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---
aliases:
- Brown Brothers Harriman
- Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.
- Brown Brothers Harriman & Company
- Brown Brothers, Harriman & Co.
- Brown Brothers, Harriman and Company
- Brown Bros., Harriman & Co.
- BBH
- BBH & Co.
- Brown Brothers & Co.
- Brown Brothers and Company
- Brown Bros. & Co.
category: "Private Organization"
tags:
- Organization
- Banking
- PrivateBank
- Partnership
- Harriman
- SkullAndBones
- Nicaragua
- Thyssen
- Nazi
- WorldWarII
- ColdWar
- CovertAction
- FINRA
summary: "Private New York partnership bank formed January 1, 1931 from Brown Brothers & Co. and two Harriman firms, whose partners made the Nicaragua loans of 1911 and 1912 and filled senior Washington posts."
start: 1931-01-01
location: "New York, New York"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
reverse: true
start: 1931-01-01
role: "vice-president and director of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. and partner in Harriman Brothers & Co. from January 1, 1930; partner in the merged firm from January 1, 1931"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Robert A. Lovett]]"
reverse: true
start: 1926-01-01
end: 1940-12-16
role: "partner; rejoined June 1, 1946 to May 15, 1947, April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950 and from March 1, 1953"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
reverse: true
start: 1931-01-01
role: "partner (of W. A. Harriman & Co. from October 30, 1926); registered holder of 3,991 of 4,000 Union Banking Corporation shares in 1942"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
reverse: true
start: 1931-01-01
end: 1946-10-31
role: "partner until he became Secretary of Commerce; limited partner afterward"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Ellery Sedgwick James]]"
reverse: true
start: 1925-01-01
end: 1932-11-25
role: "partner of Brown Brothers & Co. and of the merged firm until his death"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Knight Woolley]]"
reverse: true
start: 1931-01-01
end: 1956-01-01
role: "general manager and managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. (partner from January 1, 1929); partner of the merged firm"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Thatcher Magoun Brown]]"
reverse: true
start: 1907-01-01
end: 1954-05-02
role: "partner; managing partner at the 1930 merger according to Karabell; author of the firm's 1950 history"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Moreau Delano]]"
reverse: true
start: 1907-01-01
end: 1936-12-04
role: "partner"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Charles J. Rhoads]]"
reverse: true
start: 1921-01-01
end: 1929-06-30
role: "partner; left to become Commissioner of Indian Affairs under President Herbert Hoover"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Ray Morris]]"
reverse: true
start: 1921-01-01
end: 1956-01-01
role: "partner; registered holder of 1 Union Banking Corporation share in 1942"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Harold D. Pennington]]"
reverse: true
start: 1931-01-01
end: 1956-12-31
role: "manager of operations from the merger and partner from January 1, 1945; registered holder of 1 Union Banking Corporation share in 1942"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Thomas McCance]]"
reverse: true
start: 1945-01-01
role: "partner; listed with the firm in the Council on Foreign Relations table of November 1951"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Robert V. Roosa]]"
reverse: true
start: 1965-01-01
end: 1991-01-01
role: "partner after resigning as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs"
fn: 19
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[Nicaragua]]"
start: 1911-09-01
end: 1924-01-01
role: "lender and fiscal agent under the agreement of September 1, 1911, the supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 and the agreement of November 4, 1912; repaid in 1924 according to Thatcher M. Brown"
fn: 40
- type: investigated
with: "[[New York Stock Exchange]]"
reverse: true
start: 2006-11-13
role: "Hearing Board decision HPD 06-200: violation of NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b); censure and $170,000 fine"
fn: 52
- type: investigated
with: "[[New York State Banking Department]]"
reverse: true
start: 2007-08-01
role: "written agreement requiring improvement of anti-money laundering controls, recited in the 2014 FINRA order"
fn: 54
- type: investigated
with: "[[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]]"
reverse: true
start: 2014-02-04
role: "Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401 on anti-money laundering failures involving penny stock; censure and $8,000,000 fine"
fn: 54
- type: investigated
with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
reverse: true
start: 2014-09-10
role: "cease-and-desist order, File No. 3-16076, for late Section 16(a) filings and Schedule 13G amendments; $120,000 civil penalty"
fn: 53
---
Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. is a private banking partnership in [[New York City|New York]]. Effective January 1, 1931 the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., [[Harriman Brothers & Co.]] and [[W. A. Harriman & Co.]], Inc. were united in the co-partnership firm of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^1] Its partners included [[Robert A. Lovett]], [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[E. Roland Harriman]] and [[Prescott Bush]], and it appears in the record of the [[Nicaragua]] customs loans of 1911 and 1912, the [[Union Banking Corporation]] and the Cold War intelligence establishment.
### Formation of the Firm
The Brown partnership descends from [[Alexander Brown]], a [[Belfast]] linen merchant who emigrated to the United States in 1800. In 1818 he founded [[Alex. Brown & Sons]], according to the finding aid for the firm's records at the [[New-York Historical Society]].[^2] [[Time]] dated the house differently, stating that it was "formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, previously a linen merchant."[^3] The finding aid records that Alexander Brown's eldest son William founded [[William Brown & Co.]] in [[Liverpool]] in 1810, which became [[Brown Shipley & Co.]] in 1839 and separated from Brown Brothers as a distinct business in 1918.[^2] The partner table in the firm's 1968 history lists [[Montagu Norman]] as a partner of the Brown Shipley house from 1900 to 1915, before he became Governor of the [[Bank of England]].[^4] By 1929 only three of the twelve Brown Brothers partners were Browns: the senior partner [[James Brown]] and his cousins James Crosby Brown and [[Thatcher Magoun Brown]].[^5]
W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. was organized on November 13, 1919 under the management of W. Averell Harriman, [[George Herbert Walker]] (president from 1920 until 1930) and Prescott Bush. The firm opened an office in [[Berlin]] in 1922, extended short-term credits to German industries, helped finance zinc mines in [[Silesia]], and in 1928 financed the [[Aviation Corporation]], which became [[Pan American World Airways]].[^6] Time reported that in 1920 Averell Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea" and formed an alliance with the [[Hamburg-American Line]], that he was thwarted in it, and that the firm "made many a loan in [[Germany]]."[^3] On St. Patrick's Day, 1927, the Harrimans set up a partnership bank, originally called W. A. Harriman & Co. without the "Inc." and soon renamed Harriman Brothers & Co. [[Knight Woolley]] of the foreign department of the American Exchange National Bank became its general manager. The bank started with four employees, capital from the Harrimans and M. Samuel & Co., Ltd., and Averell Harriman's instruction, "Here's four million. Go ahead and run the bank."[^7] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date E. Roland Harriman and Averell Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank and describes Woolley as general manager "from its founding in 1926."[^4] The first bankers acceptance created by the bank, dated October 24, 1927, financed a German metal refining company's import of Chilean copper. The minute book of the bank's partners records for 1927 that Woolley accepted, through [[Ellery Sedgwick James]], "the offer of a $250,000 participation" with Brown Brothers & Co. and two other banks in an acceptance credit for a Berlin metal firm.[^8]
The firm's 1968 history, written by [[John A. Kouwenhoven]], quotes the 1950 firm history by Thatcher M. Brown that "it became clear to us, during the year 1930, that we were doing too large a business for our capital," after losses on securities underwritten before the 1929 crash and the withdrawal of capital by older partners.[^9] The merger was announced on December 12, 1930, according to [[Zachary Karabell]], who wrote that the announcement appeared on the front page of [[The New York Times]] on the day the Bank of United States collapsed, and that clerks carried the Harriman family's securities from 39 Broadway to 59 Wall Street under armed guard.[^10] The finding aid lists newspaper clippings announcing the merger and a clipping reporting Woolley's election as a director, dated December 12, 1930 to January 23, 1931.[^2] Time reported on December 22, 1930 that the two houses had merged "last week," counting sixteen partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman & Co., eleven of them [[Yale University|Yale]] graduates.[^3] The printed circular announcing the union is dated January 2, 1931 and states that the businesses were united "effective January 1, 1931."[^1] The chronology in the finding aid to the W. Averell Harriman papers at the [[Library of Congress]] lists him as partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1931 to 1946.[^11] The firm's history page counts seventeen partners, twelve of them Yale graduates.[^12] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that before 1933 the firm "consisted of two firms," W. A. Harriman Company and Brown Brothers, and gave 1933 as the year of the merger.[^13]
Three accounts place the origin of the merger on a train to a Yale event. The firm's history page states that "according to firm lore" the idea was first floated among six partners in November 1930 on the train from New York to [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] for the Yale-[[Harvard University|Harvard]] football game.[^12] Karabell described a railcar chartered on the New Haven line from Grand Central Station to a Yale reunion on a fall day in 1930, and wrote, "Roland wasn't on the train that day, but Ellery James and Knight Woolley were."[^10] Kouwenhoven placed the card game in the spring of 1930, with James, Woolley and Prescott Bush traveling to a Yale reunion with two other classmates, and called it a story "now current in various versions, as all good legends are." He recorded Thatcher Brown's recollection that James first suggested talking with the Harrimans, and Roland Harriman's recollection that James spoke to him about "working under one roof" before the crash of 1929.[^9]
