^87]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), p. 102, on the notice that field bureaus would no longer bear "the confusing name of Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)," and on the camouflage of their connection with CIG. The notice is dated July 28, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
|
||||
[^88]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 4: "The initial monitoring service was renamed the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service in 1942 and evolved into the Foreign Broadcast Information Service in 1967." Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304 (the notice of October 31, 1946) and the 1947 CIG memoranda already use the later name. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^89]: Roop, Part I, p. 2, "FBIS took form during those six years before its adoption by the Central Intelligence Agency, and came to CIA almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^90]: Roop, Part II, pp. 151-152, on Shepherd's memorandum of November 5, 1946, the Assistant Director for Operations' presentation to the PRC on January 6, 1947, the 35-employee and $150,000 proposal, the reduced request of twelve staff at $61,000, the "stormy" early years, and the Special Reports Division (approved February 13, 1947, begun March 28, 1947, first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts April 15, 1947); p. 2, on the announcement of Col. Lawrence K. White as Deputy Chief on January 9, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
|
||||
[^91]: Roop, Part II, p. 56, "Shepherd resigned from FBIS on 29 September 1947," with Colonel White the new FBIS Chief. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. Appointment of the fourth director: Roop, Part I, p. 260. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
|
||||
[^92]: Roop, Part II, p. 51, on Shepherd's visit to London from June 24, 1946, his meeting with "Malcolm Frost, Chief of the BBC Monitoring Service," the $250,000 figure, and the BBC Monitoring Service's 385 employees and $650,000 cost. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
|
||||
[^93]: Roop, Part II, pp. 54-56, on the Shepherd-Frost negotiations and the notice of October 15, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
|
||||
[^94]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service History, Part III: 1957-1967" (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, May 1972), p. 2, "after 1957 FBIS had come of age as an established CIA unit"; p. 19, on the March 23, 1961 instruction to accept responsibility for propaganda indications; and pp. 4-5, "FBIS and the BBC were monitoring broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961. By the spring of 1963 this number had increased to 115." https://archive.org/details/CIADirectorateOfIntelligenceHistoricalSeriesForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart319571967.
|
||||
[^95]: Roop, Part I, p. 25, on the mailing list for the Daily Report issued on November 18, 1941; Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," states that the service "published its first Daily Report of translations on 18 November 1941." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^96]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, that Ellis G. Porter, "former editor of newspapers in Baltimore and Philadelphia," joined the staff in January 1942 "to direct publication of the Daily Report."
|
||||
[^97]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 39: "FBIS, Daily Report, Foreign Radio Broadcasts, Far Eastern Section, 3 January 1946, NARA, RG 262, Entry 25, Box 1," and the text that the first issue of the new Daily Report was published in January 1946. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/.
|
||||
[^98]: NARA, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262: "Daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts, 1941-45"; "Daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American, and European Sections, 1941-46"; "Weekly reviews of official foreign broadcasts, 1941-44"; "Radio reports on the Far East, 1942-45"; "Program schedules of foreign broadcasts, 1942-47"; and "Related Records: Records of the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, 1947-48, in RG 263." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
|
||||
|
|
|
|||
290
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Brown Brothers Harriman.md
Normal file
290
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Brown Brothers Harriman.md
Normal file
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,290 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
aliases:
|
||||
- Brown Brothers Harriman
|
||||
- Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.
|
||||
- Brown Brothers Harriman & Company
|
||||
- Brown Brothers, Harriman & Co.
|
||||
- Brown Brothers, Harriman and Company
|
||||
- Brown Bros., Harriman & Co.
|
||||
- BBH
|
||||
- BBH & Co.
|
||||
- Brown Brothers & Co.
|
||||
- Brown Brothers and Company
|
||||
- Brown Bros. & Co.
|
||||
category: "Private Organization"
|
||||
tags:
|
||||
- Organization
|
||||
- Banking
|
||||
- PrivateBank
|
||||
- Partnership
|
||||
- Harriman
|
||||
- SkullAndBones
|
||||
- Nicaragua
|
||||
- Thyssen
|
||||
- Nazi
|
||||
- WorldWarII
|
||||
- ColdWar
|
||||
- CovertAction
|
||||
- FINRA
|
||||
summary: "Private New York partnership bank formed January 1, 1931 from Brown Brothers & Co. and two Harriman firms, whose partners made the Nicaragua loans of 1911 and 1912 and filled senior Washington posts."
|
||||
start: 1931-01-01
|
||||
location: "New York, New York"
|
||||
created: 2026-10-26
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-26
|
||||
relations:
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1931-01-01
|
||||
role: "vice-president and director of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. and partner in Harriman Brothers & Co. from January 1, 1930; partner in the merged firm from January 1, 1931"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Robert A. Lovett]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1926-01-01
|
||||
end: 1940-12-16
|
||||
role: "partner; rejoined June 1, 1946 to May 15, 1947, April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950 and from March 1, 1953"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1931-01-01
|
||||
role: "partner (of W. A. Harriman & Co. from October 30, 1926); registered holder of 3,991 of 4,000 Union Banking Corporation shares in 1942"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1931-01-01
|
||||
end: 1946-10-31
|
||||
role: "partner until he became Secretary of Commerce; limited partner afterward"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Ellery Sedgwick James]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1925-01-01
|
||||
end: 1932-11-25
|
||||
role: "partner of Brown Brothers & Co. and of the merged firm until his death"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Knight Woolley]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1931-01-01
|
||||
end: 1956-01-01
|
||||
role: "general manager and managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. (partner from January 1, 1929); partner of the merged firm"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Thatcher Magoun Brown]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1907-01-01
|
||||
end: 1954-05-02
|
||||
role: "partner; managing partner at the 1930 merger according to Karabell; author of the firm's 1950 history"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Moreau Delano]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1907-01-01
|
||||
end: 1936-12-04
|
||||
role: "partner"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Charles J. Rhoads]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1921-01-01
|
||||
end: 1929-06-30
|
||||
role: "partner; left to become Commissioner of Indian Affairs under President Herbert Hoover"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Ray Morris]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1921-01-01
|
||||
end: 1956-01-01
|
||||
role: "partner; registered holder of 1 Union Banking Corporation share in 1942"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Harold D. Pennington]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1931-01-01
|
||||
end: 1956-12-31
|
||||
role: "manager of operations from the merger and partner from January 1, 1945; registered holder of 1 Union Banking Corporation share in 1942"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Thomas McCance]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1945-01-01
|
||||
role: "partner; listed with the firm in the Council on Foreign Relations table of November 1951"
|
||||
fn: 4
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Robert V. Roosa]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1965-01-01
|
||||
end: 1991-01-01
|
||||
role: "partner after resigning as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs"
|
||||
fn: 19
|
||||
- type: contractor_to
|
||||
with: "[[Nicaragua]]"
|
||||
start: 1911-09-01
|
||||
end: 1924-01-01
|
||||
role: "lender and fiscal agent under the agreement of September 1, 1911, the supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 and the agreement of November 4, 1912; repaid in 1924 according to Thatcher M. Brown"
|
||||
fn: 40
|
||||
- type: investigated
|
||||
with: "[[New York Stock Exchange]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 2006-11-13
|
||||
role: "Hearing Board decision HPD 06-200: violation of NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b); censure and $170,000 fine"
|
||||
fn: 52
|
||||
- type: investigated
|
||||
with: "[[New York State Banking Department]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 2007-08-01
|
||||
role: "written agreement requiring improvement of anti-money laundering controls, recited in the 2014 FINRA order"
|
||||
fn: 54
|
||||
- type: investigated
|
||||
with: "[[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 2014-02-04
|
||||
role: "Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401 on anti-money laundering failures involving penny stock; censure and $8,000,000 fine"
|
||||
fn: 54
|
||||
- type: investigated
|
||||
with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 2014-09-10
|
||||
role: "cease-and-desist order, File No. 3-16076, for late Section 16(a) filings and Schedule 13G amendments; $120,000 civil penalty"
|
||||
fn: 53
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. is a private banking partnership in [[New York City|New York]]. Effective January 1, 1931 the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., [[Harriman Brothers & Co.]] and [[W. A. Harriman & Co.]], Inc. were united in the co-partnership firm of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^1] Its partners included [[Robert A. Lovett]], [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[E. Roland Harriman]] and [[Prescott Bush]], and it appears in the record of the [[Nicaragua]] customs loans of 1911 and 1912, the [[Union Banking Corporation]] and the Cold War intelligence establishment.
