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@ -163,33 +163,33 @@ In November 1994 the [[National Security Council]] approved a supercomputer sale
### Richard Garwin and the Vela data
[[Richard L. Garwin]] was associated with IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center. [[Seymour Hersh]] describes him as a member of an ad hoc panel of distinguished scientists tasked with studying the [[VELA Satellite|Vela]] data related to a probable nuclear explosion in the South Indian Ocean in 1979, and as known for independence as a government consultant.[^25] The [[National Security Archive]] describes Garwin as then with IBM's James Watson Laboratory at Columbia University and the body as a White House panel chaired by [[Jack Ruina]], on which Garwin served. It states that Garwin, who had first read the Vela data as indicating a nuclear event, changed his view while on the panel, and quotes an October 19, 1979 letter in which Garwin wrote that "I would bet 2 to 1 in favor of the hypothesis" that the incident was a nuclear explosion.[^26]
[[Richard L. Garwin]] was associated with IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center. [[Seymour Hersh]] describes him as a member of an ad hoc panel of distinguished scientists tasked with studying the [[VELA Satellite|Vela]] data related to a probable nuclear explosion between the southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans in 1979, and as known for independence as a government consultant.[^25] The [[National Security Archive]] describes Garwin as then with IBM's James Watson Laboratory at Columbia University and the body as a White House panel chaired by [[Jack Ruina]], on which Garwin served. It states that Garwin, who had first read the Vela data as indicating a nuclear event, changed his view while on the panel, and quotes an October 19, 1979 letter in which Garwin wrote that "I would bet 2 to 1 in favor of the hypothesis" that the incident was a nuclear explosion.[^26]
### Footnotes
[^1]: *In re South African Apartheid Litigation* (*Ntsebeza v. Daimler AG*), 617 F. Supp. 2d 228 (S.D.N.Y. Apr. 8, 2009) (headquarters of IBM in Armonk; aiding and abetting denationalization and apartheid pleaded against IBM; Khulumani claims against IBM dismissed with leave to amend, amended complaint due May 1, 2009). https://static.case.law/f-supp-2d/617/cases/0228-01.json
[^2]: Complaint, *Grossman v. International Business Machines Corp.* (E.D.N.Y., signature block dated "February __, 2001"), including footnote 3 of the complaint on the Dehomag and Watson history, paragraphs 19 and 22, and counts I and II. Copy from the Wayback Machine raw capture: https://web.archive.org/web/2016id_/https://www.asser.nl/upload/documents/DomCLIC/Docs/NLP/Switzerland/Grossman_v_IBM_US_10-02-2001.pdf. Sections citing this note state the plaintiffs' allegations as the complaint states them.
[^3]: E. F. Codd, "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks," *Communications of the ACM* 13, no. 6 (June 1970), pp. 377-387 (author's affiliation: IBM Research Laboratory, San Jose; "Received September, 1969; revised February, 1970"). https://www.seas.upenn.edu/~zives/03f/cis550/codd.pdf
[^4]: Edwin Black, *IBM and the Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation* (Crown, 2001; page numbers here are those of the 2002 paperback printing with the new afterword): Hollerith leasing policy, pp. 26-27; Hollerith's 1910 license to Heidinger and the creation of Dehomag, p. 30; Watson's 90 percent demand and Heidinger's 10 percent, pp. 44 and 75; Dehomag and the 1933 census, p. 89; 1939 census, p. 169; Bergen-Belsen scene, p. 22; award of the Merit Cross, pp. 131-134; Watson's note to Hull of May 16, 1940, the reply (letter of Hull to Watson dated May 20, 1940, per Black's endnote, IBM files) and the June 6, 1940 letter, pp. 213-217; reaction in Germany and at Dehomag, p. 219. Lending copy: https://archive.org/details/ibmholocaustt00blac. Sole source for the passages so cited.
[^4]: Edwin Black, *IBM and the Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation* (Crown, 2001; page numbers here are those of the 2002 paperback printing with the new afterword): Hollerith leasing policy, pp. 26-27; Hollerith's 1910 license to Heidinger and the creation of Dehomag, p. 30; Watson's 90 percent demand and Heidinger's 10 percent, pp. 44 and 75; Dehomag and the 1933 census, p. 89; 1939 census, p. 169; Bergen-Belsen scene, p. 22; award of the Merit Cross, pp. 131-134; Watson's note to Hull of May 16, 1940, the reply (letter of Hull to Watson dated May 20, 1940, per Black's endnote, IBM files) and the June 6, 1940 letter, pp. 213-217; reaction in Germany and at Dehomag, p. 219. Lending copy: https://archive.org/details/ibmholocaustt00blac.
[^5]: Terry W. Hartle, "An eager vendor in deadly computations," review of Edwin Black, *IBM and the Holocaust*, *Christian Science Monitor*, March 2001. https://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0301/p16s1.html
[^6]: Sam Jaffe, Bloomberg, April 12, 2001. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2001-04-11/ibm-the-holocaust-and-my-grandfather. Sole source for the passages so cited.
[^7]: "IBM Holocaust suit dropped," *Jewish Telegraphic Agency*, March 29, 2001 (dateline Washington). https://www.jta.org/2001/03/29/default/ibm-holocaust-suit-dropped. Sole source for the withdrawal quotations as reported.
[^6]: Sam Jaffe, Bloomberg, April 12, 2001. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2001-04-11/ibm-the-holocaust-and-my-grandfather.
[^7]: "IBM Holocaust suit dropped," *Jewish Telegraphic Agency*, March 29, 2001 (dateline Washington). https://www.jta.org/2001/03/29/default/ibm-holocaust-suit-dropped.