The firm's history page states that in 1931, a few months after the merger closed, Germany declared a Stillhalte (standstill) on debt payments to foreign private creditors, including over $10 million in credits from the firm, roughly the size of its entire capital, against liabilities of nearly ten times that amount, and that "an emergency infusion of $10 million from the Harrimans, Averell and Roland, staved off collapse."[^12] Karabell wrote, "Every Brown Brothers partner was personally exposed."[^10] The firm's 1968 history states that the Banking Act of 1933 required private banking houses to choose between underwriting and deposit banking, that Brown Brothers Harriman remained a bank of deposit, and that several partners resigned on June 9, 1934 to join Brown Harriman & Co., Inc. in the investment banking business.[^14][^4]
### The Partners
Time named the partners it considered most prominent. It described Ellery Sedgwick James as a Brown Brothers partner and a classmate of E. Roland Harriman, Prescott Bush and Knight Woolley. It described Robert A. Lovett as a partner and the son of Judge [[Robert Scott Lovett]], "longtime personal attorney and close friend of the late Edward Henry Harriman and now chairman of his Union Pacific."[^3]
The partner table in Kouwenhoven's history gives the dates. James was a partner of Brown Brothers from January 1, 1925 and died on November 25, 1932. Lovett became a partner on January 1, 1926 and left on December 16, 1940 for Washington, rejoining on June 1, 1946, April 1, 1949 and March 1, 1953. Woolley became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1929 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Bush became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Averell Harriman was a partner of the merged firm from January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946, and a limited partner afterward. [[Ray Morris]] was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956, [[Charles J. Rhoads]] from January 1, 1921 to June 30, 1929, [[Thomas McCance]] from January 1, 1945 and [[Robert V. Roosa]] from January 1, 1965.[^4] [[Harold D. Pennington]] was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, a manager of the merged firm, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956. Kouwenhoven wrote that he was from the start manager in charge of operations for the new concern and that he walked behind the handcarts that moved the Harriman securities to the vault at 59 Wall Street with a pistol in his pocket.[^15] [[Moreau Delano]] (1877 to 1936) was a partner from 1907, and Thatcher M. Brown (1876 to 1954) from 1907 to May 2, 1954.[^4]
Karabell described Thatcher Brown, great-grandson of Alexander Brown, as managing partner of the Brown firm and Woolley as managing partner of "another one of the Harriman firms."[^10] The New-York Historical Society finding aid lists images of the Thatcher Brown and Moreau Delano partnerships, one dated January 1, 1907, and holds the Moreau Delano papers for 1931 to 1935. It lists Thatcher M. Brown's papers for 1890 to 1966 and his firm history *Brown Brothers & Co. [and] Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1900-1950*. The records were gathered in part to support *Partners in Banking*, which Kouwenhoven wrote after the firm hired him in 1964 as Director of the Historical Files and which [[Doubleday & Co.]] commissioned for the firm's 150th anniversary in 1968.[^2]
Robert A. Lovett married Adele Quartley Brown, daughter of the senior partner James Brown, in 1919, joined Brown Brothers in 1921, was granted a power of attorney in January 1925 and was admitted to partnership in 1926. In that year he was also elected a director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] and member of its executive committee. Kouwenhoven recorded that Roland Harriman and Lovett met as eight-year-old boys in 1903.[^16] A November 1951 table of corporations whose officers belonged to the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^17] A 1981 North American roster of the [[Trilateral Commission]] lists Robert V. Roosa as a partner of the firm.[^18] The Kennedy Library's biographical note records that Roosa was a director of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1966 to 1981.[^19]
### Public Service of the Partners
Thatcher Brown wrote in 1950 that public service "was more or less expected of the leaders of our business." Kouwenhoven recorded that Averell Harriman chaired the Commerce Department's [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939, served with the [[National Recovery Administration]], the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the Office of Production Management, and went to Great Britain as President Roosevelt's special representative to coordinate lend-lease aid. During the war Roland Harriman managed the North Atlantic Area of the [[American Red Cross]] and Prescott Bush became national campaign chairman of the combined fund-raising drives of the [[United Service Organizations|USO]] and other wartime charities in 1942. Lovett was called to Washington in June 1940 as Special Assistant to the Secretary of War (the partner table dates the post from December 1940 to April 1941) and served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1941 to 1945. The firm's history reproduces the Distinguished Service Medal citation calling him "the eyes, ears, and hands of the Secretary of War in respect to the growth of that enormous American air power."[^20] President Truman appointed Roland Harriman president of the American Red Cross in 1950. Bush served as United States Senator from [[Connecticut]] from 1952 to 1962, and Lovett served as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949 and as Deputy Secretary and Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1953.[^21] The [[United States Senate]] timeline for Connecticut records that Bush won election to the Senate on November 4, 1952, "following a defeat in the 1950 election," and that he "served until 1963."[^22]
Roosa, who had served in London with the Enemy Objectives Unit of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in the Second World War, joined the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] after the war, served as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson until 1964, and worked at the firm from 1965 to 1991. He was chairman of the board of trustees of the [[Brookings Institution]] from 1975 to 1986.[^19] Kouwenhoven quoted the American Banker on Roosa's resignation from the Treasury: "one of the great innovators" in financial affairs.[^23] The finding aid lists correspondence about the appointment of partner Charles J. Rhoads as [[Commissioner of Indian Affairs]] in 1929, donated to the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1965.[^2]
### Robert A. Lovett and the Intelligence Establishment
Lovett's oral history at the [[Harry S. Truman Library]], recorded July 7, 1971, describes his move from the firm to the [[State Department]] in 1947. He recalled that the President telephoned him early in the morning at a superintendent's cottage on his father's place in [[Locust Valley, New York|Locust Valley]]. The President told him, "I've got to get a new Secretary of State and I've signed up General Marshall on the condition which he made that you'd come down and be his Under Secretary." Lovett answered, "I've got to go and check with my partners; I've got to get permission to get out of the firm and the New York State Bank Department has to approve."[^24] The library's biographical summary lists his posts as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, private law practice with Brown Brothers, Harriman and Company from 1949 to 1950, Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1951, and later Secretary of Defense. The firm's partner table gives April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950 as his second period as partner.[^24][^4]
In the *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on the intelligence community, a memorandum of March 30, 1950 from [[George F. Kennan]] records that the [[National Security Council]] directive NSC 10/2 of June 1948 established an Office of Special Projects (later the [[Office of Policy Coordination]]) in the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to plan and conduct covert operations, and that Kennan's designation as the State Department's representative for the purpose was made known to the Council by a letter signed August 13, 1948 by Lovett.[^25] A State Department memorandum of October 15, 1952 recalls the "concept of General Marshall, Mr. Forrestal, Mr. Lovett and Mr. Kennan, when OPC was set up in the spring of 1948," that covert political warfare was of primary interest to the State Department.[^26] The first meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]], held on July 2, 1951 in the Director of Central Intelligence's conference room, was attended by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], Lovett as Deputy Secretary of Defense, [[Gordon Gray]], [[Allen Dulles]] and Edward Barrett for the Under Secretary of State.[^27] On October 24, 1952 President Truman addressed a memorandum on communications intelligence to Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] and Secretary of Defense Lovett, designating them a Special Committee of the National Security Council for the subject. The volume also prints a memorandum to Lovett from the Director of the [[National Security Agency]] and representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff.[^28] The volume lists Lovett as a member of the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee (the "Teapot Committee") from June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954 and of the [[President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities]] from January 13, 1956.[^29]