|
||||
|
||||
### Formation of the Firm
|
||||
|
||||
The Brown partnership descends from [[Alexander Brown]], a [[Belfast]] linen merchant who emigrated to the United States in 1800. In 1818 he founded [[Alex. Brown & Sons]], according to the finding aid for the firm's records at the [[New-York Historical Society]].[^2] [[Time]] dated the house differently, stating that it was "formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, previously a linen merchant."[^3] The finding aid records that Alexander Brown's eldest son William founded [[William Brown & Co.]] in [[Liverpool]] in 1810, which became [[Brown Shipley & Co.]] in 1839 and separated from Brown Brothers as a distinct business in 1918.[^2] The partner table in the firm's 1968 history lists [[Montagu Norman]] as a partner of the Brown Shipley house from 1900 to 1915, before he became Governor of the [[Bank of England]].[^4] By 1929 only three of the twelve Brown Brothers partners were Browns: the senior partner [[James Brown]] and his cousins James Crosby Brown and [[Thatcher Magoun Brown]].[^5]
|
||||
|
||||
W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. was organized on November 13, 1919 under the management of W. Averell Harriman, [[George Herbert Walker]] (president from 1920 until 1930) and Prescott Bush. The firm opened an office in [[Berlin]] in 1922, extended short-term credits to German industries, helped finance zinc mines in [[Silesia]], and in 1928 financed the [[Aviation Corporation]], which became [[Pan American World Airways]].[^6] Time reported that in 1920 Averell Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea" and formed an alliance with the [[Hamburg-American Line]], that he was thwarted in it, and that the firm "made many a loan in [[Germany]]."[^3] On St. Patrick's Day, 1927, the Harrimans set up a partnership bank, originally called W. A. Harriman & Co. without the "Inc." and soon renamed Harriman Brothers & Co. [[Knight Woolley]] of the foreign department of the American Exchange National Bank became its general manager. The bank started with four employees, capital from the Harrimans and M. Samuel & Co., Ltd., and Averell Harriman's instruction, "Here's four million. Go ahead and run the bank."[^7] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date E. Roland Harriman and Averell Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank and describes Woolley as general manager "from its founding in 1926."[^4] The first bankers acceptance created by the bank, dated October 24, 1927, financed a German metal refining company's import of Chilean copper. The minute book of the bank's partners records for 1927 that Woolley accepted, through [[Ellery Sedgwick James]], "the offer of a $250,000 participation" with Brown Brothers & Co. and two other banks in an acceptance credit for a Berlin metal firm.[^8]
|
||||
|
||||
The firm's 1968 history, written by [[John A. Kouwenhoven]], quotes the 1950 firm history by Thatcher M. Brown that "it became clear to us, during the year 1930, that we were doing too large a business for our capital," after losses on securities underwritten before the 1929 crash and the withdrawal of capital by older partners.[^9] The merger was announced on December 12, 1930, according to [[Zachary Karabell]], who wrote that the announcement appeared on the front page of [[The New York Times]] on the day the Bank of United States collapsed, and that clerks carried the Harriman family's securities from 39 Broadway to 59 Wall Street under armed guard.[^10] The finding aid lists newspaper clippings announcing the merger and a clipping reporting Woolley's election as a director, dated December 12, 1930 to January 23, 1931.[^2] Time reported on December 22, 1930 that the two houses had merged "last week," counting sixteen partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman & Co., eleven of them [[Yale University|Yale]] graduates.[^3] The printed circular announcing the union is dated January 2, 1931 and states that the businesses were united "effective January 1, 1931."[^1] The chronology in the finding aid to the W. Averell Harriman papers at the [[Library of Congress]] lists him as partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1931 to 1946.[^11] The firm's history page counts seventeen partners, twelve of them Yale graduates.[^12] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that before 1933 the firm "consisted of two firms," W. A. Harriman Company and Brown Brothers, and gave 1933 as the year of the merger.[^13]
|
||||
|
||||
Three accounts place the origin of the merger on a train to a Yale event. The firm's history page states that "according to firm lore" the idea was first floated among six partners in November 1930 on the train from New York to [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] for the Yale-[[Harvard University|Harvard]] football game.[^12] Karabell described a railcar chartered on the New Haven line from Grand Central Station to a Yale reunion on a fall day in 1930, and wrote, "Roland wasn't on the train that day, but Ellery James and Knight Woolley were."[^10] Kouwenhoven placed the card game in the spring of 1930, with James, Woolley and Prescott Bush traveling to a Yale reunion with two other classmates, and called it a story "now current in various versions, as all good legends are." He recorded Thatcher Brown's recollection that James first suggested talking with the Harrimans, and Roland Harriman's recollection that James spoke to him about "working under one roof" before the crash of 1929.[^9]
|
||||
|
||||
The firm's history page states that in 1931, a few months after the merger closed, Germany declared a Stillhalte (standstill) on debt payments to foreign private creditors, including over $10 million in credits from the firm, roughly the size of its entire capital, against liabilities of nearly ten times that amount, and that "an emergency infusion of $10 million from the Harrimans, Averell and Roland, staved off collapse."[^12] Karabell wrote, "Every Brown Brothers partner was personally exposed."[^10] The firm's 1968 history states that the Banking Act of 1933 required private banking houses to choose between underwriting and deposit banking, that Brown Brothers Harriman remained a bank of deposit, and that several partners resigned on June 9, 1934 to join Brown Harriman & Co., Inc. in the investment banking business.[^14][^4]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Partners
|
||||
|
||||
Time named the partners it considered most prominent. It described Ellery Sedgwick James as a Brown Brothers partner and a classmate of E. Roland Harriman, Prescott Bush and Knight Woolley. It described Robert A. Lovett as a partner and the son of Judge [[Robert Scott Lovett]], "longtime personal attorney and close friend of the late Edward Henry Harriman and now chairman of his Union Pacific."[^3]
|
||||
|
||||
The partner table in Kouwenhoven's history gives the dates. James was a partner of Brown Brothers from January 1, 1925 and died on November 25, 1932. Lovett became a partner on January 1, 1926 and left on December 16, 1940 for Washington, rejoining on June 1, 1946, April 1, 1949 and March 1, 1953. Woolley became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1929 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Bush became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Averell Harriman was a partner of the merged firm from January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946, and a limited partner afterward. [[Ray Morris]] was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956, [[Charles J. Rhoads]] from January 1, 1921 to June 30, 1929, [[Thomas McCance]] from January 1, 1945 and [[Robert V. Roosa]] from January 1, 1965.[^4] [[Harold D. Pennington]] was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, a manager of the merged firm, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956. Kouwenhoven wrote that he was from the start manager in charge of operations for the new concern and that he walked behind the handcarts that moved the Harriman securities to the vault at 59 Wall Street with a pistol in his pocket.[^15] [[Moreau Delano]] (1877 to 1936) was a partner from 1907, and Thatcher M. Brown (1876 to 1954) from 1907 to May 2, 1954.[^4]
|
||||
|
||||
Karabell described Thatcher Brown, great-grandson of Alexander Brown, as managing partner of the Brown firm and Woolley as managing partner of "another one of the Harriman firms."[^10] The New-York Historical Society finding aid lists images of the Thatcher Brown and Moreau Delano partnerships, one dated January 1, 1907, and holds the Moreau Delano papers for 1931 to 1935. It lists Thatcher M. Brown's papers for 1890 to 1966 and his firm history *Brown Brothers & Co. [and] Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1900-1950*. The records were gathered in part to support *Partners in Banking*, which Kouwenhoven wrote after the firm hired him in 1964 as Director of the Historical Files and which [[Doubleday & Co.]] commissioned for the firm's 150th anniversary in 1968.[^2]
|
||||
|
||||
Robert A. Lovett married Adele Quartley Brown, daughter of the senior partner James Brown, in 1919, joined Brown Brothers in 1921, was granted a power of attorney in January 1925 and was admitted to partnership in 1926. In that year he was also elected a director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] and member of its executive committee. Kouwenhoven recorded that Roland Harriman and Lovett met as eight-year-old boys in 1903.[^16] A November 1951 table of corporations whose officers belonged to the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^17] A 1981 North American roster of the [[Trilateral Commission]] lists Robert V. Roosa as a partner of the firm.[^18] The Kennedy Library's biographical note records that Roosa was a director of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1966 to 1981.[^19]
|
||||
|
||||
### Public Service of the Partners
|
||||
|
||||
Thatcher Brown wrote in 1950 that public service "was more or less expected of the leaders of our business." Kouwenhoven recorded that Averell Harriman chaired the Commerce Department's [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939, served with the [[National Recovery Administration]], the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the Office of Production Management, and went to Great Britain as President Roosevelt's special representative to coordinate lend-lease aid. During the war Roland Harriman managed the North Atlantic Area of the [[American Red Cross]] and Prescott Bush became national campaign chairman of the combined fund-raising drives of the [[United Service Organizations|USO]] and other wartime charities in 1942. Lovett was called to Washington in June 1940 as Special Assistant to the Secretary of War (the partner table dates the post from December 1940 to April 1941) and served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1941 to 1945. The firm's history reproduces the Distinguished Service Medal citation calling him "the eyes, ears, and hands of the Secretary of War in respect to the growth of that enormous American air power."[^20] President Truman appointed Roland Harriman president of the American Red Cross in 1950. Bush served as United States Senator from [[Connecticut]] from 1952 to 1962, and Lovett served as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949 and as Deputy Secretary and Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1953.[^21] The [[United States Senate]] timeline for Connecticut records that Bush won election to the Senate on November 4, 1952, "following a defeat in the 1950 election," and that he "served until 1963."[^22]
|
||||
|
||||
Roosa, who had served in London with the Enemy Objectives Unit of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in the Second World War, joined the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] after the war, served as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson until 1964, and worked at the firm from 1965 to 1991. He was chairman of the board of trustees of the [[Brookings Institution]] from 1975 to 1986.[^19] Kouwenhoven quoted the American Banker on Roosa's resignation from the Treasury: "one of the great innovators" in financial affairs.[^23] The finding aid lists correspondence about the appointment of partner Charles J. Rhoads as [[Commissioner of Indian Affairs]] in 1929, donated to the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1965.[^2]
|
||||
|
||||
### Robert A. Lovett and the Intelligence Establishment
|
||||
|
||||