[^8]: [[B. J. Archer]], "The Los Alamos Computing Facility during the Manhattan Project," Los Alamos National Laboratory, LA-UR-21-20164 (draft, February 17, 2021), pp. 1-4. Archer cites R. B. Lazarus et al., "Computing at LASL in the 1940s and 1950s," LA-6943-H, and L. Hoddeson et al., *Critical Assembly*, for the April 4, 1944 delivery date. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2103.05705
[^9]: D. R. Israel, *The Integration of Air Traffic Control and Air Defense*, MITRE Corporation, SR-6, September 1959 (Defense Documentation Center copy), pp. 3-4. https://ftp.mirrorservice.org/sites/www.bitsavers.org/pdf/mit/mitre/charm/ESD-TDR-63-390_The_Integration_of_Air_Traffic_Control_and_Air_Defense_195909.pdf
[^10]: IBM, "SAGE," IBM Heritage. https://www.ibm.com/history/sage. Sole source for the division of work and the 80 percent revenue figure, which are IBM's own statements.
[^10]: IBM, "SAGE," IBM Heritage. https://www.ibm.com/history/sage. The division of work and the 80 percent revenue figure are IBM's own statements.
[^11]: [[Samuel S. Snyder]], *History of NSA General-Purpose Electronic Digital Computers* (Department of Defense, 1964): IBM influence and early computer philosophy, p. 7; Stretch contacts of 1955 and fixed-price offer, pp. 40-41; SILO, PLANTATION and TRACTOR contracts, pp. 41-42; May 1, 1957 manual, p. 42; April 1958 purchase description and April 30, 1958 letter contracts, p. 45; January 1962 delivery and 32 percent cost overrun, pp. 45-46. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/3121322/Document-02.pdf
[^12]: Memorandum, Robert McFarlane to Ronald Reagan, August 1, 1984, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1981-1988*, vol. X, Eastern Europe, doc. 30. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1981-88v10/d30
[^13]: Memorandum, Kenneth W. Dam to George P. Shultz, June 12, 1985, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1981-1988*, vol. V, Soviet Union, March 1985-October 1986, doc. 40, note 1. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1981-88v05/d40
[^14]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015). Sole source for the passages so cited.
[^14]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015).
[^15]: *In re Inslaw, Inc.*, 83 B.R. 89 (Bankr. D.D.C. Jan. 25, 1988), findings of fact 34 (PROMIS versions on PDP 11/70, IBM, Wang, Honeywell and Burroughs computers) and 192 and 202 (IBM request for the Department of Justice letter; co-marketing agreement). https://static.case.law/br/83/cases/0089-01.json
[^16]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, *The INSLAW Affair: Investigative Report*, H. Rept. 102-857 (September 10, 1992): LEAA versions, p. 47; Riconosciuto's allegation on the Canadian agencies, p. 52; appeal of May 7, 1991, pp. 39-40. https://archive.org/details/InslawAffairInvestigativeReport. Sole source for the Riconosciuto allegation as recorded by the committee.
[^16]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, *The INSLAW Affair: Investigative Report*, H. Rept. 102-857 (September 10, 1992): LEAA versions, p. 47; Riconosciuto's allegation on the Canadian agencies, p. 52; appeal of May 7, 1991, pp. 39-40. https://archive.org/details/InslawAffairInvestigativeReport.
[^17]: *In re International Business Machines Corp.*, 687 F.2d 591 (2d Cir. Aug. 13, 1982), Background section (docket *United States v. International Business Machines Corp.*, 69 Civ. 200, S.D.N.Y., filed January 17, 1969). https://static.case.law/f2d/687/cases/0591-01.json
[^18]: *United States v. International Business Machines Corp.*, 66 F.R.D. 154 (S.D.N.Y. June 27, 1974), No. 69 Civ. 200 (DNE). https://static.case.law/frd/66/cases/0154-01.json
[^19]: "Impact of AT&T, IBM decisions," *Christian Science Monitor*, January 11, 1982. https://www.csmonitor.com/1982/0111/011144.html
[^20]: Thomas Conrad, "U.S. Data Processing Corporations Are Supplying South Africa with the Brains of Its Military and Police Services," *Multinational Monitor* 3, no. 4 (April 1982). https://www.multinationalmonitor.org/hyper/issues/1982/04/conrad.html. Sole source for the passages so cited.
[^21]: "South Africa: IBM, ICL Accused of Apartheid Collaboration," allAfrica, November 15, 2002, quoting the Khulumani complaint as filed in the Eastern District of New York. https://allafrica.com/stories/200211150560.html. Sole source for the quotation as reported.
[^20]: Thomas Conrad, "U.S. Data Processing Corporations Are Supplying South Africa with the Brains of Its Military and Police Services," *Multinational Monitor* 3, no. 4 (April 1982). https://www.multinationalmonitor.org/hyper/issues/1982/04/conrad.html.
[^21]: "South Africa: IBM, ICL Accused of Apartheid Collaboration," allAfrica, November 15, 2002, quoting the Khulumani complaint as filed in the Eastern District of New York. https://allafrica.com/stories/200211150560.html.
[^22]: *Khulumani v. Barclay National Bank Ltd.*, 504 F.3d 254 (2d Cir. Oct. 12, 2007) (per curiam). https://static.case.law/f3d/504/cases/0254-01.json
[^23]: *Balintulo v. Ford Motor Co.*, 796 F.3d 160 (2d Cir. July 27, 2015). https://static.case.law/f3d/796/cases/0160-01.json
[^24]: "Israel Gets High-Speed Computers," Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control, page dated January 1, 1995. https://wisconsinproject.org/israel-gets-high-speed-computers
[^25]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 11. Sole source for the passages so cited.
[^25]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 11.
[^26]: National Security Archive, "Vela Incident: South Atlantic Mystery Flash, September 1979," December 6, 2016. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979