A State Department memorandum of December 22, 1955 reported that Allen Dulles had said the White House would soon announce the appointment of a Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, and listed the expected members as John E. Hull, Richard Connolly, James Doolittle, James Killian, David Bruce, Benjamin Fairless and Morris Hadley. The board was established by Executive Order 10656 of February 6, 1956.[^30] The Center for the Study of Intelligence newsletter of Spring 1995 states that [[David K. E. Bruce]] and Lovett prepared a report for President Eisenhower in the fall of 1956 and that they "had been charter members" of the board; the CIA History Staff searched the board's files, the Eisenhower Library, the National Archives and the Virginia Historical Society without finding it.[^31] [[Peter Grose]] wrote that Killian delegated Lovett and Bruce to investigate the covert action programs, and described Lovett as "a partner in the investment banking firm of Brown Brothers Harriman." Grose and [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]], who saw the report among Robert Kennedy's papers, quoted from it. Lovett told the Taylor board of inquiry on the Bay of Pigs in 1961 that Bruce "was very much disturbed" and that "instead of completing the report in thirty days we took two months or more." According to Schlesinger, the report found that "no one, other than those in the CIA immediately concerned with their day to day operation, has any detailed knowledge of what is going on," that a "horde of CIA representatives" was exerting "significant, almost unilateral influences" on the formulation of foreign policy, and asked whether anyone in an authoritative position was weighing "the long-range wisdom of activities which have entailed our virtual abandonment of the international 'golden rule.'"[^32] Schlesinger wrote that the full board's December 1956 statement on "the extremely informal and somewhat exclusive methods" used for clandestine projects was signed by another board member, [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], and that in its January 1961 report the board stated, "We have been unable to conclude that, on balance, all of the covert action programs undertaken by CIA up to this time have been worth the risk or the great expenditure of manpower, money and other resources involved." Schlesinger also wrote that when [[Richard Bissell]] and others briefed the board on the Cuban project in late 1960, "its members, Lovett particularly, registered dismay."[^32]
### Prescott Bush and the Union Banking Corporation
Karabell wrote that Bush had gone from selling rubber flooring to working as a vice president at Harriman with his college friend E. Roland Harriman, and that he had married the daughter of George Herbert Walker of [[St. Louis]].[^10] Kouwenhoven's caption describes Bush as vice-president and a director of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. and a partner in Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time of the merger, and as secretary of the [[United States Golf Association]] in 1932 and its president from 1935.[^6]
Bush appears in the records of the Union Banking Corporation, a New York company whose stock the [[Office of the Alien Property Custodian]] vested in 1942. Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value stock. It listed the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991 shares; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order says the shares were "held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam," which it describes as "owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested claims of that bank and of the August [[Thyssen-Bank]], Berlin, Germany, against the corporation for indebtedness. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^33] Of the seven holders, four (Harriman, Morris, Bush and Pennington) appear in the firm's partner table or staff records.[^4][^15]
A [[Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] memorandum of August 18, 1941 on the corporation records that it was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart of Rotterdam. It records that the corporation's president, Cornelius Lievense, claimed no knowledge of the bank's ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It also records gold purchases of more than eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It records that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^34]
Sutton wrote that the Union Banking Corporation was "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," and listed eight directors for 1932. He named E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., Ellery Sedgwick James as a partner of Brown Brothers, Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, Knight Woolley as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann Groninger, Cornelius Lievense and [[J. L. Guinter]] as the remaining directors.[^35] The 1942 vesting order lists Morris and Pennington among the registered holders. Kouwenhoven's partner table gives James's death as November 25, 1932.[^33][^4]
### The Yale Concentration
Time counted eleven Yale graduates among the sixteen partners, and the firm's history page counts twelve among seventeen.[^3][^12] Sutton's catalogue of [[Skull and Bones]] members by class year, printed in the 2002 edition of his book, gives Prescott Sheldon Bush, Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Knight Woolley for the class of 1917, W. Averell Harriman for the class of 1913, and Robert Abercrombie Lovett for the class of 1918. It also lists William Ellery Sedgwick James for the class of 1917.[^36] Sutton wrote that among the firm's 26 partners in the mid-1970s, no fewer than nine were members of the order, and listed [[Walter H. Brown]] (1945), Bush (1917), Granger Kent Costikyan (1929), E. Roland Harriman (1917), W. Averell Harriman (1913), Stephen Young Hord (1921), Lovett (1918), John Beckwith Madden (1941) and Woolley (1917).[^37] Karabell wrote that James and Woolley had each been sworn into Skull and Bones before enlisting in the military and that Lovett belonged to their circle.[^10] Kouwenhoven's table gives Hord's partnership as beginning January 1, 1945 in Chicago and Madden's on January 1, 1955.[^4]
### Nicaragua, 1911 to 1912
The firm's loans to the Republic of Nicaragua are documented in the *Foreign Relations of the United States* for 1911 and 1912. The headnote to the loan convention records that the Nicaraguan assembly ratified it on June 15 and July 7, 1911, and that it was "Still pending in the Senate of the United States."[^38] In a July 17, 1911 message the President proposed amending Article IV, under which the Nicaraguan government "will appoint from a list of names to be presented to it by the fiscal agent of the loan and approved by the President of the United States of America, a collector general of customs." The message proposed striking the words "who need not be a Nicaraguan and" from the article.[^39]
Brown Brothers and [[J. and W. Seligman and Company]] wrote to the Secretary of State on November 2, 1911 that "on September 1, 1911, we entered into an agreement with the Republic of Nicaragua, by which we undertook to make a temporary loan of $1,500,000, which the Republic urgently needed." The two houses had nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]], Surveyor of the Port of [[Manila]], as Collector General of Customs.[^40] On November 11, 1911 the Secretary of State told the Nicaraguan minister that he had approved the nomination.[^41]
The loans followed in a series of agreements. The houses reported the [[Ethelburga]] contract of December 9, 1911, which later failed.[^42] They reported a supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 for loans up to $775,000.[^43] Their June 3, 1912 letter reported contracts dated May 25, 1912 with the [[Corporation of Foreign Bondholders]].[^44] On August 2, 1912 the houses wrote that the Republic had asked for an immediate loan of $100,000 "for the purpose of enabling it to reestablish order," and that they would make it through the [[National Bank of Nicaragua]], which had opened at [[Managua]] on August 1. They wrote that "The entire capital stock of that Bank is pledged with us as security for the various loans which we have heretofore made to the Republic," and that "the Bank is under our management and control."[^45] On November 13, 1912 they reported an agreement dated November 4, 1912 and a separate fund of $400,000.[^46]
In a February 14, 1912 letter the American Minister wrote that the Legation "did not wish to take any official part in the business negotiations between the Nicaraguan Government and Brown Brothers et al."[^47] In 1914 the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations took testimony on the convention. [[Charles A. Douglas]], who said that "I have represented Nicaragua for a little over a year," testified that Ham was "nominated and put there really by the bankers with the assent of the Secretary of State." He said that Brown Brothers and Seligman were the only bankers he knew in connection with the Nicaraguan affair, and that the treaty "was never ratified."[^48] The same hearing volume prints a list of five agreements the committee received. Two of them were between the Republic and Brown Bros. & Co. and J. & W. Seligman & Co., one for the purchase of Treasury bills and one for the purchase of railroad and bank stock. The others were between the Republic and the National Bank of Nicaragua, the [[Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua]], and the [[United States Mortgage and Trust Company]].[^49] The finding aid lists an excerpt from Senate Committee on Foreign Relations confidential hearings on Nicaragua from October 1912, a transcript from June 1914, and a [[Linton Wells]] memorandum on the involvement of Brown Brothers and Seligman in Nicaraguan affairs covering 1911 to 1929.[^2]
Kouwenhoven reproduced a specimen of the 1912 Nicaraguan paper currency bearing the signature of James Brown, senior partner of Brown Brothers & Co., as "Presidente" of the Banco Nacional de Nicaragua. He recorded that [[Oswald Garrison Villard]] published an editorial entitled "The Republic of Brown Brothers" in *[[The Nation]]* on June 7, 1922, charging that the United States had reduced Haiti, Santo Domingo and Nicaragua "to the status of colonies." Kouwenhoven wrote that the firm's records, including James Brown's private diary and an unpublished account by Thatcher M. Brown, "suggest that it was quite the other way around," that the loan was made in 1911 at the request of the State Department, which "was anxious" for a one-year loan for currency reform and a bank headed by Americans. Thatcher Brown's account, quoted there, describes James Brown and Albert Straus of the Seligman firm before a Senate committee, Senator Williams's remark that "I always knew Wall Street bankers were crooks, but this is the first time I ever realized they were damn fools as well," and payment of the loans "principal and interest, in 1924." The J. G. White Engineering Corporation was employed by Brown Brothers and the Seligmans to put the country's railroads into operating condition.[^50]
### Later Records
The [[Office of Government Ethics]] disclosure that [[Jay Clayton]] filed on his nomination to the SEC listed Brown Brothers Harriman among the clients from which he had earned more than $5,000 in a year.[^51]