Lovett's oral history at the [[Harry S. Truman Library]], recorded July 7, 1971, describes his move from the firm to the [[State Department]] in 1947. He recalled that the President telephoned him early in the morning at a superintendent's cottage on his father's place in [[Locust Valley, New York|Locust Valley]]. The President told him, "I've got to get a new Secretary of State and I've signed up General Marshall on the condition which he made that you'd come down and be his Under Secretary." Lovett answered, "I've got to go and check with my partners; I've got to get permission to get out of the firm and the New York State Bank Department has to approve."[^24] The library's biographical summary lists his posts as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, private law practice with Brown Brothers, Harriman and Company from 1949 to 1950, Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1951, and later Secretary of Defense. The firm's partner table gives April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950 as his second period as partner.[^24][^4]
|
||||
|
||||
In the *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on the intelligence community, a memorandum of March 30, 1950 from [[George F. Kennan]] records that the [[National Security Council]] directive NSC 10/2 of June 1948 established an Office of Special Projects (later the [[Office of Policy Coordination]]) in the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to plan and conduct covert operations, and that Kennan's designation as the State Department's representative for the purpose was made known to the Council by a letter signed August 13, 1948 by Lovett.[^25] A State Department memorandum of October 15, 1952 recalls the "concept of General Marshall, Mr. Forrestal, Mr. Lovett and Mr. Kennan, when OPC was set up in the spring of 1948," that covert political warfare was of primary interest to the State Department.[^26] The first meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]], held on July 2, 1951 in the Director of Central Intelligence's conference room, was attended by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], Lovett as Deputy Secretary of Defense, [[Gordon Gray]], [[Allen Dulles]] and Edward Barrett for the Under Secretary of State.[^27] On October 24, 1952 President Truman addressed a memorandum on communications intelligence to Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] and Secretary of Defense Lovett, designating them a Special Committee of the National Security Council for the subject. The volume also prints a memorandum to Lovett from the Director of the [[National Security Agency]] and representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff.[^28] The volume lists Lovett as a member of the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee (the "Teapot Committee") from June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954 and of the [[President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities]] from January 13, 1956.[^29]
|
||||
|
||||
A State Department memorandum of December 22, 1955 reported that Allen Dulles had said the White House would soon announce the appointment of a Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, and listed the expected members as John E. Hull, Richard Connolly, James Doolittle, James Killian, David Bruce, Benjamin Fairless and Morris Hadley. The board was established by Executive Order 10656 of February 6, 1956.[^30] The Center for the Study of Intelligence newsletter of Spring 1995 states that [[David K. E. Bruce]] and Lovett prepared a report for President Eisenhower in the fall of 1956 and that they "had been charter members" of the board; the CIA History Staff searched the board's files, the Eisenhower Library, the National Archives and the Virginia Historical Society without finding it.[^31] [[Peter Grose]] wrote that Killian delegated Lovett and Bruce to investigate the covert action programs, and described Lovett as "a partner in the investment banking firm of Brown Brothers Harriman." Grose and [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]], who saw the report among Robert Kennedy's papers, quoted from it. Lovett told the Taylor board of inquiry on the Bay of Pigs in 1961 that Bruce "was very much disturbed" and that "instead of completing the report in thirty days we took two months or more." According to Schlesinger, the report found that "no one, other than those in the CIA immediately concerned with their day to day operation, has any detailed knowledge of what is going on," that a "horde of CIA representatives" was exerting "significant, almost unilateral influences" on the formulation of foreign policy, and asked whether anyone in an authoritative position was weighing "the long-range wisdom of activities which have entailed our virtual abandonment of the international 'golden rule.'"[^32] Schlesinger wrote that the full board's December 1956 statement on "the extremely informal and somewhat exclusive methods" used for clandestine projects was signed by another board member, [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], and that in its January 1961 report the board stated, "We have been unable to conclude that, on balance, all of the covert action programs undertaken by CIA up to this time have been worth the risk or the great expenditure of manpower, money and other resources involved." Schlesinger also wrote that when [[Richard Bissell]] and others briefed the board on the Cuban project in late 1960, "its members, Lovett particularly, registered dismay."[^32]
|
||||
|
||||
### Prescott Bush and the Union Banking Corporation
|
||||
|
||||
Karabell wrote that Bush had gone from selling rubber flooring to working as a vice president at Harriman with his college friend E. Roland Harriman, and that he had married the daughter of George Herbert Walker of [[St. Louis]].[^10] Kouwenhoven's caption describes Bush as vice-president and a director of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. and a partner in Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time of the merger, and as secretary of the [[United States Golf Association]] in 1932 and its president from 1935.[^6]
|
||||
|
||||
Bush appears in the records of the Union Banking Corporation, a New York company whose stock the [[Office of the Alien Property Custodian]] vested in 1942. Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value stock. It listed the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991 shares; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order says the shares were "held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam," which it describes as "owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested claims of that bank and of the August [[Thyssen-Bank]], Berlin, Germany, against the corporation for indebtedness. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^33] Of the seven holders, four (Harriman, Morris, Bush and Pennington) appear in the firm's partner table or staff records.[^4][^15]
|
||||
|
||||
A [[Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] memorandum of August 18, 1941 on the corporation records that it was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart of Rotterdam. It records that the corporation's president, Cornelius Lievense, claimed no knowledge of the bank's ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It also records gold purchases of more than eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It records that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^34]
|
||||
|
||||
Sutton wrote that the Union Banking Corporation was "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," and listed eight directors for 1932. He named E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., Ellery Sedgwick James as a partner of Brown Brothers, Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, Knight Woolley as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann Groninger, Cornelius Lievense and [[J. L. Guinter]] as the remaining directors.[^35] The 1942 vesting order lists Morris and Pennington among the registered holders. Kouwenhoven's partner table gives James's death as November 25, 1932.[^33][^4]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Yale Concentration
|
||||
|
||||
Time counted eleven Yale graduates among the sixteen partners, and the firm's history page counts twelve among seventeen.[^3][^12] Sutton's catalogue of [[Skull and Bones]] members by class year, printed in the 2002 edition of his book, gives Prescott Sheldon Bush, Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Knight Woolley for the class of 1917, W. Averell Harriman for the class of 1913, and Robert Abercrombie Lovett for the class of 1918. It also lists William Ellery Sedgwick James for the class of 1917.[^36] Sutton wrote that among the firm's 26 partners in the mid-1970s, no fewer than nine were members of the order, and listed [[Walter H. Brown]] (1945), Bush (1917), Granger Kent Costikyan (1929), E. Roland Harriman (1917), W. Averell Harriman (1913), Stephen Young Hord (1921), Lovett (1918), John Beckwith Madden (1941) and Woolley (1917).[^37] Karabell wrote that James and Woolley had each been sworn into Skull and Bones before enlisting in the military and that Lovett belonged to their circle.[^10] Kouwenhoven's table gives Hord's partnership as beginning January 1, 1945 in Chicago and Madden's on January 1, 1955.[^4]
|
||||
|
||||
### Nicaragua, 1911 to 1912
|
||||
|
||||
The firm's loans to the Republic of Nicaragua are documented in the *Foreign Relations of the United States* for 1911 and 1912. The headnote to the loan convention records that the Nicaraguan assembly ratified it on June 15 and July 7, 1911, and that it was "Still pending in the Senate of the United States."[^38] In a July 17, 1911 message the President proposed amending Article IV, under which the Nicaraguan government "will appoint from a list of names to be presented to it by the fiscal agent of the loan and approved by the President of the United States of America, a collector general of customs." The message proposed striking the words "who need not be a Nicaraguan and" from the article.[^39]
|
||||
|
||||
Brown Brothers and [[J. and W. Seligman and Company]] wrote to the Secretary of State on November 2, 1911 that "on September 1, 1911, we entered into an agreement with the Republic of Nicaragua, by which we undertook to make a temporary loan of $1,500,000, which the Republic urgently needed." The two houses had nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]], Surveyor of the Port of [[Manila]], as Collector General of Customs.[^40] On November 11, 1911 the Secretary of State told the Nicaraguan minister that he had approved the nomination.[^41]
|
||||
|
||||
The loans followed in a series of agreements. The houses reported the [[Ethelburga]] contract of December 9, 1911, which later failed.[^42] They reported a supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 for loans up to $775,000.[^43] Their June 3, 1912 letter reported contracts dated May 25, 1912 with the [[Corporation of Foreign Bondholders]].[^44] On August 2, 1912 the houses wrote that the Republic had asked for an immediate loan of $100,000 "for the purpose of enabling it to reestablish order," and that they would make it through the [[National Bank of Nicaragua]], which had opened at [[Managua]] on August 1. They wrote that "The entire capital stock of that Bank is pledged with us as security for the various loans which we have heretofore made to the Republic," and that "the Bank is under our management and control."[^45] On November 13, 1912 they reported an agreement dated November 4, 1912 and a separate fund of $400,000.[^46]
|
||||
|
||||
In a February 14, 1912 letter the American Minister wrote that the Legation "did not wish to take any official part in the business negotiations between the Nicaraguan Government and Brown Brothers et al."[^47] In 1914 the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations took testimony on the convention. [[Charles A. Douglas]], who said that "I have represented Nicaragua for a little over a year," testified that Ham was "nominated and put there really by the bankers with the assent of the Secretary of State." He said that Brown Brothers and Seligman were the only bankers he knew in connection with the Nicaraguan affair, and that the treaty "was never ratified."[^48] The same hearing volume prints a list of five agreements the committee received. Two of them were between the Republic and Brown Bros. & Co. and J. & W. Seligman & Co., one for the purchase of Treasury bills and one for the purchase of railroad and bank stock. The others were between the Republic and the National Bank of Nicaragua, the [[Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua]], and the [[United States Mortgage and Trust Company]].[^49] The finding aid lists an excerpt from Senate Committee on Foreign Relations confidential hearings on Nicaragua from October 1912, a transcript from June 1914, and a [[Linton Wells]] memorandum on the involvement of Brown Brothers and Seligman in Nicaraguan affairs covering 1911 to 1929.[^2]