### Regulatory Record
The firm's FINRA registration record, CRD number 104487, classifies it as a partnership. It states that the firm "was formed in [[Pennsylvania]]," that its FINRA registration ran from January 4, 1933 to July 12, 2017, and that it ceased business on June 12, 2017. The record describes the bank as principally regulated by the [[New York State Department of Financial Services]] and the securities division as principally regulated by the [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]].[^52]
The record lists three regulatory events. The first is a [[New York Stock Exchange]] Hearing Board decision dated November 13, 2006 (case HPD 06-200). It found that the firm violated NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b) by failing to establish and maintain adequate policies, procedures and controls. The firm consented, without admitting or denying guilt, to a censure and a fine of $170,000.[^52]
The second is an order of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] dated September 10, 2014, File No. 3-16076. The order records that BBH "also serves as the general partner" of the BBH Fund, and that "BBH designated certain of its partners to exercise voting and investment power over investments of the BBH Fund and to serve as directors of the BBH Fund." It found failures to timely file Section 16(a) reports concerning two corporations in which the firm held more than 10 percent, and failures to amend Schedule 13G filings. The firm consented without admitting or denying the findings and paid a civil penalty of $120,000.[^53]
The third is a FINRA Acceptance, Waiver and Consent, No. 2013035821401, accepted by FINRA on February 4, 2014. Respondents were the firm and Harold A. Crawford, its Global Anti Money Laundering Compliance Officer from May 2007 through December 31, 2013. The order states that in August 2007 the firm and the then-named New York State Banking Department entered into a written agreement requiring it to improve its system of internal controls, policies and procedures on verifying the identities of account holders and to devote resources to an effective anti-money laundering program. For January 1, 2009 through June 30, 2013, FINRA found that the firm directly executed sales or, as a custodian, delivered to other firms the securities underlying the sale of at least 6 billion shares of low-priced securities, generating at least $850 million in proceeds to the sellers, less than 20 percent of it through transactions where the firm acted as executing broker. The firm conducted penny stock transactions for omnibus accounts of banks in Switzerland, Guernsey and Jersey on behalf of undisclosed underlying customers. FINRA found that the firm and Crawford were aware its brokerage activity had expanded when its Swiss bank clients "realized they could offer their underlying clients anonymous access to U.S. Securities markets." It found that the anti-money laundering program failed to monitor and investigate suspicious penny stock activity, including delivery-versus-payment transactions, failed to conduct adequate periodic reviews of correspondent accounts for foreign financial institutions, failed to ensure that suspicious activity was reported, and that the firm lacked a supervisory system to prevent the distribution of unregistered securities. The firm was censured and fined $8,000,000, and Crawford was suspended for one month and fined $25,000, without admitting or denying the findings. The firm's corrective action statement states that equity brokerage accounted for less than 1 percent of annual revenues in 2013 and that it announced in December 2013 a decision to close the business effective June 2014. The BrokerCheck record states that the firm paid the fine on February 12, 2014.[^54][^52]
The affiliated entities on the same record are [[Brown Brothers Harriman Investments]], LLC, [[Brown Brothers Harriman Credit Partners]], LLC, and the [[Brown Brothers Harriman Mutual Fund Advisory Department]].[^52]
### Footnotes
[^1]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), p. 19, circular of January 2, 1931 reproduced from the firm's Historical File; partner table on pp. 231 to 234 gives January 1, 1931. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^2]: Brown Brothers Harriman Records, MS 78, New-York Historical Society, Historical Note and series descriptions for Series I, Series IV, Series V and Series IX, finding aid hosted by New York University Libraries. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
[^3]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," *Time*, December 22, 1930. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html
[^4]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), "Partners of Brown Brothers & Co. and Brown Brothers Harriman & Co." table with dates and comments, pp. 231 to 235 (entries for Montagu Norman, James Brown, Thatcher M. Brown, Moreau Delano, Ellery Sedgewick James, Prescott Sheldon Bush, E. Roland Noel Harriman, William Averell Harriman, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, Knight Woolley, Ray Morris, Charles James Rhoads, Harold Douglas Pennington, Thomas McCance, Robert Vincent Roosa, Stephen Young Hord, John Beckwith Madden). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^5]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 192. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^6]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 12 to 13, text and caption of the photograph of Prescott S. Bush. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^7]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 13. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^8]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 14 to 15 (first bankers acceptance of October 24, 1927) and p. 16 (minute book entry of 1927). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^9]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's informal history of the firm. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^10]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 14 to 17 (passages quoted at pp. 15 to 16). https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
[^11]: W. Averell Harriman Papers, A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division (2016), Biographical Note (chronology 1891 to 1986). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^12]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history page. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
[^13]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), memoranda on Guaranty Trust and Brown Brothers, Harriman, and the Harriman chronology. The dating is Sutton's.
[^14]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 15, on the Banking Act of 1933 and the "Big Four" houses of 1931. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^15]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 197 to 198, caption of the photograph of Harold D. Pennington. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^16]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 17 to 18. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^17]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^18]: The Trilateral Commission, membership roster "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf
[^19]: Jennifer Marciello, "Collection Opening: Robert V. Roosa Personal Papers," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library archives blog, November 7, 2024. https://jfk.blogs.archives.gov/2024/11/07/collection-opening-robert-v-roosa-personal-papers
[^20]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 202 to 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^21]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^22]: United States Senate, Connecticut timeline, entry for November 4, 1952 (Prescott Bush). https://www.senate.gov/states/CT/timeline.htm
[^23]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 208. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^24]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript pp. 4 to 7, with the library's biographical summary. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra
[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 4, Memorandum from the Counselor of the Department of State (Kennan) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), March 30, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d4
[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 129, Memorandum from Robert P. Joyce of the Policy Planning Staff to the Under Secretary of State (Bruce), October 15, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d129
[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 78, Minutes of a Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board, July 2, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d78
[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 132, Memorandum from President Truman to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett, October 24, 1952, and document 136, Memorandum from the Director of the National Security Agency (Canine) and Representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense Lovett. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d132
[^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, list of persons, entry for Lovett, Robert A. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons
[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 247, Memorandum from the Secretary of State's Special Assistant for Intelligence and Research (Armstrong) to Secretary of State Dulles, December 22, 1955, with the editorial note on Executive Order 10656. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d247
[^31]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence Newsletter, no. 3 (Spring 1995), "The Elusive 'Bruce-Lovett Report.'" https://web.archive.org/web/2005/https://www.cia.gov/csi/bulletin/csi3.htm
[^32]: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., *Robert Kennedy and His Times* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 455 to 458, and Peter Grose, *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 444 to 448, (excerpts at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm)
[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^34]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
[^35]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection." The lists and characterizations are Sutton's.
[^36]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), membership catalogue by class year in the 2002 edition.
[^37]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, list of partners "who were also members of The Order in the mid 1970s." The count and list are Sutton's.
[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1478, headnote to the Loan Convention between the United States and Nicaragua. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1478
[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1480, Senate Executive E, 62d Congress, 1st session, amendments proposed in the President's message of July 17, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1480
[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1482, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 2, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482
[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1485, the Secretary of State to the Nicaraguan Minister, November 11, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1485
[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1486, December 13, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1486
[^43]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1504, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, April 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1504
[^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1509, June 3, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1509
[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1512, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, August 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1512
[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1517, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 13, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1517
[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1498, the American Minister to the Secretary of State, February 14, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1498
[^48]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), statement of Charles A. Douglas, counsel for the Government of Nicaragua. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
[^49]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), list of agreements submitted to the committee in May 1914. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
[^50]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 189 to 190, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's account; Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Republic of Brown Brothers," *The Nation*, June 7, 1922, as described there. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^51]: ProPublica, "Jay Clayton," *Trump Town*, from his OGE Form 278e financial disclosure (database updated October 2019). https://projects.propublica.org/trump-town/staffers/jay-clayton
[^52]: FINRA BrokerCheck, firm report for Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., CRD 104487, Disclosure Events, Firm Statement and Firm History sections. https://files.brokercheck.finra.org/firm/firm_104487.pdf
[^53]: Securities and Exchange Commission, Order Instituting Cease-and-Desist Proceedings, Release No. 34-73047 (September 10, 2014), File No. 3-16076, *In the Matter of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2014/34-73047.pdf
[^54]: Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Letter of Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401, *Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* (CRD 104487) and Harold A. Crawford (CRD 5326696), accepted February 4, 2014, with the Corrective Action Statement of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. https://www.finra.org/sites/default/files/fda_documents/2013035821401_FDA_D821567%20%282019-1562955575747%29.pdf

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@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ The fourth page of the November 1951 table lists corporations with officers who
### Officers and committees in 1952
For 1952 to 1953 the Council's officers were [[R. C. Leffingwell]] as chairman of the board, Allen W. Dulles as vice-chairman (on leave), [[Henry M. Wriston]] as president, David Rockefeller as vice-president, Frank Altschul as vice-president and secretary, [[Devereux C. Josephs]] as vice-president and treasurer, [[Walter H. Mallory]] as executive director (on leave) and George S. Franklin Jr. as acting executive director. The directors included W. Averell Harriman, [[William A. M. Burden]], [[John W. Davis]], [[Grayson Kirk]], [[Lewis W. Douglas]], [[Thomas K. Finletter]], [[Whitney H. Shepardson]] and Taylor. Rockefeller chaired the Membership Committee; Dulles sat on the Committee on Studies with Wriston, Armstrong, Dean, Mosely and others; Armstrong edited Foreign Affairs, whose Editorial Advisory Board comprised [[George H. Blakeslee]], Davis, Dulles, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George Kennan]], Langer, [[Charles H. McIlwain]], Seymour and Wriston.[^4]
For 1952 to 1953 the Council's officers were [[R. C. Leffingwell]] as chairman of the board, Allen W. Dulles as vice-chairman (on leave), [[Henry M. Wriston]] as president, David Rockefeller as vice-president, Frank Altschul as vice-president and secretary, [[Devereux C. Josephs]] as vice-president and treasurer, [[Walter H. Mallory]] as executive director (on leave) and George S. Franklin Jr. as acting executive director. The directors included [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[William A. M. Burden]], [[John W. Davis]], [[Grayson Kirk]], [[Lewis W. Douglas]], [[Thomas K. Finletter]], [[Whitney H. Shepardson]] and Taylor. Rockefeller chaired the Membership Committee; Dulles sat on the Committee on Studies with Wriston, Armstrong, Dean, Mosely and others; Armstrong edited Foreign Affairs, whose Editorial Advisory Board comprised [[George H. Blakeslee]], Davis, Dulles, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George Kennan]], Langer, [[Charles H. McIlwain]], Seymour and Wriston.[^4]
Membership stood at 927 on August 1, 1951 and 933 on August 1, 1952, in the classes resident (420 and 420), resident academic (164 and 167), junior (13 and 9), nonresident (160 and 160) and nonresident academic (170 and 177). The Committees on Foreign Relations held 191 meetings that year, and a grant from the Fund for Adult Education financed the reprinting of an article from Foreign Affairs nine times a year, with a discussion guide, for about 1,000 adult discussion groups.[^4]

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@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ relations:
role: "defendant with J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and a former employee in a copper trading suit in the Southern District of New York"
fn: 12
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-26
---
Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York was formed on April 24, 1959 by the merger of [[J.P. Morgan & Co.]] Incorporated and the Guaranty Trust Company of New York. A Senate staff study of January 1978 recorded that J.P. Morgan held all of its stock and that in 1976 it was "among the top 5 stockvoters in almost one-half of the 130 companies in the study." After J.P. Morgan merged into [[Chase Manhattan Corporation]] on December 31, 2000, the bank was "succeeded through merger by [[JPMorgan Chase]] Bank."[^1][^2][^3]
@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ On July 15, 1916 the Imperial Russian Government opened an account at the Guaran
### The Business Plot Hearings
In November 1934 the [[McCormack-Dickstein Committee|House Special Committee on Un-American Activities]] heard Major General [[Smedley Butler]], who testified that [[Gerald P. MacGuire|Gerald MacGuire]], a bond salesman at [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]], 52 Broadway, had proposed that he lead a veterans' organization. Butler said MacGuire gave him two names as the source of the money: "Colonel Murphy, Grayson M.-P. Murphy, for whom he worked, was one." MacGuire told the committee that Murphy was "my boss." Murphy had been senior vice president of Guaranty Trust from 1915 to 1917 and again from 1919 to 1920, and in 1936 was treasurer of the [[American Liberty League]], according to *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry.* The writer [[Antony C. Sutton]] described him as a director of the Guaranty Trust Company at the time of the hearings.[^5][^6]
In November 1934 the [[McCormack-Dickstein Committee|House Special Committee on Un-American Activities]] heard Major General [[Smedley Butler]], who testified that [[Gerald P. MacGuire|Gerald MacGuire]], a bond salesman at [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]], 52 Broadway, had proposed that he lead a veterans' organization. Butler said MacGuire gave him two names as the source of the money: "Colonel Murphy, Grayson M.-P. Murphy, for whom he worked, was one." MacGuire told the committee that Murphy was "my boss." Murphy had been senior vice president of Guaranty Trust from 1915 to 1917 and again from 1919 to 1920, and in 1936 was treasurer of the [[American Liberty League]], according to *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry.* The writer [[Antony C. Sutton]] described Murphy as "a director of several companies controlled by the J.P. Morgan interests, including the Guaranty Trust Company" in the early 1930s, and wrote that MacGuire showed Butler a bank book whose deposits he attributed to Murphy, "director of Guaranty Trust Company and other Morgan-controlled companies."[^5][^6]
On November 24, 1934 the committee's statement said that it had "no evidence before it that would in the slightest degree warrant calling before it such men as John W. Davis, [[Hugh S. Johnson|Gen. Hugh Johnson]], [[General Harbord]], [[Thomas W. Lamont]], [[Admiral Sims]], or [[Hanford MacNider]]."[^5] The reproduced release and testimony of the [[Business Plot]] hearings name Murphy as MacGuire's employer and as one of two sources of the money and do not mention the Guaranty Trust Company.[^5]
@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ Monthly "Asset Account Portfolio" statements of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of
[^2]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on Reports, Accounting and Management, *Interlocking Directorates Among the Major U.S. Corporations: A Staff Study,* Committee Print, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (January 1978), summary of findings. https://archive.org/details/interlockingdire00unit
[^3]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001 (filed March 22, 2002), Item 1, Item 14 Exhibit 4.1, and Management's Discussion. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm
[^4]: *Guaranty Trust Co. of New York v. United States,* 304 U.S. 126 (1938) (No. 566, argued March 28 and 29, decided April 25, 1938; opinion of Stone, J.). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/304/126
[^5]: House Special Committee on Un-American Activities (McCormack-Dickstein Committee), *Investigation of Un-American Activities,* statement of November 24, 1934 and testimony of Smedley D. Butler, Paul Comly French and Gerald P. MacGuire, November 20 to 22, 1934, as reproduced in "The Plot to Overthrow FDR." https://archive.org/details/McCormackDicksteinCommittee ; Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and FDR* (Arlington House, 1975), ch. 10. https://archive.org/details/wall-street-and-fdr-1975
[^5]: House Special Committee on Un-American Activities (McCormack-Dickstein Committee), *Investigation of Un-American Activities,* statement of November 24, 1934 and testimony of Smedley D. Butler, Paul Comly French and Gerald P. MacGuire, November 20 to 22, 1934, as reproduced in "The Plot to Overthrow FDR." https://archive.org/details/McCormackDicksteinCommittee ; Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and FDR* (Arlington House, 1975), ch. 10, "FDR: Man on the White Horse," pp. 145, 147 (Murphy as director; the bank book passage at p. 145). https://archive.org/details/wall-street-and-fdr-1975
[^6]: *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry* (1936), entry "Murphy, Grayson Mallet-Prevost" ("Senior Vice-Pres., Guaranty Trust Co., 1915-17"; "Resumed position with Guaranty Trust Co., 1919-20"; "Treas., American Liberty League"). https://archive.org/details/whoswhoincommerc00unse_0
[^7]: University of Pennsylvania, Kislak Center, finding aid for the Thomas Sovereign Gates, Jr. papers, biographical note; Gerald R. Ford Library, nomination of Thomas S. Gates as Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office, Beijing, 1976. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/legacy/upenn_rbml_PUSpMsColl1135
[^8]: Douglas A. Blackmon, "Silent Partner: How the South's Fight To Uphold Segregation Was Funded Up North," *The Wall Street Journal,* June 11, 1999, p. A1, reproduced at https://slaverybyanothername.com/other-writings/silent-partner-how-the-souths-fight-to-uphold-segregation-was-funded-up-north/

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@ -0,0 +1,271 @@
---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Skull and Bones
aliases:
- Skull and Bones
- Skull & Bones
- Order of Skull and Bones
- Skull and Bones Society
- Russell Trust Association
- The Russell Trust
- RTA Incorporated
- The Order
- Bones
category: "Private Organization"
tags:
- Organization
- SeniorSociety
- SkullAndBones
- RussellTrustAssociation
- YaleUniversity
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
- OfficeOfStrategicServices
- BrownBrothersHarriman
- Geronimo
- PoliticalDynasties
summary: "Yale senior society chartered in Connecticut in 1856 as the Russell Trust Association and reincorporated in 1961 as RTA Incorporated, with members including Taft, Stimson, the Harrimans, Luce, Buckley and two Presidents Bush."