|
||||
|
||||
Kouwenhoven reproduced a specimen of the 1912 Nicaraguan paper currency bearing the signature of James Brown, senior partner of Brown Brothers & Co., as "Presidente" of the Banco Nacional de Nicaragua. He recorded that [[Oswald Garrison Villard]] published an editorial entitled "The Republic of Brown Brothers" in *[[The Nation]]* on June 7, 1922, charging that the United States had reduced Haiti, Santo Domingo and Nicaragua "to the status of colonies." Kouwenhoven wrote that the firm's records, including James Brown's private diary and an unpublished account by Thatcher M. Brown, "suggest that it was quite the other way around," that the loan was made in 1911 at the request of the State Department, which "was anxious" for a one-year loan for currency reform and a bank headed by Americans. Thatcher Brown's account, quoted there, describes James Brown and Albert Straus of the Seligman firm before a Senate committee, Senator Williams's remark that "I always knew Wall Street bankers were crooks, but this is the first time I ever realized they were damn fools as well," and payment of the loans "principal and interest, in 1924." The J. G. White Engineering Corporation was employed by Brown Brothers and the Seligmans to put the country's railroads into operating condition.[^50]
|
||||
|
||||
### Later Records
|
||||
|
||||
The [[Office of Government Ethics]] disclosure that [[Jay Clayton]] filed on his nomination to the SEC listed Brown Brothers Harriman among the clients from which he had earned more than $5,000 in a year.[^51]
|
||||
|
||||
### Regulatory Record
|
||||
|
||||
The firm's FINRA registration record, CRD number 104487, classifies it as a partnership. It states that the firm "was formed in [[Pennsylvania]]," that its FINRA registration ran from January 4, 1933 to July 12, 2017, and that it ceased business on June 12, 2017. The record describes the bank as principally regulated by the [[New York State Department of Financial Services]] and the securities division as principally regulated by the [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]].[^52]
|
||||
|
||||
The record lists three regulatory events. The first is a [[New York Stock Exchange]] Hearing Board decision dated November 13, 2006 (case HPD 06-200). It found that the firm violated NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b) by failing to establish and maintain adequate policies, procedures and controls. The firm consented, without admitting or denying guilt, to a censure and a fine of $170,000.[^52]
|
||||
|
||||
The second is an order of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] dated September 10, 2014, File No. 3-16076. The order records that BBH "also serves as the general partner" of the BBH Fund, and that "BBH designated certain of its partners to exercise voting and investment power over investments of the BBH Fund and to serve as directors of the BBH Fund." It found failures to timely file Section 16(a) reports concerning two corporations in which the firm held more than 10 percent, and failures to amend Schedule 13G filings. The firm consented without admitting or denying the findings and paid a civil penalty of $120,000.[^53]
|
||||
|
||||
The third is a FINRA Acceptance, Waiver and Consent, No. 2013035821401, accepted by FINRA on February 4, 2014. Respondents were the firm and Harold A. Crawford, its Global Anti Money Laundering Compliance Officer from May 2007 through December 31, 2013. The order states that in August 2007 the firm and the then-named New York State Banking Department entered into a written agreement requiring it to improve its system of internal controls, policies and procedures on verifying the identities of account holders and to devote resources to an effective anti-money laundering program. For January 1, 2009 through June 30, 2013, FINRA found that the firm directly executed sales or, as a custodian, delivered to other firms the securities underlying the sale of at least 6 billion shares of low-priced securities, generating at least $850 million in proceeds to the sellers, less than 20 percent of it through transactions where the firm acted as executing broker. The firm conducted penny stock transactions for omnibus accounts of banks in Switzerland, Guernsey and Jersey on behalf of undisclosed underlying customers. FINRA found that the firm and Crawford were aware its brokerage activity had expanded when its Swiss bank clients "realized they could offer their underlying clients anonymous access to U.S. Securities markets." It found that the anti-money laundering program failed to monitor and investigate suspicious penny stock activity, including delivery-versus-payment transactions, failed to conduct adequate periodic reviews of correspondent accounts for foreign financial institutions, failed to ensure that suspicious activity was reported, and that the firm lacked a supervisory system to prevent the distribution of unregistered securities. The firm was censured and fined $8,000,000, and Crawford was suspended for one month and fined $25,000, without admitting or denying the findings. The firm's corrective action statement states that equity brokerage accounted for less than 1 percent of annual revenues in 2013 and that it announced in December 2013 a decision to close the business effective June 2014. The BrokerCheck record states that the firm paid the fine on February 12, 2014.[^54][^52]
|
||||
|
||||
The affiliated entities on the same record are [[Brown Brothers Harriman Investments]], LLC, [[Brown Brothers Harriman Credit Partners]], LLC, and the [[Brown Brothers Harriman Mutual Fund Advisory Department]].[^52]
|
||||
|
||||
### Footnotes
|
||||
|
||||
[^1]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), p. 19, circular of January 2, 1931 reproduced from the firm's Historical File; partner table on pp. 231 to 234 gives January 1, 1931. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^2]: Brown Brothers Harriman Records, MS 78, New-York Historical Society, Historical Note and series descriptions for Series I, Series IV, Series V and Series IX, finding aid hosted by New York University Libraries. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
|
||||
[^3]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," *Time*, December 22, 1930. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html
|
||||
[^4]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), "Partners of Brown Brothers & Co. and Brown Brothers Harriman & Co." table with dates and comments, pp. 231 to 235 (entries for Montagu Norman, James Brown, Thatcher M. Brown, Moreau Delano, Ellery Sedgewick James, Prescott Sheldon Bush, E. Roland Noel Harriman, William Averell Harriman, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, Knight Woolley, Ray Morris, Charles James Rhoads, Harold Douglas Pennington, Thomas McCance, Robert Vincent Roosa, Stephen Young Hord, John Beckwith Madden). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^5]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 192. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^6]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 12 to 13, text and caption of the photograph of Prescott S. Bush. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^7]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 13. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^8]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 14 to 15 (first bankers acceptance of October 24, 1927) and p. 16 (minute book entry of 1927). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^9]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's informal history of the firm. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^10]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 14 to 17 (passages quoted at pp. 15 to 16). https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
|
||||
[^11]: W. Averell Harriman Papers, A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division (2016), Biographical Note (chronology 1891 to 1986). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
|
||||
[^12]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history page. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
|
||||
[^13]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), memoranda on Guaranty Trust and Brown Brothers, Harriman, and the Harriman chronology. The dating is Sutton's.
|
||||
[^14]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 15, on the Banking Act of 1933 and the "Big Four" houses of 1931. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^15]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 197 to 198, caption of the photograph of Harold D. Pennington. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^16]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 17 to 18. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^17]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
|
||||
[^18]: The Trilateral Commission, membership roster "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf
|
||||
[^19]: Jennifer Marciello, "Collection Opening: Robert V. Roosa Personal Papers," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library archives blog, November 7, 2024. https://jfk.blogs.archives.gov/2024/11/07/collection-opening-robert-v-roosa-personal-papers
|
||||
[^20]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 202 to 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^21]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^22]: United States Senate, Connecticut timeline, entry for November 4, 1952 (Prescott Bush). https://www.senate.gov/states/CT/timeline.htm
|
||||
[^23]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 208. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^24]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript pp. 4 to 7, with the library's biographical summary. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra
|
||||
[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 4, Memorandum from the Counselor of the Department of State (Kennan) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), March 30, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d4
|
||||
[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 129, Memorandum from Robert P. Joyce of the Policy Planning Staff to the Under Secretary of State (Bruce), October 15, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d129
|
||||
[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 78, Minutes of a Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board, July 2, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d78
|
||||
[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 132, Memorandum from President Truman to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett, October 24, 1952, and document 136, Memorandum from the Director of the National Security Agency (Canine) and Representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense Lovett. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d132
|
||||
[^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, list of persons, entry for Lovett, Robert A. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons
|
||||
[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 247, Memorandum from the Secretary of State's Special Assistant for Intelligence and Research (Armstrong) to Secretary of State Dulles, December 22, 1955, with the editorial note on Executive Order 10656. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d247
|
||||
[^31]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence Newsletter, no. 3 (Spring 1995), "The Elusive 'Bruce-Lovett Report.'" https://web.archive.org/web/2005/https://www.cia.gov/csi/bulletin/csi3.htm
|
||||
[^32]: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., *Robert Kennedy and His Times* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 455 to 458, and Peter Grose, *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 444 to 448, (excerpts at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm)
|
||||
[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
|
||||
[^34]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
|
||||
[^35]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection." The lists and characterizations are Sutton's.
|
||||
[^36]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), membership catalogue by class year in the 2002 edition.
|
||||
[^37]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, list of partners "who were also members of The Order in the mid 1970s." The count and list are Sutton's.
|
||||
[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1478, headnote to the Loan Convention between the United States and Nicaragua. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1478
|
||||
[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1480, Senate Executive E, 62d Congress, 1st session, amendments proposed in the President's message of July 17, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1480
|
||||
[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1482, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 2, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482
|
||||
[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1485, the Secretary of State to the Nicaraguan Minister, November 11, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1485
|
||||
[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1486, December 13, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1486
|
||||
[^43]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1504, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, April 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1504
|
||||
[^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1509, June 3, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1509
|
||||
[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1512, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, August 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1512
|
||||
[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1517, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 13, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1517
|
||||
[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1498, the American Minister to the Secretary of State, February 14, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1498
|
||||
[^48]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), statement of Charles A. Douglas, counsel for the Government of Nicaragua. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
|
||||
[^49]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), list of agreements submitted to the committee in May 1914. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
|
||||
[^50]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 189 to 190, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's account; Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Republic of Brown Brothers," *The Nation*, June 7, 1922, as described there. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^51]: ProPublica, "Jay Clayton," *Trump Town*, from his OGE Form 278e financial disclosure (database updated October 2019). https://projects.propublica.org/trump-town/staffers/jay-clayton
|
||||
[^52]: FINRA BrokerCheck, firm report for Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., CRD 104487, Disclosure Events, Firm Statement and Firm History sections. https://files.brokercheck.finra.org/firm/firm_104487.pdf
|
||||
[^53]: Securities and Exchange Commission, Order Instituting Cease-and-Desist Proceedings, Release No. 34-73047 (September 10, 2014), File No. 3-16076, *In the Matter of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2014/34-73047.pdf
|
||||
[^54]: Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Letter of Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401, *Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* (CRD 104487) and Harold A. Crawford (CRD 5326696), accepted February 4, 2014, with the Corrective Action Statement of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. https://www.finra.org/sites/default/files/fda_documents/2013035821401_FDA_D821567%20%282019-1562955575747%29.pdf
|
||||
|
|
@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ The fourth page of the November 1951 table lists corporations with officers who
|
|||
|
||||
### Officers and committees in 1952
|
||||
|
||||
For 1952 to 1953 the Council's officers were [[R. C. Leffingwell]] as chairman of the board, Allen W. Dulles as vice-chairman (on leave), [[Henry M. Wriston]] as president, David Rockefeller as vice-president, Frank Altschul as vice-president and secretary, [[Devereux C. Josephs]] as vice-president and treasurer, [[Walter H. Mallory]] as executive director (on leave) and George S. Franklin Jr. as acting executive director. The directors included W. Averell Harriman, [[William A. M. Burden]], [[John W. Davis]], [[Grayson Kirk]], [[Lewis W. Douglas]], [[Thomas K. Finletter]], [[Whitney H. Shepardson]] and Taylor. Rockefeller chaired the Membership Committee; Dulles sat on the Committee on Studies with Wriston, Armstrong, Dean, Mosely and others; Armstrong edited Foreign Affairs, whose Editorial Advisory Board comprised [[George H. Blakeslee]], Davis, Dulles, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George Kennan]], Langer, [[Charles H. McIlwain]], Seymour and Wriston.[^4]
|
||||
For 1952 to 1953 the Council's officers were [[R. C. Leffingwell]] as chairman of the board, Allen W. Dulles as vice-chairman (on leave), [[Henry M. Wriston]] as president, David Rockefeller as vice-president, Frank Altschul as vice-president and secretary, [[Devereux C. Josephs]] as vice-president and treasurer, [[Walter H. Mallory]] as executive director (on leave) and George S. Franklin Jr. as acting executive director. The directors included [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[William A. M. Burden]], [[John W. Davis]], [[Grayson Kirk]], [[Lewis W. Douglas]], [[Thomas K. Finletter]], [[Whitney H. Shepardson]] and Taylor. Rockefeller chaired the Membership Committee; Dulles sat on the Committee on Studies with Wriston, Armstrong, Dean, Mosely and others; Armstrong edited Foreign Affairs, whose Editorial Advisory Board comprised [[George H. Blakeslee]], Davis, Dulles, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George Kennan]], Langer, [[Charles H. McIlwain]], Seymour and Wriston.[^4]
|
||||
|
||||
Membership stood at 927 on August 1, 1951 and 933 on August 1, 1952, in the classes resident (420 and 420), resident academic (164 and 167), junior (13 and 9), nonresident (160 and 160) and nonresident academic (170 and 177). The Committees on Foreign Relations held 191 meetings that year, and a grant from the Fund for Adult Education financed the reprinting of an article from Foreign Affairs nine times a year, with a discussion guide, for about 1,000 adult discussion groups.[^4]
|
||||
|
||||
|
|
|
|||
|
|
@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ relations:
|
|||
role: "defendant with J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and a former employee in a copper trading suit in the Southern District of New York"
|
||||
fn: 12
|
||||
created: 2026-10-01
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-01
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-26
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York was formed on April 24, 1959 by the merger of [[J.P. Morgan & Co.]] Incorporated and the Guaranty Trust Company of New York. A Senate staff study of January 1978 recorded that J.P. Morgan held all of its stock and that in 1976 it was "among the top 5 stockvoters in almost one-half of the 130 companies in the study." After J.P. Morgan merged into [[Chase Manhattan Corporation]] on December 31, 2000, the bank was "succeeded through merger by [[JPMorgan Chase]] Bank."[^1][^2][^3]
|
||||
|
|
@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ On July 15, 1916 the Imperial Russian Government opened an account at the Guaran
|
|||
|
||||
### The Business Plot Hearings
|
||||
|
||||
In November 1934 the [[McCormack-Dickstein Committee|House Special Committee on Un-American Activities]] heard Major General [[Smedley Butler]], who testified that [[Gerald P. MacGuire|Gerald MacGuire]], a bond salesman at [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]], 52 Broadway, had proposed that he lead a veterans' organization. Butler said MacGuire gave him two names as the source of the money: "Colonel Murphy, Grayson M.-P. Murphy, for whom he worked, was one." MacGuire told the committee that Murphy was "my boss." Murphy had been senior vice president of Guaranty Trust from 1915 to 1917 and again from 1919 to 1920, and in 1936 was treasurer of the [[American Liberty League]], according to *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry.* The writer [[Antony C. Sutton]] described him as a director of the Guaranty Trust Company at the time of the hearings.[^5][^6]
|
||||
In November 1934 the [[McCormack-Dickstein Committee|House Special Committee on Un-American Activities]] heard Major General [[Smedley Butler]], who testified that [[Gerald P. MacGuire|Gerald MacGuire]], a bond salesman at [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]], 52 Broadway, had proposed that he lead a veterans' organization. Butler said MacGuire gave him two names as the source of the money: "Colonel Murphy, Grayson M.-P. Murphy, for whom he worked, was one." MacGuire told the committee that Murphy was "my boss." Murphy had been senior vice president of Guaranty Trust from 1915 to 1917 and again from 1919 to 1920, and in 1936 was treasurer of the [[American Liberty League]], according to *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry.* The writer [[Antony C. Sutton]] described Murphy as "a director of several companies controlled by the J.P. Morgan interests, including the Guaranty Trust Company" in the early 1930s, and wrote that MacGuire showed Butler a bank book whose deposits he attributed to Murphy, "director of Guaranty Trust Company and other Morgan-controlled companies."[^5][^6]
|
||||
|
||||
On November 24, 1934 the committee's statement said that it had "no evidence before it that would in the slightest degree warrant calling before it such men as John W. Davis, [[Hugh S. Johnson|Gen. Hugh Johnson]], [[General Harbord]], [[Thomas W. Lamont]], [[Admiral Sims]], or [[Hanford MacNider]]."[^5] The reproduced release and testimony of the [[Business Plot]] hearings name Murphy as MacGuire's employer and as one of two sources of the money and do not mention the Guaranty Trust Company.[^5]
|
||||
|
||||
|
|
@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ Monthly "Asset Account Portfolio" statements of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of
|
|||
[^2]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on Reports, Accounting and Management, *Interlocking Directorates Among the Major U.S. Corporations: A Staff Study,* Committee Print, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (January 1978), summary of findings. https://archive.org/details/interlockingdire00unit
|
||||
[^3]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001 (filed March 22, 2002), Item 1, Item 14 Exhibit 4.1, and Management's Discussion. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm
|
||||
[^4]: *Guaranty Trust Co. of New York v. United States,* 304 U.S. 126 (1938) (No. 566, argued March 28 and 29, decided April 25, 1938; opinion of Stone, J.). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/304/126
|
||||
[^5]: House Special Committee on Un-American Activities (McCormack-Dickstein Committee), *Investigation of Un-American Activities,* statement of November 24, 1934 and testimony of Smedley D. Butler, Paul Comly French and Gerald P. MacGuire, November 20 to 22, 1934, as reproduced in "The Plot to Overthrow FDR." https://archive.org/details/McCormackDicksteinCommittee ; Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and FDR* (Arlington House, 1975), ch. 10. https://archive.org/details/wall-street-and-fdr-1975
|
||||
[^5]: House Special Committee on Un-American Activities (McCormack-Dickstein Committee), *Investigation of Un-American Activities,* statement of November 24, 1934 and testimony of Smedley D. Butler, Paul Comly French and Gerald P. MacGuire, November 20 to 22, 1934, as reproduced in "The Plot to Overthrow FDR." https://archive.org/details/McCormackDicksteinCommittee ; Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and FDR* (Arlington House, 1975), ch. 10, "FDR: Man on the White Horse," pp. 145, 147 (Murphy as director; the bank book passage at p. 145). https://archive.org/details/wall-street-and-fdr-1975
|
||||
[^6]: *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry* (1936), entry "Murphy, Grayson Mallet-Prevost" ("Senior Vice-Pres., Guaranty Trust Co., 1915-17"; "Resumed position with Guaranty Trust Co., 1919-20"; "Treas., American Liberty League"). https://archive.org/details/whoswhoincommerc00unse_0
|
||||
[^7]: University of Pennsylvania, Kislak Center, finding aid for the Thomas Sovereign Gates, Jr. papers, biographical note; Gerald R. Ford Library, nomination of Thomas S. Gates as Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office, Beijing, 1976. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/legacy/upenn_rbml_PUSpMsColl1135
|
||||
[^8]: Douglas A. Blackmon, "Silent Partner: How the South's Fight To Uphold Segregation Was Funded Up North," *The Wall Street Journal,* June 11, 1999, p. A1, reproduced at https://slaverybyanothername.com/other-writings/silent-partner-how-the-souths-fight-to-uphold-segregation-was-funded-up-north/
|
||||
|
|
|
|||
271
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md
Normal file
271
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md
Normal file
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,271 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
created: 2026-10-26
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-26
|
||||
title: Skull and Bones
|
||||
aliases:
|
||||
- Skull and Bones
|
||||
- Skull & Bones
|
||||
- Order of Skull and Bones
|
||||
- Skull and Bones Society
|
||||
- Russell Trust Association
|
||||
- The Russell Trust
|
||||
- RTA Incorporated
|
||||
- The Order
|
||||
- Bones
|
||||
category: "Private Organization"
|
||||
tags:
|
||||
- Organization
|
||||
- SeniorSociety
|
||||
- SkullAndBones
|
||||
- RussellTrustAssociation
|
||||
- YaleUniversity
|
||||
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
|
||||
- OfficeOfStrategicServices
|
||||
- BrownBrothersHarriman
|
||||
- Geronimo
|
||||
- PoliticalDynasties
|
||||
summary: "Yale senior society chartered in Connecticut in 1856 as the Russell Trust Association and reincorporated in 1961 as RTA Incorporated, with members including Taft, Stimson, the Harrimans, Luce, Buckley and two Presidents Bush."