location: "New Haven, Connecticut"
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1948"
fn: 37
- type: member_of
with: "[[George W. Bush]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1968"
fn: 37
- type: member_of
with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1940"
fn: 43
- type: member_of
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1917"
fn: 31
- type: member_of
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1917"
fn: 31
- type: member_of
with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1913"
fn: 30
- type: member_of
with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1888"
fn: 26
- type: member_of
with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1918"
fn: 55
- type: member_of
with: "[[Henry Luce]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1920"
fn: 42
- type: member_of
with: "[[William F. Buckley Jr.]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1950"
fn: 45
- type: member_of
with: "[[John Kerry]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1966"
fn: 49
- type: founded
with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]"
reverse: true
start: "1832"
fn: 1
- type: founded
with: "[[Alphonso Taft]]"
reverse: true
start: "1832"
fn: 1
---
Skull and Bones is a senior society at [[Yale University]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]. Its members are chosen in their junior year, spend one year on campus as initiates, and remain members for life as patriarchs. The society meets in a windowless sandstone building on [[High Street]]. Its corporate affairs run through three Connecticut entities: the Russell Trust Association, chartered by the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856; RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation formed in 1961 and recognized as a tax-exempt educational organization supporting Yale; and the Deer Island Club Corporation, formed in 1907 to operate the society's island retreat in the [[St. Lawrence River]].
### Founding and the tomb
[[David A. Richards]] wrote in the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] in May and June 2015 that "The society had been founded in 1832."[^1] Richards wrote that the conception "seems to have been that of the 1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of [[Phi Beta Kappa]], William Huntington Russell," and named [[Alphonso Taft]], father of [[William Howard Taft]], as a cofounder.[^1] He wrote that the members first called their club the Eulogian Club, and that a skull and crossbones over the number 322, on a meeting notice posted by one member in the first year, gave the society its name and badge.[^1] Graduate members are called patriarchs and initiates are called knights.[^1]
[[Antony C. Sutton]] dated the founding to 1833. His chart is titled "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day."[^2] Sutton wrote that the American chapter "was founded in 1833 at Yale University by General William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft."[^3]
Before 1856 the society met in a low-studded back room on the third floor of the building opposite the college yard that became the [[Courant building]].[^4] Richards wrote that the alumni built a hall on High Street in 1856, near the corner of [[Chapel Street]]. The name "Tomb" attached to it at that time, and Richards wrote that "a tomb is what it resembled": "a single forbidding, windowless block in Egypto-Doric style."[^1] Its cost was later estimated at about $30,000.[^1] A nineteenth-century description of the building, reprinted by Sutton, gives its iron doors, its roof plates of 1867 and the value of the premises as "upwards of $30,000."[^5]
### The 1856 charter and RTA Incorporated
Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the fall of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^6]
The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^7] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^7] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^8]
On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^9] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^10] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^10][^11]
The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^12] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^13] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^14] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^15]
The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^9]
Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^16] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the [[Yale University Library|Yale library]], filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^15] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^17] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^18]
### Finances and the island
The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^19] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^20] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^20]
The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^19][^21]
Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^14] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^15] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^22] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^15]
Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^23] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^15] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^9]
### Membership in government, intelligence and finance
Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^24] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted.
[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^25] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^26] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^27] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^15] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^22] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^28] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^29] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3]
[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^30] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^31] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^15] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^32] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^33] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^34] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^31]
[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^31] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^35] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^36] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^36]
On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^33]
[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^37] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^38] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^39] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^36]
[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^40] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^41]
[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^42] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^15] Leslie named Luce as well.[^22]
[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^43] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^44]
[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^45] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^46] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^47] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^48] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^49] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^50] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^51] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^52]
[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^53] [[Harry Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1894.[^54] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan]].[^24]
### The Yale Unit and the Central Intelligence Agency
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^55] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^56]
An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^57] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^58] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^59]
The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^59] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^60] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^61] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^59] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^62]
Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^63] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^63] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^59]
Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^36]
### Sutton's hypothesis
Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^24]
The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), Phelps (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^24] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the Pillsbury family (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^24]
In the text Sutton describes "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams and so on," and "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^3] He adds that "Some families, like the Whitneys, were Connecticut Yankees and acquired wealth in the nineteenth century."[^3] Sutton writes that active members "have enough influence to push their sons and relatives into The Order," and that there is "significant inter-marriage among the families."[^3]
### Other writers
Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named [[John Hersey]] and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^22]
[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^64]
Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^65][^14]
### The Geronimo skull claim
The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^66] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^66] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^66]
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^55] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^55]
Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^65] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^65] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^65] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^65] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^65]
The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^67] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^68] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^67] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^68]
In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^68] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^68] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^68]
### The Pancho Villa skull suit
A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^69] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^69]
The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^69]
### Footnotes
[^1]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," after the text on the three hypotheses. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^3]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), opening chapter and the passage that sets out Hypothesis One, with the old-line and new-wealth families. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^4]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), nineteenth-century description of the hall reprinted in the appendix, passage on the earlier meeting room in the Courant building. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^5]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), appendix, undated nineteenth-century description of the hall, its doors and roof plates and its value. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^6]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and on Daniel C. Gilman's role as treasurer, his appointment as assistant librarian in 1856 and as librarian in 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^7]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^9]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
[^10]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^11]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^12]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^13]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^14]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^15]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^16]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^17]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^18]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^19]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^20]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^21]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
[^22]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^23]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^24]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^25]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^26]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial
[^27]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
[^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^29]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^30]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^31]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^32]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^34]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^35]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^36]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
[^37]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^39]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^42]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^45]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^47]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^50]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^51]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress
[^52]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Harry Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^55]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^57]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
[^58]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
[^59]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^60]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^63]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^64]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb
[^65]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^66]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^67]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
[^68]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
[^69]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674

79
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Union Banking Corporation.md
View file

@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ start: 1924-08-04
end: 1942-10-20
location: "New York, New York"
created: 2026-10-14
updated: 2026-10-14
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: owned
with: "[[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]]"
@ -26,28 +26,89 @@ relations:
start: 1924-08-04
end: 1942-10-20
role: "sole owner according to the Treasury investigation of 1941"
fn: 1
fn: 2
- type: owned
with: "[[Office of the Alien Property Custodian]]"
reverse: true
start: 1942-10-20
role: "capital stock vested under Vesting Order Number 248"
fn: 2
fn: 1
- type: owned
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
reverse: true
end: 1942-10-20
role: "registered holder of 3,991 of 4,000 shares at vesting"
fn: 1
- type: owned
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
reverse: true
end: 1942-10-20
role: "registered holder of 1 of 4,000 shares at vesting"
fn: 1
- type: owned
with: "[[Ray Morris]]"
reverse: true
end: 1942-10-20
role: "registered holder of 1 of 4,000 shares at vesting"
fn: 1
- type: owned
with: "[[Harold D. Pennington]]"
reverse: true
end: 1942-10-20
role: "registered holder of 1 of 4,000 shares at vesting"
fn: 1
- type: director_of
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
reverse: true
start: 1924-08-04
end: 1942-10-20
role: "one of seven directors according to the incorporation documents as reported by the Guardian; registered holder of one share in Vesting Order Number 248"
fn: 11
- type: director_of
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
reverse: true
start: 1932
role: "director in 1932, according to Sutton (1976), Table 7-1"
fn: 6
---
The Union Banking Corporation (UBC) was a New York corporation incorporated on August 4, 1924 and wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam. The Alien Property Custodian vested all of its capital stock under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] on October 20, 1942, in an order that records the stock as held for the benefit of that bank and describes the bank as owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family.[^2]
The Union Banking Corporation (UBC) was a New York corporation incorporated on August 4, 1924 and wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam. The Alien Property Custodian vested all of its capital stock under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] on October 20, 1942, in an order that records the stock as held for the benefit of that bank and describes the bank as owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family.[^1]
### Treasury Investigation, 1941
A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to Mr. [[J. W. Pehle]] under the subject "Union Banking Corporation," reports that the corporation was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," that its president, Cornelis Lievense, claimed no knowledge of that ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest, and that Heinrich Thyssen was said to have acquired Hungarian citizenship.[^1]
A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to Mr. [[J. W. Pehle]] under the subject "Union Banking Corporation," reports that the corporation was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," that its president, Cornelis Lievense, claimed no knowledge of that ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest, and that Heinrich Thyssen was said to have acquired Hungarian citizenship.[^2]
The memorandum records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It states that the rumor that Fritz Thyssen had large gold deposits in the United States might have arisen from those purchases, while adding that all purchases were "satisfactorily accounted for" in the books. It states that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^1] The memorandum does not name [[Prescott Bush]].[^1]
The memorandum records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It states that the rumor that Fritz Thyssen had large gold deposits in the United States might have arisen from those purchases, while adding that all purchases were "satisfactorily accounted for" in the books. It states that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^2] The memorandum does not name [[Prescott Bush]].[^2] The [[The Guardian|Guardian]] dated the same memorandum August 16, 1941.[^3]
### Vesting Order Number 248
On October 20, 1942 the Alien Property Custodian, Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942. It vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock, and listed the registered owners and their shares: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991; Cornelius Lievense, 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; H. J. Kouwenhoven, 1; and Johann G. Groeninger, 1. The order states "all of which shares are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested all claims of that bank and of the August Thyssen-Bank, Berlin, against the corporation for indebtedness.[^2]
On October 20, 1942 the Alien Property Custodian, Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942. It vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock, and listed the registered owners and their shares: [[E. Roland Harriman]], 3,991; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; [[Harold D. Pennington]], 1; [[Ray Morris]], 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order states "all of which shares are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested all claims of that bank and of the August Thyssen-Bank, Berlin, against the corporation for indebtedness.[^1]
### Holders and Directors
Of the seven registered holders in the vesting order, four were connected with Brown Brothers Harriman. E. Roland Harriman became a partner of the Harriman bank on October 30, 1926 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Prescott Bush was a partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Ray Morris was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956. Harold D. Pennington was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, manager in charge of operations of the merged firm from its start, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956.[^4] The Yale class history of 1917 states of Edward Roland Noel Harriman, "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones," and of Prescott Sheldon Bush, "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^5]
[[Antony C. Sutton]] described the corporation in 1976 as "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," wrote that the Harrimans had a financial interest in it, described the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart as a Thyssen front bank in Holland that controlled it, and named E. Roland Harriman, a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., and H. J. Kouwenhoven as directors in a table of its directors in 1932.[^6] In his 1983 book on Skull and Bones he listed eight directors: E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co.; [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] as a partner of Brown Brothers & Co.; Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman; [[Knight Woolley]] as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]; Cornelius Lievense as president; and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann G. Groeninger and [[J. L. Guinter]]. He wrote that four of the directors were members of the Yale class of 1917 and of the same society, and that Kouwenhoven and Groeninger were directors of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which he described as the former von Heydt bank.[^7] The firm's partner table gives November 25, 1932 as the date of James's death.[^4]
### Holland-American Trading and Seamless Steel Equipment, 1942
Vesting Order Number 259 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation of 500 shares of $100 par value stock, registered in the name of Cornelius Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Vesting Order Number 261 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], also a New York corporation with 500 shares, held by E. Roland Harriman (491 shares), Lievense (4), and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger (1 share each), for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Both orders were executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on December 19, 1942.[^8][^9] The Guardian described both companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the seizure of the Union Banking Corporation.[^10]
### The Guardian Account, 2004
[[Ben Aris]] and [[Duncan Campbell]] reported in the Guardian in 2004 that the incorporation documents of the corporation "list him as one of seven directors" and show that Prescott Bush owned one share worth $125.[^11] They also reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation. Jones named the directors of the bank in that memorandum, including Bush, and wrote that the stock was "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^12]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
[^2]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^1]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^2]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
[^3]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, which gives the date of the report as "August 16 1941." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^4]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), partner table pp. 231 to 235 and caption of the Pennington photograph pp. 197 to 198. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^5]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^6]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 103 (Table 7-1 and text on the 1932 directors and the joint Thyssen-Harriman operation) and pp. 106 to 107 (E. Roland Harriman).
[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983; Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection," with the table of the eight directors in 1932.
[^8]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942, filed December 18, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626 to 10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^9]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^10]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^11]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^12]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the Homer Jones memorandum from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
---
created: 2026-10-15
updated: 2026-10-15
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Yale University
aliases:
- Yale
@ -30,83 +30,83 @@ relations:
role: "assistant professor of English; OSS Library Project collector in Istanbul from April 1943; returned to Yale in the summer of 1946"
start: 1943
end: 1946
fn: 13
fn: 24
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Richard Bissell]]"
reverse: true
role: "doctorate in economics, 1939; taught economics at Yale before moving to MIT in 1942"
start: 1939
end: 1942
fn: 22
fn: 33
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Sherman Kent]]"
reverse: true
role: "history professor before 1941; left for the OSS Research and Analysis Branch; returned in 1947 or 1949 (the CIA essays give both); left for the CIA in 1950"
start: 1933
end: 1950
fn: 21
fn: 32
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Mark A. May]]"
reverse: true
role: "professor of educational psychology; director of the Institute of Human Relations, 1935 to 1961"
start: 1927
end: 1960
fn: 25
fn: 36
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Stanley Milgram]]"
reverse: true
role: "conducted the obedience experiments in the Yale interaction laboratory; at Harvard by 1963"
start: 1960
end: 1963
fn: 28
fn: 39
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Myron S. Malkin]]"
reverse: true
role: "member of the physics faculty"
start: 1952
end: 1961
fn: 37
fn: 48
- type: employed_by
with: "[[José M. R. Delgado]]"
reverse: true
role: "Department of Psychiatry; came to Yale in 1952 as an instructor"
start: 1952
fn: 30
fn: 41
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Robert B. Livingston]]"
reverse: true
role: "School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under John F. Fulton"
start: 1946
end: 1952
fn: 31
fn: 42
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Robert Byck]]"
reverse: true
role: "Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine; testified before the House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control on July 26, 1979"
start: 1979
end: 1979
fn: 42
fn: 53
- type: employed_by
with: "[[José A. Cabranes]]"
reverse: true
role: "general counsel and director of government relations"
start: 1975
end: 1979
fn: 47
fn: 58
- type: head_of
with: "[[Richard Levin]]"
reverse: true
role: "twenty-second president"
start: 1993
end: 2013
fn: 66
fn: 77
- type: funded
with: "[[Thiel Foundation]]"
reverse: true
role: "$25,000 grant to Yale University for education, 2006"
start: 2006
end: 2006
fn: 65
fn: 76
---
Yale University is a private university in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], chartered by the [[Connecticut Colony]] in 1701 as a collegiate school. Its senior society [[Skull and Bones]], its wartime faculty recruited into the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], its psychology, psychiatry and neurophysiology laboratories, and its alumni in the federal courts and the executive branch appear in the records of intelligence services, behavioral research, parapsychology, drug policy and finance.