|
||||
location: "New Haven, Connecticut"
|
||||
relations:
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1948"
|
||||
fn: 37
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[George W. Bush]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1968"
|
||||
fn: 37
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1940"
|
||||
fn: 43
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1917"
|
||||
fn: 31
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1917"
|
||||
fn: 31
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1913"
|
||||
fn: 30
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1888"
|
||||
fn: 26
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1918"
|
||||
fn: 55
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[Henry Luce]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1920"
|
||||
fn: 42
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[William F. Buckley Jr.]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1950"
|
||||
fn: 45
|
||||
- type: member_of
|
||||
with: "[[John Kerry]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member, Class of 1966"
|
||||
fn: 49
|
||||
- type: founded
|
||||
with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: "1832"
|
||||
fn: 1
|
||||
- type: founded
|
||||
with: "[[Alphonso Taft]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: "1832"
|
||||
fn: 1
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Skull and Bones is a senior society at [[Yale University]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]. Its members are chosen in their junior year, spend one year on campus as initiates, and remain members for life as patriarchs. The society meets in a windowless sandstone building on [[High Street]]. Its corporate affairs run through three Connecticut entities: the Russell Trust Association, chartered by the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856; RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation formed in 1961 and recognized as a tax-exempt educational organization supporting Yale; and the Deer Island Club Corporation, formed in 1907 to operate the society's island retreat in the [[St. Lawrence River]].
|
||||
|
||||
### Founding and the tomb
|
||||
|
||||
[[David A. Richards]] wrote in the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] in May and June 2015 that "The society had been founded in 1832."[^1] Richards wrote that the conception "seems to have been that of the 1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of [[Phi Beta Kappa]], William Huntington Russell," and named [[Alphonso Taft]], father of [[William Howard Taft]], as a cofounder.[^1] He wrote that the members first called their club the Eulogian Club, and that a skull and crossbones over the number 322, on a meeting notice posted by one member in the first year, gave the society its name and badge.[^1] Graduate members are called patriarchs and initiates are called knights.[^1]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Antony C. Sutton]] dated the founding to 1833. His chart is titled "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day."[^2] Sutton wrote that the American chapter "was founded in 1833 at Yale University by General William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft."[^3]
|
||||
|
||||
Before 1856 the society met in a low-studded back room on the third floor of the building opposite the college yard that became the [[Courant building]].[^4] Richards wrote that the alumni built a hall on High Street in 1856, near the corner of [[Chapel Street]]. The name "Tomb" attached to it at that time, and Richards wrote that "a tomb is what it resembled": "a single forbidding, windowless block in Egypto-Doric style."[^1] Its cost was later estimated at about $30,000.[^1] A nineteenth-century description of the building, reprinted by Sutton, gives its iron doors, its roof plates of 1867 and the value of the premises as "upwards of $30,000."[^5]
|
||||
|
||||
### The 1856 charter and RTA Incorporated
|
||||
|
||||
Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the fall of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^6]
|
||||
|
||||
The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^7] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^7] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^8]
|
||||
|
||||
On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^9] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^10] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^10][^11]
|
||||
|
||||
The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^12] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^13] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^14] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^15]
|
||||
|
||||
The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^9]
|
||||
|
||||
Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^16] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the [[Yale University Library|Yale library]], filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^15] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^17] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^18]
|
||||
|
||||
### Finances and the island
|
||||
|
||||
The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^19] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^20] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^20]
|
||||
|
||||
The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^19][^21]
|
||||
|
||||
Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^14] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^15] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^22] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^15]
|
||||
|
||||
Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^23] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^15] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^9]
|
||||
|
||||
### Membership in government, intelligence and finance
|
||||
|
||||
Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^24] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted.
|
||||
|
||||
[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^25] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^26] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^27] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^15] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^22] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^28] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^29] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3]
|
||||
|
||||
[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^30] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^31] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^15] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^32] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^33] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^34] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^31]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^31] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^35] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^36] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^36]
|
||||
|
||||
On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^33]
|
||||
|
||||
[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^37] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^38] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^39] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^36]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^40] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^41]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^42] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^15] Leslie named Luce as well.[^22]
|
||||
|
||||
[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^43] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^44]
|
||||
|
||||
[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^45] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^46] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^47] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^48] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^49] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^50] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^51] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^52]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^53] [[Harry Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1894.[^54] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan]].[^24]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Yale Unit and the Central Intelligence Agency
|
||||
|
||||
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^55] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^56]
|
||||
|
||||
An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^57] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^58] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^59]
|
||||
|
||||
The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^59] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^60] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^61] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^59] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^62]
|
||||
|
||||
Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^63] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^63] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^59]
|
||||
|
||||
Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^36]
|
||||
|
||||
### Sutton's hypothesis
|
||||
|
||||
Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^24]
|
||||
|
||||
The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), Phelps (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^24] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the Pillsbury family (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^24]
|
||||
|
||||
In the text Sutton describes "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams and so on," and "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^3] He adds that "Some families, like the Whitneys, were Connecticut Yankees and acquired wealth in the nineteenth century."[^3] Sutton writes that active members "have enough influence to push their sons and relatives into The Order," and that there is "significant inter-marriage among the families."[^3]
|
||||
|
||||
### Other writers
|
||||
|
||||
Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named [[John Hersey]] and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^22]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^64]
|
||||
|
||||
Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^65][^14]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Geronimo skull claim
|
||||
|
||||
The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^66] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^66] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^66]
|
||||
|
||||
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^55] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^55]
|
||||
|
||||
Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^65] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^65] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^65] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^65] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^65]
|
||||
|
||||
The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^67] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^68] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^67] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^68]
|
||||
|
||||
In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^68] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^68] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^68]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Pancho Villa skull suit
|
||||
|
||||
A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^69] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^69]
|
||||
|
||||
The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^69]
|
||||
|
||||
### Footnotes
|
||||
|
||||
[^1]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
|
||||
[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," after the text on the three hypotheses. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^3]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), opening chapter and the passage that sets out Hypothesis One, with the old-line and new-wealth families. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^4]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), nineteenth-century description of the hall reprinted in the appendix, passage on the earlier meeting room in the Courant building. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^5]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), appendix, undated nineteenth-century description of the hall, its doors and roof plates and its value. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^6]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and on Daniel C. Gilman's role as treasurer, his appointment as assistant librarian in 1856 and as librarian in 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^7]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^9]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
|
||||
[^10]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^11]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^12]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^13]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^14]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^15]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
|
||||
[^16]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^17]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^18]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^19]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
|
||||
[^20]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
|
||||
[^21]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
|
||||
[^22]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
|
||||
[^23]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^24]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^25]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^26]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial
|
||||
[^27]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
|
||||
[^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^29]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^30]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^31]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
|
||||
[^32]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
|
||||
[^34]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^35]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^36]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
|
||||
[^37]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^39]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^42]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^45]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^47]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
|
||||
[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^50]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^51]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress
|
||||
[^52]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Harry Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^55]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
|
||||
[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^57]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
|
||||
[^58]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
|
||||
[^59]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
|
||||
[^60]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
|
||||
[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^63]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
|
||||
[^64]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb
|
||||
[^65]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^66]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
|
||||
[^67]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
|
||||
[^68]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
|
||||
[^69]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
|
||||
|
|
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ start: 1924-08-04
|
|||
end: 1942-10-20
|
||||
location: "New York, New York"
|
||||
created: 2026-10-14
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-14
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-26
|
||||
relations:
|
||||
- type: owned
|
||||
with: "[[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]]"
|
||||
|
|
@ -26,28 +26,89 @@ relations:
|
|||
start: 1924-08-04
|
||||
end: 1942-10-20
|
||||
role: "sole owner according to the Treasury investigation of 1941"
|
||||
fn: 1
|
||||
fn: 2
|
||||
- type: owned
|
||||
with: "[[Office of the Alien Property Custodian]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1942-10-20
|
||||
role: "capital stock vested under Vesting Order Number 248"
|
||||
fn: 2
|
||||
fn: 1
|
||||
- type: owned
|
||||
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
end: 1942-10-20
|
||||
role: "registered holder of 3,991 of 4,000 shares at vesting"
|
||||
fn: 1
|
||||
- type: owned
|
||||
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
end: 1942-10-20
|
||||
role: "registered holder of 1 of 4,000 shares at vesting"
|
||||
fn: 1
|
||||
- type: owned
|
||||
with: "[[Ray Morris]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
end: 1942-10-20
|
||||
role: "registered holder of 1 of 4,000 shares at vesting"
|
||||
fn: 1
|
||||
- type: owned
|
||||
with: "[[Harold D. Pennington]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
end: 1942-10-20
|
||||
role: "registered holder of 1 of 4,000 shares at vesting"
|
||||
fn: 1
|
||||
- type: director_of
|
||||
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1924-08-04
|
||||
end: 1942-10-20
|
||||
role: "one of seven directors according to the incorporation documents as reported by the Guardian; registered holder of one share in Vesting Order Number 248"
|
||||
fn: 11
|
||||
- type: director_of
|
||||
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
start: 1932
|
||||
role: "director in 1932, according to Sutton (1976), Table 7-1"
|
||||
fn: 6
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Union Banking Corporation (UBC) was a New York corporation incorporated on August 4, 1924 and wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam. The Alien Property Custodian vested all of its capital stock under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] on October 20, 1942, in an order that records the stock as held for the benefit of that bank and describes the bank as owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family.[^2]
|
||||
The Union Banking Corporation (UBC) was a New York corporation incorporated on August 4, 1924 and wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam. The Alien Property Custodian vested all of its capital stock under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] on October 20, 1942, in an order that records the stock as held for the benefit of that bank and describes the bank as owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family.[^1]
|
||||
|
||||
### Treasury Investigation, 1941
|
||||
|
||||
A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to Mr. [[J. W. Pehle]] under the subject "Union Banking Corporation," reports that the corporation was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," that its president, Cornelis Lievense, claimed no knowledge of that ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest, and that Heinrich Thyssen was said to have acquired Hungarian citizenship.[^1]
|
||||
A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to Mr. [[J. W. Pehle]] under the subject "Union Banking Corporation," reports that the corporation was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," that its president, Cornelis Lievense, claimed no knowledge of that ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest, and that Heinrich Thyssen was said to have acquired Hungarian citizenship.[^2]
|
||||
|
||||
The memorandum records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It states that the rumor that Fritz Thyssen had large gold deposits in the United States might have arisen from those purchases, while adding that all purchases were "satisfactorily accounted for" in the books. It states that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^1] The memorandum does not name [[Prescott Bush]].[^1]
|
||||
The memorandum records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It states that the rumor that Fritz Thyssen had large gold deposits in the United States might have arisen from those purchases, while adding that all purchases were "satisfactorily accounted for" in the books. It states that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^2] The memorandum does not name [[Prescott Bush]].[^2] The [[The Guardian|Guardian]] dated the same memorandum August 16, 1941.[^3]
|
||||
|
||||
### Vesting Order Number 248
|
||||
|
||||
On October 20, 1942 the Alien Property Custodian, Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942. It vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock, and listed the registered owners and their shares: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991; Cornelius Lievense, 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; H. J. Kouwenhoven, 1; and Johann G. Groeninger, 1. The order states "all of which shares are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested all claims of that bank and of the August Thyssen-Bank, Berlin, against the corporation for indebtedness.[^2]
|
||||
On October 20, 1942 the Alien Property Custodian, Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942. It vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock, and listed the registered owners and their shares: [[E. Roland Harriman]], 3,991; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; [[Harold D. Pennington]], 1; [[Ray Morris]], 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order states "all of which shares are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested all claims of that bank and of the August Thyssen-Bank, Berlin, against the corporation for indebtedness.[^1]
|
||||
|
||||
### Holders and Directors
|
||||
|
||||
Of the seven registered holders in the vesting order, four were connected with Brown Brothers Harriman. E. Roland Harriman became a partner of the Harriman bank on October 30, 1926 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Prescott Bush was a partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Ray Morris was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956. Harold D. Pennington was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, manager in charge of operations of the merged firm from its start, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956.[^4] The Yale class history of 1917 states of Edward Roland Noel Harriman, "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones," and of Prescott Sheldon Bush, "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^5]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Antony C. Sutton]] described the corporation in 1976 as "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," wrote that the Harrimans had a financial interest in it, described the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart as a Thyssen front bank in Holland that controlled it, and named E. Roland Harriman, a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., and H. J. Kouwenhoven as directors in a table of its directors in 1932.[^6] In his 1983 book on Skull and Bones he listed eight directors: E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co.; [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] as a partner of Brown Brothers & Co.; Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman; [[Knight Woolley]] as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]; Cornelius Lievense as president; and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann G. Groeninger and [[J. L. Guinter]]. He wrote that four of the directors were members of the Yale class of 1917 and of the same society, and that Kouwenhoven and Groeninger were directors of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which he described as the former von Heydt bank.[^7] The firm's partner table gives November 25, 1932 as the date of James's death.[^4]
|
||||
|
||||
### Holland-American Trading and Seamless Steel Equipment, 1942
|
||||
|
||||
Vesting Order Number 259 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation of 500 shares of $100 par value stock, registered in the name of Cornelius Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Vesting Order Number 261 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], also a New York corporation with 500 shares, held by E. Roland Harriman (491 shares), Lievense (4), and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger (1 share each), for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Both orders were executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on December 19, 1942.[^8][^9] The Guardian described both companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the seizure of the Union Banking Corporation.[^10]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Guardian Account, 2004
|
||||
|
||||
[[Ben Aris]] and [[Duncan Campbell]] reported in the Guardian in 2004 that the incorporation documents of the corporation "list him as one of seven directors" and show that Prescott Bush owned one share worth $125.[^11] They also reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation. Jones named the directors of the bank in that memorandum, including Bush, and wrote that the stock was "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^12]
|
||||
|
||||
### Footnotes
|
||||
|
||||
[^1]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
|
||||
[^2]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
|
||||
[^1]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
|
||||
[^2]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
|
||||
[^3]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, which gives the date of the report as "August 16 1941." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
|
||||
[^4]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), partner table pp. 231 to 235 and caption of the Pennington photograph pp. 197 to 198. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
|
||||
[^5]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
|
||||
[^6]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 103 (Table 7-1 and text on the 1932 directors and the joint Thyssen-Harriman operation) and pp. 106 to 107 (E. Roland Harriman).
|
||||
[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983; Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection," with the table of the eight directors in 1932.
|
||||
[^8]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942, filed December 18, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626 to 10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
|
||||
[^9]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
|
||||
[^10]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
|
||||
[^11]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
|
||||
[^12]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the Homer Jones memorandum from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
|
||||
|
|
|
|||
|
|
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
created: 2026-10-15
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-15
|
||||
updated: 2026-10-26
|
||||
title: Yale University
|
||||
aliases:
|
||||
- Yale
|
||||
|
|
@ -30,83 +30,83 @@ relations:
|
|||
role: "assistant professor of English; OSS Library Project collector in Istanbul from April 1943; returned to Yale in the summer of 1946"
|
||||
start: 1943
|
||||
end: 1946
|
||||
fn: 13
|
||||
fn: 24
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Richard Bissell]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "doctorate in economics, 1939; taught economics at Yale before moving to MIT in 1942"
|
||||
start: 1939
|
||||
end: 1942
|
||||
fn: 22
|
||||
fn: 33
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Sherman Kent]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "history professor before 1941; left for the OSS Research and Analysis Branch; returned in 1947 or 1949 (the CIA essays give both); left for the CIA in 1950"
|
||||
start: 1933
|
||||
end: 1950
|
||||
fn: 21
|
||||
fn: 32
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Mark A. May]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "professor of educational psychology; director of the Institute of Human Relations, 1935 to 1961"
|
||||
start: 1927
|
||||
end: 1960
|
||||
fn: 25
|
||||
fn: 36
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Stanley Milgram]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "conducted the obedience experiments in the Yale interaction laboratory; at Harvard by 1963"
|
||||
start: 1960
|
||||
end: 1963
|
||||
fn: 28
|
||||
fn: 39
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Myron S. Malkin]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "member of the physics faculty"
|
||||
start: 1952
|
||||
end: 1961
|
||||
fn: 37
|
||||
fn: 48
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[José M. R. Delgado]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Department of Psychiatry; came to Yale in 1952 as an instructor"
|
||||
start: 1952
|
||||
fn: 30
|
||||
fn: 41
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Robert B. Livingston]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under John F. Fulton"
|
||||
start: 1946
|
||||
end: 1952
|
||||
fn: 31
|
||||
fn: 42
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[Robert Byck]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine; testified before the House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control on July 26, 1979"
|
||||
start: 1979
|
||||
end: 1979
|
||||
fn: 42
|
||||
fn: 53
|
||||
- type: employed_by
|
||||
with: "[[José A. Cabranes]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "general counsel and director of government relations"
|
||||
start: 1975
|
||||
end: 1979
|
||||
fn: 47
|
||||
fn: 58
|
||||
- type: head_of
|
||||
with: "[[Richard Levin]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "twenty-second president"
|
||||
start: 1993
|
||||
end: 2013
|
||||
fn: 66
|
||||
fn: 77
|
||||
- type: funded
|
||||
with: "[[Thiel Foundation]]"
|
||||
reverse: true
|
||||
role: "$25,000 grant to Yale University for education, 2006"
|
||||
start: 2006
|
||||
end: 2006
|
||||
fn: 65
|
||||
fn: 76
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Yale University is a private university in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], chartered by the [[Connecticut Colony]] in 1701 as a collegiate school. Its senior society [[Skull and Bones]], its wartime faculty recruited into the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], its psychology, psychiatry and neurophysiology laboratories, and its alumni in the federal courts and the executive branch appear in the records of intelligence services, behavioral research, parapsychology, drug policy and finance.
|
||||
|
|
@ -119,75 +119,81 @@ The General Court of the Colony of Connecticut passed an "Act for a Collegiate S
|
|||
|
||||
[[David A. Richards]], who is writing a history of American college societies and whose name the magazine's editors note appears in the Class of 1967 list of Skull and Bones members, wrote in the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015 that Skull and Bones was founded in 1832 on the conception of [[William Huntington Russell]], the valedictorian of the Class of 1833, with [[Alphonso Taft]] as a cofounder, and that its members called it the Eulogian Club before a skull and crossbones sketched on a chapel-door notice gave it its name and its badge number, 322. He wrote that in 1856 the society's alumni incorporated it in Connecticut as a trust called the Russell Trust Association, so that a corporation could hold title to the windowless "tomb" on High Street, which was later estimated to have cost about $30,000.[^3] A reader's letter in the same magazine, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book *The China Mirage*, stated that the money for the 1856 building was "Russell money" traced to [[Russell and Company]] of Canton, "America's biggest smuggler of Turkish opium into China."[^4] The Connecticut Secretary of the State's business registry lists "The Russell Trust Association" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," status "Active," account number 0269315.[^5]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. He wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society.[^6] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^7] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^8]
|
||||
[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists, among the undergraduate honors of Stimson, B.A. 1888, "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^6] Rosenbaum also wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society.[^7] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^8] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^9]
|
||||
|
||||
[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^9] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^10]
|
||||
[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^10] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^11]
|
||||
|
||||
The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^11] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^12]
|
||||
The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^12] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^13]
|
||||
|
||||
A special act of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856 incorporated the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only"; the act limited its holdings of real and personal estate to fifteen thousand dollars, and an act approved July 9, 1943 raised the limit to seven hundred thousand dollars.[^14] In 1961 the members incorporated RTA Incorporated as a Connecticut nonstock corporation "for exclusively educational purposes," including "the support of education at Yale University," with its assets on dissolution payable to Yale University.[^15] RTA Incorporated (EIN 06-0768741) is recognized by the [[Internal Revenue Service]] as a section 501(c)(3) organization and reports itself as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization of Yale University; its return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 reports total assets of $16,127,481, and the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890 for the period ending June 2025.[^16][^17] A Yale spokeswoman told the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2009 that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^18]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s book states that the Sterling Library at Yale, which holds major holdings of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to the Russell Trust papers.[^19] Ron Rosenbaum reported in 1977 that he found the File and Claw pamphlet in the library's manuscript room, filed under the corporate name Russell Trust Association.[^20]
|
||||
|
||||
In 2017 a pro se complaint, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), named Yale University, the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush and Willard Mitt Romney as defendants. It alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]] and asked for its return for burial in Mexico City. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^21] In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, twenty descendants of Geronimo sued Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones in 2009 over the removal of Geronimo's remains, which the opinion places "in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] dismissed the complaint as to all defendants in a memorandum opinion of July 27, 2010.[^22] The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 a letter of June 7, 1918 from one member to another stating that the skull of Geronimo had been taken from [[Fort Sill]] and was "safe inside" the society's building.[^23]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Library Project, the Research and Analysis Branch and X-2
|
||||
|
||||
Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^13] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^14] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^15]
|
||||
Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^24] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^25] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^26]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^16] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^17] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^18] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^19]
|
||||
[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^27] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^28] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^29] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^30]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^20] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^21]
|
||||
[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^31] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^32]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^22] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^23]
|
||||
[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^33] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^34]
|
||||
|
||||
### The 1958 Conference on America's Human Resources
|
||||
|
||||
A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^24]
|
||||
A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^35]
|
||||
|
||||
### The Institute of Human Relations and behavioral research
|
||||
|
||||
The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^25] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^26]
|
||||
The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^36] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^37]
|
||||
|
||||
The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^27]
|
||||
The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^38]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^28]
|
||||
[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^39]
|
||||
|
||||
### Neuroelectric research, psychoenergetics and the STARGATE file
|
||||
|
||||
[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^29] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^30]
|
||||
[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^40] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^41]
|
||||
|
||||
The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^31]
|
||||
The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^42]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^32] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^33] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^34]
|
||||
[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^43] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^44] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^45]
|
||||
|
||||
A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^35] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^36]
|
||||
A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^46] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^47]
|
||||
|
||||
### Physics, the Space Shuttle and Dimona
|
||||
|
||||
[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^37] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^38]
|
||||
[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^48] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^49]
|
||||
|
||||
### Walt Rostow, Eugene Rostow and the Yale Law School
|
||||
|
||||
[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^39] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^40] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^41]
|
||||
[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^50] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^51] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^52]
|
||||
|
||||
### Pharmacology and the 1979 cocaine hearings
|
||||
|
||||
[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^42] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^43] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^44]
|
||||
[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^53] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^54] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^55]
|
||||
|
||||
### Yale-China
|
||||
|
||||
The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^45] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^46]
|
||||
The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^56] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^57]
|
||||
|
||||
### Courts, the Law School and the executive branch
|
||||
|
||||
[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^47] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^48]
|
||||
[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^58] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^59]
|
||||
|
||||
[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^49] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^50] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^51] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^52] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^53] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^54] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^55]
|
||||
[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^60] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^61] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^62] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^63] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^64] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^65] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^66]
|
||||
|
||||
Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^56] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^57] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^58] [[Cory Booker]],[^59] [[Ro Khanna]],[^60] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^61] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^62] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^63] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^64]
|
||||
Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^67] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^68] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^69] [[Cory Booker]],[^70] [[Ro Khanna]],[^71] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^72] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^73] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^74] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^75]
|
||||
|
||||
### Money, presidents and families
|
||||
|
||||
The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^65] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^66] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^67] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^68] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^69]
|
||||
The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^76] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^77] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^78] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^79] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^80]
|
||||
|
||||
The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^70] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^71] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^72] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^73]
|
||||
The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^81] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^82] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^83] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^84]
|
||||
|
||||
Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^74] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^75] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^76]
|
||||
Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^85] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^86] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^87]
|
||||
|
||||
### Footnotes
|
||||
|
||||
|
|
@ -195,75 +201,86 @@ Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1
|
|||
[^2]: "An Act for the more full and compleat Establishment of Yale College in New Haven, and for enlarging the Powers and Priviledges thereof," General Court, May 1745, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from May, 1744, to November, 1750*, ed. Charles J. Hoadly (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1876), pp. 113-114. https://archive.org/details/publicrecordsofc009conn
|
||||
[^3]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
|
||||
[^4]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article; the letter cites James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
|
||||
[^5]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json
|
||||
[^6]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. Cited as the McGeorge Bundy page cites it.
|
||||
[^7]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/
|
||||
[^8]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
|
||||
[^9]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
|
||||
[^10]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
|
||||
[^11]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
|
||||
[^12]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220.
|
||||
[^13]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
|
||||
[^14]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
|
||||
[^15]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
|
||||
[^16]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
|
||||
[^17]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
|
||||
[^18]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
|
||||
[^19]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
|
||||
[^20]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
|
||||
[^21]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
|
||||
[^22]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
|
||||
[^23]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
|
||||
[^24]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
|
||||
[^25]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
|
||||
[^26]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
|
||||
[^27]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
|
||||
[^28]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551
|
||||
[^29]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^30]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^31]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^32]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017).
|
||||
[^33]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/
|
||||
[^34]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^35]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^36]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^37]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html
|
||||
[^38]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12.
|
||||
[^39]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
|
||||
[^40]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america
|
||||
[^41]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
|
||||
[^42]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
|
||||
[^43]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
|
||||
[^44]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15.
|
||||
[^45]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/
|
||||
[^46]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365
|
||||
[^47]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
|
||||
[^48]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
|
||||
[^49]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt
|
||||
[^50]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org.
|
||||
[^51]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*.
|
||||
[^52]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts
|
||||
[^53]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006).
|
||||
[^54]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205.
|
||||
[^55]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page.
|
||||
[^56]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
|
||||
[^57]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/
|
||||
[^58]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html
|
||||
[^59]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory
|
||||
[^60]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
|
||||
[^61]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016).
|
||||
[^62]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
|
||||
[^63]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
|
||||
[^64]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
|
||||
[^65]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf
|
||||
[^66]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/
|
||||
[^67]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
|
||||
[^68]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf
|
||||
[^69]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025.
|
||||
[^70]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder
|
||||
[^71]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page.
|
||||
[^72]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/
|
||||
[^73]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ
|
||||
[^74]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846
|
||||
[^75]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
|
||||
[^76]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf
|
||||
[^5]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315); record "RTA INCORPORATED" (account number 0059060, registered April 14, 1961, 64 High Street, New Haven), the successor corporation. https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json
|
||||
[^6]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
|
||||
[^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
|
||||
[^8]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/
|
||||
[^9]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
|
||||
[^10]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
|
||||
[^11]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
|
||||
[^12]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
|
||||
[^13]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220.
|
||||
[^14]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the 1856 act incorporating the Russell Trust Association and the 1943 amending act, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^15]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 697 to 700; Connecticut Business Registry, account 0059060 (registered April 14, 1961). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
|
||||
[^16]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021, Schedule A. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
|
||||
[^17]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06. https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
|
||||
[^18]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
|
||||
[^19]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
|
||||
[^20]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
|
||||
[^21]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 7, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
|
||||
[^22]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
|
||||
[^23]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
|
||||
[^24]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
|
||||
[^25]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
|
||||
[^26]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
|
||||
[^27]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
|
||||
[^28]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
|
||||
[^29]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
|
||||
[^30]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
|
||||
[^31]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
|
||||
[^32]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
|
||||
[^33]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
|
||||
[^34]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
|
||||
[^35]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
|
||||
[^36]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
|
||||
[^37]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
|
||||
[^38]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
|
||||
[^39]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551
|
||||
[^40]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^41]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^42]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^43]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017).
|
||||
[^44]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/
|
||||
[^45]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^46]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^47]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
|
||||
[^48]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html
|
||||
[^49]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12.
|
||||
[^50]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
|
||||
[^51]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america
|
||||
[^52]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
|
||||
[^53]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
|
||||
[^54]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
|
||||
[^55]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15.
|
||||
[^56]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/
|
||||
[^57]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365
|
||||
[^58]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
|
||||
[^59]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
|
||||
[^60]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt
|
||||
[^61]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org.
|
||||
[^62]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*.
|
||||
[^63]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts
|
||||
[^64]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006).
|
||||
[^65]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205.
|
||||
[^66]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page.
|
||||
[^67]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
|
||||
[^68]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/
|
||||
[^69]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html
|
||||
[^70]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory
|
||||
[^71]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
|
||||
[^72]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016).
|
||||
[^73]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
|
||||
[^74]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
|
||||
[^75]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
|
||||
[^76]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf
|
||||
[^77]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/
|
||||
[^78]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
|
||||
[^79]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf
|
||||
[^80]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025.
|
||||
[^81]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder
|
||||
[^82]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page.
|
||||
[^83]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/
|
||||
[^84]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ
|
||||
[^85]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846
|
||||
[^86]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
|
||||
[^87]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf
|
||||
|
|
|
|||
Loading…
Add table
Add a link
Reference in a new issue