@ -119,75 +119,81 @@ The General Court of the Colony of Connecticut passed an "Act for a Collegiate S
[[David A. Richards]], who is writing a history of American college societies and whose name the magazine's editors note appears in the Class of 1967 list of Skull and Bones members, wrote in the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015 that Skull and Bones was founded in 1832 on the conception of [[William Huntington Russell]], the valedictorian of the Class of 1833, with [[Alphonso Taft]] as a cofounder, and that its members called it the Eulogian Club before a skull and crossbones sketched on a chapel-door notice gave it its name and its badge number, 322. He wrote that in 1856 the society's alumni incorporated it in Connecticut as a trust called the Russell Trust Association, so that a corporation could hold title to the windowless "tomb" on High Street, which was later estimated to have cost about $30,000.[^3] A reader's letter in the same magazine, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book *The China Mirage*, stated that the money for the 1856 building was "Russell money" traced to [[Russell and Company]] of Canton, "America's biggest smuggler of Turkish opium into China."[^4] The Connecticut Secretary of the State's business registry lists "The Russell Trust Association" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," status "Active," account number 0269315.[^5]
[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. He wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society.[^6] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^7] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^8]
[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists, among the undergraduate honors of Stimson, B.A. 1888, "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^6] Rosenbaum also wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society.[^7] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^8] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^9]
[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^9] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^10]
[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^10] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^11]
The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^11] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^12]
The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^12] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^13]
A special act of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856 incorporated the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only"; the act limited its holdings of real and personal estate to fifteen thousand dollars, and an act approved July 9, 1943 raised the limit to seven hundred thousand dollars.[^14] In 1961 the members incorporated RTA Incorporated as a Connecticut nonstock corporation "for exclusively educational purposes," including "the support of education at Yale University," with its assets on dissolution payable to Yale University.[^15] RTA Incorporated (EIN 06-0768741) is recognized by the [[Internal Revenue Service]] as a section 501(c)(3) organization and reports itself as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization of Yale University; its return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 reports total assets of $16,127,481, and the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890 for the period ending June 2025.[^16][^17] A Yale spokeswoman told the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2009 that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^18]
[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s book states that the Sterling Library at Yale, which holds major holdings of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to the Russell Trust papers.[^19] Ron Rosenbaum reported in 1977 that he found the File and Claw pamphlet in the library's manuscript room, filed under the corporate name Russell Trust Association.[^20]
In 2017 a pro se complaint, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), named Yale University, the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush and Willard Mitt Romney as defendants. It alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]] and asked for its return for burial in Mexico City. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^21] In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, twenty descendants of Geronimo sued Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones in 2009 over the removal of Geronimo's remains, which the opinion places "in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] dismissed the complaint as to all defendants in a memorandum opinion of July 27, 2010.[^22] The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 a letter of June 7, 1918 from one member to another stating that the skull of Geronimo had been taken from [[Fort Sill]] and was "safe inside" the society's building.[^23]
### The Library Project, the Research and Analysis Branch and X-2
Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^13] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^14] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^15]
Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^24] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^25] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^26]
[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^16] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^17] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^18] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^19]
[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^27] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^28] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^29] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^30]
[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^20] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^21]
[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^31] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^32]
[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^22] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^23]
[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^33] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^34]
### The 1958 Conference on America's Human Resources
A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^24]
A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^35]
### The Institute of Human Relations and behavioral research
The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^25] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^26]
The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^36] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^37]
The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^27]
The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^38]
[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^28]
[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^39]
### Neuroelectric research, psychoenergetics and the STARGATE file
[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^29] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^30]
[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^40] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^41]
The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^31]
The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^42]
[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^32] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^33] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^34]
[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^43] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^44] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^45]
A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^35] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^36]
A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^46] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^47]
### Physics, the Space Shuttle and Dimona
[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^37] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^38]
[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^48] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^49]
### Walt Rostow, Eugene Rostow and the Yale Law School
[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^39] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^40] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^41]
[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^50] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^51] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^52]
### Pharmacology and the 1979 cocaine hearings
[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^42] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^43] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^44]
[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^53] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^54] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^55]
### Yale-China
The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^45] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^46]
The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^56] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^57]
### Courts, the Law School and the executive branch
[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^47] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^48]
[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^58] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^59]
[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^49] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^50] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^51] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^52] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^53] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^54] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^55]
[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^60] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^61] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^62] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^63] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^64] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^65] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^66]
Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^56] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^57] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^58] [[Cory Booker]],[^59] [[Ro Khanna]],[^60] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^61] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^62] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^63] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^64]
Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^67] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^68] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^69] [[Cory Booker]],[^70] [[Ro Khanna]],[^71] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^72] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^73] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^74] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^75]
### Money, presidents and families
The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^65] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^66] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^67] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^68] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^69]
The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^76] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^77] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^78] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^79] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^80]
The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^70] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^71] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^72] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^73]
The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^81] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^82] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^83] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^84]
Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^74] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^75] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^76]
Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^85] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^86] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^87]
### Footnotes
@ -195,75 +201,86 @@ Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1
[^2]: "An Act for the more full and compleat Establishment of Yale College in New Haven, and for enlarging the Powers and Priviledges thereof," General Court, May 1745, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from May, 1744, to November, 1750*, ed. Charles J. Hoadly (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1876), pp. 113-114. https://archive.org/details/publicrecordsofc009conn
[^3]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
[^4]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article; the letter cites James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
[^5]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json
[^6]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. Cited as the McGeorge Bundy page cites it.
[^7]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/
[^8]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^9]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
[^10]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^11]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^12]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220.
[^13]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
[^14]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
[^15]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
[^16]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
[^17]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^18]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
[^19]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^20]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
[^21]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
[^22]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
[^23]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
[^24]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
[^25]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
[^26]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
[^27]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
[^28]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551
[^29]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^30]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^31]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^32]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017).
[^33]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/
[^34]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^35]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^36]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^37]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html
[^38]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12.
[^39]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
[^40]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america
[^41]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
[^42]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
[^43]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
[^44]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15.
[^45]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/
[^46]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365
[^47]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
[^48]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
[^49]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt
[^50]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org.
[^51]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*.
[^52]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts
[^53]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006).
[^54]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205.
[^55]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page.
[^56]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
[^57]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/
[^58]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html
[^59]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory
[^60]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
[^61]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016).
[^62]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
[^63]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
[^64]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
[^65]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf
[^66]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/
[^67]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
[^68]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf
[^69]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025.
[^70]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder
[^71]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page.
[^72]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/
[^73]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ
[^74]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846
[^75]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
[^76]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf
[^5]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315); record "RTA INCORPORATED" (account number 0059060, registered April 14, 1961, 64 High Street, New Haven), the successor corporation. https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json
[^6]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
[^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^8]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/
[^9]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^10]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
[^11]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^12]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^13]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220.
[^14]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the 1856 act incorporating the Russell Trust Association and the 1943 amending act, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^15]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 697 to 700; Connecticut Business Registry, account 0059060 (registered April 14, 1961). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
[^16]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021, Schedule A. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^17]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06. https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
[^18]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
[^19]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^20]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^21]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 7, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
[^22]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
[^23]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^24]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
[^25]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
[^26]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
[^27]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
[^28]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^29]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
[^30]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^31]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
[^32]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
[^33]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
[^34]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
[^35]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
[^36]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
[^37]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
[^38]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
[^39]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551
[^40]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^41]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^42]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^43]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017).
[^44]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/
[^45]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^46]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^47]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^48]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html
[^49]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12.
[^50]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
[^51]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america
[^52]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
[^53]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
[^54]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
[^55]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15.
[^56]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/
[^57]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365
[^58]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
[^59]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
[^60]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt
[^61]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org.
[^62]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*.
[^63]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts
[^64]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006).
[^65]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205.
[^66]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page.
[^67]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
[^68]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/
[^69]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html
[^70]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory
[^71]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
[^72]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016).
[^73]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
[^74]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
[^75]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
[^76]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf
[^77]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/
[^78]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
[^79]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf
[^80]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025.
[^81]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder
[^82]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page.
[^83]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/
[^84]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ
[^85]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846
[^86]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
[^87]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf