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200
00 - META/CHANGELOG.md
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@ -1,100 +1,100 @@
- 2026-10-15T1757 · [[The Finders]] - 2026-10-15T2143 · [[Project Monarch]]
- 2026-10-15T1757 · [[National Bank of Oman]] - 2026-10-15T2143 · [[Kalshi]]
- 2026-10-15T1757 · [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] - 2026-10-15T2142 · [[Battelle Memorial Institute]]
- 2026-10-15T1757 · [[Abu Dhabi Investment Authority]] - 2026-10-15T2142 · [[Annie Farmer]]
- 2026-10-15T1757 · [[John Di Giorgio]] - 2026-10-15T2142 · [[Project Blue Book]]
- 2026-10-15T1755 · [[Marion Pettie]] - 2026-10-15T2141 · [[Ohio]]
- 2026-10-15T1755 · [[Ramon J. Martinez]] - 2026-10-15T2140 · [[Spencer Oliver]]
- 2026-10-15T1755 · [[Future Enterprises]] - 2026-10-15T2140 · [[Robert R. Mullen Company]]
- 2026-10-15T1750 · [[Robert Booth Nichols]] - 2026-10-15T2139 · [[Democratic National Committee]]
- 2026-10-15T1750 · [[Peter Videnieks]] - 2026-10-15T2137 · [[Department of Energy]]
- 2026-10-15T1750 · [[Danny Casolaro]] - 2026-10-15T2137 · [[Norman Lamont]]
- 2026-10-15T1750 · [[Bill Turner]] - 2026-10-15T2137 · [[Ruth Davis]]
- 2026-10-15T1750 · [[Bill Hamilton]] - 2026-10-15T2137 · [[R. S. Hawke]]
- 2026-10-15T1748 · [[Joseph Cuellar]] - 2026-10-15T2137 · [[Gerald G. Oplinger]]
- 2026-10-15T1747 · [[R.C. Horsch]] - 2026-10-15T2137 · [[Donald M. Kerr]]
- 2026-10-15T1747 · [[Arcadia Theatre (Philadelphia)]] - 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Princeton University]]
- 2026-10-15T1747 · [[Bandbox Theater]] - 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Richard Secord]]
- 2026-10-15T1747 · [[The Erotic Memoirs of a Male Chauvinist Pig]] - 2026-10-15T2131 · [[NSA]]
- 2026-10-15T1747 · [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Philadelphia]] - 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Area 51]]
- 2026-10-15T1746 · [[John Krol]] - 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Nicholas J. Bua]]
- 2026-10-15T1746 · [[Art Carduner]] - 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Danny Casolaro]]
- 2026-10-15T1746 · [[Black Mass (1975 film)]] - 2026-10-15T2130 · [[John Foster Dulles]]
- 2026-10-15T1745 · [[Iran-Contra Affair]] - 2026-10-15T2130 · [[J. Edgar Hoover]]
- 2026-10-15T1745 · [[Rockefeller Commission 1975]] - 2026-10-15T2130 · [[Jack Anderson]]
- 2026-10-15T1745 · [[Dick Cheney]] - 2026-10-15T2129 · [[National Security Archive]]
- 2026-10-15T1744 · [[Philip Arthur Thompson]] - 2026-10-15T2129 · [[HumRRO]]
- 2026-10-15T1744 · [[Michael Riconosciuto]] - 2026-10-15T2128 · [[George Washington University]]
- 2026-10-15T1743 · [[Robert Barnes]] - 2026-10-15T2127 · [[General Motors]]
- 2026-10-15T1743 · [[Peter Zokosky]] - 2026-10-15T2126 · [[Hughes Aircraft Company]]
- 2026-10-15T1743 · [[Jimmy Hughes]] - 2026-10-15T2126 · [[Joe Biden]]
- 2026-10-15T1743 · [[Ben Kalka]] - 2026-10-15T2126 · [[Business Plot]]
- 2026-10-15T1742 · [[Khalfan al-Mazrui]] - 2026-10-15T2125 · [[Standard Oil]]
- 2026-10-15T1741 · [[Ghanim Faris al-Mazrui]] - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Galo Plaza]]
- 2026-10-15T1741 · [[Zayed bin Sultan AL-Nahayan]] - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Rockefeller Commission 1975]]
- 2026-10-15T1700 · [[Karel Maasdam]] - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Project MKUltra]]
- 2026-10-15T1659 · [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Center for Security and Emerging Technology]]
- 2026-10-15T1659 · [[Mellon Family]] - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research]]
- 2026-10-15T1659 · [[Martin Gardner]] - 2026-10-15T2122 · [[Georgetown University]]
- 2026-10-15T1659 · [[Arthur Koestler]] - 2026-10-15T2024 · [[Lockheed Martin]]
- 2026-10-15T1658 · [[Synchronicity]] - 2026-10-15T2024 · [[Yale University]]
- 2026-10-15T1657 · [[Martin Orne]] - 2026-10-15T2024 · [[United States v. Hasbajrami]]
- 2026-10-15T1657 · [[Project MKUltra]] - 2026-10-15T2024 · [[Project FUBELT]]
- 2026-10-15T1657 · [[Multiple Personality Disorder]] - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[Beirut]]
- 2026-10-15T1657 · [[Hypnotism]] - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]]
- 2026-10-15T1657 · [[False Memory Syndrome]] - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[Barack Obama]]
- 2026-10-15T1656 · [[Dissociative Identity Disorder]] - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[Pennsylvania]]
- 2026-10-15T1656 · [[Iron Gates]] - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]]
- 2026-10-15T1656 · [[Terrorgram Collective]] - 2026-10-15T2021 · [[Stargate Project]]
- 2026-10-15T1656 · [[Martinet Press]] - 2026-10-15T2021 · [[Kenneth A. Kress]]
- 2026-10-15T1656 · [[Order of Nine Angles]] - 2026-10-15T2021 · [[George H.W. Bush]]
- 2026-10-15T1654 · [[Jean-Michel Nihoul]] - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[IBM]]
- 2026-10-15T1654 · [[Marc Dutroux]] - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[Ashley Gorski]]
- 2026-10-15T1653 · [[Oakland County Child Killer]] - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[United States v. Epstein]]
- 2026-10-15T1653 · [[John Wayne Gacy]] - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[Laura Menninger]]
- 2026-10-15T1653 · [[Serial Killer]] - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[Arif Durrani]]
- 2026-10-15T1652 · [[Rolodex Investigation]] - 2026-10-15T2017 · [[Jonathan Pollard]]
- 2026-10-15T1650 · [[Salvatore La Russa]] - 2026-10-15T2017 · [[Peter Videnieks]]
- 2026-10-15T1650 · [[Georgina Spelvin]] - 2026-10-15T2017 · [[Financial General Bankshares]]
- 2026-10-15T1650 · [[Sam Lake]] - 2026-10-15T2016 · [[Rene Schneider]]
- 2026-10-15T1649 · [[Margaret Thatcher]] - 2026-10-15T2016 · [[Orlando Letelier]]
- 2026-10-15T1649 · [[Syrian Embassy in London]] - 2026-10-15T2015 · [[Larry Summers]]
- 2026-10-15T1648 · [[Robert Bigelow]] - 2026-10-15T2014 · [[Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation]]
- 2026-10-15T1648 · [[Bigelow Aerospace Advanced Space Studies]] - 2026-10-15T2014 · [[Leslie Kean]]
- 2026-10-15T1646 · [[Skinwalker Ranch]] - 2026-10-15T2011 · [[George Knapp]]
- 2026-10-15T1518 · [[Charlie Sargent]] - 2026-10-15T2011 · [[Sandia National Laboratories]]
- 2026-10-15T1518 · [[Blood and Honour]] - 2026-10-15T2011 · [[Lockheed Aircraft Company]]
- 2026-10-15T1518 · [[William Bradford Reynolds]] - 2026-10-15T2011 · [[Lockheed Skunk Works]]
- 2026-10-15T1518 · [[Searchlight Magazine]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Aerojet]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Great St. James]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Jacques Vallee]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[DP World]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Jack Blum]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[David Myatt]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Kit Green]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[National Commercial Bank]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Kamal Adham]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Scott Weekly]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Faisal Saud al-Fulaij]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Pablo Escobar]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Advanced Theoretical Physics Working Group]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Bo Gritz]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Southern Air Transport]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Felix Rodriguez]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Atomic Energy Commission]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Frigorificos de Puntarenas]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Francis Gary Powers]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Robbie Van Der Plancken]] - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Richard Bissell]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Morkhoven Workgroup]] - 2026-10-15T2008 · [[Robert Byck]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Marcel Vervloesem]] - 2026-10-15T2008 · [[Crack Cocaine]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Apollo Bulletin Board Service]] - 2026-10-15T1920 · [[United States Attorney]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Sultan Ahmed bin Sulayem]] - 2026-10-15T1919 · [[Toby Ord]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Combat 18]] - 2026-10-15T1919 · [[GRU]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]] - 2026-10-15T1919 · [[Mark Zuckerberg]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[United States Army Intelligence Support Activity]] - 2026-10-15T1919 · [[Child sexual abuse material]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Ramon Milian Rodriguez]] - 2026-10-15T1919 · [[Palantir Technologies]]
- 2026-10-15T1516 · [[Gerrit-Jan Ulrich]] - 2026-10-15T1919 · [[Cambridge Analytica]]
- 2026-10-15T1349 · [[Tempel ov Blood]] - 2026-10-15T1918 · [[Cantor Fitzgerald]]
- 2026-10-15T1349 · [[Atomwaffen Division]] - 2026-10-15T1918 · [[BGC Group]]
- 2026-10-15T1349 · [[Joshua Caleb Sutter]] - 2026-10-15T1917 · [[Counter Extremism Project]]
- 2026-10-15T1349 · [[Charles Manson]] - 2026-10-15T1917 · [[Anthropic]]
- 2026-10-15T1349 · [[Kaleb Cole]] - 2026-10-15T1917 · [[Office of Technical Service]]
- 2026-10-15T1347 · [[Eugene Horsch]] - 2026-10-15T1916 · [[Future of Humanity Institute]]
- 2026-10-15T1347 · [[Siege]] - 2026-10-15T1915 · [[OpenAI]]
- 2026-10-15T1345 · [[James Mason]] - 2026-10-15T1915 · [[David Sacks]]
- 2026-10-15T1345 · [[Oscar Guerrero]] - 2026-10-15T1915 · [[Edward Snowden]]
- 2026-10-15T1345 · [[Mordecai Vanunu]] - 2026-10-15T1915 · [[Bill Gates]]
- 2026-10-15T1345 · [[Cindy Hanin Bentov]] - 2026-10-15T1915 · [[Eugene Jhong]]
- 2026-10-15T1344 · [[Thomas Olmstead]] - 2026-10-15T1914 · [[PayPal Mafia]]
- 2026-10-15T1342 · [[Martin Bacow]] - 2026-10-15T1914 · [[AdFin Solutions]]

69
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Adolf Berle.md
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@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ born: 1895-01-29
died: 1971-02-17 died: 1971-02-17
location: New York, NY / Washington, DC / Rio de Janeiro location: New York, NY / Washington, DC / Rio de Janeiro
created: 2026-06-05 created: 2026-06-05
updated: 2026-06-05 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Adolf Augustus Berle Jr. (January 29, 1895 - February 17, 1971) was one of the most consequential and least-publicized architects of US Cold War Latin American policy. A Harvard Law-trained academic and corporate lawyer, Berle served as assistant secretary of state for Latin American affairs under President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] from 1938 to 1944, built the State Department's wartime intelligence coordination apparatus, served as US ambassador to [[Brazil]] from 1945 to 1946, and in retirement remained active in the [[Rockefeller]] network as a lawyer, political operator, and coup coordinator until his death in 1971. His Manhattan townhouse was the site from which he monitored the 1964 Brazilian coup by shortwave radio as it unfolded alongside coup conspirator [[Alberto Byington]].[^1] Adolf Augustus Berle Jr. (January 29, 1895 - February 17, 1971) was one of the most consequential and least-publicized architects of US Cold War Latin American policy. A Harvard Law-trained academic and corporate lawyer, Berle served as assistant secretary of state for Latin American affairs under President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] from 1938 to 1944, built the State Department's wartime intelligence coordination apparatus, served as US ambassador to [[Brazil]] from 1945 to 1946, and in retirement remained active in the [[Rockefeller]] network as a lawyer, political operator, and coup coordinator until his death in 1971. His Manhattan townhouse was the site from which he monitored the 1964 Brazilian coup by shortwave radio as it unfolded alongside coup conspirator [[Alberto Byington]].[^1]
@ -23,75 +23,76 @@ Berle was a founder of the New Deal brain trust and co-author (with [[Gardiner M
### Early Career and the Brain Trust ### Early Career and the Brain Trust
Berle entered Harvard College at age 14, earning his bachelor's degree in 1913 and master's degree in 1914, then graduated from [[Harvard Law School]] in 1916 at age 21, reportedly the second youngest graduate in the school's history after [[Louis Brandeis]]. He served as an intelligence officer in [[World War I]] and attended the [[Paris Peace Conference]] in 1919 as a junior delegate, resigning over the treaty's terms. He subsequently joined the law firm Berle, Berle and Brunner in [[New York City]] and was appointed professor of corporate law at [[Columbia University]] in 1927, a position he held until 1964. Berle entered Harvard College at age 14, earning his bachelor's degree in 1913 and master's degree in 1914, then graduated from [[Harvard Law School]] in 1916 at age 21, reportedly the second youngest graduate in the school's history after [[Louis Brandeis]]. He served as an intelligence officer in [[World War I]] and attended the [[Paris Peace Conference]] in 1919 as a junior delegate, resigning over the treaty's terms. He subsequently joined the law firm Berle, Berle and Brunner in [[New York City]] and was appointed professor of corporate law at [[Columbia University]] in 1927, a position he held until 1963, when he became professor emeritus.[^3] After the war he assisted such foundations as the Fund for the Republic, the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Committee on Human Ecology during the 1950s and 1960s, and from 1948 to 1963 he was a trustee of the [[Free Europe Committee]].[^3]
From 1934 to 1938 he served as Chamberlain of New York City under Mayor [[Fiorello LaGuardia]], while simultaneously advising Roosevelt's presidential campaign in 1932 and helping draft New Deal legislation as a member of the original "Brains Trust."[^3] From 1934 to 1938 he served as Chamberlain of New York City under Mayor [[Fiorello LaGuardia]], while simultaneously advising Roosevelt's presidential campaign in 1932 and helping draft New Deal legislation as a member of the original "Brains Trust."[^4]
### The State Department and Intelligence Architecture ### The State Department and Intelligence Architecture
Berle joined the Roosevelt administration's State Department on March 7, 1938, appointed Assistant Secretary of State on March 5, and quickly established himself as the dominant figure on Latin American policy. By 1941 he had charge of intelligence coordination for the State Department, working with the FBI in Latin America and with the [[OSS]] in Europe. Berle joined the Roosevelt administration's State Department on March 7, 1938, appointed Assistant Secretary of State on March 5, and quickly established himself as the dominant figure on Latin American policy. By 1941 he had charge of intelligence coordination for the State Department, working with the FBI in Latin America and with the [[OSS]] in Europe.
He was the principal State Department advocate for the [[FBI Special Intelligence Service]] (SIS), which Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized on June 24, 1940 by presidential directive. The SIS extended FBI counterintelligence operations throughout Latin America as a counter to the German [[Abwehr]] and, by design, a counterweight to any future [[CIA]] encroachment on the Western Hemisphere. Under Berle's authority, SIS personnel were designated as "legal attaches" in nearly every US embassy in Latin America by the end of 1942, creating a network that placed over 340 undercover agents across the region.[^4] He was the principal State Department advocate for the [[FBI Special Intelligence Service]] (SIS), which Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized on June 24, 1940 by presidential directive. The SIS extended FBI counterintelligence operations throughout Latin America as a counter to the German [[Abwehr]] and, by design, a counterweight to any future [[CIA]] encroachment on the Western Hemisphere. Under Berle's authority, SIS personnel were designated as "legal attaches" in nearly every US embassy in Latin America by the end of 1942, creating a network that placed over 340 undercover agents across the region.[^5]
Berle and [[J. Edgar Hoover]] jointly backed [[Nelson Rockefeller]]'s [[CIAA]] in its 1941 turf war with [[William J. Donovan]]'s Coordinator of Information, ensuring that Donovan's future OSS was restricted to Europe and Asia.[^5] Berle's appointment as assistant secretary terminated December 19, 1944 when Rockefeller took the position, but Berle's institutional creations remained. Berle and [[J. Edgar Hoover]] jointly backed [[Nelson Rockefeller]]'s [[CIAA]] in its 1941 turf war with [[William J. Donovan]]'s Coordinator of Information, ensuring that Donovan's future OSS was restricted to Europe and Asia.[^6] Berle's appointment as assistant secretary terminated December 19, 1944 when Rockefeller took the position, but Berle's institutional creations remained.
The Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR), the State Department's permanent intelligence analysis organization, formally emerged in September 1945 when [[Harry S. Truman]]'s Executive Order 9621 dissolved the OSS and transferred its Research and Analysis Branch to State. Berle's wartime coordination role was the institutional predecessor to this structure.[^6] The Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR), the State Department's permanent intelligence analysis organization, formally emerged in September 1945 when [[Harry S. Truman]]'s Executive Order 9621 dissolved the OSS and transferred its Research and Analysis Branch to State. Berle's wartime coordination role was the institutional predecessor to this structure.[^7]
### Brazil Appointment and the 1945 Coup ### Brazil Appointment and the 1945 Coup
When Rockefeller became assistant secretary of state in December 1944, he arranged for Berle to replace the existing US ambassador to Brazil, [[Jefferson Caffery]]. Berle was appointed January 18, 1945, presented his credentials to the Brazilian government on January 30, 1945, and took over the Rio de Janeiro embassy. When Rockefeller became assistant secretary of state in December 1944, he arranged for Berle to replace the existing US ambassador to Brazil, [[Jefferson Caffery]]. Berle was appointed January 18, 1945, presented his credentials to the Brazilian government on January 30, 1945, and took over the Rio de Janeiro embassy.
On September 28, 1945, Berle sent a lengthy telegram to Washington reporting on the political situation under [[Getulio Vargas]] and characterizing Vargas as endeavoring to keep things "on track" toward democratic elections. The following day he delivered a speech to the Associacao Brasileira de Imprensa in which he praised Brazil's promise of free elections. The opposition press immediately read the speech as a US warning to Vargas's queremista supporters, and Vargas later blamed Berle for encouraging the forces that moved against him.[^7] On September 28, 1945, Berle sent a lengthy telegram to Washington reporting on the political situation under [[Getulio Vargas]] and characterizing Vargas as endeavoring to keep things "on track" toward democratic elections. The following day he delivered a speech to the Associacao Brasileira de Imprensa in which he praised Brazil's promise of free elections. The opposition press immediately read the speech as a US warning to Vargas's queremista supporters, and Vargas later blamed Berle for encouraging the forces that moved against him.[^8]
On October 29, 1945, [[General Pedro Goes Monteiro]] and the military high command forced Vargas to resign, ending his Estado Novo dictatorship. Berle's mission ended February 27, 1946. The episode is characterized in Brazilian historical scholarship as Latin America's first Cold War coup: the first postwar case in which the United States worked through diplomatic manipulation and military channels to remove a government pursuing economic nationalism rather than explicitly communist policies.[^8] On October 29, 1945, [[General Pedro Goes Monteiro]] and the military high command forced Vargas to resign, ending his Estado Novo dictatorship. Berle's mission ended February 27, 1946. The episode is characterized in Brazilian historical scholarship as Latin America's first Cold War coup: the first postwar case in which the United States worked through diplomatic manipulation and military channels to remove a government pursuing economic nationalism rather than explicitly communist policies.[^9]
### The Kennedy Years ### The Kennedy Years
After his formal ambassadorship, Berle returned to Columbia and his law practice, but remained available for government service. In 1961, President [[John F. Kennedy]] named him Chairman of the Task Force on Latin America, an interdepartmental body that shaped US policy responses to [[Cuba]] and the broader hemispheric challenge. Berle attended the State Department planning meeting at which Kennedy asked [[William Fulbright]] to repeat his opposition to the [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion plan, with Berle and [[Thomas C. Mann]] in attendance and neither opposing the operation. He served as a consultant to the Secretary of State from 1961 to 1962.[^9] After his formal ambassadorship, Berle returned to Columbia and his law practice, but remained available for government service. In 1961, President [[John F. Kennedy]] named him Chairman of the Task Force on Latin America, an interdepartmental body that shaped US policy responses to [[Cuba]] and the broader hemispheric challenge. Berle attended the State Department planning meeting at which Kennedy asked [[William Fulbright]] to repeat his opposition to the [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion plan, with Berle and [[Thomas C. Mann]] in attendance and neither opposing the operation. He served as a consultant to the Secretary of State from 1961 to 1962.[^10]
His oral history interview, conducted July 6, 1967 as part of the [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library]]'s oral history program, covers his views on Latin American relations, the Bay of Pigs, and the [[Alliance for Progress]] during the Kennedy administration.[^10] His oral history interview, conducted July 6, 1967 as part of the [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library]]'s oral history program, covers his views on Latin American relations, the Bay of Pigs, and the [[Alliance for Progress]] during the Kennedy administration.[^11]
### Advisory Role and the 1964 Coup ### Advisory Role and the 1964 Coup
After his formal government service, Berle continued to operate as an adviser to Rockefeller and as a private intermediary with Brazilian political and military figures. He was a founding trustee of the [[Institute for International Labor Research]], a Cold War anti-communist labor institution funded through [[AIFLD]] and other Rockefeller-network channels.[^11] After his formal government service, Berle continued to operate as an adviser to Rockefeller and as a private intermediary with Brazilian political and military figures. He was a founding trustee of the [[Institute for International Labor Research]], a Cold War anti-communist labor institution funded through [[AIFLD]] and other Rockefeller-network channels.[^12]
On the night of March 30-31, 1964, as the Brazilian military began its coup against President [[Joao Goulart]], Berle was in his Manhattan townhouse monitoring the coup's progress by shortwave radio alongside Alberto Jackson Byington Jr. (1902-1964), a Sao Paulo businessman and Harvard graduate (class of 1924) who had been working to forestall a "Goulart dictatorship" and had, according to Berle's diary, "bought on his own credit a shipload of oil to make sure the Brazilian Navy would be able to function."[^12] On the night of March 30-31, 1964, as the Brazilian military began its coup against President [[Joao Goulart]], Berle was in his Manhattan townhouse monitoring the coup's progress by shortwave radio alongside Alberto Jackson Byington Jr. (1902-1964), a Sao Paulo businessman and Harvard graduate (class of 1924) who had been working to forestall a "Goulart dictatorship" and had, according to Berle's diary, "bought on his own credit a shipload of oil to make sure the Brazilian Navy would be able to function."[^13]
Berle's diary entry of April 2, 1964, published in *Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle* (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973, edited by Beatrice Bishop Berle and Travis Beal Jacobs), documents Byington's role in securing fuel for the navy and describes how Berle monitored the coup's unfolding. The published diary entry and its context appear on pages 788-789 of *Navigating the Rapids* and are cited in footnote 3 of FRUS 1964-68, Volume XXXI, Document 187, a March 28, 1964 telegram from Ambassador A. Lincoln Gordon to the Department of State and senior US officials.[^13] Berle's diary entry of April 2, 1964, published in *Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle* (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973, edited by Beatrice Bishop Berle and Travis Beal Jacobs), documents Byington's role in securing fuel for the navy and describes how Berle monitored the coup's unfolding. The published diary entry and its context appear on pages 788-789 of *Navigating the Rapids* and are cited in footnote 3 of FRUS 1964-68, Volume XXXI, Document 187, a March 28, 1964 telegram from Ambassador A. Lincoln Gordon to the Department of State and senior US officials.[^14]
The FRUS Document 187 identifies Colonel [[J.C. King]] (Joseph Caldwell King, October 5, 1900 - January 27, 1977) as a recipient of Gordon's sensitive reporting. King was Chief of the Western Hemisphere Division of the CIA during the 1950s and 1960s. Before joining the CIA, King had served as vice-president at [[Johnson and Johnson]] in charge of Brazil and Argentina, and had then joined Nelson Rockefeller's Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, establishing his Brazil connections in the same CIAA network where Berle had operated.[^14] The FRUS Document 187 identifies Colonel [[J.C. King]] (Joseph Caldwell King, October 5, 1900 - January 27, 1977) as a recipient of Gordon's sensitive reporting. King was Chief of the Western Hemisphere Division of the CIA during the 1950s and 1960s. Before joining the CIA, King had served as vice-president at [[Johnson and Johnson]] in charge of Brazil and Argentina, and had then joined Nelson Rockefeller's Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, establishing his Brazil connections in the same CIAA network where Berle had operated.[^15]
### The Berle-King-Rockefeller Triangle ### The Berle-King-Rockefeller Triangle
A persistent operational triangle linked Berle (the diplomatic and political coordinator), J.C. King (the CIA's Western Hemisphere clandestine operations chief), and Nelson Rockefeller (the political principal). All three had been active in Brazil since the CIAA years. Their combined assets, diplomatic relationships, intelligence infrastructure, corporate holdings, and personal military contacts built over two decades, made the 1964 coup possible without requiring direct US military intervention. Alongside the covert network, the Johnson administration's military contingency planning (Operation Brother Sam, authorized March 31, 1964, with a naval task force, aerial convoy, and tanker fleet positioned to support the new government) provided the material backstop.[^15] A persistent operational triangle linked Berle (the diplomatic and political coordinator), J.C. King (the CIA's Western Hemisphere clandestine operations chief), and Nelson Rockefeller (the political principal). All three had been active in Brazil since the CIAA years. Their combined assets, diplomatic relationships, intelligence infrastructure, corporate holdings, and personal military contacts built over two decades, made the 1964 coup possible without requiring direct US military intervention. Alongside the covert network, the Johnson administration's military contingency planning (Operation Brother Sam, authorized March 31, 1964, with a naval task force, aerial convoy, and tanker fleet positioned to support the new government) provided the material backstop.[^16]
His career demonstrates how informal personal networks, rather than formal institutional hierarchies, drove US Latin American policy, and how a single well-connected individual could move between government and private roles while maintaining operational continuity across administrations and decades. His career demonstrates how informal personal networks, rather than formal institutional hierarchies, drove US Latin American policy, and how a single well-connected individual could move between government and private roles while maintaining operational continuity across administrations and decades.
### Primary Sources ### Primary Sources
Berle kept detailed diaries throughout his career. The complete Adolf A. Berle Papers, 1912-1974, held at the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] in Hyde Park, New York, comprise 247 boxes arranged in 29 series and were donated between 1972 and 1982 by Mrs. Beatrice Berle. The collection covers his early career files, general and personal correspondence, State Department work, Brazil embassy files, and later advisory roles. The diaries for 1937-1971 form the core of the published volume *Navigating the Rapids* (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973).[^16] Berle kept detailed diaries throughout his career. The complete Adolf A. Berle Papers, 1912-1974, held at the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] in Hyde Park, New York, comprise 247 boxes arranged in 29 series and were donated between 1972 and 1982 by Mrs. Beatrice Berle. The collection covers his early career files, general and personal correspondence, State Department work, Brazil embassy files, and later advisory roles. The diaries for 1937-1971 form the core of the published volume *Navigating the Rapids* (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973).[^17]
The State Department's biographical entry confirms his appointment and departure dates for both the assistant secretaryship and the Brazil ambassadorship.[^17] The State Department's biographical entry confirms his appointment and departure dates for both the assistant secretaryship and the Brazil ambassadorship.[^18]
FRUS 1964-68, Volume XXXI (South and Central America; Mexico) contains the primary declassified diplomatic record of the period surrounding the 1964 coup, including Gordon's March 28, 1964 telegram (Document 187) with its footnote citation to Berle's diary; Dean Rusk's March 31, 1964 telegram authorizing contingency measures (Document 198); and related documents covering the period January through April 1964.[^18] FRUS 1964-68, Volume XXXI (South and Central America; Mexico) contains the primary declassified diplomatic record of the period surrounding the 1964 coup, including Gordon's March 28, 1964 telegram (Document 187) with its footnote citation to Berle's diary; Dean Rusk's March 31, 1964 telegram authorizing contingency measures (Document 198); and related documents covering the period January through April 1964.[^19]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Adolf A. Berle diary, April 2, 1964, published in *Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle*, ed. Beatrice Bishop Berle and Travis Beal Jacobs (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973), pp. 788-789. Also cited in Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon* (HarperCollins, 1995), Ch. 29 ("Operation Brother Sam"). [^1]: Adolf A. Berle diary, April 2, 1964, published in *Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle*, ed. Beatrice Bishop Berle and Travis Beal Jacobs (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973), pp. 788-789. Also cited in Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon* (HarperCollins, 1995), Ch. 29 ("Operation Brother Sam").
[^2]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 8. Adolf A. Berle and Gardiner Means, *The Modern Corporation and Private Property* (New York: Macmillan, 1932). [^2]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 8. Adolf A. Berle and Gardiner Means, *The Modern Corporation and Private Property* (New York: Macmillan, 1932).
[^3]: History.state.gov, "Adolf Augustus Berle Jr.," Office of the Historian biographical entry, https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/berle-adolf-augustus; Spartacus Educational, "Adolf Berle," https://spartacus-educational.com/SPYberle.htm. [^3]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid, Adolf A. Berle papers, biographical note (associate professor and professor of corporation law at Columbia, 1927-63; professor emeritus, 1963-71). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_berle.pdf/14404a65-cb54-4e46-bc5d-063088cda701
[^4]: FBI Special Intelligence Service authorized June 24, 1940 by President Roosevelt; Berle's role as State Department overseer: FBI, "Special Intelligence Service," fbi.gov/history/brief-history/special-intelligence-service; "Special Intelligence Service of the Federal Bureau of Investigation," University of Florida Archives; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8. [^4]: History.state.gov, "Adolf Augustus Berle Jr.," Office of the Historian biographical entry, https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/berle-adolf-augustus; Spartacus Educational, "Adolf Berle," https://spartacus-educational.com/SPYberle.htm.
[^5]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance"). [^5]: FBI Special Intelligence Service authorized June 24, 1940 by President Roosevelt; Berle's role as State Department overseer: FBI, "Special Intelligence Service," fbi.gov/history/brief-history/special-intelligence-service; "Special Intelligence Service of the Federal Bureau of Investigation," University of Florida Archives; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8.
[^6]: State Department, "Department of State Intelligence," https://1997-2001.state.gov/about_state/history/intel/intro2.html; introduction to FRUS 1945-50, Intelligence series. [^6]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance").
[^7]: Search result citing HAHR article: Stanley Hilton, "The Overthrow of Getulio Vargas in 1945: Diplomatic Intervention, Defense of Democracy, or Political Retribution?" *Hispanic American Historical Review* 67, no. 1 (1987): 1-37. Berle September 28, 1945 telegram to Washington cited therein. [^7]: State Department, "Department of State Intelligence," https://1997-2001.state.gov/about_state/history/intel/intro2.html; introduction to FRUS 1945-50, Intelligence series.
[^8]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 13 ("Latin America's First Cold War Coup"). Coup date: October 29, 1945. [^8]: Search result citing HAHR article: Stanley Hilton, "The Overthrow of Getulio Vargas in 1945: Diplomatic Intervention, Defense of Democracy, or Political Retribution?" *Hispanic American Historical Review* 67, no. 1 (1987): 1-37. Berle September 28, 1945 telegram to Washington cited therein.
[^9]: JFK Library, "Berle, Adolf A.: Oral History Interview - JFK #1, 7/6/1967," https://www.jfklibrary.org/asset-viewer/archives/jfkoh-aab-01; search results citing Kennedy School case study on Bay of Pigs; Powerbase.info, "Adolf A. Berle." [^9]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 13 ("Latin America's First Cold War Coup"). Coup date: October 29, 1945.
[^10]: JFK Library Oral History, interview conducted July 6, 1967, interviewer Joseph E. O'Connor. [^10]: JFK Library, "Berle, Adolf A.: Oral History Interview - JFK #1, 7/6/1967," https://www.jfklibrary.org/asset-viewer/archives/jfkoh-aab-01; search results citing Kennedy School case study on Bay of Pigs; Powerbase.info, "Adolf A. Berle."
[^11]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 28-29. [^11]: JFK Library Oral History, interview conducted July 6, 1967, interviewer Joseph E. O'Connor.
[^12]: Berle diary, April 2, 1964, in *Navigating the Rapids*, pp. 788-789. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 29 (Byington's role and ALCOA connection). [^12]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 28-29.
[^13]: FRUS 1964-68, Vol. XXXI, Document 187: Telegram from Ambassador A. Lincoln Gordon (Rio de Janeiro) to the Department of State, March 28, 1964. Footnote 3 of that document cites Berle diary, April 2, 1964, *Navigating the Rapids*, pp. 788-789. Full text at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31/d187. [^13]: Berle diary, April 2, 1964, in *Navigating the Rapids*, pp. 788-789. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 29 (Byington's role and ALCOA connection).
[^14]: J.C. King career: George W. Cullum, *Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U.S. Military Academy*, Supplement Vol. 8, No. 6992 (Class of 1923); Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 (OCIAA role) and Ch. 29 (CIA Western Hemisphere Division); listed as addressee in FRUS 1964-68, Vol. XXXI, Document 187. [^14]: FRUS 1964-68, Vol. XXXI, Document 187: Telegram from Ambassador A. Lincoln Gordon (Rio de Janeiro) to the Department of State, March 28, 1964. Footnote 3 of that document cites Berle diary, April 2, 1964, *Navigating the Rapids*, pp. 788-789. Full text at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31/d187.
[^15]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8; Ch. 13; Ch. 29. Operation Brother Sam: FRUS 1964-68, Vol. XXXI, Document 198 (Dean Rusk to Embassy Brazil, March 31, 1964, 2:29 p.m.), authorizing naval tanker, task force, and ammunition airlift as contingency measures. [^15]: J.C. King career: George W. Cullum, *Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U.S. Military Academy*, Supplement Vol. 8, No. 6992 (Class of 1923); Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 (OCIAA role) and Ch. 29 (CIA Western Hemisphere Division); listed as addressee in FRUS 1964-68, Vol. XXXI, Document 187.
[^16]: FDR Presidential Library finding aid summary: Adolf A. Berle Papers, 1912-1974, 247 boxes, 29 series, donated by Beatrice Berle 1972-1982. Finding aid PDF: https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_berle.pdf/14404a65-cb54-4e46-bc5d-063088cda701. [^16]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8; Ch. 13; Ch. 29. Operation Brother Sam: FRUS 1964-68, Vol. XXXI, Document 198 (Dean Rusk to Embassy Brazil, March 31, 1964, 2:29 p.m.), authorizing naval tanker, task force, and ammunition airlift as contingency measures.
[^17]: History.state.gov, "Adolf Augustus Berle Jr.": Assistant Secretary of State appointed March 5, 1938, entry on duty March 7, 1938, terminated December 19, 1944; Ambassador to Brazil appointed January 18, 1945, credentials presented January 30, 1945, mission ended February 27, 1946. [^17]: FDR Presidential Library finding aid summary: Adolf A. Berle Papers, 1912-1974, 247 boxes, 29 series, donated by Beatrice Berle 1972-1982. Finding aid PDF: https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_berle.pdf/14404a65-cb54-4e46-bc5d-063088cda701.
[^18]: FRUS 1964-68, Vol. XXXI, South and Central America; Mexico. Chapter 5 covers Brazil, Documents 181-244, spanning January through April 1964. Full volume index: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31. [^18]: History.state.gov, "Adolf Augustus Berle Jr.": Assistant Secretary of State appointed March 5, 1938, entry on duty March 7, 1938, terminated December 19, 1944; Ambassador to Brazil appointed January 18, 1945, credentials presented January 30, 1945, mission ended February 27, 1946.
[^19]: FRUS 1964-68, Vol. XXXI, South and Central America; Mexico. Chapter 5 covers Brazil, Documents 181-244, spanning January through April 1964. Full volume index: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31.

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10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Aldrich Ames.md
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@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ Aldrich Hazen Ames (born May 26, 1941) was a [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]
### Background and CIA Career ### Background and CIA Career
Ames grew up in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Virginia]], son of [[Carleton Ames]], a CIA officer. He joined the CIA in 1962, following his father into the agency. His career trajectory was unremarkable: he served in [[Turkey]], [[Mexico City]], and [[New York]] in various Soviet-related capacities, developing expertise in Soviet intelligence tradecraft but advancing slowly. Colleagues described him as intelligent but undisciplined, a heavy drinker who had difficulty managing administrative responsibilities. Despite periodic poor performance reviews, the CIA retained him. Ames grew up in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Virginia]], son of [[Carleton Ames]], a CIA officer. He joined the CIA in 1962, following his father into the agency. His career trajectory was unremarkable: he served in [[Turkey]], [[Mexico City]], and [[New York City|New York]] in various Soviet-related capacities, developing expertise in Soviet intelligence tradecraft but advancing slowly. Colleagues described him as intelligent but undisciplined, a heavy drinker who had difficulty managing administrative responsibilities. Despite periodic poor performance reviews, the CIA retained him.
In 1981, Ames was assigned to a CIA counterintelligence position handling Soviet sources - ironically, the exact role in which a Soviet penetration agent would have maximum damage potential. He married [[Maria del Rosario Casas Dupuy]], a [[Colombia|Colombian]] national he had recruited as a CIA informant. Her expensive tastes created financial pressure he used to justify his subsequent decisions.[^1] In 1981, Ames was assigned to a CIA counterintelligence position handling Soviet sources - ironically, the exact role in which a Soviet penetration agent would have maximum damage potential. He married [[Maria del Rosario Casas Dupuy]], a [[Colombia|Colombian]] national he had recruited as a CIA informant. Her expensive tastes created financial pressure he used to justify his subsequent decisions.[^1]

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10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Aleister Crowley.md
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@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ On July 17 and October 11, 1918, [[William Johnson]], an assistant to the New Yo
In his statement of October 11, 1918, as summarized by Agent [[Frank X. O'Donnell]] of the Bureau of Investigation, Crowley said he had earlier tried to become associated with the British Secret Service, "detailing his dealings with Commodore Gaunt [[Guy Gaunt]] of the British Intelligence Office but admitted that he never succeeded in obtaining any official recognition." He described Reuss, the head of the Order, as an "out and out German" who had left England with the German ambassador and was reported to be running the [[Continental Times]] in [[Berlin]], and said that the Order's funds were deposited with the [[Title Guarantee and Trust Company]] in New York and had come through the law firm of [[Lord, Day and Lord]] from the sale of his property in [[Scotland]].[^14] In his statement of October 11, 1918, as summarized by Agent [[Frank X. O'Donnell]] of the Bureau of Investigation, Crowley said he had earlier tried to become associated with the British Secret Service, "detailing his dealings with Commodore Gaunt [[Guy Gaunt]] of the British Intelligence Office but admitted that he never succeeded in obtaining any official recognition." He described Reuss, the head of the Order, as an "out and out German" who had left England with the German ambassador and was reported to be running the [[Continental Times]] in [[Berlin]], and said that the Order's funds were deposited with the [[Title Guarantee and Trust Company]] in New York and had come through the law firm of [[Lord, Day and Lord]] from the sale of his property in [[Scotland]].[^14]
On September 6, 1939 Crowley wrote a letter applying for employment, addressed to an unknown recipient, in which he stated that at the end of 1914 he had gone to [[New York]], where he saw "Captain (later) Commodore Gaunt R.N.," to whom he "reported directly or indirectly until the Armistice"; that his work was to supply Viereck, [[Hugo Münsterberg]] and Count [[Johann von Bernstorff]] "with false information, and to wreck their propaganda by inducing them to commit psychological blunders"; that afterward he "was able to work directly for their Department of Justice, principally in discovering spy activities"; and that "In 1927 I began work for the [[Special Branch]], this time to watch and report on Communist activities, especially in Berlin, where I lived almost continuously for three years." An undated draft memorandum enclosed with it states that he had pretended to be a "rebel Irishman," that he confided the secret only to Gaunt and the Hon. [[Everard Feilding]], that Lieutenant Colonel [[John Carter]], then head of the Special Branch, had investigated and vindicated his conduct after he was publicly attacked on his return, and that on the outbreak of the war in 1939 he offered his services to the [[Naval Intelligence Department]], which refused.[^15] On September 6, 1939 Crowley wrote a letter applying for employment, addressed to an unknown recipient, in which he stated that at the end of 1914 he had gone to [[New York City|New York]], where he saw "Captain (later) Commodore Gaunt R.N.," to whom he "reported directly or indirectly until the Armistice"; that his work was to supply Viereck, [[Hugo Münsterberg]] and Count [[Johann von Bernstorff]] "with false information, and to wreck their propaganda by inducing them to commit psychological blunders"; that afterward he "was able to work directly for their Department of Justice, principally in discovering spy activities"; and that "In 1927 I began work for the [[Special Branch]], this time to watch and report on Communist activities, especially in Berlin, where I lived almost continuously for three years." An undated draft memorandum enclosed with it states that he had pretended to be a "rebel Irishman," that he confided the secret only to Gaunt and the Hon. [[Everard Feilding]], that Lieutenant Colonel [[John Carter]], then head of the Special Branch, had investigated and vindicated his conduct after he was publicly attacked on his return, and that on the outbreak of the war in 1939 he offered his services to the [[Naval Intelligence Department]], which refused.[^15]
Reports by Agent O'Donnell of July 8 to 19, 1919 (case 365985, radical activities, opened after an anonymous letter forwarded on June 6, 1919) reproduce a confidential report from the "British Secret Service Bureau" dated July 8, 1919. It states that he had "claimed to be on a British Mission," that "He has never been in the army," that "His claim has also been that he joined up with Viereck in order to obtain information for the British government. This is of course absurd," and that in July 1915 he, [[Leila Waddell]] and others went to the [[Statue of Liberty]], described themselves as the "Secret Revolutionary Committee of Public Safety of the Provisional Government of the Irish Republic," and he tore up his passport and renounced allegiance to the "alien tyrant." A further extract from a British file in the New York Attorney General's papers, reported July 18, 1919, states: "Crowley has never had anything whatever to do with any British official in this country. His offers of service have always been rejected, and he has been regarded as a harmless neurotic."[^16] A memorandum for [[J. Edgar Hoover]] dated January 7, 1920, signed [[T. E. Haynes]], summarizes the file and quotes a letter that Crowley wrote to [[J. W. Norwood]] of the [[International Magian Society]] in [[Louisville]]: "I was employed by the Secret Service, my main object being to bring America into the War, my main method to get the Germans to make asses of themselves by increasing their frightfulness until even the Americans kicked." It adds that British Military Intelligence denied that he was a member of the British Mission and stated that he would be detained if he returned to England.[^17] Reports by Agent O'Donnell of July 8 to 19, 1919 (case 365985, radical activities, opened after an anonymous letter forwarded on June 6, 1919) reproduce a confidential report from the "British Secret Service Bureau" dated July 8, 1919. It states that he had "claimed to be on a British Mission," that "He has never been in the army," that "His claim has also been that he joined up with Viereck in order to obtain information for the British government. This is of course absurd," and that in July 1915 he, [[Leila Waddell]] and others went to the [[Statue of Liberty]], described themselves as the "Secret Revolutionary Committee of Public Safety of the Provisional Government of the Irish Republic," and he tore up his passport and renounced allegiance to the "alien tyrant." A further extract from a British file in the New York Attorney General's papers, reported July 18, 1919, states: "Crowley has never had anything whatever to do with any British official in this country. His offers of service have always been rejected, and he has been regarded as a harmless neurotic."[^16] A memorandum for [[J. Edgar Hoover]] dated January 7, 1920, signed [[T. E. Haynes]], summarizes the file and quotes a letter that Crowley wrote to [[J. W. Norwood]] of the [[International Magian Society]] in [[Louisville]]: "I was employed by the Secret Service, my main object being to bring America into the War, my main method to get the Germans to make asses of themselves by increasing their frightfulness until even the Americans kicked." It adds that British Military Intelligence denied that he was a member of the British Mission and stated that he would be detained if he returned to England.[^17]

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10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Alexander Acosta.md
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@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ summary: "Alexander Acosta is the former U.S. Attorney for the Southern District
born: 1969-01-16 born: 1969-01-16
location: "Miami, Florida (born)" location: "Miami, Florida (born)"
created: 2026-06-20 created: 2026-06-20
updated: 2026-10-12 updated: 2026-10-15
relations: relations:
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[United States Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida]]" with: "[[United States Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida]]"
@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ relations:
fn: 7 fn: 7
--- ---
Alexander Acosta (born January 16, 1969) is an American lawyer who served as [[United States Attorney]] for the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida|Southern District of Florida]] from 2005 to 2009 and as United States Secretary of Labor from 2017 to 2019. As US Attorney he supervised the office that negotiated the [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement|2008 non-prosecution agreement]] with [[Jeffrey Epstein|Jeffrey Epstein]], an arrangement under which Epstein pleaded guilty to state charges in Florida, served a 13-month jail term with work release, and obtained federal immunity for himself and named co-conspirators. A federal judge later ruled that prosecutors violated the [[Crime Victims' Rights Act|Crime Victims' Rights Act]] by concealing the deal from victims, and Acosta resigned as Secretary of Labor in July 2019 amid renewed scrutiny of the agreement.[^1][^2] Alexander Acosta (born January 16, 1969) is an American lawyer who served as [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida|United States Attorney]] for the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida|Southern District of Florida]] from 2005 to 2009 and as United States Secretary of Labor from 2017 to 2019. As US Attorney he supervised the office that negotiated the [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement|2007 non-prosecution agreement]] with [[Jeffrey Epstein|Jeffrey Epstein]], an arrangement under which Epstein pleaded guilty to state charges in Florida, served a 13-month jail term with work release, and obtained federal immunity for himself and named co-conspirators. A federal judge later ruled that prosecutors violated the [[Crime Victims' Rights Act|Crime Victims' Rights Act]] by concealing the deal from victims, and Acosta resigned as Secretary of Labor in July 2019 amid renewed scrutiny of the agreement.[^1][^2]
### Early Career and Kirkland & Ellis ### Early Career and Kirkland & Ellis
@ -58,71 +58,71 @@ Acosta was born in [[Miami]] to Cuban refugee parents and received his undergrad
As U.S. Attorney he oversaw the 2006 prosecution of the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] leaders [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Miguel Rodriguez Orejuela]], who pleaded guilty on September 26, 2006 and received thirty-year sentences; under the plea agreements 28 relatives gave up their interests in the family's businesses and the government agreed not to prosecute six of them.[^5] As U.S. Attorney he oversaw the 2006 prosecution of the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] leaders [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Miguel Rodriguez Orejuela]], who pleaded guilty on September 26, 2006 and received thirty-year sentences; under the plea agreements 28 relatives gave up their interests in the family's businesses and the government agreed not to prosecute six of them.[^5]
### The 2008 Non-Prosecution Agreement ### The 2007 Non-Prosecution Agreement
Federal investigators in the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida|Southern District of Florida]] identified roughly 30, and ultimately more than 30, minors whom Epstein was alleged to have sexually abused, after the [[Palm Beach Police Department]] referred the case to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] on concerns that the local prosecution would be too lenient. By May 2007 government lawyers had prepared an 82-page prosecution memorandum and a 53-page draft federal indictment charging Epstein with multiple federal sex offenses; the Justice Department later described the draft as a 60-count indictment. Acosta decided in 2007 to negotiate with Epstein's defense team rather than seek that indictment. At a July 31, 2007 meeting with Epstein's lawyers, his office offered to end the investigation if Epstein pleaded guilty to state charges, served at least two years, registered as a sex offender, and agreed to a damages mechanism for victims. Acosta did not sign the agreement but, according to the Justice Department's later review, "participated in its drafting and approved it, with knowledge of its terms."[^1][^6][^7] Federal investigators in the Southern District of Florida identified roughly 30, and ultimately more than 30, minors whom Epstein was alleged to have sexually abused, after the [[Palm Beach Police Department]] referred the case to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] on concerns that the local prosecution would be too lenient. By May 2007 government lawyers had prepared an 82-page prosecution memorandum and a 53-page draft federal indictment charging Epstein with multiple federal sex offenses; the Justice Department later described the draft as a 60-count indictment. Acosta decided in 2007 to negotiate with Epstein's defense team rather than seek that indictment. At a July 31, 2007 meeting with Epstein's lawyers, his office offered to end the investigation if Epstein pleaded guilty to state charges, served at least two years, registered as a sex offender, and agreed to a damages mechanism for victims. Acosta did not sign the agreement but, according to the Justice Department's later review, "participated in its drafting and approved it, with knowledge of its terms."[^1][^6][^7] The agreement was signed on September 24, 2007, and the state plea followed on June 30, 2008.[^8]
The non-prosecution agreement, negotiated through 2007 and executed in stages, required Epstein to plead guilty in Palm Beach County court, which he did in June 2008, to state charges including soliciting prostitution and procuring a person under 18 for prostitution. He was sentenced to 18 months, of which he served roughly 13, under conditions that allowed extensive work release. The Justice Department's review recorded that from October 2008 he spent "12 hours a day purportedly working at the '[[Florida Science Foundation]],' an entity Epstein had recently incorporated that was co-located at the West Palm Beach office of one of Epstein's attorneys"; later reporting on sheriff's records described him leaving the jail for up to 16 hours a day, seven days a week. The foundation paid the [[Palm Beach County Sheriff's Office]] 128,136 dollars during his incarceration. Epstein's defense team included high-profile lawyers such as [[Alan Dershowitz|Alan Dershowitz]], [[Kenneth Starr|Kenneth Starr]], and [[Roy Black|Roy Black]], who pressed the office for concessions.[^1][^6][^7][^8][^9][^10] The non-prosecution agreement, negotiated through 2007 and executed in stages, required Epstein to plead guilty in Palm Beach County court, which he did in June 2008, to state charges including soliciting prostitution and procuring a person under 18 for prostitution. He was sentenced to 18 months, of which he served roughly 13, under conditions that allowed extensive work release. The Justice Department's review recorded that from October 2008 he spent "12 hours a day purportedly working at the '[[Florida Science Foundation]],' an entity Epstein had recently incorporated that was co-located at the West Palm Beach office of one of Epstein's attorneys"; later reporting on sheriff's records described him leaving the jail for up to 16 hours a day, seven days a week. The foundation paid the [[Palm Beach County Sheriff's Office]] 128,136 dollars during his incarceration. Epstein's defense team included high-profile lawyers such as [[Alan Dershowitz|Alan Dershowitz]], [[Kenneth Starr|Kenneth Starr]], and [[Roy Black|Roy Black]], who pressed the office for concessions.[^1][^6][^7][^9][^10][^11]
The agreement extended immunity from federal prosecution to Epstein, to four named co-conspirators, and to unnamed "potential co-conspirators," language read as shielding others who helped recruit or conceal the abuse. The terms were not disclosed to the identified victims while the deal was being finalized, and the agreement was sealed. The breadth of the immunity provisions, the sealing, and the leniency of the sentence became the basis for years of subsequent litigation and official review. The attorney [[Bradley Edwards|Bradley Edwards]], representing victims, led the legal challenge to the agreement.[^1][^11] The agreement extended immunity from federal prosecution to Epstein, to four named co-conspirators, and to unnamed "potential co-conspirators," language read as shielding others who helped recruit or conceal the abuse. The terms were not disclosed to the identified victims while the deal was being finalized, and the agreement was sealed. The breadth of the immunity provisions, the sealing, and the leniency of the sentence became the basis for years of subsequent litigation and official review. The attorney [[Bradley Edwards|Bradley Edwards]], representing victims, led the legal challenge to the agreement.[^1][^12]
### The Negotiators and the Breakfast ### The Negotiators and the Breakfast
Epstein's lead negotiator was [[Jay Lefkowitz]], a litigation partner at Kirkland & Ellis, Acosta's former firm, and a former director of the White House Domestic Policy Council. On August 19, 2005 Bush had named Lefkowitz the first Special Envoy for Human Rights in [[North Korea]], a part-time post he held while practicing law in New York until January 2009, so that he represented Epstein in 2007 and 2008 while serving in the administration that had appointed Acosta. Starr was also a Kirkland & Ellis partner.[^12][^13] Epstein's lead negotiator was [[Jay Lefkowitz]], a litigation partner at Kirkland & Ellis, Acosta's former firm, and a former director of the White House Domestic Policy Council. On August 19, 2005 Bush had named Lefkowitz the first Special Envoy for Human Rights in [[North Korea]], a part-time post he held while practicing law in New York until January 2009, so that he represented Epstein in 2007 and 2008 while serving in the administration that had appointed Acosta. Starr was also a Kirkland & Ellis partner.[^13][^14]
The agreement's terms were settled in September 2007 in email between Lefkowitz and the line prosecutor, [[Ann Marie Villafana|A. Marie Villafaña]]. On September 21, three days before signing, Palm Beach State Attorney [[Barry Krischer]] wrote to her: "Glad we could get this worked out for reasons I won't put in writing." On September 24, as the agreement was executed, Lefkowitz asked her to "do whatever you can to keep this from becoming public," and she reported that she had forwarded his message "only to [United States Attorney] Alex, Andy, and Roland."[^14] The agreement's terms were settled in September 2007 in email between Lefkowitz and the line prosecutor, [[Ann Marie Villafana|A. Marie Villafaña]]. On September 21, three days before signing, Palm Beach State Attorney [[Barry Krischer]] wrote to her: "Glad we could get this worked out for reasons I won't put in writing." On September 24, as the agreement was executed, Lefkowitz asked her to "do whatever you can to keep this from becoming public," and she reported that she had forwarded his message "only to [United States Attorney] Alex, Andy, and Roland."[^15]
On October 10, 2007 Lefkowitz wrote to Acosta that "[n]either federal agents nor anyone from your Office should contact the identified individuals." Acosta then met him for breakfast, and Lefkowitz's follow-up letter thanked Acosta "for the commitment you made to me during our October 12 meeting in which you . . . assured me that your Office would not . . . contact any of the identified individuals, potential witnesses, or potential civil claimants." The breakfast followed the September 24 signing, and the Justice Department's later review found no evidence that it "led to the NPA, which had been signed weeks earlier, or to any other significant decision that benefited Epstein."[^7][^14] On October 10, 2007 Lefkowitz wrote to Acosta that "[n]either federal agents nor anyone from your Office should contact the identified individuals." Acosta then met him for breakfast, and Lefkowitz's follow-up letter thanked Acosta "for the commitment you made to me during our October 12 meeting in which you . . . assured me that your Office would not . . . contact any of the identified individuals, potential witnesses, or potential civil claimants." The breakfast followed the September 24 signing, and the Justice Department's later review found no evidence that it "led to the NPA, which had been signed weeks earlier, or to any other significant decision that benefited Epstein."[^7][^15]
On November 30, 2007 Acosta wrote to Starr: "I am directing our prosecutors not to issue victim notification letters until this Friday at 5 p.m., to provide you with time to review these options with your client." On December 19, 2007 he wrote to the defense lawyer [[Lilly Ann Sanchez]] that his office would provide notice of the federal resolution but would "defer to the discretion of the State Attorney regarding whether he wishes to provide victims with notices of the state proceedings." Epstein's lawyers then spent six months seeking review from the Criminal Division and the Office of the Deputy Attorney General, which declined to intervene on June 23, 2008.[^7][^14] On November 30, 2007 Acosta wrote to Starr: "I am directing our prosecutors not to issue victim notification letters until this Friday at 5 p.m., to provide you with time to review these options with your client." On December 19, 2007 he wrote to the defense lawyer [[Lilly Ann Sanchez]] that his office would provide notice of the federal resolution but would "defer to the discretion of the State Attorney regarding whether he wishes to provide victims with notices of the state proceedings." Epstein's lawyers then spent six months seeking review from the Criminal Division and the Office of the Deputy Attorney General, which declined to intervene on June 23, 2008.[^7][^15]
In a 2011 letter defending the agreement, Acosta wrote that Epstein's team had waged "a year-long assault on the prosecution and the prosecutors," that "[d]efense counsel investigated individual prosecutors and their families," and that they would "obtain concessions as part of a negotiation and agree to proceed, only to change their minds, and appeal the office's position to Washington."[^8] In a 2011 letter defending the agreement, Acosta wrote that Epstein's team had waged "a year-long assault on the prosecution and the prosecutors," that "[d]efense counsel investigated individual prosecutors and their families," and that they would "obtain concessions as part of a negotiation and agree to proceed, only to change their minds, and appeal the office's position to Washington."[^9]
On his retirement from Kirkland & Ellis in March 2026, Lefkowitz said: "Although I believe everyone is entitled to representation no matter how heinous their crimes, knowing what we all know now, I would not have taken on the Epstein matter." A Kirkland spokesperson said: "To say the least, we deeply regret the firm's 2007 representation of Jeffrey Epstein."[^15] On his retirement from Kirkland & Ellis in March 2026, Lefkowitz said: "Although I believe everyone is entitled to representation no matter how heinous their crimes, knowing what we all know now, I would not have taken on the Epstein matter." A Kirkland spokesperson said: "To say the least, we deeply regret the firm's 2007 representation of Jeffrey Epstein."[^16]
### The Prosecutors' Chronology ### The Prosecutors' Chronology
A 51-page "Epstein Investigation Timeline," marked privileged and as containing grand jury material and stamped Exhibit A-1, logs Acosta's part in the negotiation document by document. In the summer of 2007 Criminal Division chief Matthew Menchel announced to the case team that Acosta would offer a two-year state plea, and in August the office told the defense that two years of incarceration was a non-negotiable minimum, that Acosta was not inclined to meet Epstein's counsel, and that Epstein had until August 17 to decide. In September 2007 Acosta, [[Drew Oosterbaan]], chief of the Justice Department's Child Exploitation and Obscenity Section, First Assistant [[Jeffrey Sloman]], Villafaña and John McMillan met Starr, Lefkowitz and Lilly Ann Sanchez, and on September 11 a draft agreement incorporating Acosta's edits went to [[Gerald Lefcourt]]. On September 23 Acosta told Lefkowitz to deal directly with [[Andrew Lourie]] and Villafaña, and on September 24 he sent his final edits before the signing.[^16] A 51-page "Epstein Investigation Timeline," marked privileged and as containing grand jury material and stamped Exhibit A-1, logs Acosta's part in the negotiation document by document. In the summer of 2007 Criminal Division chief Matthew Menchel announced to the case team that Acosta would offer a two-year state plea, and in August the office told the defense that two years of incarceration was a non-negotiable minimum, that Acosta was not inclined to meet Epstein's counsel, and that Epstein had until August 17 to decide. In September 2007 Acosta, [[Drew Oosterbaan]], chief of the Justice Department's Child Exploitation and Obscenity Section, First Assistant [[Jeffrey Sloman]], Villafaña and John McMillan met Starr, Lefkowitz and Lilly Ann Sanchez, and on September 11 a draft agreement incorporating Acosta's edits went to [[Gerald Lefcourt]]. On September 23 Acosta told Lefkowitz to deal directly with [[Andrew Lourie]] and Villafaña, and on September 24 he sent his final edits before the signing.[^17]
After the signing the chronology records a November 30, 2007 letter from Acosta to Starr asking for a statement signed by Epstein that he would abide by every term by December 14 or the office would proceed with prosecution, a companion letter saying the office stood ready to unwind the agreement if Epstein was dissatisfied with it, and a December 14, 2007 draft letter from Acosta to Krischer about Epstein registering as a sex offender. In early January 2008, according to the chronology, Lefkowitz admitted to Acosta in a telephone call that he had never intended Epstein to plead guilty to an offense requiring sex offender registration. After the Criminal Division rejected Epstein's appeal in May 2008, Villafaña asked to indict, and Sloman and Acosta advised that Epstein would be given the chance to perform. On May 16, 2008 Sloman told Villafaña, "We got approved," adding: "Alex called to tell me. He said the ltr needs to be tweaked which we'll do on Monday. I wouldn't call the FBI yet."[^16][^17] After the signing the chronology records a November 30, 2007 letter from Acosta to Starr asking for a statement signed by Epstein that he would abide by every term by December 14 or the office would proceed with prosecution, a companion letter saying the office stood ready to unwind the agreement if Epstein was dissatisfied with it, and a December 14, 2007 draft letter from Acosta to Krischer about Epstein registering as a sex offender. In early January 2008, according to the chronology, Lefkowitz admitted to Acosta in a telephone call that he had never intended Epstein to plead guilty to an offense requiring sex offender registration. After the Criminal Division rejected Epstein's appeal in May 2008, Villafaña asked to indict, and Sloman and Acosta advised that Epstein would be given the chance to perform. On May 16, 2008 Sloman told Villafaña, "We got approved," adding: "Alex called to tell me. He said the ltr needs to be tweaked which we'll do on Monday. I wouldn't call the FBI yet."[^17][^18]
The Office of Professional Responsibility recorded two recusal questions. In May 2008 the office's Professional Responsibility Officer asked the Department whether Acosta should step aside because he was considering a visiting professorship at [[Harvard Law School]] in 2009 while Alan Dershowitz, a Harvard Law professor, was representing Epstein "as a private, paying client"; the Department advised that there was no basis for recusal. In late 2008, "when Acosta anticipated leaving the USAO and was considering pursuing employment with Kirkland & Ellis," he told Sloman to stop copying him on Epstein emails, and the Department approved his recusal because he had "begun to discuss possible employment" with the firm that represented Epstein.[^18] The Office of Professional Responsibility recorded two recusal questions. In May 2008 the office's Professional Responsibility Officer asked the Department whether Acosta should step aside because he was considering a visiting professorship at [[Harvard Law School]] in 2009 while Alan Dershowitz, a Harvard Law professor, was representing Epstein "as a private, paying client"; the Department advised that there was no basis for recusal. In late 2008, "when Acosta anticipated leaving the USAO and was considering pursuing employment with Kirkland & Ellis," he told Sloman to stop copying him on Epstein emails, and the Department approved his recusal because he had "begun to discuss possible employment" with the firm that represented Epstein.[^19]
### Crime Victims' Rights Act Ruling ### Crime Victims' Rights Act Ruling
In the case styled [[Doe v. United States]], No. 08-80736, brought by victims including [[Courtney Wild|Courtney Wild]] and [[Jane Doe 2|Jane Doe 2]] to enforce their rights, United States District Judge [[Kenneth Marra|Kenneth Marra]] ruled on February 21, 2019, that the government had violated the Crime Victims' Rights Act by failing to confer with the victims before entering the non-prosecution agreement. The opinion recorded that "[w]hile the Government spent untold hours negotiating the terms and implications of the NPA with Epstein's attorneys, scant information was shared with victims," and that "[t]he Court is not ruling that the decision not to prosecute was improper." After the ruling the Justice Department recused Acosta's former office from the litigation and assigned the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Northern District of Georgia to defend it. Marra wrote that "particularly problematic was the government's decision to conceal the existence of the" agreement and to "mislead the victims to believe that federal prosecution was still a possibility," finding that prosecutors had counseled the victims to have "patience" after the deal had been signed.[^7][^14] In the case styled [[Doe v. United States]], No. 08-80736, brought by victims including [[Courtney Wild|Courtney Wild]] and [[Jane Doe 2|Jane Doe 2]] to enforce their rights, United States District Judge [[Kenneth Marra|Kenneth Marra]] ruled on February 21, 2019, that the government had violated the Crime Victims' Rights Act by failing to confer with the victims before entering the non-prosecution agreement. The opinion recorded that "[w]hile the Government spent untold hours negotiating the terms and implications of the NPA with Epstein's attorneys, scant information was shared with victims," and that "[t]he Court is not ruling that the decision not to prosecute was improper." After the ruling the Justice Department recused Acosta's former office from the litigation and assigned the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Northern District of Georgia to defend it. Marra wrote that "particularly problematic was the government's decision to conceal the existence of the" agreement and to "mislead the victims to believe that federal prosecution was still a possibility," finding that prosecutors had counseled the victims to have "patience" after the deal had been signed.[^7][^15]
In a later ruling on September 16, 2019, Marra declined to invalidate the non-prosecution agreement itself, noting that Epstein had died and that rescission would not restore the victims' position, and he held that the victims were not entitled to monetary damages from the government under the statute. He refused the victims' request to order Acosta to meet with them, writing: "The Court has no jurisdiction over Alexander Acosta, the former U.S. Attorney, who is now a private citizen." The decisions established the CVRA violation as a finding of fact while leaving the underlying agreement in place.[^19][^20] In a later ruling on September 16, 2019, Marra declined to invalidate the non-prosecution agreement itself, noting that Epstein had died and that rescission would not restore the victims' position, and he held that the victims were not entitled to monetary damages from the government under the statute. He refused the victims' request to order Acosta to meet with them, writing: "The Court has no jurisdiction over Alexander Acosta, the former U.S. Attorney, who is now a private citizen." The decisions established the CVRA violation as a finding of fact while leaving the underlying agreement in place.[^20][^21]
The victims' broader effort to overturn the agreement ultimately failed at the appellate level. In its brief to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit]], the Justice Department argued that "the legal obligations under the CVRA do not attach prior to the government charging a case," while conceding at oral argument that the office had "made a mistake in causing her to believe that the case was ongoing when in fact the NPA had been signed." A three-judge panel adopted the government's position in April 2020, holding that CVRA rights do not attach before charges, but the full court vacated that opinion in August 2020. On April 15, 2021 the en banc court denied Wild's petition by seven votes to four on a narrower ground: the Act does not authorize a victim to seek judicial enforcement of her rights in a freestanding civil action when no charges have been filed. The majority stated that it "needn't decide" whether the rights to confer and to fair treatment attach before charges, and the dissenting judges faulted it for that omission. The ruling left the district court's finding of a conferral violation undisturbed while denying the victims any remedy, and the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] denied certiorari on February 22, 2022.[^7][^21][^22] The victims' broader effort to overturn the agreement ultimately failed at the appellate level. In its brief to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit]], the Justice Department argued that "the legal obligations under the CVRA do not attach prior to the government charging a case," while conceding at oral argument that the office had "made a mistake in causing her to believe that the case was ongoing when in fact the NPA had been signed." A three-judge panel adopted the government's position in April 2020, holding that CVRA rights do not attach before charges, but the full court vacated that opinion in August 2020. On April 15, 2021 the en banc court denied Wild's petition by seven votes to four on a narrower ground: the Act does not authorize a victim to seek judicial enforcement of her rights in a freestanding civil action when no charges have been filed. The majority stated that it "needn't decide" whether the rights to confer and to fair treatment attach before charges, and the dissenting judges faulted it for that omission. The ruling left the district court's finding of a conferral violation undisturbed while denying the victims any remedy, and the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] denied certiorari on February 22, 2022.[^7][^22][^23]
### DOJ Office of Professional Responsibility Report ### DOJ Office of Professional Responsibility Report
The review originated in a December 3, 2018 letter from Senator [[Ben Sasse]], chairman of a Senate Judiciary oversight subcommittee, citing the [[Miami Herald]] series; OPR opened its investigation on February 6, 2019. It recorded that a victims' attorney had raised allegations of improper influence in December 2010 and that OPR had declined to open an inquiry then in deference to the pending litigation. The Justice Department's [[Office of Professional Responsibility|Office of Professional Responsibility]] released a report on November 12, 2020, examining the conduct of Acosta and his subordinates in the Epstein matter. The report concluded that Acosta exercised "poor judgment" in resolving the federal investigation through a state plea agreement, but it did not find professional misconduct, stating that his decision to decline federal prosecution was within the scope of his authority and that there was no evidence the decision was based on corruption or other impermissible considerations.[^2][^7] The review originated in a December 3, 2018 letter from Senator [[Ben Sasse]], chairman of a Senate Judiciary oversight subcommittee, citing the [[Miami Herald]] series; OPR opened its investigation on February 6, 2019. It recorded that a victims' attorney had raised allegations of improper influence in December 2010 and that OPR had declined to open an inquiry then in deference to the pending litigation. The Justice Department's [[Office of Professional Responsibility|Office of Professional Responsibility]] released a report on November 12, 2020, examining the conduct of Acosta and his subordinates in the Epstein matter. The report concluded that Acosta exercised "poor judgment" in resolving the federal investigation through a state plea agreement, but it did not find professional misconduct, stating that his decision to decline federal prosecution was within the scope of his authority and that there was no evidence the decision was based on corruption or other impermissible considerations.[^2][^7]
OPR located the "poor judgment" specifically in Acosta's failure to ensure that the state would notify the federally identified victims of Epstein's plea hearing, leaving victims uninformed about the proceeding that resolved an investigation about which the office had communicated with them for months. The report described the non-prosecution agreement as "a flawed mechanism for satisfying the federal interest" that had prompted the investigation, and it documented extensive concessions made to Epstein's lawyers. OPR found that Acosta's "application of federalism principles was too expansive, his view of the federal interest in prosecuting Epstein was too narrow, and his understanding of the state system was too imperfect to justify the decision to use the NPA," and that the three other supervisory subjects "left the USAO, were transitioning to other jobs, or were absent at critical junctures." It also concluded that the government's handling "gave victims and the public the misimpression that the government had colluded with Epstein's counsel to keep the NPA secret from the victims."[^7] The Executive Summary states that Acosta "made the pivotal decision to resolve the federal investigation of Epstein" through a state-based plea, and that he "participated in its drafting and approved it, with knowledge of its terms." It states that as United States attorney he had "plenary authority" to resolve the case as he deemed appropriate, and that he did not commit professional misconduct. It found that he exercised poor judgment both in choosing the non-prosecution agreement as the mechanism and in failing to make certain that the state would notify victims identified in the federal investigation of the state plea hearing.[^23] The summary records the agreement signed on September 24, 2007, the defense's request for review by the Criminal Division and the Office of the Deputy Attorney General, the June 23, 2008 determination that the deputy attorney general would not intervene, and the state plea of June 30, 2008.[^24] Before the report was final, the chief of the Public Corruption Unit of the U.S. Attorney's Office for the [[Southern District of New York]] reviewed the draft and on August 21, 2020 asked for two wording changes, which OPR accepted: "at least one victim known to be a minor" became "at least one victim believed to be a minor," described as "more accurately reflect[ing] our position in the bail arguments regarding Epstein," and a statement that investigators "were aware" Epstein used hidden cameras in his New York residence became that they "had learned" it.[^25] OPR located the "poor judgment" specifically in Acosta's failure to ensure that the state would notify the federally identified victims of Epstein's plea hearing, leaving victims uninformed about the proceeding that resolved an investigation about which the office had communicated with them for months. The report described the non-prosecution agreement as "a flawed mechanism for satisfying the federal interest" that had prompted the investigation, and it documented extensive concessions made to Epstein's lawyers. OPR found that Acosta's "application of federalism principles was too expansive, his view of the federal interest in prosecuting Epstein was too narrow, and his understanding of the state system was too imperfect to justify the decision to use the NPA," and that the three other supervisory subjects "left the USAO, were transitioning to other jobs, or were absent at critical junctures." It also concluded that the government's handling "gave victims and the public the misimpression that the government had colluded with Epstein's counsel to keep the NPA secret from the victims."[^7] The Executive Summary states that Acosta "made the pivotal decision to resolve the federal investigation of Epstein" through a state-based plea, and that he "participated in its drafting and approved it, with knowledge of its terms." It states that as United States attorney he had "plenary authority" to resolve the case as he deemed appropriate, and that he did not commit professional misconduct. It found that he exercised poor judgment both in choosing the non-prosecution agreement as the mechanism and in failing to make certain that the state would notify victims identified in the federal investigation of the state plea hearing.[^24] The summary records the agreement signed on September 24, 2007, the defense's request for review by the Criminal Division and the Office of the Deputy Attorney General, the June 23, 2008 determination that the deputy attorney general would not intervene, and the state plea of June 30, 2008.[^25] Before the report was final, the chief of the Public Corruption Unit of the U.S. Attorney's Office for the [[Southern District of New York]] reviewed the draft and on August 21, 2020 asked for two wording changes, which OPR accepted: "at least one victim known to be a minor" became "at least one victim believed to be a minor," described as "more accurately reflect[ing] our position in the bail arguments regarding Epstein," and a statement that investigators "were aware" Epstein used hidden cameras in his New York residence became that they "had learned" it.[^26]
The report also recorded internal dissent. The line prosecutor Ann Marie Villafana had objected to the access granted to Epstein's defense counsel and to meeting with them, and was overruled by supervisors; a footnote recorded her belief that an email from her supervisor [[Matthew Menchel|Matthew Menchel]] was meant to "put [her] in [her] place," while Menchel described her as having a history of resisting supervisory authority. OPR declined to refer Acosta or other prosecutors for disciplinary action on professional-responsibility grounds, a conclusion that victims' advocates characterized as a whitewash.[^26] The report also recorded internal dissent. The line prosecutor Ann Marie Villafana had objected to the access granted to Epstein's defense counsel and to meeting with them, and was overruled by supervisors; a footnote recorded her belief that an email from her supervisor [[Matthew Menchel|Matthew Menchel]] was meant to "put [her] in [her] place," while Menchel described her as having a history of resisting supervisory authority. OPR declined to refer Acosta or other prosecutors for disciplinary action on professional-responsibility grounds, a conclusion that victims' advocates characterized as a whitewash.[^27]
One of those supervisors was Matthew Menchel, chief of the office's Criminal Division, who left in August 2007, weeks before the agreement was signed, for the law firm [[Kobre & Kim]]. According to reporting on the full OPR report, Menchel had offered the 2007 plea terms to an Epstein lawyer he had formerly dated. Epstein estate records released by the [[House Oversight Committee]] in October 2025 show appointments, telephone calls, and dinners between Menchel and Epstein in 2011, 2013, and 2017. Menchel has said he had no business relationship with Epstein "at any point, not before, during or after my tenure," and has denied skiing with him, but did not deny meeting him after leaving the office.[^27] One of those supervisors was Matthew Menchel, chief of the office's Criminal Division, who left in August 2007, weeks before the agreement was signed, for the law firm [[Kobre & Kim]]. According to reporting on the full OPR report, Menchel had offered the 2007 plea terms to an Epstein lawyer he had formerly dated. Epstein estate records released by the [[House Oversight Committee]] in October 2025 show appointments, telephone calls, and dinners between Menchel and Epstein in 2011, 2013, and 2017. Menchel has said he had no business relationship with Epstein "at any point, not before, during or after my tenure," and has denied skiing with him, but did not deny meeting him after leaving the office.[^28]
### Secretary of Labor and Resignation ### Secretary of Labor and Resignation
President [[Donald Trump|Donald Trump]] nominated Acosta as Secretary of Labor, and he was confirmed by the Senate on April 17, 2017 and sworn in that month, having previously chaired the National Labor Relations Board and served as dean of Florida International University's law school. The Florida agreement drew scrutiny during his 2017 confirmation but did not derail it; OPR recorded that at his March 2017 hearing he was "questioned only briefly about the Epstein case."[^1][^7] President [[Donald Trump|Donald Trump]] nominated Acosta as Secretary of Labor, and he was confirmed by the Senate on April 17, 2017 and sworn in that month, having previously chaired the National Labor Relations Board and served as dean of Florida International University's law school. The Florida agreement drew scrutiny during his 2017 confirmation but did not derail it; OPR recorded that at his March 2017 hearing he was "questioned only briefly about the Epstein case."[^1][^7]
After the November 2018 Miami Herald investigation "Perversion of Justice" by [[Julie K. Brown|Julie K. Brown]] revived attention to the agreement, and after Epstein's July 2019 federal arrest in New York on new sex-trafficking charges, Acosta held a July 10, 2019, press conference defending his handling of the case, arguing that the state alternative had at least secured Epstein's registration as a sex offender and some jail time, and saying that the Palm Beach State Attorney's Office "was ready to allow Epstein to walk free with no jail time, nothing." Krischer answered the same day that Acosta's "recollection of the matter is completely wrong" and that "Mr. Acosta should not be allowed to rewrite history." He resigned on July 12, 2019, two days later, saying he did not want the controversy to distract from the administration's work and that it would be "selfish" to remain.[^1][^28][^29] After the November 2018 Miami Herald investigation "Perversion of Justice" by [[Julie K. Brown|Julie K. Brown]] revived attention to the agreement, and after Epstein's July 2019 federal arrest in New York on new sex-trafficking charges, Acosta held a July 10, 2019, press conference defending his handling of the case, arguing that the state alternative had at least secured Epstein's registration as a sex offender and some jail time, and saying that the Palm Beach State Attorney's Office "was ready to allow Epstein to walk free with no jail time, nothing." Krischer answered the same day that Acosta's "recollection of the matter is completely wrong" and that "Mr. Acosta should not be allowed to rewrite history." He resigned on July 12, 2019, two days later, saying he did not want the controversy to distract from the administration's work and that it would be "selfish" to remain.[^1][^29][^30]
On September 19, 2025 Acosta sat for a voluntary transcribed interview with the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]] as part of its renewed inquiry into the federal handling of the Epstein and Maxwell cases; the committee released the transcript on October 17, 2025, together with Epstein estate records. Chairman [[James Comer|James Comer]] said Acosta had cooperated, and the committee separately sought records and testimony from other former officials. Acosta told the committee that prosecutors had avoided trial partly because some underage victims did not want to testify and a conviction was not assured, and he said he did not recall reading Villafaña's recommendation of a 60-count indictment. Lawmakers questioned him about the records of Menchel's later contacts with Epstein and about a photograph said to show the two skiing, which was not produced.[^27][^30] On September 19, 2025 Acosta sat for a voluntary transcribed interview with the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]] as part of its renewed inquiry into the federal handling of the Epstein and Maxwell cases; the committee released the transcript on October 17, 2025, together with Epstein estate records. Chairman [[James Comer|James Comer]] said Acosta had cooperated, and the committee separately sought records and testimony from other former officials. Acosta told the committee that prosecutors had avoided trial partly because some underage victims did not want to testify and a conviction was not assured, and he said he did not recall reading Villafaña's recommendation of a 60-count indictment. Lawmakers questioned him about the records of Menchel's later contacts with Epstein and about a photograph said to show the two skiing, which was not produced.[^28][^31]
### Intelligence Claim ### Intelligence Claim
In a July 2019 article for [[The Daily Beast|The Daily Beast]], journalist [[Vicky Ward|Vicky Ward]] reported that, according to an anonymous former senior [[White House]] official, Acosta had explained the lenient Epstein deal during his Labor Secretary vetting by saying he had been told that Epstein "belonged to intelligence" and to "leave it alone" because the matter was above his pay grade. Ward's report attributed the account to a single unnamed source, and commentators noted the source could not be independently confirmed. Ward had reported on Epstein for years and had earlier written a 2003 profile of him for Vanity Fair.[^31][^32] In a July 2019 article for [[The Daily Beast|The Daily Beast]], journalist [[Vicky Ward|Vicky Ward]] reported that, according to an anonymous former senior [[White House]] official, Acosta had explained the lenient Epstein deal during his Labor Secretary vetting by saying he had been told that Epstein "belonged to intelligence" and to "leave it alone" because the matter was above his pay grade. Ward's report attributed the account to a single unnamed source, and commentators noted the source could not be independently confirmed. Ward had reported on Epstein for years and had earlier written a 2003 profile of him for Vanity Fair.[^32][^33]
Acosta disputed the characterization. Asked about the reporting at his July 2019 press conference, he said he would "hesitate to take this reporting as fact." Under oath to Justice Department investigators he answered "no" when asked whether he had knowledge of Epstein being an intelligence asset, and the OPR review reported that none of the subjects it interviewed believed Epstein to have been an intelligence asset.[^33][^34] Acosta disputed the characterization. Asked about the reporting at his July 2019 press conference, he said he would "hesitate to take this reporting as fact." Under oath to Justice Department investigators he answered "no" when asked whether he had knowledge of Epstein being an intelligence asset, and the OPR review reported that none of the subjects it interviewed believed Epstein to have been an intelligence asset.[^34][^35]
At his September 19, 2025 transcribed interview with the House Oversight Committee, Acosta again denied the intelligence account. Asked whether anyone had told him Epstein could not be prosecuted because he was an asset, he said "No one approached me and said that," and he stated that if there had been classified or secure information bearing on the case, established procedures would have been triggered that were never triggered. The intelligence claim remains an attributed, disputed assertion sourced to a single anonymous account rather than an established finding.[^30][^33] At his September 19, 2025 transcribed interview with the House Oversight Committee, Acosta again denied the intelligence account. Asked whether anyone had told him Epstein could not be prosecuted because he was an asset, he said "No one approached me and said that," and he stated that if there had been classified or secure information bearing on the case, established procedures would have been triggered that were never triggered. The intelligence claim remains an attributed, disputed assertion sourced to a single anonymous account rather than an established finding.[^31][^34]
[[William Barr]], Attorney General at the time of Epstein's 2019 arrest and death, was asked about the account in an August 18, 2025 deposition before the same committee. Asked whether he was aware of Acosta saying he had been told Epstein "belongs to intelligence and to leave it alone," Barr answered: "No. Other than what's ever been reported in articles over the years." He said he had "no reason to believe he was working for the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] or any intelligence agency, and I'm dubious about claims like that," offered the supposition that Epstein might, "like many other businessmen," have talked to intelligence officers who debrief well-connected people, and said that "if he was an American asset, as opposed to some businessman who shares stuff with the government, I would've heard about it from the intelligence agency."[^35] [[William Barr]], Attorney General at the time of Epstein's 2019 arrest and death, was asked about the account in an August 18, 2025 deposition before the same committee. Asked whether he was aware of Acosta saying he had been told Epstein "belongs to intelligence and to leave it alone," Barr answered: "No. Other than what's ever been reported in articles over the years." He said he had "no reason to believe he was working for the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] or any intelligence agency, and I'm dubious about claims like that," offered the supposition that Epstein might, "like many other businessmen," have talked to intelligence officers who debrief well-connected people, and said that "if he was an American asset, as opposed to some businessman who shares stuff with the government, I would've heard about it from the intelligence agency."[^36]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -133,31 +133,32 @@ At his September 19, 2025 transcribed interview with the House Oversight Committ
[^5]: U.S. Department of Justice, "Cali Cartel Leaders Plead Guilty to Drug and Money Laundering Conspiracy Charges," press release 06-646, September 26, 2006. https://www.justice.gov/archive/opa/pr/2006/September/06_crm_646.html [^5]: U.S. Department of Justice, "Cali Cartel Leaders Plead Guilty to Drug and Money Laundering Conspiracy Charges," press release 06-646, September 26, 2006. https://www.justice.gov/archive/opa/pr/2006/September/06_crm_646.html
[^6]: "Jeffrey Epstein 2008 plea deal: poor judgment," *Global News,* November 2020. https://globalnews.ca/news/7460232/jeffrey-epstein-2008-plea-deal-poor-judgment/ [^6]: "Jeffrey Epstein 2008 plea deal: poor judgment," *Global News,* November 2020. https://globalnews.ca/news/7460232/jeffrey-epstein-2008-plea-deal-poor-judgment/
[^7]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Professional Responsibility, "Investigation into the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida's Resolution of Its 2006-2008 Federal Criminal Investigation of Jeffrey Epstein," November 2020. https://www.justice.gov/opr/page/file/1336471/dl [^7]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Professional Responsibility, "Investigation into the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida's Resolution of Its 2006-2008 Federal Criminal Investigation of Jeffrey Epstein," November 2020. https://www.justice.gov/opr/page/file/1336471/dl
[^8]: Conchita Sarnoff and Lee Aitken, "Jeffrey Epstein: How the Hedge Fund Mogul Pedophile Got Off Easy," *The Daily Beast,* March 25, 2011, quoting R. Alexander Acosta's 2011 letter. https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-how-the-hedge-fund-mogul-pedophile-got-off-easy/ [^8]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Professional Responsibility, Executive Summary of Report, *Investigation into the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida's Resolution of Its 2006-2008 Federal Criminal Investigation of Jeffrey Epstein,* November 2020 (NPA signed September 24, 2007; state plea June 30, 2008). https://www.justice.gov/opr/page/file/1336471/dl
[^9]: "Jeffrey Epstein paid Palm Beach Sheriff's Office $128,000 during incarceration for prostitution charges," *WPTV,* 2019. https://www.wptv.com/news/region-c-palm-beach-county/new-jeffrey-epstein-paid-palm-beach-sheriffs-office-128-000-during-incarceration-for-prostitution [^9]: Conchita Sarnoff and Lee Aitken, "Jeffrey Epstein: How the Hedge Fund Mogul Pedophile Got Off Easy," *The Daily Beast,* March 25, 2011, quoting R. Alexander Acosta's 2011 letter. https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-how-the-hedge-fund-mogul-pedophile-got-off-easy/
[^10]: "Florida authorities find no evidence of criminal activity in state's handling of Jeffrey Epstein case," *NBC News,* May 2021, on the sheriff's work-release program allowing Epstein out up to 16 hours a day, seven days a week. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/florida-authorities-no-evidence-criminal-activity-state-s-handling-jeffrey-n1266888 [^10]: "Jeffrey Epstein paid Palm Beach Sheriff's Office $128,000 during incarceration for prostitution charges," *WPTV,* 2019. https://www.wptv.com/news/region-c-palm-beach-county/new-jeffrey-epstein-paid-palm-beach-sheriffs-office-128-000-during-incarceration-for-prostitution
[^11]: "How Bradley Edwards fought Alex Acosta's nonprosecution agreement with Jeffrey Epstein," *Slate,* July 2019. https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2019/07/bradley-edwards-jeffrey-epstein-alexander-acosta.html [^11]: "Florida authorities find no evidence of criminal activity in state's handling of Jeffrey Epstein case," *NBC News,* May 2021, on the sheriff's work-release program allowing Epstein out up to 16 hours a day, seven days a week. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/florida-authorities-no-evidence-criminal-activity-state-s-handling-jeffrey-n1266888
[^12]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy for Human Rights in North Korea," official biography, 2005. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; "Final Report of Jay Lefkowitz, U.S. Special Envoy for Human Rights in North Korea," January 2009. https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/senk/115268.htm [^12]: "How Bradley Edwards fought Alex Acosta's nonprosecution agreement with Jeffrey Epstein," *Slate,* July 2019. https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2019/07/bradley-edwards-jeffrey-epstein-alexander-acosta.html
[^13]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast,* March 2026, on Lefkowitz's three decades at Kirkland & Ellis and his Bush White House service. https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epsteins-disgraced-lawyer-jay-lefkowitz-who-secured-sweetheart-deal-leaves-firm/ [^13]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy for Human Rights in North Korea," official biography, 2005. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; "Final Report of Jay Lefkowitz, U.S. Special Envoy for Human Rights in North Korea," January 2009. https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/senk/115268.htm
[^14]: Opinion and Order, *Jane Doe 1 and Jane Doe 2 v. United States*, No. 9:08-cv-80736-KAM (S.D. Fla. Feb. 21, 2019), ECF No. 435 (Marra, J.), reported at 359 F. Supp. 3d 1201, quoting ECF No. 407 at paragraphs 33, 37, 52, 61, 63, 83, 90, and the court's analysis at 27-33. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.flsd.317867/gov.uscourts.flsd.317867.435.0.pdf [^14]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast,* March 2026, on Lefkowitz's three decades at Kirkland & Ellis and his Bush White House service. https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epsteins-disgraced-lawyer-jay-lefkowitz-who-secured-sweetheart-deal-leaves-firm/
[^15]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast,* March 2026, quoting Lefkowitz's retirement statement and a Kirkland & Ellis spokesperson. https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epsteins-disgraced-lawyer-jay-lefkowitz-who-secured-sweetheart-deal-leaves-firm/ [^15]: Opinion and Order, *Jane Doe 1 and Jane Doe 2 v. United States*, No. 9:08-cv-80736-KAM (S.D. Fla. Feb. 21, 2019), ECF No. 435 (Marra, J.), reported at 359 F. Supp. 3d 1201, quoting ECF No. 407 at paragraphs 33, 37, 52, 61, 63, 83, 90, and the court's analysis at 27-33. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.flsd.317867/gov.uscourts.flsd.317867.435.0.pdf
[^16]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00224943, DataSet 9, "Epstein Investigation Timeline," Exhibit A-1, privileged chronology of the federal investigation, pp. 9 to 10, 12 to 13, 20, 24 to 29, 34. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00224943.pdf [^16]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast,* March 2026, quoting Lefkowitz's retirement statement and a Kirkland & Ellis spokesperson. https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epsteins-disgraced-lawyer-jay-lefkowitz-who-secured-sweetheart-deal-leaves-firm/
[^17]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00214486, DataSet 9, email chain, Jeff Sloman and Ann Marie Villafana, "Re: Did u hear?," May 16, 2008. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00214486.pdf [^17]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00224943, DataSet 9, "Epstein Investigation Timeline," Exhibit A-1, privileged chronology of the federal investigation, pp. 9 to 10, 12 to 13, 20, 24 to 29, 34. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00224943.pdf
[^18]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284, Prior DOJ Disclosures, Office of Professional Responsibility report on the Southern District of Florida's resolution of the Epstein investigation, November 2020, p. 152 and n. 224. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/Prior%20DOJ%20Disclosures/Memos.%20&%20Correspondence/EFTA02847284.pdf [^18]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00214486, DataSet 9, email chain, Jeff Sloman and Ann Marie Villafana, "Re: Did u hear?," May 16, 2008. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00214486.pdf
[^19]: "Epstein accusers won't receive damages and plea deal won't be tossed, judge rules," *CNN,* September 16, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/16/us/jeffrey-epstein-florida-accusers-judge-ruling [^19]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284, Prior DOJ Disclosures, Office of Professional Responsibility report on the Southern District of Florida's resolution of the Epstein investigation, November 2020, p. 152 and n. 224. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/Prior%20DOJ%20Disclosures/Memos.%20&%20Correspondence/EFTA02847284.pdf
[^20]: Opinion and Order, *Doe v. United States*, No. 9:08-cv-80736-KAM (S.D. Fla. Sept. 16, 2019), ECF No. 478 (Marra, J.). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-flsd-9_08-cv-80736/pdf/USCOURTS-flsd-9_08-cv-80736-2.pdf [^20]: "Epstein accusers won't receive damages and plea deal won't be tossed, judge rules," *CNN,* September 16, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/16/us/jeffrey-epstein-florida-accusers-judge-ruling
[^21]: *In re Wild*, No. 19-13843, 994 F.3d 1244 (11th Cir. Apr. 15, 2021) (en banc), majority opinion at 2-3, 13; Branch, J., dissenting; Hull, J., dissenting. https://media.ca11.uscourts.gov/opinions/pub/files/201913843.enb.pdf [^21]: Opinion and Order, *Doe v. United States*, No. 9:08-cv-80736-KAM (S.D. Fla. Sept. 16, 2019), ECF No. 478 (Marra, J.). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-flsd-9_08-cv-80736/pdf/USCOURTS-flsd-9_08-cv-80736-2.pdf
[^22]: Supreme Court of the United States, docket No. 21-351, order of February 22, 2022 denying certiorari. https://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename=/docket/docketfiles/html/public/21-351.html [^22]: *In re Wild*, No. 19-13843, 994 F.3d 1244 (11th Cir. Apr. 15, 2021) (en banc), majority opinion at 2-3, 13; Branch, J., dissenting; Hull, J., dissenting. https://media.ca11.uscourts.gov/opinions/pub/files/201913843.enb.pdf
[^23]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Professional Responsibility, Executive Summary of the investigation into the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida's resolution of the 2006-2008 federal investigation of Jeffrey Epstein (November 2020), pp. 10-12. https://www.justice.gov/opr/page/file/1336471/dl [^23]: Supreme Court of the United States, docket No. 21-351, order of February 22, 2022 denying certiorari. https://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename=/docket/docketfiles/html/public/21-351.html
[^24]: Same Executive Summary, pp. 2-3. [^24]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Professional Responsibility, Executive Summary of the investigation into the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida's resolution of the 2006-2008 federal investigation of Jeffrey Epstein (November 2020), pp. 10-12. https://www.justice.gov/opr/page/file/1336471/dl
[^25]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00077309, DataSet 9, email, Chief, Public Corruption Unit, U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York, and the Office of Professional Responsibility, "RE: Draft OPR Report," August 21, 2020. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00077309.pdf [^25]: Same Executive Summary, pp. 2-3.
[^26]: "US Attorney Alex Acosta showed 'poor judgment' when giving Jeffrey Epstein state-based plea deal in 2008: DOJ," *ABC News,* November 12, 2020. https://abcnews.com/US/us-attorney-alex-acosta-showed-poor-judgment-giving/story?id=74178029 ; the Villafaña footnote passage appears in the body of the full OPR report of November 2020, not in the executive summary cited at note 7. [^26]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00077309, DataSet 9, email, Chief, Public Corruption Unit, U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York, and the Office of Professional Responsibility, "RE: Draft OPR Report," August 21, 2020. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00077309.pdf
[^27]: Debra Cassens Weiss, "Jeffrey Epstein had dinners with top criminal prosecutor in years following favorable deal, documents show," *ABA Journal,* October 20, 2025. https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/jeffrey-epstein-had-dinners-with-top-criminal-prosecutor-in-years-following-favorable-deal-documents-show [^27]: "US Attorney Alex Acosta showed 'poor judgment' when giving Jeffrey Epstein state-based plea deal in 2008: DOJ," *ABC News,* November 12, 2020. https://abcnews.com/US/us-attorney-alex-acosta-showed-poor-judgment-giving/story?id=74178029 ; the Villafaña footnote passage appears in the body of the full OPR report of November 2020, not in the executive summary cited at note 7.
[^28]: "Trump's Labor Secretary Alex Acosta resigns after criticism over Epstein deal," *Euronews,* July 12, 2019. https://www.euronews.com/2019/07/12/trump-s-labor-secretary-alex-acosta-resigns-after-criticism-over-n1029226 [^28]: Debra Cassens Weiss, "Jeffrey Epstein had dinners with top criminal prosecutor in years following favorable deal, documents show," *ABA Journal,* October 20, 2025. https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/jeffrey-epstein-had-dinners-with-top-criminal-prosecutor-in-years-following-favorable-deal-documents-show
[^29]: "Former state's attorney pushes back against Acosta account of Epstein case," *The Hill,* July 10, 2019. https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/452527-former-florida-state-attorney-pushes-back-against-acosta-account-of/ [^29]: "Trump's Labor Secretary Alex Acosta resigns after criticism over Epstein deal," *Euronews,* July 12, 2019. https://www.euronews.com/2019/07/12/trump-s-labor-secretary-alex-acosta-resigns-after-criticism-over-n1029226
[^30]: "Alex Acosta, former US attorney who negotiated Epstein's plea deal, appears before House Oversight Committee," *ABC News,* October 2025 (September 19, 2025 closed-door transcribed interview; transcript released October 17, 2025). https://abcnews.com/Politics/alex-acosta-former-us-attorney-negotiated-epsteins-plea/story?id=125731737 [^30]: "Former state's attorney pushes back against Acosta account of Epstein case," *The Hill,* July 10, 2019. https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/452527-former-florida-state-attorney-pushes-back-against-acosta-account-of/
[^31]: Vicky Ward, "Jeffrey Epstein's Sick Story Played Out for Years in Plain Sight," *The Daily Beast,* July 9, 2019. https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epsteins-sick-story-played-out-for-years-in-plain-sight/ [^31]: "Alex Acosta, former US attorney who negotiated Epstein's plea deal, appears before House Oversight Committee," *ABC News,* October 2025 (September 19, 2025 closed-door transcribed interview; transcript released October 17, 2025). https://abcnews.com/Politics/alex-acosta-former-us-attorney-negotiated-epsteins-plea/story?id=125731737
[^32]: "Did Jeffrey Epstein 'Belong to Intelligence'?," *Skeptic,* analyzing Vicky Ward's July 2019 Daily Beast report. https://www.skeptic.com/article/did-jeffrey-epstein-belong-to-intelligence/ [^32]: Vicky Ward, "Jeffrey Epstein's Sick Story Played Out for Years in Plain Sight," *The Daily Beast,* July 9, 2019. https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epsteins-sick-story-played-out-for-years-in-plain-sight/
[^33]: "Acosta once said Epstein 'belonged to intelligence,'" *Newsweek,* July 2019. https://www.newsweek.com/alex-acosta-epstein-sex-trafficking-department-labor-1448568 [^33]: "Did Jeffrey Epstein 'Belong to Intelligence'?," *Skeptic,* analyzing Vicky Ward's July 2019 Daily Beast report. https://www.skeptic.com/article/did-jeffrey-epstein-belong-to-intelligence/
[^34]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Professional Responsibility, full report of November 2020 on the Southern District of Florida's resolution of the Epstein investigation (report body; the passage does not appear in the executive summary cited at note 7). https://www.justice.gov/opr/page/file/1336471/dl [^34]: "Acosta once said Epstein 'belonged to intelligence,'" *Newsweek,* July 2019. https://www.newsweek.com/alex-acosta-epstein-sex-trafficking-department-labor-1448568
[^35]: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, deposition of William P. Barr, August 18, 2025, transcript released September 2025. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Barr-Transcript.pdf [^35]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Professional Responsibility, full report of November 2020 on the Southern District of Florida's resolution of the Epstein investigation (report body; the passage does not appear in the executive summary cited at note 7). https://www.justice.gov/opr/page/file/1336471/dl
[^36]: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, deposition of William P. Barr, August 18, 2025, transcript released September 2025. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Barr-Transcript.pdf

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Allan Boyak.md
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@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ Boyak maintained contacts and performed legal work for former colleagues from hi
Boyak became involved with [[Robert Booth Nichols]] when one of his clients, [[Cap Kressop]], a technical wizard, was approached by Nichols to manufacture a prototype laser site for a rifle. Kressop became suspicious when Nichols offered to pay him $200,000 in cash. Boyak contacted Nichols at his Marina Del Rey home/office, and their meeting was continuously interrupted by telephone calls and telex messages. Boyak became convinced that Nichols was involved in large-scale illegal drug operations.[^1] Boyak became involved with [[Robert Booth Nichols]] when one of his clients, [[Cap Kressop]], a technical wizard, was approached by Nichols to manufacture a prototype laser site for a rifle. Kressop became suspicious when Nichols offered to pay him $200,000 in cash. Boyak contacted Nichols at his Marina Del Rey home/office, and their meeting was continuously interrupted by telephone calls and telex messages. Boyak became convinced that Nichols was involved in large-scale illegal drug operations.[^1]
After consulting with [[Dexter Leitenen]], then an assistant [[United States Attorney|U.S. Attorney]], Boyak went to the Los Angeles [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] office with his suspicions about Nichols' activities. However, an [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] background check on Nichols, reportedly conducted by [[Ted Gunderson]], found him "squeaky clean." Boyak later discovered that [[Harold Okimoto]], whom Nichols referenced as a business associate and personal friend, was believed by some of Boyak's sources to be a top Japanese organized crime figure based in [[Hawaii]] and a top agent in the [[Yakuza]] overseas.[^1] After consulting with [[Dexter Lehtinen]], then an assistant [[United States Attorney|U.S. Attorney]], Boyak went to the Los Angeles [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] office with his suspicions about Nichols' activities. However, an [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] background check on Nichols, reportedly conducted by [[Ted Gunderson]], found him "squeaky clean." Boyak later discovered that [[Harold Okimoto]], whom Nichols referenced as a business associate and personal friend, was believed by some of Boyak's sources to be a top Japanese organized crime figure based in [[Hawaii]] and a top agent in the [[Yakuza]] overseas.[^1]
Over the next two years, after the Los Angeles [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] dropped its interest in Nichols, Boyak's friend [[Art Suchesk]] repeatedly encountered Nichols in places like [[Singapore]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Taiwan]]. Boyak stated that information developed during this period indicated that Nichols was indeed a "bigtime drug dealer" who operated exclusively overseas and was well-insulated from U.S. law enforcement problems. Boyak described Nichols' rum importing business as a cover for large-scale heroin trafficking from the [[Golden Triangle]]. Nichols was also named as "Mr. Big" in the [[Medellin Cartel]] in drug prosecutions in [[Utah]] and [[Los Angeles]].[^1] Over the next two years, after the Los Angeles [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] dropped its interest in Nichols, Boyak's friend [[Art Suchesk]] repeatedly encountered Nichols in places like [[Singapore]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Taiwan]]. Boyak stated that information developed during this period indicated that Nichols was indeed a "bigtime drug dealer" who operated exclusively overseas and was well-insulated from U.S. law enforcement problems. Boyak described Nichols' rum importing business as a cover for large-scale heroin trafficking from the [[Golden Triangle]]. Nichols was also named as "Mr. Big" in the [[Medellin Cartel]] in drug prosecutions in [[Utah]] and [[Los Angeles]].[^1]

92
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Allen Dulles.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
--- ---
created: 2026-05-15 created: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-10-14 updated: 2026-10-15
title: Allen Dulles title: Allen Dulles
aliases: aliases:
- Allen Welsh Dulles - Allen Welsh Dulles
@ -27,12 +27,12 @@ relations:
with: "[[American Committee on United Europe]]" with: "[[American Committee on United Europe]]"
start: 1949 start: 1949
role: "vice-chairman" role: "vice-chairman"
fn: 2 fn: 4
- type: member_of - type: member_of
with: "[[Warren Commission]]" with: "[[Warren Commission]]"
start: 1963-11-29 start: 1963-11-29
end: 1964-09-24 end: 1964-09-24
fn: 17 fn: 19
--- ---
Allen Welsh Dulles (April 7, 1893 - January 29, 1969) served as [[Director of Central Intelligence]] from February 26, 1953, to November 29, 1961 - the longest tenure of any DCI, the first civilian DCI, and the only brother of a sitting Secretary of State to hold the position. Dulles built the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] into the instrument of Cold War covert action that executed [[Operation AJAX]] in [[Iran]] (1953), [[Operation PBSUCCESS]] in [[Guatemala]] (1954), and the [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion of [[Cuba]] (1961). The Bay of Pigs disaster cost him his position - President [[John F. Kennedy]] forced his resignation, along with [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Charles P. Cabell|C.P. Cabell]] - and his subsequent appointment by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] to the [[Warren Commission]] investigating Kennedy's assassination placed him in the remarkable position of overseeing the investigation of the event that had ended both his patron's life and his own career.[^1] Allen Welsh Dulles (April 7, 1893 - January 29, 1969) served as [[Director of Central Intelligence]] from February 26, 1953, to November 29, 1961 - the longest tenure of any DCI, the first civilian DCI, and the only brother of a sitting Secretary of State to hold the position. Dulles built the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] into the instrument of Cold War covert action that executed [[Operation AJAX]] in [[Iran]] (1953), [[Operation PBSUCCESS]] in [[Guatemala]] (1954), and the [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion of [[Cuba]] (1961). The Bay of Pigs disaster cost him his position - President [[John F. Kennedy]] forced his resignation, along with [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Charles P. Cabell|C.P. Cabell]] - and his subsequent appointment by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] to the [[Warren Commission]] investigating Kennedy's assassination placed him in the remarkable position of overseeing the investigation of the event that had ended both his patron's life and his own career.[^1]
@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ Allen Welsh Dulles (April 7, 1893 - January 29, 1969) served as [[Director of Ce
Dulles was born in Watertown, [[New York]], to a Presbyterian minister. His maternal grandfather [[John Watson Foster]] had been Secretary of State under President Harrison; his uncle [[Robert Lansing]] served as Secretary of State under Wilson. His elder brother [[John Foster Dulles]] became Secretary of State under Eisenhower, making the Dulles brothers the only siblings simultaneously to head the CIA and State Department. Dulles was born in Watertown, [[New York]], to a Presbyterian minister. His maternal grandfather [[John Watson Foster]] had been Secretary of State under President Harrison; his uncle [[Robert Lansing]] served as Secretary of State under Wilson. His elder brother [[John Foster Dulles]] became Secretary of State under Eisenhower, making the Dulles brothers the only siblings simultaneously to head the CIA and State Department.
After [[Princeton University|Princeton]] and brief missionary work in [[India]], Dulles entered the diplomatic service and served at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 as an intelligence analyst. He joined the law firm [[Sullivan & Cromwell]] - which also employed his brother [[John Foster]] - where Sullivan & Cromwell represented major corporate interests including [[United Fruit Company]]. This connection became significant two decades later when the Dulles brothers, now respectively CIA Director and Secretary of State, authorized operations against a Guatemalan government that had expropriated United Fruit's landholdings. After [[Princeton University|Princeton]] (B.A. 1914, M.A. 1916)[^2] and brief missionary work in [[India]], Dulles entered the diplomatic service and served at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 as an intelligence analyst. He joined the law firm [[Sullivan & Cromwell]] - which also employed his brother [[John Foster]] - where Sullivan & Cromwell represented major corporate interests including [[United Fruit Company]]. This connection became significant two decades later when the Dulles brothers, now respectively CIA Director and Secretary of State, authorized operations against a Guatemalan government that had expropriated United Fruit's landholdings. He was a trustee of Princeton by August 1961.[^3]
During World War II, Dulles served the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] as station chief in [[Bern]], [[Switzerland]] from 1942 to 1945 - the most significant OSS posting in Europe, given Switzerland's position as a neutral intelligence hub. His operational achievements included: During World War II, Dulles served the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] as station chief in [[Bern]], [[Switzerland]] from 1942 to 1945 - the most significant OSS posting in Europe, given Switzerland's position as a neutral intelligence hub. His operational achievements included:
@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ The unverifiable provenance of Gehlen's Soviet networks meant that the intellige
### American Committee on United Europe ### American Committee on United Europe
Dulles was vice-chairman of the [[American Committee on United Europe]] (ACUE), which [[Richard Aldrich]] describes as formed to support [[Winston Churchill]] and the [[European Movement]] and officially incorporated in February 1949. [[William J. Donovan]] was its chairman, and [[Thomas W. Braden]], a former OSS officer, was its executive director.[^2] Aldrich reports Braden's assertion in the 1980s that ACUE funds originated with the CIA, and writes that the 1962 Oxford thesis of [[F. X. Rebattet]], son of the European Movement's secretary-general [[George Rebattet]], "confirms that most ACUE funds originated with the CIA."[^3] Dulles also corresponded with [[Max Ascoli]], whose papers index a photocopy of a typed letter from Dulles dated May 27 among the 1968 letters on the closing of [[The Reporter]].[^4] A February 7, 1958 letter to Dulles from the chairman of the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers thanks him for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at [[Yale University]] and encloses a participant list that includes "Mr. Max Ascoli, Editor and Publisher, The Reporter."[^5] [[Hugh Wilford]] writes that The Reporter's deputy [[Philip Horton]] used contacts with Donovan, Dulles and James Jesus Angleton to enhance its foreign coverage.[^6] Dulles was vice-chairman of the [[American Committee on United Europe]] (ACUE), which [[Richard Aldrich]] describes as formed to support [[Winston Churchill]] and the [[European Movement]] and officially incorporated in February 1949. [[William J. Donovan]] was its chairman, and [[Thomas W. Braden]], a former OSS officer, was its executive director.[^4] Aldrich reports Braden's assertion in the 1980s that ACUE funds originated with the CIA, and writes that the 1962 Oxford thesis of [[F. X. Rebattet]], son of the European Movement's secretary-general [[George Rebattet]], "confirms that most ACUE funds originated with the CIA."[^5] Dulles also corresponded with [[Max Ascoli]], whose papers index a photocopy of a typed letter from Dulles dated May 27 among the 1968 letters on the closing of [[The Reporter]].[^6] A February 7, 1958 letter to Dulles from the chairman of the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers thanks him for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at [[Yale University]] and encloses a participant list that includes "Mr. Max Ascoli, Editor and Publisher, The Reporter."[^7] [[Hugh Wilford]] writes that The Reporter's deputy [[Philip Horton]] used contacts with Donovan, Dulles and James Jesus Angleton to enhance its foreign coverage.[^8]
### DCI: Iran, Guatemala, and the Covert Action Doctrine ### DCI: Iran, Guatemala, and the Covert Action Doctrine
@ -64,25 +64,25 @@ Dulles was named Deputy Director (Plans) in 1951 and became DCI on February 26,
Operation AJAX (August 1953): Working with British intelligence, Dulles's CIA executed the coup that overthrew Iranian Prime Minister [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]] and returned [[Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi|Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] to full power. The operation was designed and led in the field by [[Kermit Roosevelt|Kermit Roosevelt Jr.]], grandson of Theodore Roosevelt. Operation AJAX established the operational template that Dulles and Bissell believed could be replicated elsewhere. Operation AJAX (August 1953): Working with British intelligence, Dulles's CIA executed the coup that overthrew Iranian Prime Minister [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]] and returned [[Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi|Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] to full power. The operation was designed and led in the field by [[Kermit Roosevelt|Kermit Roosevelt Jr.]], grandson of Theodore Roosevelt. Operation AJAX established the operational template that Dulles and Bissell believed could be replicated elsewhere.
Operation PBSUCCESS (June 1954): The CIA's overthrow of Guatemalan President [[Jacobo Arbenz]] was presented to Eisenhower as a vindication of covert action - a small paramilitary force, CIA air assets, and psychological warfare had collapsed a government with minimal U.S. exposure. Dulles and his team drew exactly the wrong lesson: that the model was transferable. The direct organizational line from PBSUCCESS to the Bay of Pigs ran through the same personnel - [[Howard Hunt]], [[Tracy Barnes]], [[David Atlee Phillips]] - applying the same framework to a target that had fundamentally different characteristics.[^7] Operation PBSUCCESS (June 1954): The CIA's overthrow of Guatemalan President [[Jacobo Arbenz]] was presented to Eisenhower as a vindication of covert action - a small paramilitary force, CIA air assets, and psychological warfare had collapsed a government with minimal U.S. exposure. Dulles and his team drew exactly the wrong lesson: that the model was transferable. The direct organizational line from PBSUCCESS to the Bay of Pigs ran through the same personnel - [[Howard Hunt]], [[Tracy Barnes]], [[David Atlee Phillips]] - applying the same framework to a target that had fundamentally different characteristics.[^9]
[[MKULTRA]]: Dulles authorized the CIA's human experimentation program in April 1953 under Technical Services Staff chief [[Sidney Gottlieb]]. The program used LSD and other substances on unconsenting subjects, including mental patients, prisoners, and unwitting CIA employees. Dulles's authorization memorandum noted concerns about Soviet brainwashing capabilities and framed the program as defensive research. The program's scope - eventually comprising 150 subprojects at 80 institutions - far exceeded what Dulles's authorization documents described. [[MKULTRA]]: Dulles authorized the CIA's human experimentation program in April 1953 under Technical Services Staff chief [[Sidney Gottlieb]]. The program used LSD and other substances on unconsenting subjects, including mental patients, prisoners, and unwitting CIA employees. Dulles's authorization memorandum noted concerns about Soviet brainwashing capabilities and framed the program as defensive research. The program's scope - eventually comprising 150 subprojects at 80 institutions - far exceeded what Dulles's authorization documents described.
On August 26, 1960 Dulles cabled the Leopoldville station that the station officer was to be given "wider authority," including "even more aggressive action if it can remain covert," and wrote that "we realize that targets of opportunity may present themselves to you."[^8] The cable authorized up to $100,000 "to carry out any crash programs on which you do not have the opportunity to consult HQS," and assured the station officer that the message had been "seen and approved at competent level" in the State Department.[^8] The Church Committee documented the cable as one of a sequence that began with Tweedy's cable of August 18, 1960 and Bissell's of August 19.[^8] On August 26, 1960 Dulles cabled the Leopoldville station that the station officer was to be given "wider authority," including "even more aggressive action if it can remain covert," and wrote that "we realize that targets of opportunity may present themselves to you."[^10] The cable authorized up to $100,000 "to carry out any crash programs on which you do not have the opportunity to consult HQS," and assured the station officer that the message had been "seen and approved at competent level" in the State Department.[^10] The Church Committee documented the cable as one of a sequence that began with Tweedy's cable of August 18, 1960 and Bissell's of August 19.[^10]
### Correspondence with Senator McCarthy, 1953 ### Correspondence with Senator McCarthy, 1953
In July 1953 [[Joseph McCarthy]], as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to Dulles about [[William P. Bundy]], an employee of the Central Intelligence Agency, whom McCarthy linked to a $400 contribution to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]].[^9] McCarthy's letter of July 27, 1953 said the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency."[^10] The CIA reply of July 22, 1953, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, gave the agency's account of Bundy's disclosure on his March 1951 application and of the field investigation and loyalty determinations that followed. It deferred comment on the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution until a review was complete.[^9] A newspaper article by [[Allen Drury]] dated August 4, 1953 reported that Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation.[^11] McCarthy replied on August 3 that Bundy's contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^12] In July 1953 [[Joseph McCarthy]], as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to Dulles about [[William P. Bundy]], an employee of the Central Intelligence Agency, whom McCarthy linked to a $400 contribution to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]].[^11] McCarthy's letter of July 27, 1953 said the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency."[^12] The CIA reply of July 22, 1953, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, gave the agency's account of Bundy's disclosure on his March 1951 application and of the field investigation and loyalty determinations that followed. It deferred comment on the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution until a review was complete.[^11] A newspaper article by [[Allen Drury]] dated August 4, 1953 reported that Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation.[^13] McCarthy replied on August 3 that Bundy's contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^14]
On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." The letter answered press reports that CIA classified material had been printed at the [[Government Printing Office]]. It said the agency's legislative counsel had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, 1953, and it asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^13] On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." The letter answered press reports that CIA classified material had been printed at the [[Government Printing Office]]. It said the agency's legislative counsel had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, 1953, and it asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^15]
### MKULTRA: The Sandoz Panic and the Olson Death ### MKULTRA: The Sandoz Panic and the Olson Death
Dulles approved MKULTRA on April 13, 1953, ten days after Richard Helms proposed a program for the "covert use of biological and chemical materials," with an initial $300,000 exempt from normal financial controls and payable blindly on the signatures of Gottlieb and TSS chief [[Willis Gibbons]]. Acting in a climate of Cold War urgency, that same month Dulles approved a $240,000 payment after an intelligence report claimed [[Sandoz]] wanted to sell 10 kilograms of [[LSD]] on the open market; CIA officers flew to Switzerland with a black bag of cash only to learn Sandoz had produced barely 40 grams in fifteen years, the entire panic stemming from a military attaché who confused milligrams with kilograms. When [[Frank Olson]] died in November 1953 after Gottlieb dosed him with LSD at [[Deep Creek Lodge]], Dulles ordered Inspector General [[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] to investigate; the resulting reprimands were softened through six drafts and placed in no personnel file.[^14] Dulles approved MKULTRA on April 13, 1953, ten days after Richard Helms proposed a program for the "covert use of biological and chemical materials," with an initial $300,000 exempt from normal financial controls and payable blindly on the signatures of Gottlieb and TSS chief [[Willis Gibbons]]. Acting in a climate of Cold War urgency, that same month Dulles approved a $240,000 payment after an intelligence report claimed [[Sandoz]] wanted to sell 10 kilograms of [[LSD]] on the open market; CIA officers flew to Switzerland with a black bag of cash only to learn Sandoz had produced barely 40 grams in fifteen years, the entire panic stemming from a military attaché who confused milligrams with kilograms. When [[Frank Olson]] died in November 1953 after Gottlieb dosed him with LSD at [[Deep Creek Lodge]], Dulles ordered Inspector General [[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] to investigate; the resulting reprimands were softened through six drafts and placed in no personnel file.[^16]
### Rockefeller's Special Group and the Human Ecology Front ### Rockefeller's Special Group and the Human Ecology Front
Under Eisenhower, Dulles reported all CIA covert operations, including MKULTRA, the coups, and assassination planning, to the NSC "[[Special Group]]" chaired by [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the structure formalized by NSC 5412/2 in December 1955 that gave the president plausible deniability; in a 1955 "Family Jewels" briefing Dulles described the full range of covert programs to Rockefeller's board. When MKULTRA needed a research hospital, Dulles sought Rockefeller's approval for a scheme to channel CIA money through private foundations to win matching federal grants for a wing at [[Georgetown University Hospital]]. The program's primary funding front, the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]], was organized at Dulles's initiative through [[Harold Wolff]], the Cornell neurologist who had treated Dulles's brain-damaged son; Dulles attended one of its first board meetings. His relationship with [[D. Ewen Cameron]] predated the funding: in November 1945, still with the OSS, Dulles had sent Cameron to Nuremberg to assess whether [[Rudolf Hess]] was fit to stand trial.[^15] Under Eisenhower, Dulles reported all CIA covert operations, including MKULTRA, the coups, and assassination planning, to the NSC "[[Special Group]]" chaired by [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the structure formalized by NSC 5412/2 in December 1955 that gave the president plausible deniability; in a 1955 "Family Jewels" briefing Dulles described the full range of covert programs to Rockefeller's board. When MKULTRA needed a research hospital, Dulles sought Rockefeller's approval for a scheme to channel CIA money through private foundations to win matching federal grants for a wing at [[Georgetown University Hospital]]. The program's primary funding front, the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]], was organized at Dulles's initiative through [[Harold Wolff]], the Cornell neurologist who had treated Dulles's brain-damaged son; Dulles attended one of its first board meetings. His relationship with [[D. Ewen Cameron]] predated the funding: in November 1945, still with the OSS, Dulles had sent Cameron to Nuremberg to assess whether [[Rudolf Hess]] was fit to stand trial.[^17]
### Bay of Pigs and Forced Resignation ### Bay of Pigs and Forced Resignation
@ -90,54 +90,56 @@ The Bay of Pigs invasion of April 17-19, 1961 was the catastrophic failure that
Kennedy publicly accepted responsibility but was privately furious. He reportedly told aide [[Ted Sorensen]] that he wanted to "splinter the CIA into a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds" - a remark almost certainly apocryphal in its precise wording but consistent with his documented anger. The Taylor Commission's findings and the classified Kirkpatrick IG report both pointed to fundamental CIA failures in planning, execution, and judgment. Kennedy publicly accepted responsibility but was privately furious. He reportedly told aide [[Ted Sorensen]] that he wanted to "splinter the CIA into a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds" - a remark almost certainly apocryphal in its precise wording but consistent with his documented anger. The Taylor Commission's findings and the classified Kirkpatrick IG report both pointed to fundamental CIA failures in planning, execution, and judgment.
Dulles submitted his resignation in September 1961; it was formally accepted November 29, 1961. He was replaced by [[John McCone]]. The CIA's own history states that a "humiliated President Kennedy did not wait for either report before cleaning house at CIA" and that he accepted resignations from Dulles and from Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell, who stayed at their posts until their successors were selected a few months later.[^16] Bissell and Cabell were also forced out. CIA veterans viewed their dismissal as Kennedy scapegoating the agency for a failure the [[White House]] had co-created by canceling the air strikes.[^1] Dulles submitted his resignation in September 1961; it was formally accepted November 29, 1961. He was replaced by [[John McCone]]. The CIA's own history states that a "humiliated President Kennedy did not wait for either report before cleaning house at CIA" and that he accepted resignations from Dulles and from Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell, who stayed at their posts until their successors were selected a few months later.[^18] Bissell and Cabell were also forced out. CIA veterans viewed their dismissal as Kennedy scapegoating the agency for a failure the [[White House]] had co-created by canceling the air strikes.[^1]
### The Warren Commission ### The Warren Commission
On November 29, 1963 - exactly two years after Dulles's forced resignation - President Lyndon Johnson appointed the Warren Commission to investigate Kennedy's assassination. Among the seven commissioners Johnson named was Allen Dulles despite Kennedy’s firing of Dulles.[^17] On November 29, 1963 - exactly two years after Dulles's forced resignation - President Lyndon Johnson appointed the Warren Commission to investigate Kennedy's assassination. Among the seven commissioners Johnson named was Allen Dulles despite Kennedy’s firing of Dulles.[^19]
The investigation was examining whether CIA-connected parties (specifically the anti-Castro exile networks and organized crime figures that Dulles had directly overseen) had any role in the assassination. He was now in a position to shape what evidence the Commission sought, what witnesses it called, and what conclusions it reached regarding the CIA programs he had run. The investigation was examining whether CIA-connected parties (specifically the anti-Castro exile networks and organized crime figures that Dulles had directly overseen) had any role in the assassination. He was now in a position to shape what evidence the Commission sought, what witnesses it called, and what conclusions it reached regarding the CIA programs he had run.
Dulles was reportedly among the most active commissioners in shaping the investigation's scope. He briefed commissioners on CIA history and procedures. Book V of the Church Committee's final report states that, with the exception of Dulles, it is unlikely anyone on the Warren Commission knew of the CIA's assassination efforts, and that Dulles knew of the plots with underworld figures that had taken place during his tenure as Director of Central Intelligence.[^18] The Church Committee's 1975 interim report states that Dulles "did not inform the other members about the plots that had occurred during his term as DCI,"[^19] and also states that "it is not entirely certain that Dulles was ever made aware of the true nature of the underworld operation."[^20] The [[ZR/RIFLE]] assassination plotting program was, in the same period, not disclosed to the Commission at the agency level by [[Richard Helms]] as Deputy Director for Plans. Helms testified that Dulles "was sitting right there" in the Commission's deliberations and "knew about this," and that he did not know what Dulles had said to the Commission about the plots.[^21] The CIA's failure to disclose the assassination plots to the Warren Commission was documented by the Church Committee in 1975; Dulles's role as both a commissioner and the former DCI who had authorized the programs is the structural conflict of interest the Commission's composition created. Dulles was reportedly among the most active commissioners in shaping the investigation's scope. He briefed commissioners on CIA history and procedures. Book V of the Church Committee's final report states that, with the exception of Dulles, it is unlikely anyone on the Warren Commission knew of the CIA's assassination efforts, and that Dulles knew of the plots with underworld figures that had taken place during his tenure as Director of Central Intelligence.[^20] The Church Committee's 1975 interim report states that Dulles "did not inform the other members about the plots that had occurred during his term as DCI,"[^21] and also states that "it is not entirely certain that Dulles was ever made aware of the true nature of the underworld operation."[^22] The [[ZR/RIFLE]] assassination plotting program was, in the same period, not disclosed to the Commission at the agency level by [[Richard Helms]] as Deputy Director for Plans. Helms testified that Dulles "was sitting right there" in the Commission's deliberations and "knew about this," and that he did not know what Dulles had said to the Commission about the plots.[^23] The CIA's failure to disclose the assassination plots to the Warren Commission was documented by the Church Committee in 1975; Dulles's role as both a commissioner and the former DCI who had authorized the programs is the structural conflict of interest the Commission's composition created.
Angleton testified that Dulles consulted him before agreeing to President Johnson's request that he serve, that the two were in frequent contact, and that they informally discussed the progress of the investigation and what further work the CIA could do.[^22] At the January 22, 1964 executive session, the Commission took up a report that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had been a paid FBI informant. Dulles asked whether the purpose of such a hire could have been to penetrate the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]]. He said that practically any American could obtain a passport good for anywhere, and that the Passport Bureau had no record of Oswald's defection. Near the end of the meeting, Dulles said: "I think this record ought to be destroyed."[^23] FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s files held an index card on Dulles that cross-referenced a November 29, 1963 memorandum.[^24] Angleton testified that Dulles consulted him before agreeing to President Johnson's request that he serve, that the two were in frequent contact, and that they informally discussed the progress of the investigation and what further work the CIA could do.[^24] At the January 22, 1964 executive session, the Commission took up a report that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had been a paid FBI informant. Dulles asked whether the purpose of such a hire could have been to penetrate the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]]. He said that practically any American could obtain a passport good for anywhere, and that the Passport Bureau had no record of Oswald's defection. Near the end of the meeting, Dulles said: "I think this record ought to be destroyed."[^25] FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s files held an index card on Dulles that cross-referenced a November 29, 1963 memorandum.[^26]
The [[HSCA|House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (1979) found that the Warren Commission's failure to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy was "attributable in part to the failure of the Commission to receive all the relevant information that was in the possession of other agencies and departments of the Government," and that the CIA "was deficient in its collection and sharing of information both prior to and subsequent to the assassination."[^25] The report does not name Dulles in those findings. It states that the committee did not ignore the possibility that certain CIA officials who knew that close scrutiny of United States-Cuban relations could have exposed the CIA-Mafia plots might have tried to keep the CIA's or the Warren Commission's inquiry from the question of Cuban complicity, and that it determined that only Deputy Director Helms was in a position to have both the knowledge and the power to accomplish such a cover-up and was satisfied, on the basis of its investigation, that it was "highly unlikely he in fact did so."[^26] It found that the details of the AMLASH plot and the CIA-Mafia plots should have been provided to the Warren Commission.[^27] The [[HSCA|House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (1979) found that the Warren Commission's failure to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy was "attributable in part to the failure of the Commission to receive all the relevant information that was in the possession of other agencies and departments of the Government," and that the CIA "was deficient in its collection and sharing of information both prior to and subsequent to the assassination."[^27] The report does not name Dulles in those findings. It states that the committee did not ignore the possibility that certain CIA officials who knew that close scrutiny of United States-Cuban relations could have exposed the CIA-Mafia plots might have tried to keep the CIA's or the Warren Commission's inquiry from the question of Cuban complicity, and that it determined that only Deputy Director Helms was in a position to have both the knowledge and the power to accomplish such a cover-up and was satisfied, on the basis of its investigation, that it was "highly unlikely he in fact did so."[^28] It found that the details of the AMLASH plot and the CIA-Mafia plots should have been provided to the Warren Commission.[^29]
### Death and Legacy ### Death and Legacy
Dulles spent his post-CIA years writing, lecturing, and defending the covert action programs he had built. His book *The Craft of Intelligence* (1963) was the first major public account of CIA operations by a former director. He died in Washington on January 29, 1969, of influenza complicated by pneumonia, eighteen months before the full extent of MKULTRA and the assassination plots became public. Dulles spent his post-CIA years writing, lecturing, and defending the covert action programs he had built. His book *The Craft of Intelligence* (1963) was the first major public account of CIA operations by a former director. He died in Washington on January 29, 1969, of influenza complicated by pneumonia, eighteen months before the full extent of MKULTRA and the assassination plots became public.
The 2022 report of the United Nations Eminent Person summarized the argument of Greg Poulgrain's 2020 book, *JFK vs. Allen Dulles: Battleground Indonesia*, which posits that Dulles formed a motive to remove [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] following a policy conflict over the United Nations' intended intervention in the dispute over the sovereignty of West New Guinea.[^28] The report recorded Poulgrain's proposition that the Operation Celeste documents, which refer to a plan to kill Hammarskjöld by causing his plane to crash, mention Dulles by name, stating: "UNO is becoming troublesome and it is felt that Hammarskjöld should be removed. Allen Dulles agrees and has promised full cooperation from his people."[^28] Poulgrain compared this with the Church Committee's account of Dulles expressing a "wish [to] give every possible support" to a plan to kill Lumumba.[^28] The report stated that it was not necessary at that stage to assess the probative value of Poulgrain's information, and that it underscored the importance of "proving or disproving the veracity of the Operation Celeste hypothesis and Dulles's alleged involvement (as relied on by Poulgrain)."[^29] The 2022 report of the United Nations Eminent Person summarized the argument of Greg Poulgrain's 2020 book, *JFK vs. Allen Dulles: Battleground Indonesia*, which posits that Dulles formed a motive to remove [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] following a policy conflict over the United Nations' intended intervention in the dispute over the sovereignty of West New Guinea.[^30] The report recorded Poulgrain's proposition that the Operation Celeste documents, which refer to a plan to kill Hammarskjöld by causing his plane to crash, mention Dulles by name, stating: "UNO is becoming troublesome and it is felt that Hammarskjöld should be removed. Allen Dulles agrees and has promised full cooperation from his people."[^30] Poulgrain compared this with the Church Committee's account of Dulles expressing a "wish [to] give every possible support" to a plan to kill Lumumba.[^30] The report stated that it was not necessary at that stage to assess the probative value of Poulgrain's information, and that it underscored the importance of "proving or disproving the veracity of the Operation Celeste hypothesis and Dulles's alleged involvement (as relied on by Poulgrain)."[^31]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Kinzer, Stephen. *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War.* Times Books, 2013 (covers both brothers, the Sullivan & Cromwell connections, and the covert action programs). Grose, Peter. *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles.* Houghton Mifflin, 1994. [^1]: Kinzer, Stephen. *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War.* Times Books, 2013 (covers both brothers, the Sullivan & Cromwell connections, and the covert action programs). Grose, Peter. *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles.* Houghton Mifflin, 1994.
[^2]: Richard J. Aldrich, "OSS, CIA and European Unity: The American Committee on United Europe, 1948-60," Diplomacy & Statecraft 8, no. 1 (1997), p. 192, DOI 10.1080/09592299708406035, https://text.www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/people/aldrich/publications/oss_cia_united_europe_eec_eu.pdf. [^2]: *Allen W. Dulles Papers*, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library (MC019), biography/history and acquisition information. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC019
[^3]: Aldrich (1997), pp. 211-212 (Braden's 1980s assertion at p. 211; Rabattet passage at p. 212), same URL. [^3]: Allen W. Dulles to Hadley Cantril, August 28, 1961, replying to a letter of July 21, 1961. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP80B01676R003500040028-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500040028-2
[^4]: Senato della Repubblica, Archivio storico, Max Ascoli fonds, sottofascicolo 15, index of names, https://patrimonio.archivio.senato.it/inventario/scheda/max-ascoli/IT-AFS-005-002785/letters-expressing-regrets-upon-closing-of-the-reporter-from-personal-friends-of-max-ascoli-1968. [^4]: Richard J. Aldrich, "OSS, CIA and European Unity: The American Committee on United Europe, 1948-60," Diplomacy & Statecraft 8, no. 1 (1997), p. 192, DOI 10.1080/09592299708406035, https://text.www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/people/aldrich/publications/oss_cia_united_europe_eec_eu.pdf.
[^5]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4. [^5]: Aldrich (1997), pp. 211-212 (Braden's 1980s assertion at p. 211; Rabattet passage at p. 212), same URL.
[^6]: Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer (Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 230-231. [^6]: Senato della Repubblica, Archivio storico, Max Ascoli fonds, sottofascicolo 15, index of names, https://patrimonio.archivio.senato.it/inventario/scheda/max-ascoli/IT-AFS-005-002785/letters-expressing-regrets-upon-closing-of-the-reporter-from-personal-friends-of-max-ascoli-1968.
[^7]: Kornbluh, Peter, ed. *Bay of Pigs Declassified: The Secret CIA Report on the Invasion of Cuba.* New Press, 1998. Church Committee. "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders." Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975. Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991. Chapter 4. [^7]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4.
[^8]: United States Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, section on the Congo, quoting the CIA cables of August 18, August 19 and August 26, 1960. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf [^8]: Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer (Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 230-231.
[^9]: Letter from Alba W. Doan, Director, Central Intelligence Agency, to Joseph R. McCarthy, July 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080014-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080014-6 [^9]: Kornbluh, Peter, ed. *Bay of Pigs Declassified: The Secret CIA Report on the Invasion of Cuba.* New Press, 1998. Church Committee. "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders." Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975. Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991. Chapter 4.
[^10]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7 [^10]: United States Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, section on the Congo, quoting the CIA cables of August 18, August 19 and August 26, 1960. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf
[^11]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4 [^11]: Letter from Alba W. Doan, Director, Central Intelligence Agency, to Joseph R. McCarthy, July 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080014-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080014-6
[^12]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9 [^12]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7
[^13]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2 [^13]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4
[^14]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 4; "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," Joint Senate Hearing, August 3, 1977. [^14]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9
[^15]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995, Ch. 18; John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 9. [^15]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2
[^16]: Warner, Michael, "The CIA's Internal Probe of the Bay of Pigs Affair: Lessons Unlearned," *Studies in Intelligence*, Winter 1998-1999. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Internal-Probe-Bay-Pigs.pdf [^16]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 4; "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," Joint Senate Hearing, August 3, 1977.
[^17]: Executive Order 11130, "Appointing a Commission To Report Upon the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy," November 29, 1963. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11130-appointing-commission-report-upon-the-assassination-president-john-f [^17]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995, Ch. 18; John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 9.
[^18]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Book V, Final Report, April 23, 1976, pp. 67-68. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf [^18]: Warner, Michael, "The CIA's Internal Probe of the Bay of Pigs Affair: Lessons Unlearned," *Studies in Intelligence*, Winter 1998-1999. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Internal-Probe-Bay-Pigs.pdf
[^19]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, p. 269, note 1. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit [^19]: Executive Order 11130, "Appointing a Commission To Report Upon the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy," November 29, 1963. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11130-appointing-commission-report-upon-the-assassination-president-john-f
[^20]: *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, p. 267. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit [^20]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Book V, Final Report, April 23, 1976, pp. 67-68. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^21]: Book V, p. 70 (Helms testimony of July 18, 1975). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf [^21]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, p. 269, note 1. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^22]: Book V, p. 69 (note 134, Angleton testimony of February 6, 1976, pp. 31-34). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf [^22]: *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, p. 267. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^23]: Warren Commission, executive session transcript, January 22, 1964, 5:30 to 7:00 p.m. https://aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcexec/pdf/WcEx0122.pdf [^23]: Book V, p. 70 (Helms testimony of July 18, 1975). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^24]: U.S. Assassination Records Review Board, memorandum by Ronald G. Haron, "Assassination Records Among the Files of J. Edgar Hoover (FBI-36)," January 8, 1998. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/RHARON/HARON/FBIMEM.002.pdf [^24]: Book V, p. 69 (note 134, Angleton testimony of February 6, 1976, pp. 31-34). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^25]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (1979), summary Findings I.D.4 and I.D.5(b) (p. 4). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit [^25]: Warren Commission, executive session transcript, January 22, 1964, 5:30 to 7:00 p.m. https://aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcexec/pdf/WcEx0122.pdf
[^26]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, p. 128. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit [^26]: U.S. Assassination Records Review Board, memorandum by Ronald G. Haron, "Assassination Records Among the Files of J. Edgar Hoover (FBI-36)," January 8, 1998. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/RHARON/HARON/FBIMEM.002.pdf
[^27]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, pp. 112-116. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit [^27]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (1979), summary Findings I.D.4 and I.D.5(b) (p. 4). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^28]: A/76/892, report of the Eminent Person, August 25, 2022, paragraphs 241 to 244. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf [^28]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, p. 128. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^29]: A/76/892, paragraph 246. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf [^29]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, pp. 112-116. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^30]: A/76/892, report of the Eminent Person, August 25, 2022, paragraphs 241 to 244. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf
[^31]: A/76/892, paragraph 246. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf

4
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Annie Farmer.md
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@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ relations:
start: 2021-12-10 start: 2021-12-10
fn: 1 fn: 1
created: 2026-09-25 created: 2026-09-25
updated: 2026-09-25 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Annie Farmer is an American woman who was sixteen in 1996 when [[Jeffrey Epstein]] met her in [[New York City]], where her older sister [[Maria Farmer]] was working for him, and who was abused that year by Epstein and [[Ghislaine Maxwell]] at Epstein's ranch in [[New Mexico]]. She was the fourth and last accuser to testify for the government at Maxwell's 2021 trial in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], and the only one of the four to testify under her own name; the others were identified as "Jane," "Kate," and "Carolyn." Her sister had reported Epstein and Maxwell to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] in August 1996, the same year.[^1][^2] Annie Farmer is an American woman who was sixteen in 1996 when [[Jeffrey Epstein]] met her in [[New York City]], where her older sister [[Maria Farmer]] was working for him, and who was abused that year by Epstein and [[Ghislaine Maxwell]] at Epstein's ranch in [[New Mexico]]. She was the fourth and last accuser to testify for the government at Maxwell's 2021 trial in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], and the only one of the four to testify under her own name; the others were identified as "Jane," "Kate," and "Carolyn." Her sister had reported Epstein and Maxwell to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] in August 1996, the same year.[^1][^2]
@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ The jury convicted Maxwell on December 29, 2021 of five of six counts, including
### The 1996 Reports ### The 1996 Reports
In August 1996 Maria Farmer reported to the [[New York City Police Department|New York Police Department]]'s Sixth Precinct and then by telephone to the FBI that Epstein and Maxwell had sexually assaulted her, that she feared they had abused one of her minor sisters, and that Epstein and Maxwell had stolen nude images she had made of her two minor sisters for her artwork and carried them from [[Ohio]] to New York. According to Maria Farmer's 2025 lawsuit against the [[United States]], the FBI took no action, and federal agents did not interview her until 2006. The FBI's record of her 1996 report was released in December 2025 in the first wave of disclosures under the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]].[^2][^4] In August 1996 Maria Farmer reported to the [[New York City Police Department|New York Police Department]]'s Sixth Precinct and then by telephone to the FBI that Epstein and Maxwell had sexually assaulted her, that she feared they had abused one of her minor sisters, and that Epstein and Maxwell had stolen nude images she had made of her two minor sisters for her artwork. According to Maria Farmer's 2025 lawsuit against the [[United States]], Epstein and Maxwell carried the images by airplane from [[Ohio]] to New York, the FBI took no action, and federal agents did not interview her until 2006. The FBI's record of her 1996 report was released in December 2025 in the first wave of disclosures under the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]].[^2][^4]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes

19
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Arif Durrani.md
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@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
--- ---
updated: 2026-10-08 updated: 2026-10-15
category: "Arms Dealers & Brokers" category: "Arms Dealers & Brokers"
tags: tags:
- Person - Person
@ -24,13 +24,13 @@ Beaty and Gwynne describe Durrani, until his arrest, as the managing director of
### Sentence and Appeal ### Sentence and Appeal
In May 1987 Chief Judge [[T.F. Gilroy Daly]] of the federal court in [[Connecticut]] sentenced Durrani to ten years in prison and a fine of 2 million dollars for illegally exporting HAWK missile parts to Iran in 1986, with a concurrent ten years and 1 million dollars for selling arms without registering with the [[United States Department of State|State Department]]. The judge told him his testimony was riddled with "greed, lies, money, perjury, avarice and conniving" and that "your behavior was bordering on treason."[^14] In December 1987 the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Second Circuit]] rejected his defense that he had acted on the orders of Oliver North and [[John Poindexter]], the first use of what became known as the "Oliver North defense," and upheld the conviction (United States v. Durrani, 835 F.2d 410). A petition he filed in 2003, his fourth post-conviction attack on the sentence, was denied (Durrani v. United States, 294 F. Supp. 2d 204, D. Conn.).[^15][^16] In May 1987 Chief Judge [[T.F. Gilroy Daly]] of the federal court in [[Connecticut]] sentenced Durrani to ten years in prison and a fine of 2 million dollars for illegally exporting HAWK missile parts to Iran in 1986, with a concurrent ten years and 1 million dollars for selling arms without registering with the [[United States Department of State|State Department]]. The judge told him his testimony was riddled with "greed, lies, money, perjury, avarice and conniving" and that "your behavior was bordering on treason."[^14] In December 1987 the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Second Circuit]] rejected his defense that he had acted on the orders of Oliver North and [[John Poindexter]], the first use of what became known as the "Oliver North defense," and upheld the conviction (United States v. Durrani, 835 F.2d 410). The opinion, written by Judge [[Irving R. Kaufman]], records that Durrani "claims to have been a cog in the wheel turned by Lt. Colonel Oliver North and Vice Admiral John Poindexter"; [[Alan Dershowitz|Alan M. Dershowitz]] argued the appeal for Durrani with Nathan Z. Dershowitz on the brief; the trial judge had excluded the report of the President's Special Review Board (the Tower report) and two memoranda contained in it as hearsay; and the court affirmed the conviction "on all counts."[^15] A petition he filed in 2003, his fourth post-conviction attack on the sentence, was denied (Durrani v. United States, 294 F. Supp. 2d 204, D. Conn.).[^16][^17]
He moved for a reduction of sentence under Rule 35 in July 1988, and the motion was denied on May 23, 1989. He filed a pro se petition under 28 U.S.C. 2255 on March 4, 1990, and on August 6, 1991 filed an amended petition with counsel, alleging that the government had withheld exculpatory material and that agents knew private individuals, including [[Manuel Pires]], were procuring weapons for Iran. On October 2, 1991, after in camera review, the district court ordered some documents produced by the Office of Independent Counsel to be disclosed to Durrani. On May 21, 1992 Durrani moved to dismiss the section 2255 petition voluntarily, saying he wanted to resolve his immigration proceedings first, and the court dismissed it without prejudice.[^16] He moved for a reduction of sentence under Rule 35 in July 1988, and the motion was denied on May 23, 1989. He filed a pro se petition under 28 U.S.C. 2255 on March 4, 1990, and on August 6, 1991 filed an amended petition with counsel, alleging that the government had withheld exculpatory material and that agents knew private individuals, including [[Manuel Pires]], were procuring weapons for Iran. On October 2, 1991, after in camera review, the district court ordered some documents produced by the Office of Independent Counsel to be disclosed to Durrani. On May 21, 1992 Durrani moved to dismiss the section 2255 petition voluntarily, saying he wanted to resolve his immigration proceedings first, and the court dismissed it without prejudice.[^17]
On September 9, 1991 the United States Attorney's Office in Bridgeport objected to each of seven requests for production in Durrani's second request for documents. The objection characterizes the claims as a fishing expedition and states that the government had searched for any connection between Pires and the government up to August 1, 1987 without result.[^17] It also reports that defense counsel had taken the depositions of [[Barbara Studley]] and [[John Singlaub]] in Washington in August 1991, and states that neither witness had any knowledge of Durrani's claims and that both had met Pires only within the last two years. The same page states that a deposition of former CIA official [[George Cave]] would offer no greater prospect of usefulness than the Studley-Singlaub examinations, citing Cave's relationship with the CIA and exposure to classified information.[^17] On September 9, 1991 the United States Attorney's Office in Bridgeport objected to each of seven requests for production in Durrani's second request for documents. The objection characterizes the claims as a fishing expedition and states that the government had searched for any connection between Pires and the government up to August 1, 1987 without result.[^18] It also reports that defense counsel had taken the depositions of [[Barbara Studley]] and [[John Singlaub]] in Washington in August 1991, and states that neither witness had any knowledge of Durrani's claims and that both had met Pires only within the last two years. The same page states that a deposition of former CIA official [[George Cave]] would offer no greater prospect of usefulness than the Studley-Singlaub examinations, citing Cave's relationship with the CIA and exposure to classified information.[^18]
From prison he told *[[Time (magazine)|Time]]* in 1991 that "Asaf is B.C.C.I.'s man in the weapons business," referring to Asaf Ali.[^18] From prison he told *[[Time (magazine)|Time]]* in 1991 that "Asaf is B.C.C.I.'s man in the weapons business," referring to Asaf Ali.[^19]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -48,7 +48,8 @@ From prison he told *[[Time (magazine)|Time]]* in 1991 that "Asaf is B.C.C.I.'s
[^12]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 305. [^12]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 305.
[^13]: Christopher Byron, "Did Convict Arif Durrani Help Set the Stage for Iran/Contra?," *New York*, December 16, 1991, pp. 38-44, GeoMiliTech passages on pp. 42-44. https://books.google.com/books?id=6ugCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA42 [^13]: Christopher Byron, "Did Convict Arif Durrani Help Set the Stage for Iran/Contra?," *New York*, December 16, 1991, pp. 38-44, GeoMiliTech passages on pp. 42-44. https://books.google.com/books?id=6ugCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA42
[^14]: "Arms dealer sentenced to 10 years," United Press International, May 13, 1987. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/05/13/Arms-dealer-sentenced-to-10-years/6753547876800/ [^14]: "Arms dealer sentenced to 10 years," United Press International, May 13, 1987. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/05/13/Arms-dealer-sentenced-to-10-years/6753547876800/
[^15]: "Court rejects arms merchant's use of 'Oliver North defense,'" United Press International, December 4, 1987. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/12/04/Court-rejects-arms-merchants-use-of-Oliver-North-defense/3615565592400 [^15]: *United States v. Durrani*, 835 F.2d 410 (2d Cir. Dec. 3, 1987) (Kaufman, Pierce and Miner, JJ.), counsel block and opinion. https://static.case.law/f2d/835/cases/0410-01.json
[^16]: *Durrani v. United States*, 294 F. Supp. 2d 204 (D. Conn. 2003), Background. https://www.ctd.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/opinions/112503.SRU_.Durrani.pdf [^16]: "Court rejects arms merchant's use of 'Oliver North defense,'" United Press International, December 4, 1987. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/12/04/Court-rejects-arms-merchants-use-of-Oliver-North-defense/3615565592400
[^17]: Government's Objection to Arif Durrani's Second Request for Production of Documents, *United States v. Arif Durrani*, D. Conn., B-90-090 (TFGD) and B-86-59 (TFGD), September 9, 1991, pp. 1-11. CIA CREST document 0001474388. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/0001474388 [^17]: *Durrani v. United States*, 294 F. Supp. 2d 204 (D. Conn. 2003), Background. https://www.ctd.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/opinions/112503.SRU_.Durrani.pdf
[^18]: "Scandals: Not Just a Bank," *Time,* September 2, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718475/scandals-not-just-a-bank/ [^18]: Government's Objection to Arif Durrani's Second Request for Production of Documents, *United States v. Arif Durrani*, D. Conn., B-90-090 (TFGD) and B-86-59 (TFGD), September 9, 1991, pp. 1-11. CIA CREST document 0001474388. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/0001474388
[^19]: "Scandals: Not Just a Bank," *Time,* September 2, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718475/scandals-not-just-a-bank/

8
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Ashley Gorski.md
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@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ tags:
- FourthAmendment - FourthAmendment
- Attorney - Attorney
created: 2026-05-22 created: 2026-05-22
updated: 2026-05-22 updated: 2026-10-15
summary: "Ashley Gorski is a senior staff attorney in the ACLU's National Security Project who has led the organization's Fourth Amendment litigation against Section 702 backdoor searches, including joining the defense in United States v. Russell." summary: "Ashley Gorski is a senior staff attorney in the ACLU's National Security Project who has led the organization's Fourth Amendment litigation against Section 702 backdoor searches, including joining the defense in United States v. Russell."
--- ---
@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ The ACLU's basis for inferring Section 702 collection was an [[ODNI]] document,
### United States v. Hasbajrami ### United States v. Hasbajrami
Gorski and the ACLU National Security Project also represented [[Agron Hasbajrami]] in the extended constitutional litigation in the [[Second Circuit]] and the [[Eastern District of New York]] over whether Section 702 backdoor searches require a warrant. The Second Circuit's 2019 ruling in that case held that U.S. person queries constitute "separate Fourth Amendment events," and the subsequent January 2025 district court ruling (the first federal decision imposing a warrant requirement on Section 702 queries) was a direct product of the ACLU's litigation strategy in Hasbajrami.[^2] Gorski and the ACLU National Security Project also represented [[Agron Hasbajrami]] in the extended constitutional litigation in the [[Second Circuit]] and the [[Eastern District of New York]] over whether Section 702 backdoor searches require a warrant. The Second Circuit's 2019 ruling in that case held that U.S. person queries constitute "separate Fourth Amendment events," and the subsequent January 2025 district court ruling (the first federal decision imposing a warrant requirement on Section 702 queries) was a direct product of the ACLU's litigation strategy in Hasbajrami.[^2] The Second Circuit's opinion of December 18, 2019 lists Gorski and Patrick Toomey of the ACLU, with Mark Rumold and Andrew Crocker of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, as counsel for amici curiae the ACLU and the Electronic Frontier Foundation; Michael K. Bachrach, Joshua L. Dratel and Steve Zissou appeared for Hasbajrami.[^2]
### ACLU v. NSA and Related FOIA Work ### ACLU v. NSA and Related FOIA Work
@ -36,7 +36,5 @@ Gorski has led ACLU FOIA litigation seeking the public release of classified FIS
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Baltimore Banner, "ACLU Signs On to Defend Neo-Nazi Charged with Power Grid Plot." https://www.thebanner.com/community/criminal-justice/neo-nazi-baltimore-power-grid-aclu-national-security-defense-PA277N47ANCLPAMBKAFHXNZ45U/; Baltimore Sun, June 27, 2024. https://www.baltimoresun.com/2024/06/27/prosecutors-will-say-in-secret-whether-they-used-controversial-spying-tool-against-neo-nazi-accused-in-baltimore-power-grid-plot/ [^1]: Baltimore Banner, "ACLU Signs On to Defend Neo-Nazi Charged with Power Grid Plot." https://www.thebanner.com/community/criminal-justice/neo-nazi-baltimore-power-grid-aclu-national-security-defense-PA277N47ANCLPAMBKAFHXNZ45U/; Baltimore Sun, June 27, 2024. https://www.baltimoresun.com/2024/06/27/prosecutors-will-say-in-secret-whether-they-used-controversial-spying-tool-against-neo-nazi-accused-in-baltimore-power-grid-plot/
[^2]: United States v. Hasbajrami, 945 F.3d 641 (2d Cir. 2019); United States v. Hasbajrami, 11-cr-00623-LDH (E.D.N.Y.), Memorandum and Order (declassified Jan. 21, 2025). ACLU press release: https://www.aclu.org/press-releases/court-rules-warrantless-section-702-searches-violated-the-fourth-amendment ; counsel block of the opinion, https://www.govinfo.gov/metadata/pkg/USCOURTS-ca2-17-02669/mods.xml
[^2]: United States v. Hasbajrami, 945 F.3d 641 (2d Cir. 2019); United States v. Hasbajrami, 11-cr-00623-LDH (E.D.N.Y.), Memorandum and Order (declassified Jan. 21, 2025). ACLU press release: https://www.aclu.org/press-releases/court-rules-warrantless-section-702-searches-violated-the-fourth-amendment
[^3]: ACLU, "Government Releases New Court Opinions Highlighting Further Abuse of Warrantless FISA Surveillance Program," September 2023. https://www.aclu.org/press-releases/government-releases-new-court-opinions-highlighting-further-abuse-of-warrantless-fisa-surveillance-program; ACLU v. United States (SDNY, filed April 2024). https://assets.aclu.org/live/uploads/2024/04/2024-04-25-Complaint-Filed.pdf [^3]: ACLU, "Government Releases New Court Opinions Highlighting Further Abuse of Warrantless FISA Surveillance Program," September 2023. https://www.aclu.org/press-releases/government-releases-new-court-opinions-highlighting-further-abuse-of-warrantless-fisa-surveillance-program; ACLU v. United States (SDNY, filed April 2024). https://assets.aclu.org/live/uploads/2024/04/2024-04-25-Complaint-Filed.pdf

9
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Bill Gates.md
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@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ relations:
role: "chief science and technology adviser" role: "chief science and technology adviser"
fn: 4 fn: 4
created: 2026-09-25 created: 2026-09-25
updated: 2026-09-25 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Bill Gates (William H. Gates III, born October 28, 1955, in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]]) is the co-founder of [[Microsoft]] and co-chair of the [[Gates Foundation]].[^1] Beginning in 2011, three years after [[Jeffrey Epstein]]'s Florida guilty plea, Gates met Epstein on numerous occasions, at least three times at Epstein's Manhattan townhouse.[^2] Epstein sought to bring Gates into a multibillion-dollar charitable fund he was trying to build with [[JPMorgan Chase]], and after Gates declined, Epstein wrote to him in 2017 in terms that implied knowledge of Gates's past relationship with a Russian bridge player whose training Epstein had paid for.[^3] Gates testified before the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]] in June 2026 that the meetings were "a grave error in judgment."[^1] Bill Gates (William H. Gates III, born October 28, 1955, in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]]) is the co-founder of [[Microsoft]] and co-chair of the [[Gates Foundation]].[^1] Beginning in 2011, three years after [[Jeffrey Epstein]]'s Florida guilty plea, Gates met Epstein on numerous occasions, at least three times at Epstein's Manhattan townhouse.[^2] Epstein sought to bring Gates into a multibillion-dollar charitable fund he was trying to build with [[JPMorgan Chase]], and after Gates declined, Epstein wrote to him in 2017 in terms that implied knowledge of Gates's past relationship with a Russian bridge player whose training Epstein had paid for.[^3] Gates testified before the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]] in June 2026 that the meetings were "a grave error in judgment."[^1]
@ -72,6 +72,12 @@ Gates appeared voluntarily for a closed-door interview with the House Oversight
The committee's ranking member, [[Robert Garcia]], said Gates had known of the conviction and "continued to interact with him to seek money for his foundation," which he called "a horrific judgment call." Representative [[Raja Krishnamoorthi]] called Gates "combative" and "not terribly forthcoming or candid"; Representative [[Melanie Stansbury]] said Gates described a "narrow relationship" he regarded as "an acceptable means to access wealthy donors"; Representative [[Tim Burchett]] called the questioning "intense."[^1] Comer said afterward that he would ask [[Alan Dershowitz]] to testify and was in talks with the Justice Department about testimony from the acting attorney general, [[Todd Blanche]].[^1] The committee's ranking member, [[Robert Garcia]], said Gates had known of the conviction and "continued to interact with him to seek money for his foundation," which he called "a horrific judgment call." Representative [[Raja Krishnamoorthi]] called Gates "combative" and "not terribly forthcoming or candid"; Representative [[Melanie Stansbury]] said Gates described a "narrow relationship" he regarded as "an acceptable means to access wealthy donors"; Representative [[Tim Burchett]] called the questioning "intense."[^1] Comer said afterward that he would ask [[Alan Dershowitz]] to testify and was in talks with the Justice Department about testimony from the acting attorney general, [[Todd Blanche]].[^1]
### Microsoft Board Review
In May 2021 Microsoft said that it had received a concern in the latter half of 2019 that Gates sought to initiate an intimate relationship with a company employee in the year 2000. "A committee of the Board reviewed the concern, aided by an outside law firm, to conduct a thorough investigation," the company said, and it did not reach a conclusion because Gates had stepped down from the board before the inquiry was completed.[^12] [[Dow Jones]] had reported that directors found the involvement inappropriate and decided he should leave the board, citing unnamed people familiar with the matter; a Gates spokeswoman said "There was an affair almost 20 years ago which ended amicably" and that his "decision to transition off the board was in no way related to this matter."[^12] Gates had announced in March 2020 that he was leaving the board to devote more time to philanthropy.[^12]
In the same Bloomberg report, a spokeswoman for Gates said the "characterization of his meetings with Epstein and others about philanthropy is inaccurate," and a person familiar with the matter said Gates's dealings with Epstein "weren't a part of the scope of the Microsoft investigation," although "it was discussed by some board members."[^12] The *Times* had reported on October 12, 2019 that Gates met Epstein many times from 2011.[^2]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: "Gates testifies on Epstein: previous Fortune investigation reveals payments to his ex-girlfriend, $1M Microsoft deal." *Fortune,* June 10, 2026. https://fortune.com/2026/06/10/bill-gates-epstein-mistress-bankrolled-testifying-congress/ [^1]: "Gates testifies on Epstein: previous Fortune investigation reveals payments to his ex-girlfriend, $1M Microsoft deal." *Fortune,* June 10, 2026. https://fortune.com/2026/06/10/bill-gates-epstein-mistress-bankrolled-testifying-congress/
@ -85,3 +91,4 @@ The committee's ranking member, [[Robert Garcia]], said Gates had known of the c
[^9]: Farrow, Ronan. "How an Elite University Research Center Concealed Its Relationship with Jeffrey Epstein." *The New Yorker,* September 6, 2019. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/how-an-elite-university-research-center-concealed-its-relationship-with-jeffrey-epstein [^9]: Farrow, Ronan. "How an Elite University Research Center Concealed Its Relationship with Jeffrey Epstein." *The New Yorker,* September 6, 2019. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/how-an-elite-university-research-center-concealed-its-relationship-with-jeffrey-epstein
[^10]: Goodwin Procter LLP. *Report Concerning Jeffrey Epstein's Interactions with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.* January 10, 2020. https://facultygovernance.mit.edu/sites/default/files/20200121GoodwinProcterReport.pdf [^10]: Goodwin Procter LLP. *Report Concerning Jeffrey Epstein's Interactions with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.* January 10, 2020. https://facultygovernance.mit.edu/sites/default/files/20200121GoodwinProcterReport.pdf
[^11]: *Al Jazeera,* May 10, 2021, summarizing the *Wall Street Journal* on Melinda French Gates and Epstein. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/5/10/melinda-gates-discussed-divorcing-bill-over-epstein-ties-wsj [^11]: *Al Jazeera,* May 10, 2021, summarizing the *Wall Street Journal* on Melinda French Gates and Epstein. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/5/10/melinda-gates-discussed-divorcing-bill-over-epstein-ties-wsj
[^12]: Bass, Dina and Ian King, "Microsoft investigated Bill Gates's involvement with an employee," *Bloomberg,* May 17, 2021, as published by *Al Jazeera.* https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/5/17/bmicrosoft-investigated-bill-gatess-involvement-with-an-employee

15
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Danny Casolaro.md
View file

@ -77,6 +77,8 @@ The Bua Report, completed in March 1993, stated that "the physical evidence in C
The Bua report listed the tests it relied on: handwriting analysis confirming that Casolaro wrote the note found in the room; fingerprint analysis finding his prints and none other except a single print on an ash tray; hair and fiber analysis; an analysis of the bloodstains by Dr. Lee of the Connecticut State Police Forensic Science Laboratory consistent with suicide; and an autopsy finding hemorrhage from the wrist wounds as the cause of death and no evidence that he was unconscious or debilitated when cut. It addressed criticisms that the room was not sealed, that notification of next of kin was delayed while the body was embalmed, and that Martinsburg authorities discounted suspicions about his "sources," stating that "no credible evidence suggested that any of Casolaro's 'sources' played any role in his death." The report also records that Michael Riconosciuto, in a lawsuit against Bua, alleged that one of the FBI agents assigned to the investigation had murdered Casolaro; the district court dismissed the suit as patently frivolous (*Riconosciuto v. Bua*, No. 92 C 6217, N.D. Ill.).[^13] The Bua report listed the tests it relied on: handwriting analysis confirming that Casolaro wrote the note found in the room; fingerprint analysis finding his prints and none other except a single print on an ash tray; hair and fiber analysis; an analysis of the bloodstains by Dr. Lee of the Connecticut State Police Forensic Science Laboratory consistent with suicide; and an autopsy finding hemorrhage from the wrist wounds as the cause of death and no evidence that he was unconscious or debilitated when cut. It addressed criticisms that the room was not sealed, that notification of next of kin was delayed while the body was embalmed, and that Martinsburg authorities discounted suspicions about his "sources," stating that "no credible evidence suggested that any of Casolaro's 'sources' played any role in his death." The report also records that Michael Riconosciuto, in a lawsuit against Bua, alleged that one of the FBI agents assigned to the investigation had murdered Casolaro; the district court dismissed the suit as patently frivolous (*Riconosciuto v. Bua*, No. 92 C 6217, N.D. Ill.).[^13]
The Bua report records that several months after the autopsy a group of Washington journalists asked Professor [[James E. Starrs]] of the [[George Washington University]] law school to review the autopsy report. In the *Washington Business Journal* of November 9 to 15, 1992, Starrs agreed that the wounds were self-inflicted, said that the contusions were caused by embalming fluid (criticizing the quick embalming) and said: "if this was a homicide, it would be the most singularly remarkable murder on record, either in fiction or nonfiction." The conclusion of the report prints his name as "James E. Starr."[^14]
FBI task force members assigned to examine Casolaro's death privately "questioned the conclusion of suicide" and recommended further investigation; expressing doubt about the ruling reportedly "risked one's career" within the Bureau as of December 1992. FBI documents related to Casolaro remain partially withheld from public release under national security exemptions, while the Bureau simultaneously claims the files are missing - a contradiction noted by MuckRock journalists who filed FOIA requests.[^1] FBI task force members assigned to examine Casolaro's death privately "questioned the conclusion of suicide" and recommended further investigation; expressing doubt about the ruling reportedly "risked one's career" within the Bureau as of December 1992. FBI documents related to Casolaro remain partially withheld from public release under national security exemptions, while the Bureau simultaneously claims the files are missing - a contradiction noted by MuckRock journalists who filed FOIA requests.[^1]
In early 1994, the Department of Justice announced it was opening "a nationwide investigation" into Casolaro's death, ordered by associate attorney general [[Webster Hubbell|Webb Hubbell]]. Shortly thereafter, Hubbell pleaded guilty to crimes committed while an Arkansas lawyer and resigned from DOJ. Whether the Casolaro investigation proceeded or produced findings was never made public.[^3] In early 1994, the Department of Justice announced it was opening "a nationwide investigation" into Casolaro's death, ordered by associate attorney general [[Webster Hubbell|Webb Hubbell]]. Shortly thereafter, Hubbell pleaded guilty to crimes committed while an Arkansas lawyer and resigned from DOJ. Whether the Casolaro investigation proceeded or produced findings was never made public.[^3]
@ -87,9 +89,9 @@ Casolaro's investigation intersected with the drug-trafficking networks document
### The research files ### The research files
Casolaro's research files, photographed by Christian Hansen at the Missouri State Historical Society and published on the Internet Archive, include a folder labelled "Promotional Material" of corporate and weapons literature, hand-numbered "BD|AI|PM-01" onward. Its items are a brochure for the Inter-Probe modular energy transfer catalyzer (PM-01), a printed page numbered 207 on fuel air munitions (PM-02), a [[Brunswick Corporation]] defense division cover sheet and drawing for the Rifleman's Assault Weapon for urban warfare dated October 1976 (PM-03), a sales sheet of the defense division of the Chilean firm [[Industrias Cardoen]] (PM-04) and a fax of the resumes of the associates of [[Counter Terrorism Consultants, Inc.]], whose fax counters run 141 P01 to 141 P12 (PM-05) and whose page headers carry the date June 20, 1990 and times from 16:53 to 17:01.[^14] In the order of the photographs the folder runs PM-04, PM-02, PM-03, PM-05, PM-01.[^14] The packet names [[Carter Cornick]], [[Eugene Propper]], [[E. Lawrence Barcella, Jr.|E. Lawrence Barcella]], [[Francis J. McNeil]], [[James B. Motley]] (a vice president of [[Wackenhut Advanced Technologies Corporation]]), [[Mayer Nudell]] and a former CIA counterterrorism chief whose entry carries no name.[^14] The files also contain a folder of 1980s newspaper and magazine material on [[Frank Terpil]] and [[Edwin Wilson]], folders of Wackenhut annual reports, correspondence, profiles and newsletters, and, in a folder of Department of Defense publications, a magazine article by David Corn on Barcella and the Pan Am 103 bombing.[^15] Casolaro's research files, photographed by Christian Hansen at the Missouri State Historical Society and published on the Internet Archive, include a folder labelled "Promotional Material" of corporate and weapons literature, hand-numbered "BD|AI|PM-01" onward. Its items are a brochure for the Inter-Probe modular energy transfer catalyzer (PM-01), a printed page numbered 207 on fuel air munitions (PM-02), a [[Brunswick Corporation]] defense division cover sheet and drawing for the Rifleman's Assault Weapon for urban warfare dated October 1976 (PM-03), a sales sheet of the defense division of the Chilean firm [[Industrias Cardoen]] (PM-04) and a fax of the resumes of the associates of [[Counter Terrorism Consultants, Inc.]], whose fax counters run 141 P01 to 141 P12 (PM-05) and whose page headers carry the date June 20, 1990 and times from 16:53 to 17:01.[^15] In the order of the photographs the folder runs PM-04, PM-02, PM-03, PM-05, PM-01.[^15] The packet names [[Carter Cornick]], [[Eugene Propper]], [[E. Lawrence Barcella, Jr.|E. Lawrence Barcella]], [[Francis J. McNeil]], [[James B. Motley]] (a vice president of [[Wackenhut Advanced Technologies Corporation]]), [[Mayer Nudell]] and a former CIA counterterrorism chief whose entry carries no name.[^15] The files also contain a folder of 1980s newspaper and magazine material on [[Frank Terpil]] and [[Edwin Wilson]], folders of Wackenhut annual reports, correspondence, profiles and newsletters, and, in a folder of Department of Defense publications, a magazine article by David Corn on Barcella and the Pan Am 103 bombing.[^16]
The INSLAW folder of the research files includes a *St. Louis Post-Dispatch* report of February 19, 1991 that names Industrias Cardoen and its owner [[Carlos Cardoen]]. It states that [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], in an affidavit filed in the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Columbia, said that Cardoen told him in January 1989 that Cardoen had brokered a deal between Earl Brian and an Iraqi military intelligence representative for the use of PROMIS, and that the sale was consummated in Santiago, Chile.[^16] Brian called the allegations "nonsense," according to the report.[^16] The report of Special Counsel [[Nicholas J. Bua]] dates the affidavit February 17, 1991.[^17] The INSLAW folder of the research files includes a *St. Louis Post-Dispatch* report of February 19, 1991 that names Industrias Cardoen and its owner [[Carlos Cardoen]]. It states that [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], in an affidavit filed in the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Columbia, said that Cardoen told him in January 1989 that Cardoen had brokered a deal between Earl Brian and an Iraqi military intelligence representative for the use of PROMIS, and that the sale was consummated in Santiago, Chile.[^17] Brian called the allegations "nonsense," according to the report.[^17] The report of Special Counsel [[Nicholas J. Bua]] dates the affidavit February 17, 1991.[^18]
### Bibliography ### Bibliography
@ -110,7 +112,8 @@ The INSLAW folder of the research files includes a *St. Louis Post-Dispatch* rep
[^11]: U.S. Department of Justice. Review of the *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua*, September 27, 1994, pp. 159-160, 162. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^11]: U.S. Department of Justice. Review of the *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua*, September 27, 1994, pp. 159-160, 162. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^12]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, pp. 246-250 ("B. The Death of Joseph Daniel Casolaro"). [^12]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, pp. 246-250 ("B. The Death of Joseph Daniel Casolaro").
[^13]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, pp. 246-250 and p. 69. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^13]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, pp. 246-250 and p. 69. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^14]: Danny Casolaro papers, folder "Promotional Material," Internet Archive items casolaro-notebooks (PromotionalMaterial.pdf) and PromotionalMaterial, https://archive.org/details/casolaro-notebooks. [^14]: U.S. Department of Justice, *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.*, March 1993, p. 126 note 4 (citing *Washington Business Journal*, November 9-15, 1992, p. 13) and pp. 248-250. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^15]: Danny Casolaro papers, folders "CIA Frank Terpil Renegades," "Wackenhut - Newsletters" and "DOD PUBLICATIONS," https://archive.org/details/ddosecrets_casolaro_files (the Corn item is headed "SPECIAL EDITION - TERRORISM / Did It Blow Up Flight 103?"). [^15]: Danny Casolaro papers, folder "Promotional Material," Internet Archive items casolaro-notebooks (PromotionalMaterial.pdf) and PromotionalMaterial, https://archive.org/details/casolaro-notebooks.
[^16]: *St. Louis Post-Dispatch*, February 19, 1991, "Stolen Software Scattered: Affidavits Allege Sales To Iraqis And Israelis," clipping in the INSLAW folder, https://archive.org/download/casolaro-notebooks/InslawIi_djvu.txt. [^16]: Danny Casolaro papers, folders "CIA Frank Terpil Renegades," "Wackenhut - Newsletters" and "DOD PUBLICATIONS," https://archive.org/details/ddosecrets_casolaro_files (the Corn item is headed "SPECIAL EDITION - TERRORISM / Did It Blow Up Flight 103?").
[^17]: Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General regarding the allegations of INSLAW, Inc. (March 1993), pp. 73-74. [^17]: *St. Louis Post-Dispatch*, February 19, 1991, "Stolen Software Scattered: Affidavits Allege Sales To Iraqis And Israelis," clipping in the INSLAW folder, https://archive.org/download/casolaro-notebooks/InslawIi_djvu.txt.
[^18]: Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General regarding the allegations of INSLAW, Inc. (March 1993), pp. 73-74.

13
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Donald Gregg.md
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@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ aliases:
- Donald Gregg - Donald Gregg
- Donald Phinney Gregg - Donald Phinney Gregg
created: 2026-05-17 created: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-05-17 updated: 2026-10-15
category: "Intelligence & Government" category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags: tags:
- Person - Person
@ -34,15 +34,15 @@ Gregg's most significant Iran-Contra connection was through [[Felix Rodriguez]]
Gregg testified before Congress that he had not known Rodriguez was involved in Contra resupply, stating that Rodriguez had briefed him on his activities but had not disclosed the specific Contra connection until after the Hasenfus shootdown. Congressional investigators questioned whether this was plausible given Rodriguez's documented communications with Gregg and a schedule notation in Gregg's files that appeared to reference a "resupply" operation. The discrepancy became a central issue in Gregg's Senate confirmation hearings for the Korea ambassadorship.[^1] Gregg testified before Congress that he had not known Rodriguez was involved in Contra resupply, stating that Rodriguez had briefed him on his activities but had not disclosed the specific Contra connection until after the Hasenfus shootdown. Congressional investigators questioned whether this was plausible given Rodriguez's documented communications with Gregg and a schedule notation in Gregg's files that appeared to reference a "resupply" operation. The discrepancy became a central issue in Gregg's Senate confirmation hearings for the Korea ambassadorship.[^1]
The [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] confirmed Gregg's ambassadorial nomination in June 1989 after protracted hearings. Senator John Kerry, who was conducting a parallel investigation into Contra drug trafficking, had used the nomination hearings to press Gregg on his knowledge of Contra operations. Gregg maintained throughout that he had not known Rodriguez was running a covert supply network.[^1] The [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] acted on Gregg's ambassadorial nomination in June 1989 after protracted hearings, and the full Senate confirmed him on September 12, 1989, by 66 votes to 33.[^2] Senator John Kerry, who was conducting a parallel investigation into Contra drug trafficking, had used the nomination hearings to press Gregg on his knowledge of Contra operations. Gregg maintained throughout that he had not known Rodriguez was running a covert supply network.[^1]
### October Surprise Allegations ### October Surprise Allegations
Arms dealer and self-described CIA contractor [[Richard Brenneke]] claimed that Donald Gregg had attended the October 1980 Paris meetings at which Reagan campaign officials allegedly negotiated a delay in the Iranian hostage release. Brenneke submitted a sworn affidavit to this effect in a Denver federal court in February 1988, at the sentencing hearing of convicted bank fraudster Heinrich Rupp, another self-described CIA contractor who also claimed to have been at the Paris meetings.[^2] Arms dealer and self-described CIA contractor [[Richard Brenneke]] claimed that Donald Gregg had attended the October 1980 Paris meetings at which Reagan campaign officials allegedly negotiated a delay in the Iranian hostage release. Brenneke submitted a sworn affidavit to this effect in a Denver federal court in February 1988, at the sentencing hearing of convicted bank fraudster Heinrich Rupp, another self-described CIA contractor who also claimed to have been at the Paris meetings.[^3]
Gregg denied any participation in or knowledge of October Surprise negotiations. The claim that Gregg attended the Paris meetings was one of five counts of perjury for which Brenneke was indicted in December 1989. Brenneke was acquitted of all five counts in August 1990 by a Denver jury, a result that his supporters characterized as vindicating his credibility and that the government characterized as insufficient to prove false statements rather than affirmative proof that Gregg had attended the meetings.[^2] Gregg denied any participation in or knowledge of October Surprise negotiations. The claim that Gregg attended the Paris meetings was one of five counts of perjury for which Brenneke was indicted in December 1989. Brenneke was acquitted of all five counts in August 1990 by a Denver jury, a result that his supporters characterized as vindicating his credibility and that the government characterized as insufficient to prove false statements rather than affirmative proof that Gregg had attended the meetings.[^3]
The House October Surprise Task Force (1992-1993) found Brenneke "totally lacking in credibility" and cleared Gregg of the Paris allegation. The Task Force's conclusions have been contested on methodological grounds by Robert Parry and others who investigated the investigation's handling of evidence.[^2] The House October Surprise Task Force (1992-1993) found Brenneke "totally lacking in credibility" and cleared Gregg of the Paris allegation. The Task Force's conclusions have been contested on methodological grounds by Robert Parry and others who investigated the investigation's handling of evidence.[^3]
### South Korea Ambassadorship ### South Korea Ambassadorship
@ -51,4 +51,5 @@ Gregg served as Ambassador to the Republic of Korea from 1989 to 1993 under Pres
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, ambassadorial records; Clarridge, Duane R. *A Spy for All Seasons*. Scribner, 1997 (on CIA East Asia network context). Kerry-Brown Senate Report on Contra Drug Trafficking, 1989. [^1]: Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, ambassadorial records; Clarridge, Duane R. *A Spy for All Seasons*. Scribner, 1997 (on CIA East Asia network context). Kerry-Brown Senate Report on Contra Drug Trafficking, 1989.
[^2]: U.S. House of Representatives, October Surprise Task Force. *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*. 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, January 1993. Sick, Gary. *October Surprise: America's Hostages in Iran and the Election of Ronald Reagan*. Times Books, 1991, pp. 143-148. [^2]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 174, 101st Congress, 1st session, September 12, 1989, on the nomination of Donald Phinney Gregg to be Ambassador to the Republic of Korea: Nomination Confirmed, 66 yeas, 33 nays. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1011/vote_101_1_00174.htm
[^3]: U.S. House of Representatives, October Surprise Task Force. *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*. 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, January 1993. Sick, Gary. *October Surprise: America's Hostages in Iran and the Election of Ronald Reagan*. Times Books, 1991, pp. 143-148.

12
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Earl Brian.md
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@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ aliases:
- Earl Brian - Earl Brian
- Earl W. Brian - Earl W. Brian
created: 2024-04-25 created: 2024-04-25
updated: 2026-10-08 updated: 2026-10-15
category: "Business & Finance" category: "Business & Finance"
tags: tags:
- KeyFigure - KeyFigure
@ -58,7 +58,9 @@ Brian was never charged with any crime in connection with the PROMIS affair. His
### Financial News Network and UPI ### Financial News Network and UPI
In July 1993 the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] charged Brian and three others with fraudulently inflating the revenue and earnings of the [[Financial News Network]], the [[Los Angeles]] cable channel controlled with [[United Press International]] by his holding company Infotechnology, Inc.; he settled without admitting or denying the charges and consented to a permanent injunction. A federal grand jury in the Central District of California returned a 24-count indictment in June 1994, unsealed on September 5, 1995, charging Brian, then Infotechnology's chairman, and its chief operating officer John F. Berentson with lying to obtain 56 million dollars in loans from Security Pacific and Toronto-Dominion in 1989 by falsifying FNN's books through fictitious equipment leases and inter-company billings; FNN's chief financial officer C. Steven Bolen and Gary A. Prince pleaded guilty and cooperated. FNN, which lost 72.4 million dollars in fiscal 1990, and UPI, whose management rights Infotechnology had bought in February 1988, both entered Chapter 11 in 1991. On October 17, 1996, after a four-month trial in Los Angeles, a jury convicted Brian on ten counts including conspiracy and bank and securities fraud, deadlocking on the rest; he was ordered to report to prison on August 18 of the following year to serve a term reported as four and a half years, and appealed. On October 3, 2000, he moved to vacate his sentence under 28 U.S.C. § 2255 in the Central District of California; the motion, assigned to Judge Ronald S. W. Lew, was closed on February 22, 2001.[^9] Hadron continued as a public company, was renamed Analex Corporation in 2002 and ceased reporting in 2007.[^10] In July 1993 the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] charged Brian and three others with fraudulently inflating the revenue and earnings of the [[Financial News Network]], the [[Los Angeles]] cable channel controlled with [[United Press International]] by his holding company Infotechnology, Inc.; he settled without admitting or denying the charges and consented to a permanent injunction. A federal grand jury in the Central District of California returned a 24-count indictment in June 1994, unsealed on September 5, 1995, charging Brian, then Infotechnology's chairman, and its chief operating officer John F. Berentson with lying to obtain 56 million dollars in loans from Security Pacific and Toronto-Dominion in 1989 by falsifying FNN's books through fictitious equipment leases and inter-company billings; FNN's chief financial officer C. Steven Bolen and Gary A. Prince pleaded guilty and cooperated. FNN, which lost 72.4 million dollars in fiscal 1990, and UPI, whose management rights Infotechnology had bought in February 1988, both entered Chapter 11 in 1991. On October 17, 1996, after a twelve-week trial in Los Angeles, a jury convicted Brian on ten counts including conspiracy and bank and securities fraud, deadlocking on the rest; he was ordered to report to prison on August 18 of the following year to serve a term of four years and nine months, reported that year as nearly five years, and appealed.[^9] On October 3, 2000, he moved to vacate his sentence under 28 U.S.C. § 2255 in the Central District of California; the motion, assigned to Judge Ronald S. W. Lew, was closed on February 22, 2001.[^10] Hadron continued as a public company, was renamed Analex Corporation in 2002 and ceased reporting in 2007.[^11]
In 1990 Brian contacted [[Patricof and Company]] with a deal proposal regarding UPI. [[Patricia Cloherty]] told the Bua inquiry that she never met with Brian directly and sent an associate to look into the proposal, and that the firm decided not to pursue it.[^12]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -70,5 +72,7 @@ In July 1993 the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] charged Brian and three
[^6]: U.S. Senate, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. *The Inslaw Affair.* September 1989. [^6]: U.S. Senate, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. *The Inslaw Affair.* September 1989.
[^7]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations. *The "October Surprise" Allegations and the Circumstances Surrounding the Release of the American Hostages Held in Iran: Report of the Special Counsel to Senator Terry Sanford and Senator James M. Jeffords,* S. Prt. 102-125, November 19, 1992, pp. v, 17 and appendix 22, "Earl Brian Passports," p. 287. https://hdl.handle.net/2027/pst.000021071829 [^7]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations. *The "October Surprise" Allegations and the Circumstances Surrounding the Release of the American Hostages Held in Iran: Report of the Special Counsel to Senator Terry Sanford and Senator James M. Jeffords,* S. Prt. 102-125, November 19, 1992, pp. v, 17 and appendix 22, "Earl Brian Passports," p. 287. https://hdl.handle.net/2027/pst.000021071829
[^8]: *Brian v. Richardson,* 87 N.Y.2d 46, 660 N.E.2d 1126 (N.Y. 1995). https://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/I95_0246.htm [^8]: *Brian v. Richardson,* 87 N.Y.2d 46, 660 N.E.2d 1126 (N.Y. 1995). https://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/I95_0246.htm
[^9]: *Earl W. Brian v. United States,* No. 2:00-cv-10607 (C.D. Cal.), docket and Federal Judicial Center Integrated Database record, CourtListener. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/11266534/earl-w-brian-v-united-states/ The disposition of the motion is recorded only as "Other". [^9]: United Press International, "Ex-UPI chief gets prison term," May 20, 1997, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1997/05/20/Ex-UPI-chief-gets-prison-term/7027864100800/
[^10]: "Former UPI execs charged with fraud," United Press International, September 6, 1995. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1995/09/06/Former-UPI-execs-charged-with-fraud/3824810360000/ ; Gersh, Debra, "SEC Accuses Former UPI Chief of Fraud," *Editor & Publisher,* July 10, 1993 (headline and date only); Fricker, Richard L., "Earl Brian: Reagan's 'Scandal Man' Off to Jail," *The Consortium,* 1997. https://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/xfile11.html ; Securities and Exchange Commission, EDGAR filing history for Hadron, Inc., CIK 0000044800. Fricker gives the reporting date as "Aug. 18" without a year. [^10]: *Earl W. Brian v. United States,* No. 2:00-cv-10607 (C.D. Cal.), docket and Federal Judicial Center Integrated Database record, CourtListener. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/11266534/earl-w-brian-v-united-states/ The disposition of the motion is recorded only as "Other".
[^11]: "Former UPI execs charged with fraud," United Press International, September 6, 1995. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1995/09/06/Former-UPI-execs-charged-with-fraud/3824810360000/ ; Gersh, Debra, "SEC Accuses Former UPI Chief of Fraud," *Editor & Publisher,* July 10, 1993 (headline and date only); Fricker, Richard L., "Earl Brian: Reagan's 'Scandal Man' Off to Jail," *The Consortium,* 1997. https://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/xfile11.html ; Securities and Exchange Commission, EDGAR filing history for Hadron, Inc., CIK 0000044800. Fricker gives the reporting date as "Aug. 18" without a year.
[^12]: U.S. Department of Justice, *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* (March 1993), p. 96, https://archive.org/download/InslawPROMISBuaReport/Inslaw%3APROMIS%20Bua%20Report_djvu.txt

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Ernst David Bergmann.md
View file

@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ A memorandum of February 13, 1963 by the embassy's science attache Robert Webber
Hersh wrote that Bergmann was a founding member of [[Rafi]] in 1965 and that "Ben-Gurion was quoting Bergmann all the time," according to an Israeli, about the dangers of not producing a nuclear arsenal.[^8] By the spring of 1966, he wrote, Bergmann resigned under pressure from the commission and his two defense science posts; a Defense Ministry official came to his apartment within the hour to retrieve his government car; Eshkol moved responsibility for the commission to the prime minister's staff and became its chairman; and Bergmann gave an interview to the newspaper Maariv, of which the New York Times reported that he spoke of the Eshkol government's lack of funds for research and "the risk of dependence on foreign sources." In that interview Bergmann said: "It's very important to understand that by developing atomic energy for peaceful uses, you reach the nuclear option. There are no two atomic energies."[^8][^9] Hersh wrote that Bergmann was a founding member of [[Rafi]] in 1965 and that "Ben-Gurion was quoting Bergmann all the time," according to an Israeli, about the dangers of not producing a nuclear arsenal.[^8] By the spring of 1966, he wrote, Bergmann resigned under pressure from the commission and his two defense science posts; a Defense Ministry official came to his apartment within the hour to retrieve his government car; Eshkol moved responsibility for the commission to the prime minister's staff and became its chairman; and Bergmann gave an interview to the newspaper Maariv, of which the New York Times reported that he spoke of the Eshkol government's lack of funds for research and "the risk of dependence on foreign sources." In that interview Bergmann said: "It's very important to understand that by developing atomic energy for peaceful uses, you reach the nuclear option. There are no two atomic energies."[^8][^9]
Hersh wrote that in the fall of 1966 Strauss used his influence at the Institute for Advanced Study at [[Princeton University]] to obtain for Bergmann a two-month visiting fellowship, although the institute rarely took chemists; that the institute's new director [[Carl Kaysen]] recalled that Strauss "had nudged me about Bergmann" and that Bergmann "was working on [the Israeli nuclear] weapons program. He was very relaxed about it"; and that neither Strauss's biographer nor his son knew the two had met.[^10] In 1968, Hersh wrote, Bergmann spoke at the South African Institute of International Affairs in Johannesburg on "the move toward international collaboration," saying of Israel and South Africa that "neither of us has neighbors to whom we can speak."[^11] Hersh wrote that in the fall of 1966 Strauss used his influence at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] at [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] to obtain for Bergmann a two-month visiting fellowship, although the institute rarely took chemists; that the institute's new director [[Carl Kaysen]] recalled that Strauss "had nudged me about Bergmann" and that Bergmann "was working on [the Israeli nuclear] weapons program. He was very relaxed about it"; and that neither Strauss's biographer nor his son knew the two had met.[^10] In 1968, Hersh wrote, Bergmann spoke at the South African Institute of International Affairs in Johannesburg on "the move toward international collaboration," saying of Israel and South Africa that "neither of us has neighbors to whom we can speak."[^11]
### After his death ### After his death

4
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Faisal Saud al-Fulaij.md
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@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ relations:
start: 1992-07-29 start: 1992-07-29
fn: 2 fn: 2
created: 2026-09-23 created: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-09-23 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Faisal Saud al-Fulaij was a Kuwaiti businessman who acted as a nominee for the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] (BCCI) in its secret acquisition of [[Financial General Bankshares]], later [[First American Bank|First American]], through the holding company [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH). He was one of the four "persons of substance" named in the January 1978 memorandum of the BCCI officer [[Abdus Sami]], testified before the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] in April 1981, and in July 1992 was indicted in New York with [[Clark Clifford]], [[Robert Altman]], [[Agha Hasan Abedi]], [[Swaleh Naqvi]] and [[Ghaith R. Pharaon]].[^1][^2] Faisal Saud al-Fulaij was a Kuwaiti businessman who acted as a nominee for the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] (BCCI) in its secret acquisition of [[Financial General Bankshares]], later [[First American Bank|First American]], through the holding company [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH). He was one of the four "persons of substance" named in the January 1978 memorandum of the BCCI officer [[Abdus Sami]], testified before the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] in April 1981, and in July 1992 was indicted in New York with [[Clark Clifford]], [[Robert Altman]], [[Agha Hasan Abedi]], [[Swaleh Naqvi]] and [[Ghaith R. Pharaon]].[^1][^2]
@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ At the Federal Reserve hearing of April 23, 1981, Fulaij followed [[Kamal Adham]
The Federal Reserve found in 1991 that Adham, Fulaij, [[A. R. (Abdul Raouf) Khalil|Khalil]] and the other Middle Eastern nominees "had secretly done precisely what the Federal Reserve had sought to assure they would not do." After the acquisition BCCI added capital to First American partly through loans to its nominees Fulaij, Khalil and Shorafa, and in later planning for the purchase of the Eagle Bank in Florida, Naqvi and BCCI's New York manager [[Abdur Sakhia]] discussed using Fulaij as the nominee in place of Pharaon, in Altman's presence.[^1][^5][^6] The Federal Reserve found in 1991 that Adham, Fulaij, [[A. R. (Abdul Raouf) Khalil|Khalil]] and the other Middle Eastern nominees "had secretly done precisely what the Federal Reserve had sought to assure they would not do." After the acquisition BCCI added capital to First American partly through loans to its nominees Fulaij, Khalil and Shorafa, and in later planning for the purchase of the Eagle Bank in Florida, Naqvi and BCCI's New York manager [[Abdur Sakhia]] discussed using Fulaij as the nominee in place of Pharaon, in Altman's presence.[^1][^5][^6]
The Senate report also recorded that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] did not tell the Federal Reserve that Adham and Fulaij had been the subjects of a [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] inquiry under the [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]] into arms sales to [[Saudi Arabia]] by [[Boeing]] and [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]].[^7] The Senate report also recorded that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] did not tell the Federal Reserve that Adham and Fulaij had been the subjects of a [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] inquiry under the [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]] into arms sales to [[Saudi Arabia]] by [[Boeing]] and [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]].[^7]
### Indictment ### Indictment

458
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George H.W. Bush.md
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@ -2,19 +2,23 @@
title: George H.W. Bush title: George H.W. Bush
aliases: aliases:
- George H.W. Bush - George H.W. Bush
- George H. W. Bush
- George Herbert Walker Bush - George Herbert Walker Bush
- President Bush - President Bush
- Bush 41 - Bush 41
category: "Political Figure" category: "Political Figure"
created: 2024-04-25 created: 2024-04-25
updated: 2026-09-21 updated: 2026-10-15
tags: tags:
- KeyFigure - KeyFigure
- Person - Person
- Israel - Israel
- DarkAllianceInvestigation - DarkAllianceInvestigation
- OctoberSurprise - OctoberSurprise
summary: "Vice President under Reagan and 41st U.S. President who dealt with Israel's nuclear program, the VELA incident, and sanctions discussions after Osirak bombing, while simultaneously overseeing anti-drug efforts as Contra-connected drug traffickers operated with impunity." - IranContra
- Stargate
- BCCI
summary: "Director of Central Intelligence in 1976 and 1977, Vice President and 41st President, whose record includes Israel's nuclear program, the Vela incident, Iran-Contra, October Surprise, BCCI and BNL."
born: 1924-06-12 born: 1924-06-12
died: 2018-11-30 died: 2018-11-30
location: "Milton, Massachusetts" location: "Milton, Massachusetts"
@ -23,27 +27,453 @@ relations:
with: "[[Gerald R. Ford]]" with: "[[Gerald R. Ford]]"
role: "Director of Central Intelligence" role: "Director of Central Intelligence"
start: 1976-01-30 start: 1976-01-30
fn: 5 fn: 26
- type: director_of
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
role: "Director of Central Intelligence"
start: 1976-01-30
end: 1977-01-20
fn: 26
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Ronald Reagan]]"
role: "Vice President"
start: 1981-01-20
end: 1989-01-20
fn: 108
- type: head_of
with: "[[United States]]"
role: "President of the United States"
start: 1989-01-20
end: 1993-01-20
fn: 108
- type: subject_of
with: "[[October Surprise]]"
start: 1993-01-03
fn: 93
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[The Carlyle Group]]"
role: "Senior adviser on Asia"
fn: 147
- type: participant_in
with: "[[South Florida Drug Task Force]]"
start: 1982-01-28
fn: 17
--- ---
George H.W. Bush served as the Vice President under President [[Ronald Reagan]] and later as the 41st President of the United States. He was present at a meeting of Reagan's high command following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]] in June 1981, where he agreed that some sanctions against [[Israel]] were essential.[^1]
George H.W. Bush served as the Vice President under President [[Ronald Reagan]] and later as the 41st President of the United States. He was present at a meeting of Reagan's high command following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]] in June 1981, where he agreed that some sanctions against [[Israel]] were essential.[^1] The same history of Israel's nuclear program includes the Vela incident of September 1979, the double flash recorded by an American Vela satellite over the South Atlantic.[^1]
Bush directed the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] from January 1976 to January 1977. His name recurs in the record of the [[Iran-Contra Affair]], the [[October Surprise]] allegations, the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]], the Atlanta branch of [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]], and the [[Contras]] supply network.
### Early Life, Yale and Skull and Bones
Bush was the son of [[Prescott Bush]], an investment banker who represented Connecticut in the [[United States Senate]] from 1952 until 1963.[^2] He graduated from [[Phillips Academy]] on his eighteenth birthday in 1942 and enlisted in the [[United States Navy]] the same day. He became a naval pilot in July 1943, flew torpedo bombers in the Pacific, and was shot down on September 2, 1944 on a mission against a radio site; a submarine rescued him and he received the Distinguished Flying Cross. He married [[Barbara Bush|Barbara Pierce]] on January 6, 1945, and after his discharge in September 1945 enrolled at [[Yale University]], where he completed an economics degree on an accelerated program by 1948, captained the baseball team, and joined the Skull and Bones society.[^2] The couple's children were [[George W. Bush|George Walker]] (born July 6, 1946, the eldest son and later the 43rd President), Robin (1949 to 1953), John Ellis ([[Jeb Bush]]), [[Neil Bush]], Marvin and Dorothy.[^2][^3]
The George H. W. Bush Presidential Library's response to a 2009 request for records on the [[Skull and Bones]] Society, filed as FOIA 2009-0116-F, describes the society as one "of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^4] The same response describes a rumor about the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]] and the society, and does not endorse it.[^4] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, and administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^4]
On October 20, 1942 at Washington, the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order No. 248, which vested the capital stock of the [[Union Banking Corporation]], a New York corporation, in the Custodian. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. It lists 4,000 shares. [[E. Roland Harriman]] held 3,991 of them and Prescott S. Bush held one. The order states that all of the shares were held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], N.V., of Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary."[^5]
### Zapata Petroleum and Zapata Off-Shore
Bush moved to Odessa, Texas in 1948, worked for Dresser Industries from 1950, and that year formed an oil development company in Midland that merged with another company three years later to create [[Zapata Petroleum]]. In 1954 he became president of the subsidiary Zapata Off-Shore Company and moved the company and his family to Houston.[^2] WhoWhatWhy reports that Zapata Petroleum began in 1953 "through joint efforts with Thomas J. Devine, a CIA staffer who had resigned his agency position that same year." The article quotes a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975 that describes Devine as an "oil wild-catting associate of Mr. Bush."[^6] The same article quotes a 1968 memorandum that places Devine back in agency work under commercial cover from 1963.[^7] WhoWhatWhy also reports that the CIA documents were released in 1998 from a batch of records provided to the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]].[^7]
The corporation that later carried the Zapata name filed with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] under the former conformed names Zapata Off Shore Co, dated from January 15, 1969, and Zapata Norness Inc, dated from March 14, 1972. Its fiscal 1994 annual report states that "Zapata Corporation is a Delaware corporation organized in 1954."[^8] Electronic filings on EDGAR begin on February 8, 1994, and the company's record under Central Index Key 109177 starts from that period.[^9]
### The 1963 Hoover Memorandum
In 1997 the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] asked the CIA about a memorandum dated November 29, 1963 that carries the name of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]. The Review Board's letter of December 18, 1997 quotes the memorandum's statement that "the substance of the foregoing information [on the assassination of President Kennedy] was orally furnished to Mr. George Bush of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^10] The letter describes the document as "dated November 29,1963, prepared under the name of John Edgar Hoover."[^10]
The routing of the memorandum is recorded in two conflicting ways. A Review Board staff memorandum of January 8, 1998 describes it as concerning Hoover's conversation with President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] about the assassination, and says the memorandum is located in Johnson O&C File 92.[^11] A CIA memorandum by Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, dated July 15, 1998, describes it as a memorandum from Hoover to the director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research at the State Department.[^12]
The Review Board's letter quotes the CIA as having confirmed that "the search query included George Herbert Walker Bush prior to 1970." The letter asks the agency to determine whether George Herbert Walker Bush is the person to whom the memorandum refers.[^10] A CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to Gunn, dated February 25, 1998, states that the search "determined the Agency has no record of any association with George Herbert Walker Bush during the 1963 time period."[^13]
The Combs memorandum records that the only other "George Bush" serving in the CIA in 1963 was a junior analyst who has repeatedly denied being the "George Bush" referenced in the memorandum. It also cites an entry in the calendar of Director [[Allen Dulles]] for October 4, 1961 that names an Army major general George Bush, with "no indication if this General Bush could be the referenced George Bush."[^12]
An undated Review Board draft request bearing Gunn's name refers to an affidavit of George William Bush dated September 21, 1988.[^14]
In 1988 Stephen Hart issued a statement answering a report by [[Joseph McBride]] that appeared in The Nation on July 16, 1988. WhoWhatWhy quotes the statement as concluding: "Must be another George Bush."[^15] McBride described the response as "rather detailed for a ritual non-denial."[^15]
The CIA's 1998 answer, the Review Board staff's account of it, the 1988 statement and the 1988 affidavit all concern the same name. The records do not establish which George Bush the memorandum means.
### The South Florida Drug Task Force and the Medellín Cartel ### The South Florida Drug Task Force and the Medellín Cartel
As Vice President, Bush oversaw anti-drug efforts as head of the South Florida Drug Task Force while the administration simultaneously protected [[Contras|Contra]]-connected drug traffickers. The contradiction between Bush's public anti-drug posture and the covert reality of the Contra supply chain became a recurring theme in the [[Dark Alliance]] narrative.[^2] As Vice President, Bush oversaw anti-drug efforts as head of the South Florida Drug Task Force while the administration simultaneously protected Contra-connected drug traffickers. The contradiction between Bush's public anti-drug posture and the covert reality of the Contra supply chain became a recurring theme in the [[Dark Alliance]] narrative.[^16]
The [[Medellin Cartel|Medellín Cartel]] reportedly made a deal with Vice President Bush. Informant Allen Raul Rudd told federal officials that Pablo Escobar described "an agreement or relationship between Bush and the American government and members of the Medellín cartel which resulted in planes flying guns to the cartel in [[Colombia]]." Escobar claimed to have a picture of Bush posing with Medellín cartel leader [[Jorge Ochoa]] in front of suitcases full of money, held as blackmail to be released at "the appropriate time."[^2] Reagan's statement of January 28, 1982 announced the federal anticrime task force for southern Florida: "To coordinate this effort, I am today announcing the establishment of a special task force, headed by Vice President George Bush, to analyze the problems and determine what steps we must take during the period of aggravated crime incidence."[^17] In a statement to a 1988 Senate subcommittee, Admiral [[Daniel Murphy]] said: "The President appointed Vice President Bush to direct the task force comprised of the Secretaries of State, Defense, Transportation, Treasury, Health and Human Service, and the Attorney General."[^18]
The [[Kerry Committee]] report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (1988), states: "These cables led to a 1982 meeting between Vice President Bush, Admiral Daniel Murphy and Bahamian Prime Minister [[Lynden Pindling]], at which the Norman's Cay problem was raised. The Vice President chastised the Prime Minister for what was taking place."[^19]
The [[Medellin Cartel|Medellín Cartel]] reportedly made a deal with Vice President Bush. Informant Allen Raul Rudd told federal officials that [[Pablo Escobar]] described "an agreement or relationship between Bush and the American government and members of the Medellín cartel which resulted in planes flying guns to the cartel in [[Colombia]]." Escobar claimed to have a picture of Bush posing with Medellín cartel leader [[Jorge Ochoa]] in front of suitcases full of money, held as blackmail to be released at "the appropriate time."[^16]
### Contra Connections and the War on Drugs ### Contra Connections and the War on Drugs
At the same time Reagan and Bush were publicly whipping the American public into a frenzy over street-corner crack dealers, [[Oliver North]] and other top administration officials were livid that Contra-connected drug trafficker General [[Jose Bueso Rosa]] had even been charged with a crime. North's computer messages about Bueso Rosa illustrated how skewed the Reagan administration's sense of justice had become regarding its "War on Drugs." [[Scott Weekly]], a figure connected to the CIA and the Hasenfus shootdown, claimed on tape that he reported to people who reported to Bush.[^3] At the same time Reagan and Bush were publicly whipping the American public into a frenzy over street-corner crack dealers, [[Oliver North]] and other top administration officials were livid that Contra-connected drug trafficker General [[Jose Bueso Rosa]] had even been charged with a crime. North's computer messages about Bueso Rosa illustrated how skewed the Reagan administration's sense of justice had become regarding its "War on Drugs." [[Scott Weekly]], a figure connected to the CIA and the Hasenfus shootdown, claimed on tape that he reported to people who reported to Bush.[^20]
On November 3, 1975 President [[Gerald R. Ford]] announced at a news conference that he intended to nominate Ambassador Bush, then the United States representative to the People's Republic of China, as Director of Central Intelligence, succeeding [[William Colby]].[^4] Bush was sworn in as Director of Central Intelligence on January 30, 1976.[^5] As director of central intelligence in 1976 Bush was briefed on the CIA's remote-viewing research at [[Stanford Research Institute]] after the agency learned that Soviet visitors were "questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI," and left office before reacting. As vice president, in 1983 (the chronology's date reads as March 31 or August 3), he "was briefed for thirty minutes concerning [[Center Lane|CENTER LANE]] related activities by Dr. [[Jack Vorona]], DIA," the Army's remote-viewing unit, with "Adm. Murphy, C/S," and "Mr. Gregg" present; INSCOM's chronology records that "the briefing was well received and the Vice President was interested and impressed."[^6] ### Political Career Before the CIA
Bush became Republican Party chairman in Harris County, Texas, lost the 1964 Senate race to Ralph Yarborough, won the House seat for Houston's Seventh District in 1966 and was reelected in 1968. He lost the 1970 Senate race to [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. In December 1970 President [[Richard Nixon]] nominated him as ambassador to the [[United Nations]]; in 1973 Nixon moved him to the chairmanship of the [[Republican National Committee]], which he held through the Watergate period until Nixon's resignation in August 1974. President [[Gerald R. Ford]] then made him chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and in 1975 asked him to direct the CIA. After Ford lost in 1976, Bush offered to stay as director and [[Jimmy Carter]] declined.[^2] [[James C. Oberwetter]], the spokesman for [[Hunt Oil Company]] in a 1977 episode involving the FBI, had been press secretary to Congressman Bush.[^21]
### Out of Office, 1977 to 1981
In January 1977, as chairman of the [[National Foreign Intelligence Board]], Bush wrote to Vice Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then vice director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], thanking him for a year of advice to the board.[^22] [[U.S. News & World Report]] stated on April 7, 1980 that Bush was a present or former member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; the magazine reported that he "resigned from the organization in 1978" and quoted him as saying that "to suggest that those that belong to the commission . . . are involved in a conspiracy is absurd."[^23] Bush announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on May 1, 1979.[^2] [[William H. Draper III]] was national cochairman of the finance committee for Bush's 1980 presidential campaign, according to the White House announcement of March 18, 1981 nominating Draper to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]].[^24] Bush ran on the Reagan ticket and won the vice presidency in the November 1980 election.[^2]
### Director of Central Intelligence, 1976 to 1977
On November 3, 1975 President Gerald R. Ford announced at a news conference that he intended to nominate Ambassador Bush, then the [[United States]] representative to the People's Republic of China, as [[Director of Central Intelligence]], succeeding [[William Colby]].[^25] Bush was sworn in as Director of Central Intelligence on January 30, 1976.[^26] As director of central intelligence in 1976 Bush was briefed on the CIA's remote-viewing research at [[Stanford Research Institute]] after the agency learned that Soviet visitors were "questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI," and left office before reacting.[^27]
The Senate Armed Services Committee reported the nomination through Senator [[John Tower]]. Hearings were held on December 15 and 16, 1975. Bush told the committee that "I do feel we need a covert capability," and pledged to "faithfully try to testify before the appropriate oversight committees of the U.S. Congress."[^28] The committee's report of December 18, 1975 recommends confirmation "subject to the nominee's commitment to respond to requests to appear and testify before any duly constituted committee."[^28] The committee approved him 12 to four. The full United States Senate followed in January with a 64 to 27 vote, after a two-hour debate, according to [[Studies in Intelligence]].[^29]
In a memorandum to the recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, Bush called the estimate "the official appraisal of the Director of Central Intelligence." He wrote that "there is a negative aspect that is already clear and which concerns me deeply; namely, the selective leaks regarding the details of the process and, worse, the substantive conclusions developed by the 'Team B' panel that was concerned with Soviet strategic objectives." He added: "There is no truth to such allegations."[^30]
The Team B report, "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View," describes the experiment as "undertaken by the DCI on behalf of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]." It names [[Richard Pipes]] as team leader and lists William Van Cleave, [[Daniel O. Graham]], Thomas Wolfe and John Vogt as members. An advisory panel included Foy Kohler, Paul Nitze, Seymour Weiss, Jasper Welch and Paul Wolfowitz. The report states that its views "do not represent either coordinated National Intelligence or the views of the Director of Central Intelligence."[^31]
William Beecher broke the Team B story in the [[Boston Globe]] on October 20, 1976, according to the editors' note in the Foreign Relations volume. A story by [[David Binder]] in the [[New York Times]] of December 26, 1976 reported the estimate's findings and drew in part on an interview with Bush.[^30] On January 19, 1977 Bush wrote to Cherne, chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, about Team B's recommendations.[^32]
On February 11, 1976 Bush announced new guidelines governing the agency's relations with the American press. The guideline states: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^33] The report of the [[Church Committee]], chaired by [[Frank Church]], also states that the CIA had maintained covert relationships with about 50 journalists, and that Bush "undertook as one of his first actions to recognize the 'special status afforded the American media under our Constitution.'"[^34]
On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that Bush, according to a CIA spokesman, "has urged executives of The New York Times and CBS news to support the agency's efforts to keep secret the names of journalists who have aided intelligence operations."[^35]
In June 1976 the Washington Star reported that U.S. District Judge [[June Green]] ordered CIA Director Bush "not to destroy the files gathered by the CIA." Green also granted an appeal that the files be "protected" pending a civil action by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]]. The files were part of [[Operation CHAOS]] and had been gathered by the CIA at the request of Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, who feared extensive foreign influence on domestic unrest.[^36]
The [[Letelier assassination]] in Washington in September 1976 brought Chile into the Director's correspondence. On September 29, 1976 Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] wrote to Bush thanking him for a briefing, and noted that [[Orlando Letelier]] "was recently discussed at a high-level policy meeting within the Chilean government."[^37] On October 9, 1976 [[U.S. Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] wrote to Bush that "the Central Intelligence Agency may be in a position to obtain information bearing on these violent activities."[^38] [[Brent Scowcroft]] endorsed the request on October 21, 1976.[^38]
A 1980 radio interview transcript in the CIA reading room quotes a speaker, identified only as "MAN," who refers to "our book" and says: "we've been able to establish that George Bush personally handled the information from Paraguay in this intervening week, and discussed it with [[Vernon Walters]], and together made the decision, first of all, to say, 'No, we have nothing to do with this mission.'"[^39] The transcript does not identify the speaker further.
The Paraguayan material concerned two Chileans traveling on Paraguayan passports under false names. A later Foreign Relations volume records that in July 1976 presidential adviser Conrado Pappalardo approached Ambassador [[George Landau|George W. Landau]] in Asunción about the two. Pappalardo said they would contact "then-U.S. Deputy Director of Central Intelligence General Vernon Walters."[^40] A memorandum by [[Eugene Propper|Propper]], quoted in the same volume, states that the CIA advised that Walters had retired from the agency on July 2, 1976.[^41]
On August 11, 1976 Bush wrote a memorandum headed "The Death of Roselli," concerning the murder of [[Johnny Roselli]]. In it he wrote, "I told him that I would like to see the FBI get into the Roselli case." He wrote that he was "most anxious to see the matter fully investigated so that the CIA would be officially exonerated."[^42]
The memorandum records that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked Attorney General Levi to bring the FBI into the case.[^42]
On the Letelier investigation, Propper, Assistant Attorney General [[J. Stanley Pottinger]] and Bush met to decide how far the CIA could help with the Cuban exile side of the inquiry.[^43] Newspaper clippings that the defendants in *United States v. Sampol* filed to show prejudicial publicity described "a carefully worded agreement placing the Letelier case in a 'national security' status." Defense counsel for [[Guillermo Novo]] and others told the jury that "the CIA and not the Chilean government masterminded the Letelier assassination," and the appeal brief rested the theory on Michael Townley's CIA contacts and on a Fort Lauderdale firm, [[Audio Intelligence Devices]], where Townley spent the morning of September 21, 1976.[^44] The Washington Post reported on November 1, 1976 a belief at the CIA that Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, which Bush was said to have expressed to Secretary of State [[Henry A. Kissinger]] the week before.[^45] On November 5, 1976 Assistant Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]] asked the State Department to arrange interviews in Caracas of [[Orlando Bosch]], [[Luis Posada Carriles]] and two others held in connection with the [[Cubana Flight 455 bombing]], naming Propper and FBI special agents [[Carter Cornick]] and Raul Salinas as the investigators to be sent.[^46]
When Bosch entered the United States on February 18, 1988, Acting Associate Attorney General [[Joe D. Whitley]] ordered him excluded on January 23, 1989, writing that "For 30 years Bosch has been resolute and unwavering in his advocacy of terrorist violence." In 1990, over the Justice Department's objection, the Bush White House released him.[^47] The Bush administration also agreed in 1990 to lift sanctions on Chile if the new civilian government prosecuted [[Manuel Contreras]] and [[Pedro Espinoza]] for the Letelier murder, in which [[Ronni Moffitt]] also died; the two served their terms at [[Punta Peuco]].[^48]
The Foreign Relations volume on Panama prints a memorandum of conversation dated October 6, 1976 that is catalogued among the "DCI (Bush) Files on Noreiga." Its source note records "Three pages not declassified."[^49] The document concerns [[Manuel Noriega]], whose relations with the agency the volume documents.
On October 18, 1976 Bush wrote to Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] on the subject of leaks, in a letter that refers to "where these vicious leaks came from."[^50]
[[Joseph Trento]] wrote in *Prelude to Terror* that in 1976, after the Church Committee hearings, [[Alexandre de Marenches]] of the French [[SDECE]] organized an informal consortium, the [[Safari Club]], in coordination with Bush. Trento lists its members as the SDECE, Saudi Arabia's General Intelligence Directorate under [[Kamal Adham]], Egypt's [[Mukhabarat]], Morocco's DST under Ahmed Dlimi, and the CIA, with the purpose of continuing anti-Soviet covert operations in Africa and the [[Middle East]] that congressional restrictions had made difficult for the agency; he places Egypt's service in the group as the supplier of Soviet-compatible weapons for operations in the Horn of Africa.[^51] De Marenches maintained personal relationships with American directors including Bush and [[William J. Casey]].[^52]
In Angola the CIA's Operation IAFEATURE (1975 to 1976) supported [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the [[MPLA]], with [[Congo|Zaire]] as the logistics base; the Church Committee and later writers record William Colby and then Bush as the directors who managed it. The program was ended by the [[Clark Amendment]], section 404 of Public Law 94-329, enacted June 30, 1976.[^53]
[[William Barr|William P. Barr]] worked at the agency from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school, and as assistant legislative counsel under Director Bush in 1976 worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. Barr later joined the White House domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush, and in 1988 helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^54]
### Israel's Nuclear Program and Israeli Channels
In March 1976 [[Carl E. Duckett]] openly discussed Israel's nuclear weapons at an informal seminar, stating that Israel was estimated to have ten to twenty nuclear weapons "available for use." Hersh wrote that the disclosure forced Bush, the newly installed director, to issue a public statement assuming "full responsibility," and that it led to Duckett's retirement. Duckett later acknowledged that rumors of his drinking were the stated reason for his departure but insisted that the real issue was Bush's unwillingness to promote him. Hersh adds that Duckett's 1974 estimate remained the official American estimate until the early 1980s.[^55]
[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] wrote that he briefed [[Nachum Admoni]] in July 1986 on the Israeli intelligence network's arms sales to Iran for Vice President Bush.[^56] The Israeli arms dealer [[Al Schwimmer]], a special adviser to Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]] from September 1984 at a salary of one shekel a year, met President Reagan and Vice President Bush in that capacity.[^57] Ben-Menashe also wrote that Israeli intelligence believed [[Amiram Nir]]'s death in 1988 to have been a CIA operation intended to keep his testimony from embarrassing Peres, Reagan or Bush.[^56]
On January 20, 1991 President Bush telephoned Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] twice from Camp David, at 3 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. Washington time, to thank Israel for its "restraint" in not retaliating for the Iraqi Scud attacks. The spokesman [[Marlin Fitzwater]] quoted the president as telling Shamir: "I understand the anguish of your people and your Government." [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]] were sent to Israel, and American crews arrived to operate [[Patriot]] missile batteries.[^58] According to the counterintelligence history "Decade of the Spy," Bush denied clemency to [[Jonathan Pollard]] in January 1993.[^59]
### Stargate, Center Lane, and the Army
The [[Stargate Project]] appears in the record through the agency's own accounts. [[Kenneth A. Kress]], writing in Studies in Intelligence for the winter of 1977, states that "During November of 1976, Director George Bush became aware that official Soviets were visiting and questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI about their work in parapsychology. Mr. Bush requested and received a briefing on CIA's investigations into parapsychology. Before there was any official reaction, he left the Agency."[^27]
Kress also writes that Director [[Stansfield Turner]] stated publicly that the CIA "has had operational interest in parapsychology."[^60]
As vice president, in 1983 (the chronology's date reads as March 31 or August 3), Bush "was briefed for thirty minutes concerning [[Center Lane|CENTER LANE]] related activities by Dr. [[Jack Vorona]], DIA," the Army's remote-viewing unit, with "Adm. Murphy, C/S," and "Mr. Gregg" present ([[Donald Gregg]]). The [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) chronology records that "the briefing was well received and the Vice President was interested and impressed."[^61] A memorandum for the record by Major Gerald Fox dated April 1, 1983 lists the three projects used on March 31, 1983 to brief the Vice President, among them Project 8034, described as a "[[KGB]] agent."[^62] Vorona of the DIA is the first-named member of the November 1978 oversight group of the [[Grill Flame]] committee and the first-listed attendee in February 1979.[^63]
According to an Air War College research report by Dolan M. McKelvy citing Ronald McRae's *Mind Wars* (1984), CIA director Bush in 1976 enthusiastically gave [[Edgar Mitchell]] "permission to organize high-level seminars at the CIA to discuss possible intelligence applications" of parapsychology; the report says that interest waned in 1977 when Stansfield Turner replaced Bush.[^64]
### The Vice President's Briefings and Travel
On April 2, 1982 Casey sent Secretary of State [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]] a "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs" referring to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President Bush.[^65] In a letter to *Time* in January 1982, Assistant Secretary of State [[John H. Holdridge]] wrote that Bush had confirmed during a visit to Australia that there had been no CIA involvement in the [[Nugan Hand Bank]], and that Frank Church had said the Senate committee found no evidence implicating the agency. A CBS broadcast of September 22, 1982 quoted former bank executive [[Neil Evans]], who had immunity, as saying: "We were to become the paymasters for the CIA around the world."[^66] [[Michael Hand]] was the bank's co-founder.
On April 12, 1986 Vice President Bush flew to Marib in North Yemen and dedicated the refinery of the Alif field that Hunt Oil had found in 1984, the first oil discovered in the country. [[Ray Hunt]], head of the company, sat on the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board from 2001.[^67]
On January 20, 1987 Bush said that an American "in terrorist hands is tortured and, in the case of William Buckley, killed," referring to the CIA's Beirut station chief [[William Buckley]].[^68] On August 17, 1988 he called the death of Pakistan's President [[Zia ul-Haq]] in a [[C-130]] explosion "a great tragedy."[^69] [[Celerino Castillo]] said that on or about January 14, 1986 he tried to alert Vice President Bush at a U.S. embassy party in Guatemala that "something funny" was going on at [[Ilopango Airbase]], and described what followed: "But he just shook my hand, smiled and walked away from me."[^70]
### Gregg, Rodriguez, and the Vice President's Office
At a February 1988 hearing on the testimony of [[Danilo Blandon]], Senator [[John Kerry]] addressed a call to Castro: "while Vice President Bush denied that he made the call, and I do accept his word, it also was learned last night on McNeil-Lehrer that a former NSC staffer admitted that, indeed, there was prior notice given to Castro."[^71]
Blandon also described [[Felix Rodriguez]] as "the liaison for providing weapons to the Contras in El Salvador."[^72] Walsh's chapter 29 states that Gregg "arranged for Rodriguez to meet Vice President Bush on January 22, 1985. According to Gregg, the purpose of the meeting was to inform Bush that Rodriguez wanted to work in El Salvador against the guerrillas."[^73] The meeting took place in the Old Executive Office Building, where Rodriguez was "watching a television report on the Bush family."[^73]
The 1988 hearing record gives the date of that meeting as February 22, a month later than Walsh's date. In the July 1988 hearings Rodriguez said that he had passed to the FBI and CIA, early in 1985, information from [[Ramon Milian Rodriguez]], whom he called a liar, and in later questioning by Kerry said he met Vice President Bush on February 22.[^74] Rodriguez also answered a question from Kerry: "No, sir. I didn't go there that often as people have publicized."[^74]
Part IX of Walsh's report states that Gregg "claimed that, notwithstanding the Administration's interest in the success of the contras, he never mentioned any information regarding contra resupply to Vice President Bush."[^75] The Kerry report says that before Murphy's 1987 trips to Panama he met with officials including "the Vice President's National Security Advisor, Donald Gregg."[^76]
### Iran-Contra and the Pardons
The executive summary of the final report of the [[Lawrence Walsh|Independent Counsel]] states that the investigation "did not develop evidence that proved that Vice President Bush violated any criminal statute. Contrary to his public pronouncements, however, he was fully aware of the Iran arms sales."[^77] The summary adds that "Bush was regularly briefed, along with the President, on the Iran arms sales, and he participated in discussions to obtain third-country support for the contras." It states that the Independent Counsel "obtained no evidence that Bush was aware of the diversion."[^77] The same summary says that the pardon of [[Caspar Weinberger]] on December 24, 1992 "pre-empted a trial in which defense counsel indicated that they intended to call Bush as a witness."[^77]
Chapter 28 of the report, headed "George Bush," records that Bush told the FBI in December 1986, and was deposed by the Independent Counsel on January 11, 1988, that he had been regularly informed of events connected with the arms sales, including the 1985 Israeli missile shipments. Walsh writes that these statements "conflicted with his more extreme public assertions that he was 'out of the loop' regarding the operational details of the Iran initiative."[^78] Walsh also writes that "The criminal investigation of Bush was regrettably incomplete."[^78]
In 1988 Bush told the [[Washington Post]], "The President and I cooperated fully with the various investigations, turned over thousands of documents and directed our staffs to do the same."[^79] In September 1992 he said, "I have nothing to explain."[^79]
Part IX of the report, on the White House investigations, states that the Independent Counsel "concluded that no criminal charges should be brought against President Reagan, Vice President Bush, Meese or Regan because the belated production of notes and other documents delayed the investigation beyond the point where it could be effective."[^80] The same part states that senior advisers including Vice President Bush "were informed in 1985 of presidential approval of the transactions." It also says that the Independent Counsel "found considerable evidence that the President and the Vice President knew about and, in some instances, directly participated in contra-funding efforts during this period."[^80]
The diary is the subject of a separate passage. Walsh writes that "[t]he personal diary of Vice President Bush was disclosed to Independent Counsel only in December 1992, despite early and repeated requests for such documents."[^81] On December 11, 1992 [[Chester Paul Beach]], associate counsel to President Bush, informed the Independent Counsel that a diary kept by Bush from his vice presidency had not been produced. The report describes it as consisting of "Bush's nightly dictation concerning the events of the day."[^81] The first entry, dated November 4, 1986, describes "the beginning of what I hope will be an accurate diary." An entry for November 5, 1986 reads: "I'm one of the few people that know fully the details."[^82]
The report records a document request that reached the vice president's office. C. Boyden Gray and John Schmitz told office heads that the request "covers all personal and official records of OVP staff members."[^83]
After the pardons, Bush refused to be interviewed unless the interview was limited to his non-production of the diary and personal notes. The Independent Counsel declined those conditions. In late February 1993 Bush's counsel set out six professed obstacles to a deposition.[^79] The report states that a grand jury subpoena was not issued because the office did not believe there was an appropriate likelihood of a criminal prosecution.[^81]
On December 24, 1992 Bush issued Proclamation 6518, granting pardons to Caspar Weinberger, [[Robert McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], [[Dewey Clarridge]], [[Clair George]] and [[Alan Fiers]]. In the proclamation Bush wrote that "the common denominator of their motivation ... was patriotism." He described the prosecutions as "a profoundly troubling development in the political and legal climate of our country: the criminalization of policy differences. ... The proper target is the President, not his subordinates; the proper forum is the voting booth, not the courtroom."[^84]
Walsh responded that the pardon of Weinberger "undermines the principle that no man is above the law."[^85] The Fourth Interim Report of February 8, 1993 includes the phrase "prevent full disclosure of some new key fact to the American people," and states that the pardon "thwarted the public airing of new and disturbing facts about the actions of Weinberger and other senior Executive Branch officials."[^86]
The [[Tower Commission]] also examined the Vice President's contacts with Israeli channels. Its report records that "The Vice President was in Israel on July 29. While there, he met with Nir." The Vice President told the board that, before the meeting, he had been uneasy and tried to call [[John Poindexter]].[^87] Bush related that his discussion with Amiram Nir "was generally about counterterrorism. There was no discussion of specifics relating to arms going to the Iranians, e.g., the price of TOW missiles was never raised."[^87] The report also contains the phrase that the interests of the United States were "in the grip of the Israelis."[^87]
At the National Security Planning Group meeting of June 25, 1984, the minutes record Casey saying: "We need the legal opinion which makes clear that the US has the authority to facilitate third country funding for the anti-Sandinistas." Vice President Bush asked: "How can anyone object to the US encouraging third parties to provide help to the anti-Sandinistas under the finding? The only problem that might come up is if the United States were to promise to give these third parties something in return so that some people could interpret this as some kind of an exchange." Robert McFarlane proposed "that there be no authority for anyone to seek third party support for the anti-Sandinistas until we have the information we need," and Reagan said: "If such a story gets out, we'll all be hanging by our thumbs in front of the White House until we find out who did it." The meeting took place under the [[Boland Amendment]].[^88]
The [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|Enterprise]] ran the Contra supply operation through the Ilopango Airbase in [[El Salvador]], where CIA Hangar No. 4 was turned over to its operations in 1985; Felix Rodriguez, who had connections to Gregg, then National Security Adviser to the Vice President, coordinated aircraft and logistics there.[^89]
In 1992 Bush asked former Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]] to assist in seeking the release of Bush's Iran-Contra deposition, and on December 30, 1992 the White House press secretary issued a statement on the investigation.[^90] Barr later said that at the end of the administration he advised Bush to pardon Weinberger "and about five others," and of the Iran-Contra pardons: "I certainly did not oppose any of them."[^91] [[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta BNL manager, was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after Bush ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]].[^92]
### The October Surprise
The October Surprise allegation concerns whether the 1980 Reagan campaign delayed the release of the American hostages held in Iran until after the election. The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] issued its joint report on January 3, 1993 as Calendar No. 634 of the 102d Congress.[^93]
In the task force's account of Ari Ben-Menashe's claims about the Paris meetings of October 1980, he remained in the foyer, and "[j]ust prior to the meeting Mehdi Karrubi arrived, followed shortly by George Bush and William Casey by way of an elevator reserved for this purpose."[^94] The report records that Ben-Menashe "had told reporters for [[Newsweek]] magazine that he was positive he had seen George Bush at the Paris meetings on both October 19 and October 20, 1980." The report also notes that Sukkot fell on September 25 in 1980.[^94]
The task force concludes that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, "like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication."[^94] On Ben-Menashe's account of a meeting at the L'Enfant Plaza hotel in Washington, which he tied to the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]], the task force wrote that "Ben-Menashe's account is demonstrably false from beginning to end."[^95] It states that the personnel records supplied by the Government of Israel, with Ben-Menashe's contemporaneous handwritten answers to the questions he had to answer for the External Relations Department when traveling abroad, showed that he did not travel outside Israel in October 1980, and that exit stamps on his civilian passport indicated the same.[^94]
On Bush's whereabouts the task force reports that Secret Service records place him in Washington on October 19 and campaigning on October 20, 1980. It states that "these records and testimony conclusively prove candidate George Bush's whereabouts in October, 1980," and that "The Task Force has determined that Bush did not travel to Paris during the period of time in question as has been alleged by many October Surprise witnesses."[^96] The report generalizes the point: "In almost all instances, the evidence clearly establishes the presence of major alleged participants in Paris meetings to be someplace else, doing something else."[^97]
[[Richard Brenneke]] testified that a pilot, Rupp, flew Bush, Casey and others to Paris. The task force records that at Brenneke's trial in Oregon in 1990 he retracted his earlier testimony that he had seen Bush and Allen at the meeting.[^98] The task force states that "Brenneke's testimony that he was in Paris is false." Brenneke's 1980 daily calendar "indicates that he was in the Pacific Northwest when he claimed to have been in Paris."[^99] The report also says that Brenneke "played a central role in falsely propagating the October Surprise allegations for financial and personal reasons."[^99]
A 1988 Senate subcommittee report summarizes Brenneke's claims that he had "personally discussed the operation with members of the Vice President's staff." The subcommittee concluded that although Brenneke produced thousands of pages of documents relating to proposed arms deals, "there is no evidence that any of them ever came to fruition." It also found that Brenneke "received completely fabricated information about arms deals from undercover agents of the Customs Service."[^100]
The task force examined the calendar of William J. Casey. It records a July 30, 1980 entry for a 6:45 p.m. dinner with George Bush at the Alibi Club.[^101] The report's analysis of Casey's movements states that "The evidence strongly indicates that Casey departed the United States on July 27, arrived in London on July 28, and departed London for the United States on July 29."[^102] Loose calendar pages for July 26 and 27, October 21, October 29, November 3 through 11, and November 13 are listed as missing. The task force states that "[t]he dates July 26th and October 21st are of particular interest to the Task Force."[^103]
[[Robert Parry]] reported in 2011 on a memorandum for the record that Beach wrote on November 4, 1991. The memorandum records that State Department legal adviser Edwin D. Williamson told Beach that the department held material that included "a cable from the Madrid embassy indicating that Bill Casey was in town, for purposes unknown."[^104] Parry writes that "there's no indication that the White House told investigators about Williamson's information," and that the Bush library withholds nearly a quarter of its roughly 4,800 pages.[^104]
The task force also records Reagan's statements. In a June 15, 1991 interview Reagan said, "I did some things actually the other way, to try and be of help in getting those hostages." In a sworn written answer dated October 23, 1992 he wrote that "I and Reagan/Bush campaign officials made it clear by our conduct and statements during the campaign that we were supportive of the Carter administration efforts to secure the release of American hostages held in Iran."[^105]
Ben-Menashe's account of the Paris meeting names others besides Bush and Casey. He wrote that [[George Cave]], Robert McFarlane and Donald Gregg attended; that [[Simon Gabbay]] coordinated the October 1980 meeting between Israeli and Iranian delegations that included Bush, Casey and [[Mehdi Karrubi]], with the aim of eliminating direct contact between Israeli and Iranian embassy personnel; and that [[Uri Simchoni]] was part of the Israeli delegation.[^56] Cave also attended a meeting in [[Santiago]] in late 1986, according to Ben-Menashe, where American officials reaffirmed their intention to maintain arms channels to Iraq.[^56] [[Barbara Honegger]] published *October Surprise* (Tudor Publishing, 1989), one of the first extended accounts of the allegations; she alleged meetings in Madrid in July 1980 and in Paris in October 1980 involving Casey, Bush and European intermediaries including de Marenches.[^106]
[[Cheri Seymour]] wrote in *The Last Circle* that the attorney [[Paul Wilcher]] believed his client [[Gunther Karl Russbacher]] to be a political prisoner persecuted because he allegedly flew former President Bush to Paris to meet leading Iranians to make a deal to supply Iran with weapons in exchange for keeping the 52 American hostages until after the November election. On or about May 21, 1993 Wilcher hand-delivered a 100-page letter to Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] claiming that holdover Justice Department employees from the Reagan-Bush era were responsible for government cover-ups; he was interviewed by [[Carl Stern]], Reno's public relations officer, on or about June 11, and his body was found in his apartment on June 23, 1993. [[Sarah McClendon]], a White House correspondent and friend of Wilcher, wrote that Wilcher held the Russbacher belief.[^107] Seymour also wrote that [[Michael Riconosciuto]], a source of [[Danny Casolaro]]'s investigation of [[The Octopus]], claimed that he and an associate named Brian personally carried $40 million to Iranian officials for that purpose.[^107]
### The Presidency: Panama, Appointees and Executive Actions
Bush was inaugurated as the 41st President on January 20, 1989.[^108] [[Dick Cheney]] recalled in the Miller Center oral history of the Bush presidency that "Panama was a great training experience for us as an administration. We had the opportunity to have an objective, have to use force, coordinate with the Congress, deal with the public, all of those things that come with using the force." The invasion of [[Panama]] in December 1989 removed Manuel Noriega; [[Colin Powell]], then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said in the same project: "Nobody even remembers the Panama war. You don't ever hear of it. But I viewed it as the template of how we should do things."[^109] Seymour wrote that the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] was contrasted with the Medellin Cartel, which Noriega chose to support, ultimately leading to his ousting by Bush; she wrote that the DEA's Centac 21 task force, which had targeted [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Jose Santacruz Londono]] in the 1978 indictments, was dismantled under the Reagan and Bush administrations, leaving disgruntled agents to suspect a CIA connection.[^107] Seymour added that Bush reportedly made secret visits to Damascus for hostage negotiations, and that after Desert Storm Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III]] encouraged [[Syria]] and Israel to recognize each other's Lebanese occupation zones under a 1990 accord that left Syria in control of the Bekaa Valley.[^107]
The Cox Committee counted twelve national-interest determinations for launches of commercial satellites on Chinese rockets between 1989 and early 1998, three by President Bush and nine by [[Bill Clinton]]; the last, of February 18, 1998, applied to the Loral-built [[Chinasat-8]] satellite, a company then headed by [[Bernard L. Schwartz]].[^110] [[National Security Directive 67]], signed by Bush on March 30, 1992, replaced the lettered programs of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] with three functional directorates, and the existence of the office was declassified on September 18, 1992.[^111] Bush's report to Congress of September 1991 under the [[Iraq Sanctions Act of 1990]] stated that "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." Gonzalez said that after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, [[SerVaas Inc.]] renegotiated a brass-plant contract with its Iraqi counterparts and sold it through a foreign holding company to escape the president's order freezing Iraqi assets.[^112] The prime minister of [[Jamaica]], [[Michael Manley]], sworn in again on February 13, 1989, said that he planned to travel to Washington to meet Bush, congressional leaders and officials of the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].[^113]
Richard Thornburgh continued as Attorney General under Bush through 1991, resigning in August 1991 to run for the Senate.[^114] [[Kenneth Starr]] was the 39th Solicitor General from 1989 to 1993 under Bush.[^115] [[Steve Forbes|Malcolm S. Forbes Jr.]], president of [[Forbes]] magazine, was renominated to the Board for International Broadcasting, which oversees [[Radio Free Europe]], by the Bush White House on January 4, 1990 and again on June 19, 1992, each time with designation as chairman.[^116] [[Jay Lefkowitz]] served under Bush as deputy executive secretary of the [[Domestic Policy Council]] and director of cabinet affairs.[^117] [[Loretta Preska]] was appointed a judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]] by Bush in 1992.[^118] Lawrence Eagleburger, president of [[Kissinger Associates]] from 1984 to 1989, was deputy secretary of state under Baker and secretary of state in the last weeks of the administration; Brent Scowcroft, vice chairman of the firm's Washington office, became national security adviser in January 1989.[^119]
### Iraq, Osirak, and the Teicher Declaration
The Teicher declaration of January 31, 1995, on the [[Iran-Iraq War]], filed in the Florida prosecution of [[Carlos Cardoen]] and others, states in paragraph 7 that a secret 1986 message from Reagan to [[Saddam Hussein]], urging a stepped-up air war against Iran, was delivered by Vice President Bush to [[Hosni Mubarak]], who passed it to Saddam Hussein. The declaration also states that Teicher wrote Bush's talking points for the 1986 meeting with Mubarak.[^120] A corrective declaration filed in October 1996 addresses paragraphs 15 through 18.[^121]
### The BNL and Iraqgate Record
The Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro extended credits to [[Iraq]] that the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] examined in February 1993. The committee reports that a National Security Council Deputies Committee meeting on May 29, 1990 was held "to resolve the issue of the second $500 million tranche," and that [[Robert M. Gates]] chaired it.[^122] Barr and Richard opposed going forward with the second tranche, citing the prosecutor's intent to indict Iraqi officials who were involved in "significant criminal violations." The meeting's conclusion was "that the Iraqi government simply be advised that the U.S. would not go forward with the second tranche until the investigation in Atlanta was completed."[^122] The indictment in Atlanta was returned on February 28, 1991.[^122]
On October 2, 1989 Bush signed [[National Security Directive 26]], classified SECRET. It states that the government "should propose economic and political incentives for Iraq to moderate its behavior and to increase our influence with Iraq," and that "any illegal use of chemical and/or biological weapons will lead to economic and political sanctions."[^123]
The [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program]] ran alongside the BNL loans. On October 6, 1989 Secretary of State Baker assured [[Tariq Aziz]] that American concern over proliferation was worldwide and not directed at Iraq; the department then offered Iraq 500 million dollars in guarantees, with a second 500 million to follow "after successful conclusion of the BNL investigation," a condition Iraq rejected.[^124] Friedman wrote in *Spider's Web* on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the House Banking Committee under Gonzalez documented the Reagan administration's and the early Bush administration's consistent support for Iraq's weapons procurement networks, including knowledge of chemical weapons use.[^125]
In a 1992 statement in the House, Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] quoted the sentence "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." He added that "[s]everal Bush administration officials in a position to know the truth have testified before Congress about the United States role in enhancing Iraq's military capability."[^126] The White House's unclassified summary of September 1991 uses different language on the same question.[^127]
### BCCI and the Gulf Finance Network
The Senate report on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, prepared by Senators John Kerry and [[Hank Brown]] and published in December 1992, describes a figure named Lake who "received $200,000 in payments from Abu Dhabi last fall in connection with this work." The report says he was performing, "as a volunteer, in an unpaid position," the job of "deputy manager to President Bush's re-election campaign."[^128] Kerry, then subcommittee chairman, said at a hearing on March 18, 1992: "I do not believe that Mr. Lake should be sitting in on White House campaign strategy meetings while he is also providing strategy to Sheikh Zayed on how to deal with problems arising out of his ownership of BCCI."[^128]
The report's chapter on [[Ed Rogers]] quotes Rogers's resignation letter, which states that "The ethics atmosphere at the Bush White House was to go the extra mile...."[^129] The report places [[Sam Bamieh]] in Bush's Team 100 fundraising program in 1988.[^130] It also records that [[Richard Helms]] wrote to Vice President Bush on behalf of [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani|Irvani]] on October 29, 1987.[^131]
The Justice Department's response to Kerry's inquiry about its February 1990 letters states that "The first letter by Mr. Saphos is obviously worded poorly."[^132] A July 24, 1990 letter from Deputy Assistant Attorney General [[Bruce Navarro]] to Kerry also appears in the record.[^133] The report asks whether the Customs undercover investigation of BCCI "is the kind of investigation that President Bush and the Congress desire."[^134]
### Stephens, Bath and the Gulf Financiers
[[Jackson Stephens]] of [[Stephens Inc.]] gave to Reagan, Bush and Clinton, and in 1977 introduced the Bank of Credit and Commerce International to the American bank it would secretly acquire.[^135] [[Peter Truell]] and [[Larry Gurwin]] wrote in 1992 that Stephens backed Bush that year while employees of Stephens Inc. gave more money to the Clinton campaign than the employees of all but two other firms; they also wrote that [[Hillary Clinton]], then Hillary Rodham, did legal work in 1978 for Systematics Inc. when it was sued over the stock accumulation for [[Agha Hasan Abedi]].[^136] The firm gave 100,000 dollars to a dinner for President Bush in May 1991, and family members and employees gave more than 83,000 dollars to Clinton by the summer of 1992; [[Worthen Bank]], whose chairman [[Curt Bradbury]] had been a Stephens officer, extended the Clinton campaign a 3.5 million dollar line of credit.[^137]
[[James R. Bath]] told *Time* in 1991 that his friendship with Bush dated from their service in the Guard and that he was only "slightly" acquainted with the then-President.[^138] [[Craig Unger]] wrote in *Salon* in 2004 that the second name on a Guard order, released earlier under the Freedom of Information Act to the researcher Marty Heldt, was Bath's, and that the White House redacted it when it released George W. Bush's military records in March 2004; Bath confirmed that he was the man named and said: "Geo did not use drugs."[^139] [[Lucy Komisar]] wrote in 2007 that in 1976, when Bush headed the CIA, the agency sold some planes of its proprietary airline [[Air America]] to Skyway, "a company owned by Bath and Bin Mahfouz"; she wrote that [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]]'s family bought 20 to 30 percent of BCCI for nearly one billion dollars, and that when [[Harken Energy]] got into financial trouble in 1987 Stephens helped it obtain 25 million dollars from [[Union Bank of Switzerland]] and a board seat went to the Harken shareholder [[Abdullah Taha Bakhsh]], "whose chief banker was BCCI shareholder Bin Mahfouz." Harken's proxy statement of April 25, 1994 listed Bakhsh with 6,935,364 shares, 11.66 percent of its common stock.[^140] *Time* described Bakhsh as the reclusive Saudi who bought an 11 percent stake in Harken, of which George W. Bush was a director.[^141]
### Hinckley
John W. Hinckley Jr. shot President Reagan on March 30, 1981. The [[Houston Post]] reported that Neil Bush, a son of Vice President Bush, had been scheduled to have dinner the day after the shooting with [[Scott Hinckley]], the brother of the gunman. WhoWhatWhy reports that the story was picked up by the Associated Press and UPI.[^142]
At a press conference the day after the shooting, Neil Bush acknowledged that Scott Hinckley had also been at his house "a couple of months earlier, at his surprise birthday party." Neil Bush said, "I have no idea."[^142]
The vice president's press secretary, [[Peter Teeley]], told a UPI reporter, as WhoWhatWhy quotes him: "I don't know a damn thing about it. All I know is what you're telling me." Teeley said that the vice president "made no mention of it whatsoever."[^142]
The diary of [[Chase Untermyer]], a Bush aide, records that "Neil and Sharon do know Hinckley's brother (in Denver) and were planning to have dinner with them tomorrow night."[^142]
WhoWhatWhy also reports, citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, that the Department of Energy told the Hinckley family's oil business that it might be penalized about $2 million.[^143]
### Franklin Cover-Up Allegations
[[John DeCamp]] wrote on the Franklin matter in Nebraska. An advertisement for his book, reproduced in a compilation of material gathered by [[Ted Gunderson]], states that the book "contains numerous references to President George Bush."[^144]
The same compilation relays a 1989 report in the [[Washington Times]] by [[George Archibald]] that key Reagan and Bush administration officials were ensnared in a federal probe tied to an escort service and [[Craig Spence]].[^145]
### Allegations in the Casolaro and Mind-Control Literature
Seymour wrote that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police inquirer [[Sean McDade]] told her that Canadian officials might have bought the PROMIS software unlawfully from officials of the Reagan and Bush administrations, that the RCMP had traced banking transactions supporting this, and that a successful inquiry "could cause the entire U.S. Republican Party to be dismantled."[^107] In September 2001 Admiral Daniel Murphy, who had served as chief of staff to Vice President Bush during the first Reagan term when the PROMIS misappropriations began, told [[Bill Hamilton]] of [[INSLAW]] that he had a "hunch" that there was still another use of PROMIS that INSLAW had not yet discovered; Murphy died on September 21, 2001.[^107]
[[Project Monarch]] is described in a 1996 PROBE article by A.B.H. Alexander, which reports the claim of Cathy O'Brien that she delivered messages to foreign leaders including Mexican President [[Carlos Salinas]] on behalf of Vice President Bush, using keyword-triggered personality compartments.[^146]
### The Carlyle Group
In March 2002 Tim Shorrock wrote in [[The Nation]] that "Bush is Carlyle's senior adviser on Asia and makes his money by giving speeches at Carlyle's investment conferences."[^147] The article quotes [[William Conway]] of [[The Carlyle Group]] describing "the cast of ex-Presidents and former officials, including George H.W. Bush, James Baker III and Frank Carlucci, on its payroll."[^147]
### Appointees in the Epstein Record
Lefkowitz, who served under Bush at the Domestic Policy Council, was later the principal defense negotiator of the September 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] between [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida; he retired from [[Kirkland & Ellis]] in March 2026, saying he would not have taken the Epstein matter "knowing what we all know now."[^148] Starr was a partner at Kirkland before and after his service as Solicitor General.[^148] Preska, whom Bush appointed in 1992, took over [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] after the death of Judge Robert W. Sweet in 2019 and ruled until 2026 on the release of its sealed discovery.[^149] Federal Election Commission records show a 1988 contribution to Bush by [[Philip Scaturro]], whose contributions otherwise went mostly to Democratic candidates.[^150]
### Unidentified Aerial Phenomena and the FBI Vault
A letter to FBI Director [[William S. Sessions]], held in the Bureau's vault, is quoted by [[Larry Holzwarth]] in a HistoryCollection article. The letter states that "President Bush (George H. W. Bush), when asked about UFOs, told the person asking 'You don't know the half of it.'" The letter writer reminds the director that Bush "was formerly with the CIA." Because the letter calls Bush "President," it can date only from January 1989 onward.[^151]
The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made contact with aliens at a secretive New Mexico air base in 1964. The account was published by OK! Magazine on November 24, 2025 and carried by AOL, and is tied to the documentary *The Age of Disclosure*. When Bush asked for more details, he was told that he did not have a need-to-know.[^152]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. [^1]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991).
[^2]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends" [^2]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Life Before the Presidency." Phillips Academy, Navy service 1942 to 1945, marriage of January 6, 1945, Yale economics degree by 1948, baseball captain, Skull and Bones, Prescott Bush's Senate service 1952 to 1963, the Texas oil years, the 1964 to 1974 political offices, the CIA appointment, the May 1, 1979 announcement, and the children's names and birth years. https://millercenter.org/president/bush/life-before-the-presidency
[^3]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 20: "It is a sensitive matter" [^3]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived, georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; sworn in January 20, 2001 and January 20, 2005.
[^4]: The President's News Conference, November 3, 1975, including the statement announcing personnel changes. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-60 [^4]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, FOIA response 2009-0116-F, records relating to the Skull and Bones Society. https://bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^5]: Remarks at the Swearing In of George Bush as Director of Central Intelligence, January 30, 1976. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-george-bush-director-central-intelligence [^5]: Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, Washington, October 20, 1942, *Federal Register*, November 7, 1942, pp. 9097-9098.
[^6]: Kress, Kenneth A. "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence,* vol. 21, no. 4, winter 1977, declassified, document NSA-RDP96X00790R000100010031-3; reprinted with the author's postscript of January 1999 in *Journal of Scientific Exploration,* vol. 13, no. 1, 1999. US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "List of Events from September 1977 to January 1986," CIA-RDP96-00788R001100020001-8. [^6]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, quoting a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/
[^7]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, citing a 1968 memorandum and the 1998 release of CIA documents. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/
[^8]: Zapata Corporation, annual report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1994, filed December 29, 1994, accession 0000899243-94-000388, Item 1 and filer header (former conformed names), CIK 109177.
[^9]: SEC EDGAR filing history for CIK 109177 (Zapata Corporation and successor names); start of electronic filings February 8, 1994.
[^10]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to John Pereira, December 18, 1997, CIA release 104-10336-10008.
[^11]: Assassination Records Review Board staff memorandum by Haron, January 8, 1998 (FBIMEM.002).
[^12]: CIA memorandum from Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, July 15, 1998 (CIA-IR09).
[^13]: CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to T. Jeremy Gunn, February 25, 1998, within release 104-10336-10008.
[^14]: Assassination Records Review Board draft request, "George Bush," undated, bearing Gunn's name.
[^15]: WhoWhatWhy, "Classic Who: GHW Bush and the JFK Assassination," October 24, 2017, reporting Stephen Hart's 1988 statement and Joseph McBride's report in *The Nation*, July 16, 1988. https://whowhatwhy.org/2017/10/24/classic-ghw-bush-jfk-assassination/
[^16]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 13, "The wrong kind of friends."
[^17]: Ronald Reagan, "Statement Announcing the Establishment of a Federal Anticrime Task Force for Southern Florida," January 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-announcing-the-establishment-federal-anticrime-task-force-for-southern-florida
[^18]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), statement of Adm. Daniel J. Murphy, pp. 224-225. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152832_0009
[^19]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 19. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
[^20]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 20, "It is a sensitive matter."
[^21]: FBI Headquarters file on H.L. Hunt, part 2 (FOIA release), Hunt Oil Company and Estate of H.L. Hunt press releases, March 4 and April 1, 1977, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hunt_H.L.-HQ-2 ; Marie Fagnant (Assassination Records Review Board staff), "Summary of Dallas Figures," memorandum, July 31, 1997; Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/
[^22]: George Bush, Chairman, National Foreign Intelligence Board, letter to Vice Admiral Bobby R. Inman, January 1977 (DCI/IC 77-0402), CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8
[^23]: "We've Been Asked: What Is the Trilateral Commission?" *U.S. News & World Report*, April 7, 1980, p. 37, reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981).
[^24]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, The American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
[^25]: "The President's News Conference," November 3, 1975. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-60
[^26]: "Remarks at the Swearing In of George Bush as Director of Central Intelligence," January 30, 1976. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-george-bush-director-central-intelligence
[^27]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 15. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. Reprinted with the author's January 1999 postscript in *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 13, no. 1 (1999).
[^28]: Senate nomination record for George H. W. Bush as Director of Central Intelligence, hearings of December 15-16, 1975, and committee report of December 18, 1975. CIA reading room CIA-RDP91-00901R000100050001-3.
[^29]: Center for the Study of Intelligence, "Intelligence and Congress: The Nomination of George H. W. Bush as DCI," *Studies in Intelligence* 65, no. 4 (December 2021). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Article_Intel_Congress_Nomination_ofGHWBush_as_DCI_Studies_65_4_December2021.pdf
[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 170, memorandum from Director of Central Intelligence Bush to recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, with editorial note citing William Beecher, *Boston Globe*, October 20, 1976, and David Binder, *New York Times*, December 26, 1976.
[^31]: "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View, Report of Team B." CIA reading room CIA-RDP91M00696R001000110006-8.
[^32]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 174, Bush to Cherne, January 19, 1977.
[^33]: Church Committee, *Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities*, Book I, p. 455 (1976). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^34]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, p. 193. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^35]: Norman Kempster, *Washington Star*, February 10, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3.
[^36]: "'Operation Chaos' Files Ordered Held," *Washington Star*, June 16, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP90-01208R000100170029-4.
[^37]: Letter from Daniel K. Inouye to George Bush, September 29, 1976. CIA reading room 03303946.
[^38]: Letter from Edward H. Levi to George Bush, October 9, 1976, with Scowcroft's endorsement of October 21, 1976. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. E-11, pt. 2, doc. 250.
[^39]: CIA reading room document 05535911, 1980 radio interview transcript (speaker identified as "MAN").
[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 209.
[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 217, memorandum quoted in the volume.
[^42]: Memorandum by George Bush, "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. CIA reading room 00508811.
[^43]: Timothy S. Robinson, "The Letelier Case," *The Washington Post*, May 21, 1978, p. A4, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050048-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050048-7.
[^44]: Brief for Appellants, *United States v. Sampol*, Nos. 79-1541 and 79-1542 (D.C. Cir. 1979), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-appeal.pdf ; Petition of the United States for Rehearing and Suggestion for Rehearing En Banc, *United States v. Sampol* (D.C. Cir., October 29, 1980), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-rehearing.pdf.
[^45]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post*, November 1, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100020097-6
[^46]: Secretary of State to American Embassy Caracas, "Interrogation of Bosch," telegram 1976STATE277225, November 11, 1976, quoting Richard L. Thornburgh's letter of November 5, 1976, Department of State, released 2006; Zach Dorfman, "Codename: Chilbom," *The Atavist Magazine*, no. 59, June 21, 2016. https://magazine.atavist.com/2016/codename-chilbom
[^47]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Associate Attorney General, *In the Matter of Orlando Bosch-Avila*, decision of Acting Associate Attorney General Joe D. Whitley in exclusion proceedings, January 23, 1989; National Security Archive, "Bombing of Cuban Jetliner 30 Years Later," Electronic Briefing Book 202, October 5, 2006.
[^48]: Peter Kornbluh, "A Modicum of Justice for Ronni Karpen Moffitt," *The Nation*, September 2026.
[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXII, Panama, doc. 133, memorandum of conversation, October 6, 1976, source note.
[^50]: Letter from George Bush to Donald H. Rumsfeld, October 18, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP79-00498A000600090009-7.
[^51]: Joseph Trento, *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network* (Carroll & Graf, 2005), pp. 52-108; Alexandre de Marenches and David Andelman, *The Fourth World War* (Random House, 1992); Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, 1976.
[^52]: Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, *La Piscine: Les Services Secrets Français, 1944-1984* (Seuil, 1985); Alexandre de Marenches and Christine Ockrent, *Dans le Secret des Princes* (Stock, 1986).
[^53]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, 1975; Ludo De Witte, *The Assassination of Lumumba* (Verso, 2001); International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Public Law 94-329, 90 Stat. 729 (June 30, 1976), sec. 404.
[^54]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history
[^55]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), ch. 18.
[^56]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015).
[^57]: *The Tower Commission Report: The Full Text of the President's Special Review Board* (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books, 1987), pp. 24-25, 30-31; Tom Tugend, "Al Schwimmer, Israel Air Force pioneer, dies at 94," *Jewish Journal* (Los Angeles), June 12, 2011; JTA Staff, "Pardoned American served Israel in 1948," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 28, 2001.
[^58]: Maureen Dowd, "War in the Gulf: The President; Bush Urges Israeli Restraint in Phone Appeals to Shamir," *The New York Times*, January 20, 1991, p. 16. https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/20/world/war-gulf-president-bush-urges-israeli-restraint-phone-appeals-shamir.html
[^59]: "Decade of the Spy," undated counterintelligence history extract, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 407, Doc. 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/docs/EBB-PollardDoc14.pdf
[^60]: Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 16. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0.
[^61]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "List of Events from September 1977 to January 1986," entry for 1983. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00788R001100020001-8.
[^62]: Memorandum for the record, "Briefing," Major Gerald Fox, April 1, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700270002-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700270002-4
[^63]: Defense Intelligence Agency, S-1004/DT-1, "Minutes of the Meeting, DoD Grill Flame Committee," November 28, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130006-1; "Minutes of the Grill Flame Committee Meeting, 14 Feb 79," CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130002-5.
[^64]: Dolan M. McKelvy, *Psychic Warfare: Exploring the Mind Frontier*, Air War College research report, Air University, CIA-RDP96-00789R001001420001-3, citing Ronald M. McRae, *Mind Wars* (1984), p. 103. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r001001420001-3
[^65]: William J. Casey to Alexander M. Haig, Jr., April 2, 1982, with "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs (April 2, 1982)," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R000701780017-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000701780017-6
[^66]: John H. Holdridge, letter, "Australian Intrigue," *Time*, January 3, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820017-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820017-1 ; CBS, "The Nugan Hand Bank," Evening News transcript, September 22, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6
[^67]: "Vice President George Bush, completing a 10-day trip aimed...," United Press International, April 12, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/12/Vice-President-George-Bush-completing-a-10-day-trip-aimed/5692513666000/ ; "Top-secret cronies," *Salon*, November 17, 2005, https://www.salon.com/2005/11/17/pfiab/
[^68]: Bill Gertz, "Vice President confirms Buckley was tortured and killed," *Washington Times*, January 21, 1987, CIA-RDP90-00965R000302310058-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302310058-3
[^69]: Denholm Barnetson, "President Mohammad Zia ul-Haq, U.S. Ambassador Arnold Raphel and...," United Press International, August 17, 1988. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/17/President-Mohammad-Zia-ul-Haq-US-Ambassador-Arnold-Raphel-and/3467587793600/
[^70]: Dennis Bernstein and Robert Knight (Pacific News Service), report published by *Salon*, October 8, 1996. https://www.salon.com/1996/10/08/news_555/
[^71]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), Senator Kerry, pp. 265-266.
[^72]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), testimony of Danilo Blandon, pp. 136-137.
[^73]: Lawrence E. Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29, citing Gregg grand jury testimony of October 9, 1987 and Rodriguez grand jury testimony of December 4, 1987. https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_29.htm
[^74]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), Rodriguez testimony, p. 344.
[^75]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, p. 443. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm
[^76]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 96. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
[^77]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Executive Summary, p. xviii. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/execsum.htm
[^78]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, "George Bush," pp. 473-474. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_28.htm
[^79]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 479 and note 67 (*Los Angeles Times*, September 11, 1992; *Washington Post*, 1988).
[^80]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, "Investigations of the White House," pp. 443-444. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm
[^81]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, pp. 474-475, on the diary, the pardons and the grand jury.
[^82]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 480 and note 74 (diary entries of November 4 and 5, 1986).
[^83]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 478.
[^84]: Proclamation 6518, Granting Pardons, December 24, 1992, 107 *Stat.* 2606-2607.
[^85]: Brown University, Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, Iran-Contra materials, "The Pardons," quoting Walsh's response to the pardon of Caspar Weinberger. https://webhelper.brown.edu/cheit/
[^86]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. II, Fourth Interim Report to Congress, February 8, 1993, pp. 585-587.
[^87]: *The Tower Commission Report*, February 26, 1987, pp. 383-384. https://archive.org/details/towercommission00unit
[^88]: National Security Planning Group minutes, June 25, 1984, "Central America," National Security Archive, *The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On*, EBB 210, document 2 (IC 00463), pp. 12, 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/2-NSPG%20minutes%206-25-84%20(IC%2000463).pdf ; Iran-Contra report, ch. 26, pp. 403-404.
[^89]: Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29 (Gregg and Rodriguez); Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1989), p. 96.
[^90]: George Bush, "Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on the Iran-Contra Investigation," December 30, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-press-secretary-fitzwater-the-iran-contra-investigation ; U.S. Department of Justice, "Griffin Boyette Bell," Attorneys General biographies.
[^91]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project (remarks on Bua, Lacey, Civiletti, inherent authority, and the pardons). https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history
[^92]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993), pp. 4-5, 10; Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345; "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," United Press International, December 9, 1993; *United States v. Drogoul*, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993).
[^93]: *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*, 102d Cong., 2d sess., January 3, 1993, Calendar No. 634. https://archive.org/details/6199732-Joint-Report-of-the-October-Surprise-Task-Force
[^94]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 148.
[^95]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 110.
[^96]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 172-173.
[^97]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 175.
[^98]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 149, citing the Rupp sentencing (D. Colo., September 23, 1988) and the Brenneke trial (D. Or., May 3, 1990).
[^99]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 150-151.
[^100]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), pp. 131-132. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
[^101]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 90, Casey calendar.
[^102]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 102.
[^103]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 20-21, missing calendar pages.
[^104]: Robert Parry, "October Surprise Evidence Surfaces," *Consortium News*, July 14, 2011. https://consortiumnews.com/2011/07/14/october-surprise-evidence-surfaces/
[^105]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 173-174, Reagan statements.
[^106]: Barbara Honegger, *October Surprise* (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1989).
[^107]: Cheri Seymour, *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal* (TrineDay, 2010).
[^108]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Key Events." https://millercenter.org/president/bush/key-events
[^109]: Miller Center, "Statecraft: The Bush 41 Team," "Proving ground: How the December 1989 invasion of Panama shaped the Bush 41 foreign policy team," quoting Richard Cheney and Colin Powell in the George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/statecraftmovie/proving-ground
[^110]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (H. Rept. 105-851), vol. III, ch. 9, p. 50. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
[^111]: Bruce Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History* (Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, September 2011), pp. 20-21, 23-26.
[^112]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Brass Factory in Iraq," *Congressional Record*, House, September 25, 1992, p. H9502; Gonzalez floor statement of August 10, 1992.
[^113]: Gayle Young, "Socialists Take the Helm in Jamaica. Manley hopes to strengthen US ties by aiding war on drugs," *The Christian Science Monitor*, February 14, 1989. https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0214/ojam.html
[^114]: "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, *Attorneys General of the United States*; Miller Center, "Richard Thornburgh."
[^115]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr," historical biography (updated September 18, 2023). https://www.justice.gov/osg/bio/kenneth-w-starr
[^116]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564 ; George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789
[^117]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy, Human Rights in North Korea," biography, released May 25, 2006. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; The White House (George W. Bush archives), "Personnel Announcement," January 31, 2002.
[^118]: Federal Judicial Center, "Preska, Loretta A.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta
[^119]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm
[^120]: Declaration of Howard R. Teicher, *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.*, No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla., January 31, 1995), para. 7. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf
[^121]: Corrective declaration of Howard R. Teicher, docket 679, *United States v. Cardoen* (October 31, 1996). Archive.org item utf-893cr-241-de-679.
[^122]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993). https://intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf
[^123]: National Security Directive 26, "U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf," October 2, 1989, classified SECRET. George H. W. Bush Presidential Library copy.
[^124]: General Accounting Office, report on Iraq's participation in the Commodity Credit Corporation's GSM-102 and GSM-103 export credit guarantee programs, GAO/NSIAD-91-76, November 1990, appendix I; Henry B. Gonzalez, "Continuing Saga of Attempts to Thwart BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, House, May 18, 1992, pp. H3370-H3373; "Bush's embarrassing Lavoro scandal," *The Baltimore Sun*, April 28, 1992.
[^125]: Alan Friedman, *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq* (Bantam Books, 1993).
[^126]: Representative Henry B. Gonzalez, *Congressional Record*, 1992. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920925g.htm
[^127]: White House, unclassified summary of Iraq sanctions and weapons exports, September 1991.
[^128]: Senate Foreign Relations Committee, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140 (December 1992), p. 461. https://archive.org/details/thebcciaffair_202003
[^129]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 542, chapter on Ed Rogers.
[^130]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 538.
[^131]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Helms letters to Vice President Bush, October 29, 1987.
[^132]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Justice Department response on the February 1990 letters by Mr. Saphos.
[^133]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, letter of Deputy Assistant Attorney General Bruce Navarro to Senator Kerry, July 24, 1990.
[^134]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 508.
[^135]: "Jackson Thomas Stephens (1923-2005)," *Encyclopedia of Arkansas*; *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger*, 523 F. Supp. 744 (D.D.C. 1981); 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. 1982).
[^136]: Peter Truell and Larry Gurwin, *False Profits: The Inside Story of BCCI, the World's Most Corrupt Financial Empire* (Houghton Mifflin, 1992), ch. 18 and p. 428. https://archive.org/details/bypetertruellauthorlarrygurwinauthorfalseprofitsth
[^137]: "Meet The Family That Bankrolled Clinton," *The Seattle Times*, January 31, 1993, https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=19930131&slug=1682819 ; House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829 (1998), vol. 2; Roger Morris, *Partners in Power* (Henry Holt, 1996); Truell and Gurwin, *False Profits*, pp. 41 and 428.
[^138]: Jonathan Beaty, "A Mysterious Mover of Money and Planes," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718843/a-mysterious-mover-of-money-and-planes/
[^139]: Craig Unger, "Mystery man," *Salon*, April 28, 2004. https://www.salon.com/2004/04/28/james_bath/
[^140]: Lucy Komisar, "Questions Linger About Bushes and BCCI," Inter Press Service, April 4, 2007, https://www.ipsnews.net/2007/04/finance-questions-linger-about-bushes-and-bcci/ ; Harken Energy Corporation, proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 25, 1994, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000454.txt
[^141]: Richard Behar, "Global Intrigue: The Wackiest Rig in Texas," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718865/global-intrigue-the-wackiest-rig-in-texas/
[^142]: WhoWhatWhy, "Bush Angle to Reagan Shooting Still Unresolved as Hinckley Walks," August 16, 2016, reporting the *Houston Post* story, Neil Bush's press conference, Peter Teeley's statement to UPI, and the Untermyer diary. https://whowhatwhy.org/2016/08/16/bush-angle-reagan-shooting-still-unresolved-hinckley-walks/
[^143]: WhoWhatWhy (2016), citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, on the Department of Energy notice to the Hinckley family business.
[^144]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, advertisement for John DeCamp's book. https://archive.org/details/ted-gunderson-fbi-the-finders
[^145]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, relaying a *Washington Times* report by George Archibald (1989).
[^146]: A.B.H. Alexander, "Sex, Drugs, the CIA, MIND CONTROL and Your Children," *PROBE*, c. 1996.
[^147]: Tim Shorrock, "Crony Capitalism Goes Global," *The Nation*, March 14, 2002. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/crony-capitalism-goes-global/
[^148]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast*, March 2026; U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr"; U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284.
[^149]: *Brown v. Maxwell; Dershowitz v. Giuffre*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), Nos. 18-2868, 16-3945-cv(L) (July 3, 2019). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4636340/brown-v-maxwell-dershowitz-v-giuffre/
[^150]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A individual contributions, API query contributor_name "SCATURRO, PHILIP" (41 results). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=SCATURRO%2C%20PHILIP
[^151]: Larry Holzwarth, "FBI Files: Unexplained Phenomenon Files from the FBI's Vault," HistoryCollection, quoting an anonymous letter to FBI Director William S. Sessions. https://historycollection.com/unexplained-phenomenon-files-from-the-fbis-vault/6/
[^152]: Allie Fasanella, "George H. W. Bush 'Knew' Humans Made Contact With Aliens in 1964," *OK! Magazine*, November 24, 2025, carried by AOL. https://www.aol.com/articles/george-h-w-bush-knew-161144400.html

9
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Gerald Feinberg.md
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@ -14,5 +14,14 @@ Gerald Feinberg was a physics professor at [[Columbia University]]. He was worki
His work, along with that of [[Yakov Terletsky]], attracted the attention of [[Hal Puthoff]], who was interested in whether the tachyon flow could account for an "extra field" or force that physics couldn't yet see, potentially explaining [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]] and other anomalous mental phenomena[^1]. His work, along with that of [[Yakov Terletsky]], attracted the attention of [[Hal Puthoff]], who was interested in whether the tachyon flow could account for an "extra field" or force that physics couldn't yet see, potentially explaining [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]] and other anomalous mental phenomena[^1].
### Columbia tachyon work and the SRI contracts
Feinberg was a physicist in Columbia's Department of Physics. In February 1970 [[Scientific American]] published his article "Particles That Go Faster Than Light," which describes a search for tachyons by a group at Columbia that examined bubble-chamber photographs for indirect evidence of neutral tachyons.[^2] A technical proposal dated October 1, 1973 for a "Perceptual Augmentation Techniques" program, prepared by Puthoff and [[Russell Targ]] at the [[Stanford Research Institute]], named Feinberg and [[Charles Tart]] as professors who "may be called upon to act as consultants."[^3] In 1974 Feinberg presented "Precognition: A Memory of Things Future?" at the twenty-third annual conference of the [[Parapsychology Foundation]] in Geneva. The paper suggested that precognition might be knowledge of a future state of the percipient's mind rather than of an objective state of the physical world.[^4] Later SRI remote-viewing documents attribute an "extradimensional hypothesis" to "Targ, Puthoff, and May (SRI), G. Feinberg (Columbia University), and E. Rauscher (University of California Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory)," and a December 1979 [[Grill Flame]] Scientific Evaluation Committee report reproduces the passage.[^5]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017. [^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^2]: Gerald Feinberg, "Particles That Go Faster Than Light," *Scientific American*, vol. 222, no. 2 (February 1970), CIA reading room copy CIA-RDP96-00787R000100030001-9.
[^3]: Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ, *Perceptual Augmentation Techniques*, Part One, Technical Proposal, SRI No. ISH 73-146, October 1, 1973, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200210001-8.
[^4]: Gerald Feinberg, "Precognition: A Memory of Things Future?", 23rd Annual International Conference of the Parapsychology Foundation, Geneva, August 26-27, 1974, CIA summary CIA-RDP96-00787R000200090021-0 (October 28, 1974).
[^5]: Puthoff and Targ, research approaches document, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000010006-4 (undated); Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee report, December 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5.

14
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Harold Blauer.md
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@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ born: 1910
died: 1953-01-08 died: 1953-01-08
location: New York, New York location: New York, New York
created: 2026-06-03 created: 2026-06-03
updated: 2026-06-04 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Harold Blauer was a professional tennis player who died on January 8, 1953, after receiving a massive intravenous injection of EA-1298, a mescaline derivative (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, or MDA) designated by the [[U.S. Army|Army]] Chemical Corps as a candidate chemical warfare agent. Blauer had checked into the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] (NYSPI) in late 1952 seeking treatment for depression following a divorce. He was enrolled as a test subject in classified chemical warfare experiments conducted under an Army Chemical Corps contract with NYSPI, without his knowledge or consent. [[Paul Hoch]], director of experimental research at NYSPI, was the medical official in charge of administering the compound. The dose administered was approximately 450 milligrams, a massive quantity for a substance still in early development. Blauer died within two hours of the injection.[^1][^2] Harold Blauer was a professional tennis player who died on January 8, 1953, after receiving a massive intravenous injection of EA-1298, a mescaline derivative (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, or MDA) designated by the [[U.S. Army|Army]] Chemical Corps as a candidate chemical warfare agent. Blauer had checked into the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] (NYSPI) in late 1952 seeking treatment for depression following a divorce. He was enrolled as a test subject in classified chemical warfare experiments conducted under an Army Chemical Corps contract with NYSPI, without his knowledge or consent. [[Paul Hoch]], director of experimental research at NYSPI, was the medical official in charge of administering the compound. The dose administered was approximately 450 milligrams, a massive quantity for a substance still in early development. Blauer died within two hours of the injection.[^1][^2]
@ -21,12 +21,18 @@ Harold Blauer was a professional tennis player who died on January 8, 1953, afte
Within 48 hours of Blauer's death, Army Chemical Corps contract officer Amedeo Marrazzi directed efforts to conceal the Army's involvement. At a July 1954 meeting attended by federal counsel, Hoch, and Marrazzi, those present expressed concern about anticipated malpractice claims. The death certificate listed the cause as "coronary arteriosclerosis; sudden death after intravenous injection of a mescaline derivative," omitting any reference to the Army Chemical Corps contract or the compound's experimental status.[^1] Within 48 hours of Blauer's death, Army Chemical Corps contract officer Amedeo Marrazzi directed efforts to conceal the Army's involvement. At a July 1954 meeting attended by federal counsel, Hoch, and Marrazzi, those present expressed concern about anticipated malpractice claims. The death certificate listed the cause as "coronary arteriosclerosis; sudden death after intravenous injection of a mescaline derivative," omitting any reference to the Army Chemical Corps contract or the compound's experimental status.[^1]
The full circumstances of Blauer's death remained hidden for 22 years. The Army, NYSPI, and the [[CIA]] all participated in concealing the cause of death from Blauer's family. An initial settlement of $18,000 was paid to the family in 1955, with the U.S. government covertly paying half. In August 1975, the Army first disclosed the true circumstances to Blauer's daughter Elizabeth Barrett, who filed a lawsuit. In 1987 a federal judge awarded over $700,000 to Blauer's estate.[^2][^3] The opinion in *Barrett* records that Blauer, 42, was admitted voluntarily to the institute in December 1952 for depression after shock therapy at another hospital had failed, that the institute's record described the drug study as "for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes," and that, according to the estate, the fatal injection was the fifth in a series to which he had reacted unfavorably and the estate was never told of the Army Chemical Corps' involvement.[^3] The administratrix of the estate sued the State of New York in the [[New York Court of Claims]] in April 1953. [[David Marcus]], then an assistant attorney general, was assigned to defend the case and his investigation uncovered the Army's role. On January 4, 1954 the court authorized production of the institute's records and examination of its doctors. A conference of federal counsel and medical personnel in early July 1954 recorded apprehension, expressed by Dr. Amedeo Marazzi of the Chemical Corps and by Hoch, about anticipated malpractice claims. At a meeting in Washington on July 12, 1954, Hoch stated that he would not have used the new compound for experimental purposes but for the institute's contract with the Army. An attorney in the Justice Department's Civil Division advised that the case was worth $60,000 to $75,000 if the full circumstances were revealed and should be settled to avoid disclosure of the Army's interest, and an Army Judge Advocate General attorney recommended moving the Chemical Corps contracts from New York to Maryland, where they would be "beyond subpoena power."[^3]
The Second Circuit Court of Appeals found in *Barrett v. United States* (798 F.2d 565, 1986) that Hoch "was well aware that the mescaline derivative was a new compound not being administered for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes but as an experiment to study its effect for chemical warfare purposes." James Cattell, who administered the injection, told Army investigators: "We didn't know whether it was dog piss or what it was we were giving him."[^1] The full circumstances of Blauer's death remained hidden for 22 years. The Army, NYSPI, and the [[CIA]] all participated in concealing the cause of death from Blauer's family. An initial settlement of $18,000 was paid to the family in 1955, with the U.S. government covertly paying half. In August 1975, the Army first disclosed the true circumstances to Blauer's daughter Elizabeth Barrett, who filed a lawsuit. In 1987 a federal judge awarded over $700,000 to Blauer's estate.[^2][^4]
A tentative settlement of $15,000 was raised to $18,000 after Marcus told the judge of the Army's involvement in an ex parte conference. The Court of Claims entered the order on July 7, 1955, and the Army had paid $9,000 of the sum to the State on June 9, 1955. The release covered the "governmental body or agency which furnished the drug."[^3] The Secretary of the Army disclosed the Army's role on August 12, 1975. A CIA inspector general's memorandum of August 13, 1975 found no CIA association with the death beyond funds the Agency transferred to the Army annually from fiscal year 1953, and records that the estate "sued New York State for $500 K" and that the claim "was settled out of court for $125 K."[^5] Blauer's daughter failed in an effort to reopen the Court of Claims case in 1976 and brought three actions in the Southern District of New York. On July 31, 1986 the Second Circuit upheld Marcus's absolute immunity and held that if the estate proved its allegations the four federal attorneys would not be entitled to absolute or qualified immunity.[^3]
In *Barrett v. United States* (798 F.2d 565, 1986) the Second Circuit recited the estate's allegation that Hoch, who testified before the Court of Claims that the drug had been given for diagnostic purposes, "was well aware that the mescaline derivative was a new compound not being administered for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes but as an experiment to study its effect for chemical warfare purposes."[^3] According to Marks, James Cattell, who gave the injection, told Army investigators: "We didn't know whether it was dog piss or what it was we were giving him."[^1]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. 1986); John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapter 4. [^1]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. 1986); John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapter 4.
[^2]: *Barrett v. United States*, 646 F.Supp. 1345 (S.D.N.Y. 1986). [^2]: *Barrett v. United States*, 646 F.Supp. 1345 (S.D.N.Y. 1986).
[^3]: *Los Angeles Times*, May 5, 1987; UPI Archives, May 5, 1987. [^3]: *Barrett v. United States,* 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. July 31, 1986). https://static.case.law/f2d/798/cases/0565-01.json
[^4]: *Los Angeles Times*, May 5, 1987; UPI Archives, May 5, 1987.
[^5]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of the Inspector General, memorandum to the Legislative Counsel, "Drug-Related Death of Harold Blauer," August 13, 1975, CIA Reading Room document 00146161. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00146161

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Humberto Castelo Branco.md
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@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ Brazil broke off relations with Cuba in July 1964 and joined the Johnson adminis
### Second Institutional Act ### Second Institutional Act
The Second Institutional Act, signed on October 27, 1965, came in response to the military government's poor showing in that year's gubernatorial elections, in which opposition candidates won two state contests. The act banned all existing political parties, provided for indirect election of the president, restricted the time Congress could consider legislation before it automatically became law, stipulated that persons accused of crimes against national security would be subject to military justice, and expanded the [[Supreme Court]] to secure favorable rulings, including the restoration of Hanna Mining's concessions.[^17] The Second Institutional Act, signed on October 27, 1965, came in response to the military government's poor showing in that year's gubernatorial elections, in which opposition candidates won two state contests. The act banned all existing political parties, provided for indirect election of the president, restricted the time Congress could consider legislation before it automatically became law, stipulated that persons accused of crimes against national security would be subject to military justice, and expanded the [[Supremo Tribunal Federal|Supreme Court]] to secure favorable rulings, including the restoration of Hanna Mining's concessions.[^17]
Ambassador Gordon reported on the act in a cable to Washington dated November 3, 1965, describing his private conversation with Castelo Branco about it. According to Gordon's account, Castelo Branco explained that Congress and some Supreme Court justices had misunderstood his commitment to constitutional normality as willingness to reverse the revolution, and determined by mid-October that corrective action was necessary. Gordon expressed concern about "arbitrary powers assumed through the act" and the risks of sliding toward military dictatorship rather than maintaining the armed forces' traditional moderating role.[^18] Ambassador Gordon reported on the act in a cable to Washington dated November 3, 1965, describing his private conversation with Castelo Branco about it. According to Gordon's account, Castelo Branco explained that Congress and some Supreme Court justices had misunderstood his commitment to constitutional normality as willingness to reverse the revolution, and determined by mid-October that corrective action was necessary. Gordon expressed concern about "arbitrary powers assumed through the act" and the risks of sliding toward military dictatorship rather than maintaining the armed forces' traditional moderating role.[^18]

16
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jack Anderson.md
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@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ born: 1922-10-19
died: 2005-12-17 died: 2005-12-17
location: "Long Beach, California" location: "Long Beach, California"
created: 2026-10-09 created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09 updated: 2026-10-15
relations: relations:
- type: employed_by - type: employed_by
with: "[[Drew Pearson]]" with: "[[Drew Pearson]]"
@ -120,11 +120,11 @@ On March 18, 1975 Anderson mentioned the [[Hughes Glomar Explorer]], the CIA sal
### FBI files and papers ### FBI files and papers
After Anderson's death, agents of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] told his family that the Bureau wanted to review his files and to remove any documents it judged classified before they were opened to the public; the request became public in April 2006. The [[Federation of American Scientists]] reported the request.[^28] On April 20, 2006 an FBI assistant director, [[John Miller]], told NPR the bureau wanted access before the archive was made public. NPR reported that FBI agents had told the family that the papers included a document that could bear on a current espionage case involving pro-Israel lobbyists, and that 188 boxes were held by George Washington University.[^29] After Anderson's death, agents of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] told his family that the Bureau wanted to review his files and to remove any documents it judged classified before they were opened to the public; the request became public in April 2006. The [[Federation of American Scientists]] reported the request.[^28] On April 20, 2006 an FBI assistant director, [[John Miller]], told NPR the bureau wanted access before the archive was made public. NPR reported that FBI agents had told the family that the papers included a document that could bear on a current espionage case involving pro-Israel lobbyists, and that 188 boxes were held by George Washington University.[^29] A student newspaper report of October 27, 2008 quotes the university's University Archivist, [[Sylvia Augusteijn]], as stating that the library had been working since April 2006 to categorize and re-file the documents in 186 boxes bequeathed by the Anderson family.[^30]
When the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] asked under what law the FBI was proceeding, the Bureau replied that it had abandoned its effort. The Associated Press reported that the revelation came in a letter dated November 30, 2006 from Acting Associate Attorney General [[James H. Clinger]] to Chairman [[Arlen Specter]], which stated: "At this time, the FBI is not seeking to reclaim any documents." The AP reported that Anderson's son and his biographer said agents had expressed interest in documents that would aid the government's case against two former lobbyists for the [[American Israel Public Affairs Committee]]. The family then arranged for the papers to go to George Washington University for archiving.[^30][^31][^32] When the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] asked under what law the FBI was proceeding, the Bureau replied that it had abandoned its effort. The Associated Press reported that the revelation came in a letter dated November 30, 2006 from Acting Associate Attorney General [[James H. Clinger]] to Chairman [[Arlen Specter]], which stated: "At this time, the FBI is not seeking to reclaim any documents." The AP reported that Anderson's son and his biographer said agents had expressed interest in documents that would aid the government's case against two former lobbyists for the [[American Israel Public Affairs Committee]]. The family then arranged for the papers to go to George Washington University for archiving.[^31][^32][^33]
In 2008 the FBI released its files on Anderson to the [[Associated Press]] under a Freedom of Information Act request, a collection of more than 2,000 heavily redacted documents tracing Hoover's attempts to catch the reporter. Feldstein planned to add the collection to the university's Anderson papers.[^33] In 2008 the FBI released its files on Anderson to the [[Associated Press]] under a Freedom of Information Act request, a collection of more than 2,000 heavily redacted documents tracing Hoover's attempts to catch the reporter. Feldstein planned to add the collection to the university's Anderson papers.[^30]
### Death ### Death
@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ Anderson died at his home in [[Bethesda, Maryland]] on December 17, 2005, at the
[^27]: National Security Archive, "The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer," Electronic Briefing Book No. 305, February 12, 2010, introduction. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb305/index.htm [^27]: National Security Archive, "The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer," Electronic Briefing Book No. 305, February 12, 2010, introduction. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb305/index.htm
[^28]: Steven Aftergood, "FBI Seeks Access to Jack Anderson Files," Federation of American Scientists, April 19, 2006. https://fas.org/publication/fbi_seeks_access_to_jack_ander [^28]: Steven Aftergood, "FBI Seeks Access to Jack Anderson Files," Federation of American Scientists, April 19, 2006. https://fas.org/publication/fbi_seeks_access_to_jack_ander
[^29]: David Folkenflik, "FBI Defends Request for Columnist's Papers," NPR, *All Things Considered*, April 20, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5353604 [^29]: David Folkenflik, "FBI Defends Request for Columnist's Papers," NPR, *All Things Considered*, April 20, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5353604
[^30]: "FBI Abandons Its Effort to Obtain Jack Anderson's Files," Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, January 4, 2007. https://rcfp.org/?p=39395 [^30]: Lauren French, "Gelman Library to receive FBI files on columnist Jack Anderson," *The GW Hatchet*, October 27, 2008. https://www.gwhatchet.com/2008/10/27/gelman-library-to-receive-fbi-files-on-columnist-jack-anderson/
[^31]: "FBI Drops Demands For Jack Anderson Papers," Associated Press, January 4, 2007. https://cbsnews.com/news/fbi-drops-demands-for-jack-anderson-papers [^31]: "FBI Abandons Its Effort to Obtain Jack Anderson's Files," Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, January 4, 2007. https://rcfp.org/?p=39395
[^32]: Niketa Kumar, "FBI ends pursuit of GW housed Jack Anderson documents," *The GW Hatchet*, January 18, 2007. https://www.gwhatchet.com/2007/01/18/fbi-ends-pursuit-of-gw-housed-jack-anderson-documents/ [^32]: "FBI Drops Demands For Jack Anderson Papers," Associated Press, January 4, 2007. https://cbsnews.com/news/fbi-drops-demands-for-jack-anderson-papers
[^33]: Lauren French, "Gelman Library to receive FBI files on columnist Jack Anderson," *The GW Hatchet*, October 27, 2008. https://www.gwhatchet.com/2008/10/27/gelman-library-to-receive-fbi-files-on-columnist-jack-anderson/ [^33]: Niketa Kumar, "FBI ends pursuit of GW housed Jack Anderson documents," *The GW Hatchet*, January 18, 2007. https://www.gwhatchet.com/2007/01/18/fbi-ends-pursuit-of-gw-housed-jack-anderson-documents/

4
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jack Blum.md
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@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ title: Jack Blum
aliases: aliases:
- Jack Blum - Jack Blum
created: 2026-05-17 created: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-10-14 updated: 2026-10-15
category: "Law Enforcement & Legal" category: "Law Enforcement & Legal"
tags: tags:
- Person - Person
@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ Jack Blum is a former Senate investigator and special counsel to [[Senator John
Blum began his career in Washington in 1965 after graduating from Columbia Law School, working as an investigator for Senator [[Phil Hart]]'s antitrust subcommittee. His work gained the attention of Senator [[J. W. Fulbright]], who moved him to the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]. By the mid-1970s, Blum had established himself as a counsel to Senator [[Frank Church]]'s subcommittee on multinational corporations.[^1] Blum began his career in Washington in 1965 after graduating from Columbia Law School, working as an investigator for Senator [[Phil Hart]]'s antitrust subcommittee. His work gained the attention of Senator [[J. W. Fulbright]], who moved him to the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]. By the mid-1970s, Blum had established himself as a counsel to Senator [[Frank Church]]'s subcommittee on multinational corporations.[^1]
His investigations during this period were far-reaching, contributing to the downfall of a Japanese government and the imprisonment of Japanese Prime Minister [[Kakuei Tanaka]] due to the [[Lockheed payoff scandals]]. He also played a key role in exposing [[ITT]]'s improper activities in [[Chile]], identifying [[Robert Vesco]] and the $3-billion global [[IOS (Investors' Overseas Services)|Ponzi scheme]] as central figures, and was a driving force behind the creation of the [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]]. Notably, his questioning led to the indictment of former [[Central Intelligence Agency]] Director [[Richard Helms]] for perjury.[^1] His investigations during this period were far-reaching, contributing to the downfall of a Japanese government and the imprisonment of Japanese Prime Minister [[Kakuei Tanaka]] due to the [[Lockheed bribe scandal|Lockheed payoff scandals]]. He also played a key role in exposing [[ITT]]'s improper activities in [[Chile]], identifying [[Robert Vesco]] and the $3-billion global [[IOS (Investors' Overseas Services)|Ponzi scheme]] as central figures, and was a driving force behind the creation of the [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]]. Notably, his questioning led to the indictment of former [[Central Intelligence Agency]] Director [[Richard Helms]] for perjury.[^1]
### Kerry Committee and Contra Drug Trafficking ### Kerry Committee and Contra Drug Trafficking

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/James Jesus Angleton.md
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@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ The CIA's Soviet division eventually concluded Nosenko was genuine. [[Tennent Ba
### HT/LINGUAL: Twenty-One Years of Illegal Mail Opening ### HT/LINGUAL: Twenty-One Years of Illegal Mail Opening
From 1952 to 1973, Angleton ran HT/LINGUAL, a covert CIA program that intercepted and opened first-class mail between the [[United States]] and the Soviet Union, operating from facilities at Idlewild (later JFK) Airport in [[New York]]. The program was illegal under the Fourth Amendment and Title 18 of the U.S. Code, which criminalized opening sealed mail without a warrant. From 1952 to 1973, Angleton ran HT/LINGUAL, a covert CIA program that intercepted and opened first-class mail between the [[United States]] and the Soviet Union, operating from facilities at Idlewild (later JFK) Airport in [[New York City|New York]]. The program was illegal under the Fourth Amendment and Title 18 of the U.S. Code, which criminalized opening sealed mail without a warrant.
Over its operation, HT/LINGUAL opened approximately 215,820 letters and photographed the exterior envelopes of nearly 2.7 million pieces of mail. Recipients and senders included U.S. senators, journalists, academics, and private citizens with no intelligence connection. [[Richard Helms]] was briefed and approved continuation on multiple occasions. The Postmaster General was kept uninformed or given misleading characterizations of the program's scope. CIA lawyers repeatedly warned the program was illegal; it continued anyway. Over its operation, HT/LINGUAL opened approximately 215,820 letters and photographed the exterior envelopes of nearly 2.7 million pieces of mail. Recipients and senders included U.S. senators, journalists, academics, and private citizens with no intelligence connection. [[Richard Helms]] was briefed and approved continuation on multiple occasions. The Postmaster General was kept uninformed or given misleading characterizations of the program's scope. CIA lawyers repeatedly warned the program was illegal; it continued anyway.

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jeffrey Epstein.md
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@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ relations:
role: "state solicitation charges" role: "state solicitation charges"
fn: 34 fn: 34
- type: prosecuted - type: prosecuted
with: "[[Southern District of New York]]" with: "[[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York]]"
reverse: true reverse: true
start: 2019 start: 2019
end: 2019 end: 2019

5
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Joe Biden.md
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@ -12,7 +12,10 @@ location: "Scranton, Pennsylvania"
Joe Biden was a United States President and Senator from Delaware whose political career was closely tied to the [[DuPont]] family. Biden's first senatorial campaign was fully funded and staffed by DuPont employees in the early 1970s. His victory party was held and celebrated in a DuPont ballroom, and soon after his family moved into an old DuPont family mansion. As Biden put it himself in the 1980s, he prostituted himself to these people. When a member of the DuPont family raped his three-year-old daughter, Biden's son Beau as district attorney decided not to prosecute the case.[^1] Joe Biden was a United States President and Senator from Delaware whose political career was closely tied to the [[DuPont]] family. Biden's first senatorial campaign was fully funded and staffed by DuPont employees in the early 1970s. His victory party was held and celebrated in a DuPont ballroom, and soon after his family moved into an old DuPont family mansion. As Biden put it himself in the 1980s, he prostituted himself to these people. When a member of the DuPont family raped his three-year-old daughter, Biden's son Beau as district attorney decided not to prosecute the case.[^1]
The DuPont chemical firm maintained cartel arrangements with the Nazi chemicals conglomerate I.G. Farben throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Alfred P. Sloan was personally involved in the patent transfer of Ethyl lead to I.G. Farben during that period, a compound used to improve the engine efficiency of planes and automobiles. As late as 1938 Sloan had authorised the transfer of 500 tons of the stuff to the Luftwaffe. The DuPont-controlled [[Business Plot]] of 1934 was designed to relegate the Presidency to a purely ceremonial role like that played by Biden in 2023. The largest tank manufacturer in Nazi Germany was a wholly-owned subsidiary of [[General Motors]] called Opel, which persisted its operations under the GM umbrella throughout World War II where its factories had been mostly spared during Allied bombing raids.[^1] The DuPont chemical firm maintained cartel arrangements with the Nazi chemicals conglomerate I.G. Farben throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Alfred P. Sloan was personally involved in the patent transfer of Ethyl lead to I.G. Farben during that period, a compound used to improve the engine efficiency of planes and automobiles. As late as 1938 Sloan had authorised the transfer of 500 tons of the stuff to the Luftwaffe. The DuPont-controlled [[Business Plot]] of 1934 was designed to relegate the Presidency to a purely ceremonial role like that played by Biden in 2023. S. Dovey wrote in 2023 that the largest tank manufacturer in Nazi Germany was a wholly owned subsidiary of [[General Motors]] called Opel, which persisted its operations under the GM umbrella throughout World War II where its factories had been mostly spared during Allied bombing raids.[^1] General Motors' own 1974 correspondence states that the Nazi government took over the Opel works before the war and that American management was reassigned in the autumn of 1939.[^2] The Foreign Claims Settlement Commission recorded that Opel's main plant at Russelsheim "sustained severe war damage as a result of allied bombing raids in 1942 and 1944."[^3] A 1974 Senate report by [[Bradford C. Snell]] states, as quoted in a GM reply, that GM "was in complete management control of its Russelsheim war plane factory for nearly a full year after Germany's declaration of war against the United States on December 11, 1941."[^4]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar. [^1]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar.
[^2]: Copelin, Philip W., letter to Richard C. Gerstenberg, April 5, 1974, Exhibit 2, pp. 2386-2387; Mooney, Michael M., letter to Senator Philip A. Hart, Exhibit 3, p. 2388; *The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4, Ground Transportation Industries* (1974), https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
[^3]: Foreign Claims Settlement Commission of the United States, *Annual Report to the Congress for the Period January 1-December 31, 1967*, excerpt re General Motors Corporation and General Motors Overseas Corporation, Exhibit 9, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, p. 2396, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
[^4]: Stradella, C. G., letter to Richard C. Gerstenberg, April 10, 1974, Exhibit 4, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, pp. 2390-2392, quoting the Snell report, p. 22, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.

5
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/John Foster Dulles.md
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@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ born: 1888-02-25
died: 1959-05-24 died: 1959-05-24
location: "Washington, D.C." location: "Washington, D.C."
created: 2025-08-05 created: 2025-08-05
updated: 2026-09-22 updated: 2026-10-15
relations: relations:
- type: member_of - type: member_of
role: "trustee" role: "trustee"
@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ John Foster Dulles served as the Secretary of State under President [[Dwight D.
John Foster Dulles was born on February 25, 1888, in Washington, D.C. He died on May 24, 1959, at [[Walter Reed Army Medical Center]], Washington, D.C., from colon cancer. Funeral services were held on May 27, 1959, at [[Washington National Cathedral]]. He is buried at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].[^bio1] John Foster Dulles was born on February 25, 1888, in Washington, D.C. He died on May 24, 1959, at [[Walter Reed Army Medical Center]], Washington, D.C., from colon cancer. Funeral services were held on May 27, 1959, at [[Washington National Cathedral]]. He is buried at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].[^bio1]
He graduated from [[Princeton University]] in 1908, a member of Phi Beta Kappa. As an undergraduate he attended the Second Hague Conference in 1907 with his grandfather [[John Watson Foster]], who had served as Secretary of State under President Benjamin Harrison. After a year at the [[Sorbonne]], he completed a law degree at [[George Washington University Law School]] in two years, graduating in 1911. He was admitted to the New York bar the same year and joined [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], then New York's preeminent international corporate law firm, where he would remain for over four decades.[^bio2] He graduated from [[Princeton University]] in 1908, a member of Phi Beta Kappa. As an undergraduate he attended the Second Hague Conference in 1907 with his grandfather [[John Watson Foster]], who had served as Secretary of State under President Benjamin Harrison. After a year at the [[Sorbonne]], he completed a law degree at [[George Washington University Law School]] in two years, graduating in 1911.[^mc016] He was admitted to the New York bar the same year and joined [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], then New York's preeminent international corporate law firm, where he would remain for over four decades.[^bio2]
At the [[Paris Peace Conference]] of 1919, Dulles served as chief legal adviser to [[Bernard Baruch]] on the [[Reparations Commission]], drafting treaty clauses that sought to limit German compensation obligations. He predicted the punishing reparations imposed by the European powers would produce another war. Baruch later paid Dulles $10,000 to ghostwrite his account of the negotiations, *The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections of the Treaty*.[^bio3] At the [[Paris Peace Conference]] of 1919, Dulles served as chief legal adviser to [[Bernard Baruch]] on the [[Reparations Commission]], drafting treaty clauses that sought to limit German compensation obligations. He predicted the punishing reparations imposed by the European powers would produce another war. Baruch later paid Dulles $10,000 to ghostwrite his account of the negotiations, *The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections of the Treaty*.[^bio3]
@ -121,3 +121,4 @@ The FRUS volume *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala* (
[^arch1]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, "John Foster Dulles Papers: Scope and Content Note," finding aid, Abilene, Kansas, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/scope-and-content.pdf. Telephone Conversations Series finding aid, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/telephone-conversations-series.pdf. [^arch1]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, "John Foster Dulles Papers: Scope and Content Note," finding aid, Abilene, Kansas, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/scope-and-content.pdf. Telephone Conversations Series finding aid, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/telephone-conversations-series.pdf.
[^arch2]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala*, ed. Susan Holly (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003), 287 documents, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran*, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran. [^arch2]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala*, ed. Susan Holly (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003), 287 documents, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran*, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran.
[^rfar]: The Rockefeller Foundation. *Annual Report 1951,* "President's Review," pp. 95-96, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1951; *Annual Report 1952,* "President's Review," https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1952; *Annual Report 1960,* on Rusk's resignation, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1960; *Annual Report 1935,* list of trustees, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1935. The 1947 report lists Walter W. Stewart as chairman of the board, with Dulles a trustee, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1947. [^rfar]: The Rockefeller Foundation. *Annual Report 1951,* "President's Review," pp. 95-96, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1951; *Annual Report 1952,* "President's Review," https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1952; *Annual Report 1960,* on Rusk's resignation, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1960; *Annual Report 1935,* list of trustees, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1935. The 1947 report lists Walter W. Stewart as chairman of the board, with Dulles a trustee, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1947.
[^mc016]: Princeton University Library, John Foster Dulles papers, Mudd Manuscript Library, finding aid MC016, biographical note (LL.B., George Washington University Law School, 1911; Sullivan and Cromwell 1911 to 1949; secretary to his grandfather John Watson Foster at the Second Hague Conference, 1907). https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC016

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Kamal Adham.md
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@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ Adham was the CIA's principal liaison for the Middle East from the mid-1960s thr
### Intelligence Background ### Intelligence Background
The Senate report recorded that the CIA, asked about the CCAH shareholders, told the Federal Reserve it had no derogatory information on them, without telling it that Adham and Abdul Raouf Khalil were "the past and then-current Saudi intelligence liaisons to the United States," or that Adham and Fulaij had been the subject of a Securities and Exchange Commission inquiry under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act into arms sales to Saudi Arabia by Boeing and [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]]. Paul Volcker, who as chairman of the Federal Reserve signed the 1981 approval, testified in 1991 that he "wasn't aware" of Adham's intelligence background and that it "might send an eyebrow or two up." The Virginia bank regulator Sidney Bailey asked the [[State Department]] and the CIA for information on the shareholders and received none; "at the time," the report found, "the CIA knew precisely who Adham was."[^17][^23] The Senate report recorded that the CIA, asked about the CCAH shareholders, told the Federal Reserve it had no derogatory information on them, without telling it that Adham and Abdul Raouf Khalil were "the past and then-current Saudi intelligence liaisons to the United States," or that Adham and Fulaij had been the subject of a Securities and Exchange Commission inquiry under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act into arms sales to Saudi Arabia by Boeing and [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]]. Paul Volcker, who as chairman of the Federal Reserve signed the 1981 approval, testified in 1991 that he "wasn't aware" of Adham's intelligence background and that it "might send an eyebrow or two up." The Virginia bank regulator Sidney Bailey asked the [[State Department]] and the CIA for information on the shareholders and received none; "at the time," the report found, "the CIA knew precisely who Adham was."[^17][^23]
### Plea ### Plea

4
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Kit Green.md
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@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ aliases:
- Christopher Canfield Green - Christopher Canfield Green
- Richard Kennett - Richard Kennett
created: 2026-05-17 created: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-10-05 updated: 2026-10-15
category: "Intelligence & Government" category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags: tags:
- Person - Person
@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ His later General Motors positions, as listed in the CV, were director of resear
The same CV lists Army and academy advisory service: member of the Army Science Board, 1985 to 1995; member of the National Research Council's Board on Army Science and Technology from 1988, with the CV giving chairmanships of the board as 1990 to 1999 in one entry and 1997 to 1999 in another; chairman of the Committee on Biotechnology in the Year 2020 (STAR/BAST), 1989 to 1992; chairman of an Independent Science Panel in the Office of the Undersecretary of the Army, Operations Research, from 1989; member of the Air Force Studies Board (1995 to 1997); member of the Institute of Medicine commission on Persian Gulf mystery illness (1998); and scientific advisor to the CIA's Directorate of Intelligence and to the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. It also lists chairmanship of the Science Advisory Board of the [[National Institute for Discovery Science]] (1995 to 1999), membership of the Committee for Frontier Medicine of the [[Fetzer Institute]] (1995 to 1998), and, among current clients in 2007, the Department of Defense, the CIA, the Defense Intelligence Agency, General Motors, Ford, the Fetzer Institute, the [[Institute for Advanced Physics]], [[EarthTech International]] and the [[Potomac Institute for Policy Studies]].[^6] The same CV lists Army and academy advisory service: member of the Army Science Board, 1985 to 1995; member of the National Research Council's Board on Army Science and Technology from 1988, with the CV giving chairmanships of the board as 1990 to 1999 in one entry and 1997 to 1999 in another; chairman of the Committee on Biotechnology in the Year 2020 (STAR/BAST), 1989 to 1992; chairman of an Independent Science Panel in the Office of the Undersecretary of the Army, Operations Research, from 1989; member of the Air Force Studies Board (1995 to 1997); member of the Institute of Medicine commission on Persian Gulf mystery illness (1998); and scientific advisor to the CIA's Directorate of Intelligence and to the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. It also lists chairmanship of the Science Advisory Board of the [[National Institute for Discovery Science]] (1995 to 1999), membership of the Committee for Frontier Medicine of the [[Fetzer Institute]] (1995 to 1998), and, among current clients in 2007, the Department of Defense, the CIA, the Defense Intelligence Agency, General Motors, Ford, the Fetzer Institute, the [[Institute for Advanced Physics]], [[EarthTech International]] and the [[Potomac Institute for Policy Studies]].[^6]
The report *STAR 21* (National Academy Press, 1992) of the Board on Army Science and Technology lists Green, of General Motors Research Labs, as lead expert of the Biotechnology and Biochemistry Technology Group, with Joseph F. Soukup of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], Bertram W. Maidment Jr. of the Midwest Research Institute and Gregory A. Petsko of [[Brandeis University]], and as one of the members of the Study Committee on STAR chaired by Walter B. LaBerge, formerly of [[Lockheed Corporation]].[^10] The report *STAR 21* (National Academy Press, 1992) of the Board on Army Science and Technology lists Green, of General Motors Research Labs, as lead expert of the Biotechnology and Biochemistry Technology Group, with Joseph F. Soukup of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], Bertram W. Maidment Jr. of the Midwest Research Institute and Gregory A. Petsko of [[Brandeis University]], and as one of the members of the Study Committee on STAR chaired by Walter B. LaBerge, formerly of [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed Corporation]].[^10]
### UFO-Related Contacts, 1986 to 1997 ### UFO-Related Contacts, 1986 to 1997

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Leon Black.md
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@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ In 2021 Guzel Ganieva, a Russian former model, publicly accused Black of years o
In November 2022 [[Cheri Pierson]], a [[New Jersey]] woman represented by the [[Wigdor]] law firm, sued Black and Epstein's estate under her own name in New York State Supreme Court in Manhattan, alleging that Black assaulted her in early 2002 at Epstein's townhouse after Epstein arranged for her to give Black a massage. The suit was discontinued with prejudice in February 2024 without any payment by Black, who said, "I have never met Ms. Pierson."[^22][^23] In November 2022 [[Cheri Pierson]], a [[New Jersey]] woman represented by the [[Wigdor]] law firm, sued Black and Epstein's estate under her own name in New York State Supreme Court in Manhattan, alleging that Black assaulted her in early 2002 at Epstein's townhouse after Epstein arranged for her to give Black a massage. The suit was discontinued with prejudice in February 2024 without any payment by Black, who said, "I have never met Ms. Pierson."[^22][^23]
A separate federal lawsuit, Doe v. Black, No. 1:23-cv-06418 in the [[Southern District of New York]], filed by Wigdor in July 2023, alleged that Black had raped a then-16-year-old girl with autism at Epstein's Manhattan townhouse in 2002. Black's lawyer, [[Susan Estrich]], said Black had never met the accuser and called the suit a fabrication by Wigdor. In April 2025 Wigdor asked to withdraw as the plaintiff's counsel days before a hearing on whether it should be sanctioned, and Judge [[Jessica Clarke]] granted the request. Black has denied every allegation of sexual misconduct.[^22][^24] A separate federal lawsuit, Doe v. Black, No. 1:23-cv-06418 in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], filed by Wigdor in July 2023, alleged that Black had raped a then-16-year-old girl with autism at Epstein's Manhattan townhouse in 2002. Black's lawyer, [[Susan Estrich]], said Black had never met the accuser and called the suit a fabrication by Wigdor. In April 2025 Wigdor asked to withdraw as the plaintiff's counsel days before a hearing on whether it should be sanctioned, and Judge [[Jessica Clarke]] granted the request. Black has denied every allegation of sexual misconduct.[^22][^24]
### The Virgin Islands Settlement ### The Virgin Islands Settlement

37
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Nicholas J. Bua.md
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@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
--- ---
category: "Law Enforcement & Legal" category: "Law Enforcement & Legal"
created: 2024-04-25 created: 2024-04-25
updated: 2026-10-09 updated: 2026-10-15
tags: tags:
- Person - Person
- PROMIS - PROMIS
@ -207,25 +207,25 @@ Danny Casolaro, a self-styled free-lance author and investigative reporter, inve
The report found "nothing unusual" in DOJ's decision not to investigate a private citizen's death, which it described as a state or local matter. It found no evidence of federal government influence on the local investigation. "[T]he physical evidence in Casolaro's hotel room strongly supports the conclusion of the local authorities that the death was a suicide." That evidence included no sign of forced entry or struggle, a note found in the room, and the absence of footprints or other evidence that others were present when the wrists were slashed.[^83] The tests and analyses cited were handwriting analysis confirming that Casolaro wrote the note; fingerprint analysis finding his prints and no others except a single print on an ash tray; hair and fiber analysis; a blood analysis by Dr. Lee of the Connecticut State Police Forensic Science Laboratory consistent with suicide; and an autopsy that found hemorrhage from the wrist wounds as the cause of death and no evidence that he was unconscious or debilitated when cut.[^84] The report found "nothing unusual" in DOJ's decision not to investigate a private citizen's death, which it described as a state or local matter. It found no evidence of federal government influence on the local investigation. "[T]he physical evidence in Casolaro's hotel room strongly supports the conclusion of the local authorities that the death was a suicide." That evidence included no sign of forced entry or struggle, a note found in the room, and the absence of footprints or other evidence that others were present when the wrists were slashed.[^83] The tests and analyses cited were handwriting analysis confirming that Casolaro wrote the note; fingerprint analysis finding his prints and no others except a single print on an ash tray; hair and fiber analysis; a blood analysis by Dr. Lee of the Connecticut State Police Forensic Science Laboratory consistent with suicide; and an autopsy that found hemorrhage from the wrist wounds as the cause of death and no evidence that he was unconscious or debilitated when cut.[^84]
The report stated, as the fifth of its points, that "there was ample reason to believe Casolaro had a motive to commit suicide." It noted that he had been unemployed for months, was dependent on financial assistance from his family, faced a balloon mortgage on his home, and had been told shortly before his death by a prospective publisher that it would not advance him any money on his proposed book about the "Octopus."[^85] The report also noted that [[James E. Starr]], a professor of law and forensic sciences at George Washington University, reportedly reached the same opinion in an independent review of the autopsy. It addressed criticisms that the room was not sealed, that notification of next of kin was delayed while the body was embalmed, and that Martinsburg authorities gave insufficient weight to suspicions about Casolaro's "sources," and stated that "no credible evidence suggested that any of Casolaro's 'sources' played any role in his death."[^86] The report stated, as the fifth of its points, that "there was ample reason to believe Casolaro had a motive to commit suicide." It noted that he had been unemployed for months, was dependent on financial assistance from his family, faced a balloon mortgage on his home, and had been told shortly before his death by a prospective publisher that it would not advance him any money on his proposed book about the "Octopus."[^85] The report also noted that [[James E. Starrs]], a professor of law and forensic sciences at [[George Washington University]], reportedly reached the same opinion in an independent review of the autopsy.[^86] It addressed criticisms that the room was not sealed, that notification of next of kin was delayed while the body was embalmed, and that Martinsburg authorities gave insufficient weight to suspicions about Casolaro's "sources," and stated that "no credible evidence suggested that any of Casolaro's 'sources' played any role in his death."[^87]
### House Judiciary Committee report, 1992 ### House Judiciary Committee report, 1992
The House Committee on the Judiciary issued "The INSLAW Affair" as House Report 102-857 on September 10, 1992, under Chairman [[Jack Brooks]].[^87] The committee's report described the Department's handling of the matter in terms that stand against the Bua report's conclusions. It wrote that Attorneys General Meese and [[Dick Thornburgh]] "blocked or restricted congressional inquiries into the matter, ignored the findings of two courts and refused to ask for the appointment of an independent counsel."[^8] The House Committee on the Judiciary issued "The INSLAW Affair" as House Report 102-857 on September 10, 1992, under Chairman [[Jack Brooks]].[^88] The committee's report described the Department's handling of the matter in terms that stand against the Bua report's conclusions. It wrote that Attorneys General Meese and [[Dick Thornburgh]] "blocked or restricted congressional inquiries into the matter, ignored the findings of two courts and refused to ask for the appointment of an independent counsel."[^8]
The committee wrote that it had "no reason to doubt the commitment of Judge Bua or Attorney General Barr to do a thorough investigation of this matter," but that "as long as the investigation of wrongdoing by former and current high level Justice officials remains under the control of the Department, there will always be serious doubt about the objectivity and thoroughness of the work." The committee's position was that "the only way the INSLAW allegations can be adequately and fully investigated is by the appointment of an independent counsel," and that the independent counsel should investigate all matters related to the allegations, "including Mr. Casolaro's death and its possible link to individuals associated with organized crime."[^8] On Casolaro, the committee wrote that it had not included the death in its formal investigation, that local authorities had ruled it a suicide a second time on January 25, 1992, after more than 1,000 man-hours, and that the controversy continued to be discussed in the press and the Martinsburg Police Department's investigation had been criticized.[^88] The committee wrote that it had "no reason to doubt the commitment of Judge Bua or Attorney General Barr to do a thorough investigation of this matter," but that "as long as the investigation of wrongdoing by former and current high level Justice officials remains under the control of the Department, there will always be serious doubt about the objectivity and thoroughness of the work." The committee's position was that "the only way the INSLAW allegations can be adequately and fully investigated is by the appointment of an independent counsel," and that the independent counsel should investigate all matters related to the allegations, "including Mr. Casolaro's death and its possible link to individuals associated with organized crime."[^8] On Casolaro, the committee wrote that it had not included the death in its formal investigation, that local authorities had ruled it a suicide a second time on January 25, 1992, after more than 1,000 man-hours, and that the controversy continued to be discussed in the press and the Martinsburg Police Department's investigation had been criticized.[^89]
### DOJ review, September 1994 ### DOJ review, September 1994
Reno ordered a senior-level Justice Department review of Bua's report and of INSLAW's analysis of it, including INSLAW's July 12, 1993, "Analysis and Rebuttal of the Bua Report" and its February 14, 1994, Addendum. The review was issued on September 27, 1994, with the Bua report attached as Addendum A.[^89] Its summary recommended that the Attorney General "adopt the Special Counsel's report in its entirety," along with specified conclusions that the review described as "fully supported by the available evidence."[^90] Reno ordered a senior-level Justice Department review of Bua's report and of INSLAW's analysis of it, including INSLAW's July 12, 1993, "Analysis and Rebuttal of the Bua Report" and its February 14, 1994, Addendum. The review was issued on September 27, 1994, with the Bua report attached as Addendum A.[^90] Its summary recommended that the Attorney General "adopt the Special Counsel's report in its entirety," along with specified conclusions that the review described as "fully supported by the available evidence."[^91]
The review restated that there was no credible evidence of a conspiracy with anyone to steal PROMIS or to injure Inslaw. It found no credible evidence that the [[Office of Special Investigations]] was engaged in covert intelligence activities, in illegal trafficking of PROMIS software, or in the death of Casolaro. It stated that the Martinsburg conclusion that Casolaro's death was a suicide "is fully supported by the facts surrounding his death," and that there was "no credible evidence that Mr. Casolaro was murdered."[^90] The review devoted pp. 107 to 168 to Casolaro's death, covering the death scene, hotel employees, coroner, embalming, notification of next of kin, autopsy, further police investigation and the review's own interviews.[^91] The review restated that there was no credible evidence of a conspiracy with anyone to steal PROMIS or to injure Inslaw. It found no credible evidence that the [[Office of Special Investigations]] was engaged in covert intelligence activities, in illegal trafficking of PROMIS software, or in the death of Casolaro. It stated that the Martinsburg conclusion that Casolaro's death was a suicide "is fully supported by the facts surrounding his death," and that there was "no credible evidence that Mr. Casolaro was murdered."[^91] The review devoted pp. 107 to 168 to Casolaro's death, covering the death scene, hotel employees, coroner, embalming, notification of next of kin, autopsy, further police investigation and the review's own interviews.[^92]
The review found "no basis for the appointment of an independent prosecutor" and recommended against waiving statutory time bars on INSLAW's monetary claims. It recommended that the Attorney General "take those steps necessary to bring this entire affair to closure from the Department's perspective," and wrote that the Special Counsel concluded, and the review concurred, that virtually all of the allegations "were based on nothing more than uncorroborated conjecture, on hearsay information from anonymous sources or on information received from patently unreliable sources."[^92] The review found "no basis for the appointment of an independent prosecutor" and recommended against waiving statutory time bars on INSLAW's monetary claims. It recommended that the Attorney General "take those steps necessary to bring this entire affair to closure from the Department's perspective," and wrote that the Special Counsel concluded, and the review concurred, that virtually all of the allegations "were based on nothing more than uncorroborated conjecture, on hearsay information from anonymous sources or on information received from patently unreliable sources."[^93]
On the Johnson contact, the review wrote that Johnson had at first failed to recall the contact with Lamberth. It stated that Lamberth had already been nominated to the federal bench when he was sworn in on November 16, 1987, and it concurred "with the opinion of the Special Counsel that there is no evidence of any effort by the Justice Department to improperly influence the bankruptcy judge selection process."[^93] On the Johnson contact, the review wrote that Johnson had at first failed to recall the contact with Lamberth. It stated that Lamberth had already been nominated to the federal bench when he was sworn in on November 16, 1987, and it concurred "with the opinion of the Special Counsel that there is no evidence of any effort by the Justice Department to improperly influence the bankruptcy judge selection process."[^94]
On May 3, 1995, by S. Res. 114, the Senate referred S. 740, a bill for the relief of INSLAW, to the Chief Judge of the Court of Federal Claims as Congressional Reference No. 95-338X, and Hearing Officer [[Christine Odell Cook Miller|Christine Cook Miller]] described the two Justice Department inquiries as the "Bua and Dwyer investigations": Bua's investigation on behalf of Barr, and a second investigation, in response to INSLAW's criticisms of Bua's report, that Reno asked the Assistant Associate Attorney General to undertake.[^44] Miller's report of July 31, 1997, was reviewed by a panel of the court, whose report is dated May 11, 1998.[^94] On May 3, 1995, by S. Res. 114, the Senate referred S. 740, a bill for the relief of INSLAW, to the Chief Judge of the Court of Federal Claims as Congressional Reference No. 95-338X, and Hearing Officer [[Christine Odell Cook Miller|Christine Cook Miller]] described the two Justice Department inquiries as the "Bua and Dwyer investigations": Bua's investigation on behalf of Barr, and a second investigation, in response to INSLAW's criticisms of Bua's report, that Reno asked the Assistant Associate Attorney General to undertake.[^44] Miller's report of July 31, 1997, was reviewed by a panel of the court, whose report is dated May 11, 1998.[^95]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -314,12 +314,13 @@ On May 3, 1995, by S. Res. 114, the Senate referred S. 740, a bill for the relie
[^83]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, p. 247. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^83]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, p. 247. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^84]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, pp. 247-248. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^84]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, pp. 247-248. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^85]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, p. 248. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^85]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, p. 248. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^86]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, pp. 249-250. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^86]: U.S. Department of Justice, *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.*, March 1993, p. 126 note 4, naming "Professor James E. Starrs, a noted forensic pathology expert at the George Washington University law school" (citing *Washington Business Journal*, November 9-15, 1992, p. 13); the conclusion at pp. 248-250 prints the surname as "Starr." https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^87]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary. *The INSLAW Affair.* H. Rept. 102-857, 102d Cong., 2d sess., September 10, 1992, title page. [^87]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* March 1993, pp. 249-250. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^88]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary. *The INSLAW Affair.* H. Rept. 102-857, 102d Cong., 2d sess., September 10, 1992, pp. 69-72, Part IV.C.1. [^88]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary. *The INSLAW Affair.* H. Rept. 102-857, 102d Cong., 2d sess., September 10, 1992, title page.
[^89]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc.* September 27, 1994, pp. 1-4. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^89]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary. *The INSLAW Affair.* H. Rept. 102-857, 102d Cong., 2d sess., September 10, 1992, pp. 69-72, Part IV.C.1.
[^90]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc.* September 27, 1994, pp. 7-9, III. Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^90]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc.* September 27, 1994, pp. 1-4. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^91]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc.* September 27, 1994, pp. 107-168, V. The Weight of the Evidence Indicates That J. Daniel Casolaro Committed Suicide. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^91]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc.* September 27, 1994, pp. 7-9, III. Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^92]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc.* September 27, 1994, pp. 9-10, III. Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^92]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc.* September 27, 1994, pp. 107-168, V. The Weight of the Evidence Indicates That J. Daniel Casolaro Committed Suicide. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^93]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc.* September 27, 1994, pp. 101-102. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993 [^93]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc.* September 27, 1994, pp. 9-10, III. Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^94]: U.S. Court of Federal Claims. *INSLAW, Inc. v. United States*, No. 95-338X, Report of the Review Panel, May 11, 1998, 40 Fed. Cl. 843. https://static.case.law/fed-cl/40/cases/0843-01.json [^94]: U.S. Department of Justice. *Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc.* September 27, 1994, pp. 101-102. https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
[^95]: U.S. Court of Federal Claims. *INSLAW, Inc. v. United States*, No. 95-338X, Report of the Review Panel, May 11, 1998, 40 Fed. Cl. 843. https://static.case.law/fed-cl/40/cases/0843-01.json

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Nick Beckstead.md
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@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ Knutsson wrote in 2019 that Beckstead "was one of the grant investigators for th
On November 19, 2022 the charity reported to the [[Charity Commission for England and Wales|Charity Commission]] that FTX and affiliated entities, among its funders, had filed for bankruptcy, that it held 3.3 million pounds and 300,000 dollars in funding from them, and that two of its trustees were connected with FTX, one as chief executive of the FTX Foundation and the other as an unpaid adviser to the Future Fund. The Commission opened a statutory inquiry on December 19, 2022. Its report, published May 22, 2024, does not name the trustees. It records that the charity ringfenced the funds, obtained a defence against money laundering from the [[National Crime Agency]], and returned 4,246,503.16 dollars to FTX under a settlement; that the two FTX-connected trustees had been excluded from decisions on the bankruptcy and resigned during the inquiry; that their connections had produced "a lack of clarity as to whether they were acting for the charity or on behalf of FTX Foundation at any given time"; that trustees had not been required to disclose potential conflicts on joining the board until October 2022; and that there was nonetheless no evidence of unmanaged conflicts regarding funds received from the FTX Foundation.[^9] On November 19, 2022 the charity reported to the [[Charity Commission for England and Wales|Charity Commission]] that FTX and affiliated entities, among its funders, had filed for bankruptcy, that it held 3.3 million pounds and 300,000 dollars in funding from them, and that two of its trustees were connected with FTX, one as chief executive of the FTX Foundation and the other as an unpaid adviser to the Future Fund. The Commission opened a statutory inquiry on December 19, 2022. Its report, published May 22, 2024, does not name the trustees. It records that the charity ringfenced the funds, obtained a defence against money laundering from the [[National Crime Agency]], and returned 4,246,503.16 dollars to FTX under a settlement; that the two FTX-connected trustees had been excluded from decisions on the bankruptcy and resigned during the inquiry; that their connections had produced "a lack of clarity as to whether they were acting for the charity or on behalf of FTX Foundation at any given time"; that trustees had not been required to disclose potential conflicts on joining the board until October 2022; and that there was nonetheless no evidence of unmanaged conflicts regarding funds received from the FTX Foundation.[^9]
*[[Civil Society]]* reported in April 2024, citing the charity's accounts, that Effective Ventures Foundation bought [[Wytham Abbey]], near [[Oxford]], in April 2022 after receiving 17 million pounds from Open Philanthropy to support the purchase.[^10] *[[Third Sector]]* reported on February 18, 2026 that the charity had paid almost 15 million pounds for the abbey, recorded an impairment loss of 8.6 million pounds as of June 30, 2025, and sold it to an unnamed buyer for 6 million pounds in November 2025.[^11] The charity's announcement of March 25, 2024 stated that the Wytham Abbey Project had not met "the funding bar of our major funders" and that the board had decided to sell the property; an update of November 11, 2025 recorded completion of the sale.[^12] Beckstead was recorded as a director of the charity from July 2021 through the purchase and until August 2023.[^1] *[[Civil Society]]* reported in April 2024, citing the charity's accounts, that Effective Ventures Foundation bought [[Wytham Abbey]], near [[Oxford, England|Oxford]], in April 2022 after receiving 17 million pounds from Open Philanthropy to support the purchase.[^10] *[[Third Sector]]* reported on February 18, 2026 that the charity had paid almost 15 million pounds for the abbey, recorded an impairment loss of 8.6 million pounds as of June 30, 2025, and sold it to an unnamed buyer for 6 million pounds in November 2025.[^11] The charity's announcement of March 25, 2024 stated that the Wytham Abbey Project had not met "the funding bar of our major funders" and that the board had decided to sell the property; an update of November 11, 2025 recorded completion of the sale.[^12] Beckstead was recorded as a director of the charity from July 2021 through the purchase and until August 2023.[^1]
### The FTX Foundation ### The FTX Foundation

4
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Richard Bissell.md
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@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ aliases:
- Dick Bissell - Dick Bissell
- Richard Bissell Jr. - Richard Bissell Jr.
created: 2026-05-15 created: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-10-09 updated: 2026-10-15
category: "Intelligence & Government" category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags: tags:
- Person - Person
@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ His first association with the agency came in late 1953 with a contract study of
### The U-2 and the Development Projects Staff ### The U-2 and the Development Projects Staff
On November 26, 1954 Dulles told Bissell that [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] had approved a secret program and that Bissell was to run it; on December 3 Bissell and Herbert Miller of the Office of Scientific Intelligence went to the Pentagon for the first interagency meeting. Dulles had no answer to the questions who would run the project or pay for it ("You'll have to work that out"). Bissell built a self-sufficient project staff, Project AQUATONE, with its own contracting, finance, logistics, communications and security personnel and funds kept separate from the agency's regular accounts, and reported directly to the DCI, though the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, General [[Charles Pearre Cabell]], supervised its daily affairs. On April 29, 1955 he signed an agreement with the [[U.S. Air Force]] and, to keep work moving at [[Lockheed]], wrote Kelly Johnson's company an advance check. The first test flight was in August 1955.[^1] On November 26, 1954 Dulles told Bissell that [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] had approved a secret program and that Bissell was to run it; on December 3 Bissell and Herbert Miller of the Office of Scientific Intelligence went to the Pentagon for the first interagency meeting. Dulles had no answer to the questions who would run the project or pay for it ("You'll have to work that out"). Bissell built a self-sufficient project staff, Project AQUATONE, with its own contracting, finance, logistics, communications and security personnel and funds kept separate from the agency's regular accounts, and reported directly to the DCI, though the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, General [[Charles Pearre Cabell]], supervised its daily affairs. On April 29, 1955 he signed an agreement with the [[U.S. Air Force]] and, to keep work moving at [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]], wrote Kelly Johnson's company an advance check. The first test flight was in August 1955.[^1]
The first flights over the Soviet Union began on Wednesday, July 4, 1956 (a June 20, 1956 mission had covered Poland and East Germany). Bissell gave the "Go" decision at the project headquarters just before midnight Washington time on July 3. When Dulles asked on July 5 whether the overflights of Moscow and Leningrad had been wise the first time, Bissell replied: "Allen, the first is the safest." The program continued, with Bissell bringing maps of proposed routes to Eisenhower in the Oval Office, until [[Francis Gary Powers]] was shot down near Sverdlovsk on May 1, 1960; the Paris summit that opened on May 16 ended when Eisenhower refused [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s demand for an apology.[^1] The first flights over the Soviet Union began on Wednesday, July 4, 1956 (a June 20, 1956 mission had covered Poland and East Germany). Bissell gave the "Go" decision at the project headquarters just before midnight Washington time on July 3. When Dulles asked on July 5 whether the overflights of Moscow and Leningrad had been wise the first time, Bissell replied: "Allen, the first is the safest." The program continued, with Bissell bringing maps of proposed routes to Eisenhower in the Oval Office, until [[Francis Gary Powers]] was shot down near Sverdlovsk on May 1, 1960; the Paris summit that opened on May 16 ended when Eisenhower refused [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s demand for an apology.[^1]

9
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Richard M. Berman.md
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@ -43,9 +43,9 @@ relations:
with: "[[United States v. Halkbank]]" with: "[[United States v. Halkbank]]"
role: "presiding judge" role: "presiding judge"
start: 2019 start: 2019
fn: 9 fn: 10
created: 2026-09-25 created: 2026-09-25
updated: 2026-09-25 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Richard M. Berman (born 1943, in [[New York City]]) is a senior judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]], appointed by [[Bill Clinton]] in 1998. He presided over [[United States v. Epstein]], the 2019 sex-trafficking indictment of [[Jeffrey Epstein]], ordering Epstein detained on July 18, 2019 and, after Epstein's death in federal custody, holding a public hearing on August 27, 2019 at which victims spoke before he dismissed the indictment. In 2025 he first refused and then, after the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]], granted the government's motions to unseal the case's grand jury record. He also presided over the Iran-sanctions prosecution of the Turkish state-owned bank [[Halkbank]]. He is not related to [[Geoffrey Berman]], the U.S. Attorney whose office brought the Epstein case.[^1][^2][^3] Richard M. Berman (born 1943, in [[New York City]]) is a senior judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]], appointed by [[Bill Clinton]] in 1998. He presided over [[United States v. Epstein]], the 2019 sex-trafficking indictment of [[Jeffrey Epstein]], ordering Epstein detained on July 18, 2019 and, after Epstein's death in federal custody, holding a public hearing on August 27, 2019 at which victims spoke before he dismissed the indictment. In 2025 he first refused and then, after the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]], granted the government's motions to unseal the case's grand jury record. He also presided over the Iran-sanctions prosecution of the Turkish state-owned bank [[Halkbank]]. He is not related to [[Geoffrey Berman]], the U.S. Attorney whose office brought the Epstein case.[^1][^2][^3]
@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ After the Epstein Files Transparency Act became law, the government renewed its
### Halkbank ### Halkbank
In 2019 the [[United States]] indicted Türkiye Halk Bankası, a bank majority-owned through the Turkish Wealth Fund by the Republic of [[Turkey]], for a multi-year conspiracy to evade sanctions on [[Iran]]; the indictment alleged that the bank, "with the assistance of high-ranking Turkish government officials, laundered billions of dollars of Iranian oil and gas proceeds through the global financial system." The prosecution proceeded before Berman in the case captioned United States v. Zarrab. On October 1, 2020 he denied Halkbank's motion to dismiss, reasoning that the [[Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act]] "does not appear to grant immunity in criminal proceedings." The Second Circuit affirmed on October 22, 2021 (16 F.4th 336), and on April 19, 2023 the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] held that the Act does not apply to criminal cases but remanded on common-law immunity, Justice [[Neil Gorsuch]] writing in partial dissent that the decision "overcomplicates the law for no good reason." The Second Circuit ruled again on October 22, 2024 (120 F.4th 41).[^9] In 2019 the [[United States]] indicted Türkiye Halk Bankası, a bank majority-owned through the Turkish Wealth Fund by the Republic of [[Turkey]], for a multi-year conspiracy to evade sanctions on [[Iran]]; the indictment alleged that the bank, "with the assistance of high-ranking Turkish government officials, laundered billions of dollars of Iranian oil and gas proceeds through the global financial system." The prosecution proceeded before Berman in the case captioned United States v. Zarrab. On October 1, 2020 he denied Halkbank's motion to dismiss, reasoning that the [[Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act]] "does not appear to grant immunity in criminal proceedings." The Second Circuit affirmed on October 22, 2021 (16 F.4th 336), and on April 19, 2023 the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], in an opinion by Justice [[Brett Kavanaugh]], held that the Act does not apply to criminal cases and remanded the common-law immunity question; Justice [[Neil Gorsuch]], joined by Justice [[Samuel Alito]], concurred in part and dissented in part, writing that the decision "overcomplicates the law for no good reason."[^9] The Second Circuit ruled again on October 22, 2024 (120 F.4th 41).[^10]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -88,4 +88,5 @@ In 2019 the [[United States]] indicted Türkiye Halk Bankası, a bank majority-o
[^6]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02733081, Court Records (CA Florida Holdings, LLC, Publisher of the Palm Beach Post v. Aronberg, No. 50-2019-CA-014681-XXXX-MB (Fla. 15th Cir. Ct. 2019)), appendix item 11, transcript of hearing, United States v. Jeffrey Epstein, 19 Cr. 490 (RMB) (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 27, 2019), beginning at EFTA02733613. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/Court%20Records/CA%20Florida%20Holdings%2C%20LLC%2C%20Publisher%20of%20the%20Palm%20Beach%20Post%20v.%20Aronberg%2C%20No.%2050-2019-CA-014681-XXXX-MB%20(Fla.%2015th%20Cir.%20Ct.%202019)/EFTA02733081.pdf [^6]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02733081, Court Records (CA Florida Holdings, LLC, Publisher of the Palm Beach Post v. Aronberg, No. 50-2019-CA-014681-XXXX-MB (Fla. 15th Cir. Ct. 2019)), appendix item 11, transcript of hearing, United States v. Jeffrey Epstein, 19 Cr. 490 (RMB) (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 27, 2019), beginning at EFTA02733613. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/Court%20Records/CA%20Florida%20Holdings%2C%20LLC%2C%20Publisher%20of%20the%20Palm%20Beach%20Post%20v.%20Aronberg%2C%20No.%2050-2019-CA-014681-XXXX-MB%20(Fla.%2015th%20Cir.%20Ct.%202019)/EFTA02733081.pdf
[^7]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02810827, Court Records (Government of the United States Virgin Islands v. JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., No. 1:22-cv-10904), Expert Report of Jorge Amador, June 16, 2023, Document 238-31, n. 53. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/Court%20Records/Government%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Virgin%20Islands%20v.%20JPMorgan%20Chase%20Bank%2C%20N.A.%2C%20No.%20122-cv-10904%20(S.D.N.Y.%202022)/EFTA02810827.pdf [^7]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02810827, Court Records (Government of the United States Virgin Islands v. JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., No. 1:22-cv-10904), Expert Report of Jorge Amador, June 16, 2023, Document 238-31, n. 53. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/Court%20Records/Government%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Virgin%20Islands%20v.%20JPMorgan%20Chase%20Bank%2C%20N.A.%2C%20No.%20122-cv-10904%20(S.D.N.Y.%202022)/EFTA02810827.pdf
[^8]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00030338, DataSet 8, internal U.S. Attorney's Office email chain, "RE: The Prince and the Proffer | New York Law Journal," May 6, 2020. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%208/EFTA00030338.pdf ; duplicate at EFTA00018735. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%208/EFTA00018735.pdf [^8]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00030338, DataSet 8, internal U.S. Attorney's Office email chain, "RE: The Prince and the Proffer | New York Law Journal," May 6, 2020. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%208/EFTA00030338.pdf ; duplicate at EFTA00018735. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%208/EFTA00018735.pdf
[^9]: Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S. v. United States, No. 21-1450, 598 U.S. 264 (April 19, 2023), slip op. at 1-3, and Gorsuch, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/21-1450_5468.pdf ; United States v. Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S., No. 20-3499, 16 F.4th 336 (2d Cir. Oct. 22, 2021), on appeal from the Decision and Order of Oct. 1, 2020 (Berman, J.). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/5291813/united-states-v-bankasi/ ; United States v. Zarrab (Turkiye Halk Bankasi), No. 20-3499, 120 F.4th 41 (2d Cir. Oct. 22, 2024). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/10152619/united-states-v-zarrab-turkiye-halk-bankasi/ [^9]: Supreme Court of the United States, docket No. 21-1450, *Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S. v. United States*, argued January 17, 2023; decided April 19, 2023 (Kavanaugh, J., for the Court; Gorsuch, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part, joined by Alito, J.). https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/21-1450.html
[^10]: Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S. v. United States, No. 21-1450, 598 U.S. 264 (April 19, 2023), slip op. at 1-3, and Gorsuch, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/21-1450_5468.pdf ; United States v. Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S., No. 20-3499, 16 F.4th 336 (2d Cir. Oct. 22, 2021), on appeal from the Decision and Order of Oct. 1, 2020 (Berman, J.). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/5291813/united-states-v-bankasi/ ; United States v. Zarrab (Turkiye Halk Bankasi), No. 20-3499, 120 F.4th 41 (2d Cir. Oct. 22, 2024). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/10152619/united-states-v-zarrab-turkiye-halk-bankasi/

9
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Robert Byck.md
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@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ aliases:
- Robert Byck - Robert Byck
- Dr. Robert Byck - Dr. Robert Byck
created: 2026-05-17 created: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-05-17 updated: 2026-10-15
category: "Medicine & Psychology" category: "Medicine & Psychology"
tags: tags:
- Person - Person
@ -17,7 +17,11 @@ born: 1933-01-01
died: 1999-08-09 died: 1999-08-09
location: "Newark, New Jersey" location: "Newark, New Jersey"
--- ---
Dr. Robert Byck was a [[Yale University]] cocaine expert who testified before Congress in 1979 to warn of an impending drug epidemic from smokable cocaine, seven years before the 1986 crack panic. His warnings were completely ignored.[^1] Dr. Robert Byck was a [[Yale University]] cocaine expert who testified before Congress in 1979 to warn of an impending drug epidemic from smokable cocaine, seven years before the 1986 crack panic. [[Gary Webb]] wrote that Byck's warnings were ignored.[^1]
### The 1979 hearing
Byck testified as a member of the Department of Pharmacology, [[Yale University]] School of Medicine, before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] at its hearings on cocaine published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*. He testified on Thursday, July 26, 1979, where the record also describes him as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru. He opened by stating that, as then used in the United States, cocaine was not dangerous in the usual sense. His prepared statement, printed in the volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that there was "a danger of a drug abuse epidemic of cocaine because of a new route of administration rather than because of new properties of the drug" and, "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^2]
### 1979 Warning ### 1979 Warning
@ -34,3 +38,4 @@ Byck later criticized the 100-to-1 sentencing disparity between crack and powder
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 15: "This thing is a tidal wave" [^1]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 15: "This thing is a tidal wave"
[^2]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Robert M. Collins.md
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@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ Collins wrote that his FTD assignment began in the summer of 1985 and that he ha
Collins wrote that FTD led him to ask about stories of bodies stored at Wright-Patterson, and so to retired Lieutenant Colonel [[Ernie Kellerstrauss|Ernie Kellerstrass]], whose last assignment had been FTD and who in 1985 worked for [[Systems Research Laboratories]] in [[Dayton, Ohio|Dayton]]. According to Collins, Kellerstrass named [[Anthony J. Cacioppo]], then chief FTD scientist, and [[Dale Graff]], reassigned from FTD to the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], as informed, and described a meeting at a ski lodge north of [[Albuquerque]] in 1968 about a wave of sightings.[^1] In the spring of 1986, on a temporary duty trip to consult the technical staff of [[TRW]] in [[Los Angeles]], Collins met Moore in his motel room for about an hour; Moore mentioned a "Mr. X" who had contacted him in 1980.[^1] Collins wrote that from 1986 onward Moore, [[Jaime Shandera]], Kellerstrass, Doty, [[Hal Puthoff]] (from 1987), [[Kit Green]] (from 1989) and he held a series of meetings, referring to MJ-12 as "the Committee," while the introduction to the same book dates the group's coming together to 1985.[^1] Collins wrote that FTD led him to ask about stories of bodies stored at Wright-Patterson, and so to retired Lieutenant Colonel [[Ernie Kellerstrauss|Ernie Kellerstrass]], whose last assignment had been FTD and who in 1985 worked for [[Systems Research Laboratories]] in [[Dayton, Ohio|Dayton]]. According to Collins, Kellerstrass named [[Anthony J. Cacioppo]], then chief FTD scientist, and [[Dale Graff]], reassigned from FTD to the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], as informed, and described a meeting at a ski lodge north of [[Albuquerque]] in 1968 about a wave of sightings.[^1] In the spring of 1986, on a temporary duty trip to consult the technical staff of [[TRW]] in [[Los Angeles]], Collins met Moore in his motel room for about an hour; Moore mentioned a "Mr. X" who had contacted him in 1980.[^1] Collins wrote that from 1986 onward Moore, [[Jaime Shandera]], Kellerstrass, Doty, [[Hal Puthoff]] (from 1987), [[Kit Green]] (from 1989) and he held a series of meetings, referring to MJ-12 as "the Committee," while the introduction to the same book dates the group's coming together to 1985.[^1]
In the fall of 1987, he wrote, Kellerstrass hosted Moore, Shandera, Puthoff, Colonel [[John B. Alexander]], "Scott Jones (assistant for Senator Pell)" ([[C.B. Scott Jones]], aide to [[Claiborne Pell]]) and Collins at dinner at his house in [[Beavercreek, Ohio]].[^1] The bird names, by his account, were Doty "the surrogate 'Falcon' when the real Falcon (DIA's, Dale Graff?) couldn't be found," Kellerstrass "Hawk," Puthoff "Partridge," Jones "Hummingbird," Green "Blue Jay," Alexander "Chickadee," and himself "Condor."[^1] He also wrote of "Heron ([[Jerry Miller]])."[^1] In the references he wrote that "in June/July 2012 the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] Falcon was disclosed as none other than" [[Harry Rositzke]], who died on November 4, 2002 in [[Warrenton, Virginia]]; that "very few people were in a position to know who the real Falcon was," the two he knew of being Moore and Doty; that Moore "provided a name to his friend [[Greg Bishop]] in 2005"; that [[Brian Parks]], who had known Moore closely from the early 1980s until he left UFO research around 1994, "gave Brian the very same name as Bishop had"; and, in another reference, that "according to Bill Moore and known by Rick Doty it's Harry August Rositzke, born in [[New York]], 1910." He added a redacted 1961 [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] memorandum on Rositzke supplied by Parks and Parks's statement of "07-20-012." The name is Collins's report of what Moore said to others; Moore did not publish it.[^1] Moore had said in 1989 that he and Jaime Shandera invented the name Falcon in 1984 and that hints in 1987 that Doty was Falcon were a diversion.[^4] Pilkington asked whether Colonel [[Barry Hennessey]], who ran the AFOSI special projects unit at the [[Pentagon]] during the MJ-12 release and the Bennewitz affair and later directed Air Force counterintelligence and special program security, was Falcon, and wrote that Hennessey and Moore had both denied it.[^3] In the fall of 1987, he wrote, Kellerstrass hosted Moore, Shandera, Puthoff, Colonel [[John B. Alexander]], "Scott Jones (assistant for Senator Pell)" ([[C.B. Scott Jones]], aide to [[Claiborne Pell]]) and Collins at dinner at his house in [[Beavercreek, Ohio]].[^1] The bird names, by his account, were Doty "the surrogate 'Falcon' when the real Falcon (DIA's, Dale Graff?) couldn't be found," Kellerstrass "Hawk," Puthoff "Partridge," Jones "Hummingbird," Green "Blue Jay," Alexander "Chickadee," and himself "Condor."[^1] He also wrote of "Heron ([[Jerry Miller]])."[^1] In the references he wrote that "in June/July 2012 the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] Falcon was disclosed as none other than" [[Harry Rositzke]], who died on November 4, 2002 in [[Warrenton, Virginia]]; that "very few people were in a position to know who the real Falcon was," the two he knew of being Moore and Doty; that Moore "provided a name to his friend [[Greg Bishop]] in 2005"; that [[Brian Parks]], who had known Moore closely from the early 1980s until he left UFO research around 1994, "gave Brian the very same name as Bishop had"; and, in another reference, that "according to Bill Moore and known by Rick Doty it's Harry August Rositzke, born in [[New York City|New York]], 1910." He added a redacted 1961 [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] memorandum on Rositzke supplied by Parks and Parks's statement of "07-20-012." The name is Collins's report of what Moore said to others; Moore did not publish it.[^1] Moore had said in 1989 that he and Jaime Shandera invented the name Falcon in 1984 and that hints in 1987 that Doty was Falcon were a diversion.[^4] Pilkington asked whether Colonel [[Barry Hennessey]], who ran the AFOSI special projects unit at the [[Pentagon]] during the MJ-12 release and the Bennewitz affair and later directed Air Force counterintelligence and special program security, was Falcon, and wrote that Hennessey and Moore had both denied it.[^3]
### Howe and Lear, November 1987 ### Howe and Lear, November 1987

17
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Ruth Davis.md
View file

@ -10,15 +10,30 @@ tags:
- RemoteViewing - RemoteViewing
summary: "Deputy under secretary of defense for research and advanced technology who in 1978 set the managerial questions for the Pentagon's remote-viewing oversight and in 1979 widened the Gale Committee's mandate to the whole department." summary: "Deputy under secretary of defense for research and advanced technology who in 1978 set the managerial questions for the Pentagon's remote-viewing oversight and in 1979 widened the Gale Committee's mandate to the whole department."
location: "Washington, D.C." location: "Washington, D.C."
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Department of Energy]]"
start: 1979-09
role: "nominated September 12, 1979 as Assistant Secretary of Energy for Resource Applications"
fn: 6
created: 2026-09-22 created: 2026-09-22
updated: 2026-09-22 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Ruth M. Davis was Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering (Research and Advanced Technology) in 1978 and 1979. On October 25, 1978, Representative [[Charlie Rose]], chairman of the evaluation subcommittee of the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]], wrote to her that he had "recently had occasion to become acquainted with some interesting research involving paranormal phenomena, specifically that relating to remote viewing," that "we have a strong obligation also to learn what Soviet research is underway," and that "I would therefore like to see the Department of Defense undertake those efforts deemed necessary and appropriate to investigate remote viewing and other related phenomena." On November 20, 1978, ahead of a [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] meeting on the subject set for November 28, she sent [[Jack Vorona]] eight "topics or issues that appear to me to demand immediate attention from the oversight groups you will establish": "a clear cut statement of objectives sought by the Intelligence Community"; "a rationale for continued exploration of remote viewing phenomena, e.g., in terms of understanding the impact of success by others on U.S. vulnerabilities"; "the scientific status of remote viewing experiments treating such issues as the apparent non-reproducibility of results, the lack of documented and/or accepted scientific protocols, the seeming lack of consistent criteria for accepting and treating subjects"; measures of progress "developed by other than the current experimenters" that "ensure that the magicians' processes of deception, feedback to subjects, etc. are not inadvertantly allowed"; evaluation "by other than the experimenters"; "a past, present and future funding profile justifiable in terms of DoD objectives"; "a stark clear statement of events, data, etc. that will justify termination of continued funding of the project"; and "the related legal issues of individual privacy, controlled surveillance, etc." "As you know, I have had highlighted to me both the potential afforded by success in remote viewing as well as the current scientific skepticism about the ongoing activity." Copies went to [[Walter LaBerge]], Jill Wine-Volner and Major General [[Edmund Thompson]].[^1] Ruth M. Davis was Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering (Research and Advanced Technology) in 1978 and 1979. On October 25, 1978, Representative [[Charlie Rose]], chairman of the evaluation subcommittee of the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]], wrote to her that he had "recently had occasion to become acquainted with some interesting research involving paranormal phenomena, specifically that relating to remote viewing," that "we have a strong obligation also to learn what Soviet research is underway," and that "I would therefore like to see the Department of Defense undertake those efforts deemed necessary and appropriate to investigate remote viewing and other related phenomena." On November 20, 1978, ahead of a [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] meeting on the subject set for November 28, she sent [[Jack Vorona]] eight "topics or issues that appear to me to demand immediate attention from the oversight groups you will establish": "a clear cut statement of objectives sought by the Intelligence Community"; "a rationale for continued exploration of remote viewing phenomena, e.g., in terms of understanding the impact of success by others on U.S. vulnerabilities"; "the scientific status of remote viewing experiments treating such issues as the apparent non-reproducibility of results, the lack of documented and/or accepted scientific protocols, the seeming lack of consistent criteria for accepting and treating subjects"; measures of progress "developed by other than the current experimenters" that "ensure that the magicians' processes of deception, feedback to subjects, etc. are not inadvertantly allowed"; evaluation "by other than the experimenters"; "a past, present and future funding profile justifiable in terms of DoD objectives"; "a stark clear statement of events, data, etc. that will justify termination of continued funding of the project"; and "the related legal issues of individual privacy, controlled surveillance, etc." "As you know, I have had highlighted to me both the potential afforded by success in remote viewing as well as the current scientific skepticism about the ongoing activity." Copies went to [[Walter LaBerge]], Jill Wine-Volner and Major General [[Edmund Thompson]].[^1]
She sat on the Grill Flame steering committee at its first meeting on February 13, 1979, with the service intelligence chiefs, LaBerge and Vorona, and "in early July 1979, Dr. Ruth Davis recommended that because of the special interest of the Secretary of Defense, that the Committee review the total DOD posture and report directly to the GRILL FLAME Oversight Committee," which set the mandate of the [[Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee]].[^2] She sat on the Grill Flame steering committee at its first meeting on February 13, 1979, with the service intelligence chiefs, LaBerge and Vorona, and "in early July 1979, Dr. Ruth Davis recommended that because of the special interest of the Secretary of Defense, that the Committee review the total DOD posture and report directly to the GRILL FLAME Oversight Committee," which set the mandate of the [[Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee]].[^2]
Davis's name appears in the Grill Flame file again in 1979. In a memorandum of July 9, 1979, signed as deputy under secretary of defense for research and engineering (research and advanced technology), she proposed inviting [[Frank Press]] to be advised of the Grill Flame work.[^3] The steering committee minutes of October 30, 1979 list "Dr. Ruth Davis (DOE)" among the attendees and record that "Dr. Perry wants little to do with the subject."[^4] A note in the same file, undated, records that Davis could not attend a meeting because she had to meet Mr Duncan in DOE.[^5]
On September 12, 1979 the White House announced the President's intention to nominate Ruth M. Davis, then Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Advanced Technology, as Assistant Secretary of Energy for Resource Applications.[^6] On December 26, 1979 [[R. S. Hawke]] wrote to Dr. Ruth M. Davis, whom he identified as "Assistant for Research Applications, Department of Energy."[^7]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Davis, Ruth M., Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering (Research and Advanced Technology), memorandum for Dr. Jack Vorona, "'Remote Viewing' Project," November 20, 1978, with the letter of Charlie Rose, Chairman, Subcommittee on Evaluation, Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, to Davis, October 25, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500240017-5. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection. [^1]: Davis, Ruth M., Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering (Research and Advanced Technology), memorandum for Dr. Jack Vorona, "'Remote Viewing' Project," November 20, 1978, with the letter of Charlie Rose, Chairman, Subcommittee on Evaluation, Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, to Davis, October 25, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500240017-5. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^2]: *Report by the Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee,* December 1979, Manfred Gale, chairman, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection. [^2]: *Report by the Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee,* December 1979, Manfred Gale, chairman, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^3]: Davis, Ruth M., memorandum, July 9, 1979, signed as deputy under secretary of defense for research and engineering (research and advanced technology), CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230005-0.
[^4]: Minutes of steering committee meeting, October 30, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000100007-3 and CIA-RDP96-00788R002000250021-1.
[^5]: Stoner note, undated, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000250019-4.
[^6]: Jimmy Carter, "Department of Energy: Nomination of Ruth M. Davis To Be an Assistant Secretary," announcement of September 12, 1979, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/department-energy-nomination-ruth-m-davis-be-assistant-secretary
[^7]: R. S. Hawke to Dr. Ruth M. Davis, letter EMS79-0117, December 26, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100003-7.

2
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Ted Cruz.md
View file

@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ The relationship drew criticism inside Texas Republican politics because Thiel p
Cruz's 2016 presidential campaign was the first major American political operation to deploy Cambridge Analytica, the data-analytics firm whose primary investor was the hedge-fund executive Robert Mercer and whose vice president was [[Steve Bannon]]. [[Federal Election Commission]] records show the Cruz campaign paid Cambridge Analytica more than 5.8 million dollars for data analysis and online advertising during the 2016 cycle, with an additional 570,000 dollars paid by the pro-Cruz super PAC Keep the Promise II. Mercer donated approximately eleven million dollars to super PACs supporting Cruz's presidential bid.[^2][^5] Cruz's 2016 presidential campaign was the first major American political operation to deploy Cambridge Analytica, the data-analytics firm whose primary investor was the hedge-fund executive Robert Mercer and whose vice president was [[Steve Bannon]]. [[Federal Election Commission]] records show the Cruz campaign paid Cambridge Analytica more than 5.8 million dollars for data analysis and online advertising during the 2016 cycle, with an additional 570,000 dollars paid by the pro-Cruz super PAC Keep the Promise II. Mercer donated approximately eleven million dollars to super PACs supporting Cruz's presidential bid.[^2][^5]
The firm built psychographic voter profiles, dividing the electorate into psychological categories, work later tied to the harvesting of data from tens of millions of [[Facebook]] users. After Cruz dropped out in 2016, Mercer, Bannon, and Cambridge Analytica shifted to the Trump campaign. When the [[Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal]] broke in March 2018, Cruz said the firm had assured his campaign its methods were legal: "Cambridge Analytica represented to the campaign that all data in their possession were legally obtained and that they were in compliance with all applicable laws and regulations, and the campaign relied on those representations." His spokeswoman, Catherine Frazier, said the campaign had included explicit contractual language requiring lawful conduct.[^2][^5][^6] The firm built psychographic voter profiles, dividing the electorate into psychological categories, work later tied to the harvesting of data from tens of millions of [[Facebook]] users. After Cruz dropped out in 2016, Mercer, Bannon, and Cambridge Analytica shifted to the Trump campaign. When the [[Facebook-Cambridge Analytica data scandal]] broke in March 2018, Cruz said the firm had assured his campaign its methods were legal: "Cambridge Analytica represented to the campaign that all data in their possession were legally obtained and that they were in compliance with all applicable laws and regulations, and the campaign relied on those representations." His spokeswoman, Catherine Frazier, said the campaign had included explicit contractual language requiring lawful conduct.[^2][^5][^6]
### The 2026 Dialog Leak ### The 2026 Dialog Leak

18
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Thomas A. Flannery.md
View file

@ -1,30 +1,30 @@
--- ---
category: "Law Enforcement & Legal" category: "Law Enforcement & Legal"
created: 2026-05-01 created: 2026-05-01
updated: 2026-10-14 updated: 2026-10-15
tags: tags:
- Person - Person
- PROMIS - PROMIS
- INSLAW - INSLAW
- Lawyer - Lawyer
- Judge - Judge
summary: "Thomas A. Flannery was U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia from 1967 to 1970, commissioned the system that became PROMIS in 1969, and was a federal district judge from 1970 until 1993." summary: "Thomas A. Flannery was U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia from 1969 to 1971, commissioned the system that became PROMIS in 1969, and was a federal district judge from December 1971."
born: 1918-01-05 born: 1918-05-10
died: 1993-06-25 died: 2007-09-20
location: "Washington, D.C." location: "Washington, D.C."
--- ---
Thomas A. Flannery was born January 5, 1918, in Washington, D.C. He served as U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia from 1967 to March 1970, appointed under President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. In that capacity, he directed the formation of the team that designed the [[PROMIS|Prosecutor's Management Information System (PROMIS)]], the case management software that became the center of the [[PROMIS Software Scandal|INSLAW affair]] a decade later.[^1] Thomas A. Flannery was born May 10, 1918, in Washington, D.C. He was an assistant U.S. attorney for the District of Columbia from 1950 to 1962, in private practice from 1962 to 1969, and U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia from 1969 to 1971, appointed under President [[Richard Nixon]].[^1] In that capacity, he directed the formation of the team that designed the [[PROMIS|Prosecutor's Management Information System (PROMIS)]], the case management software that became the center of the [[PROMIS Software Scandal|INSLAW affair]] a decade later.[^2]
### Role in PROMIS Development ### Role in PROMIS Development
In 1969, Flannery commissioned a team from [[Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co]] to design a computer-based case management system for the [[U.S. Attorney's office|DC U.S. Attorney's Office]], funded by a $60,000 grant (70-DF-047) from the [[Office of Crime Analysis of the District of Columbia]] administered through the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]]. The team was co-directed by [[Joan E. Jacoby]] (Director of the Office of Crime Analysis) and [[Charles R. Work]] (Deputy Director of the Superior Court Division of the U.S. Attorney's Office), with [[Bill Hamilton]] serving as project manager.[^1][^3] The system, named the Prosecutor's Management Information System, was deployed on January 1, 1971.[^3] In 1969, Flannery commissioned a team from [[Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co]] to design a computer-based case management system for the [[U.S. Attorney's office|DC U.S. Attorney's Office]], funded by a $60,000 grant (70-DF-047) from the [[Office of Crime Analysis of the District of Columbia]] administered through the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]]. The team was co-directed by [[Joan E. Jacoby]] (Director of the Office of Crime Analysis) and [[Charles R. Work]] (Deputy Director of the Superior Court Division of the U.S. Attorney's Office), with [[Bill Hamilton]] serving as project manager.[^2][^3] The system, named the Prosecutor's Management Information System, was deployed on January 1, 1971.[^3]
### Judicial Career ### Judicial Career
President [[Richard Nixon]] nominated Flannery to the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia in July 1970. He was confirmed by the Senate and began judicial service in December 1970. He served as Chief Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia from 1977 until approximately 1987, and continued as a senior judge thereafter. He died June 25, 1993.[^2] President Nixon nominated Flannery to the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia on November 18, 1971. The Senate confirmed him on December 1, 1971, and his commission issued on December 6, 1971. He assumed senior status on May 10, 1985 and died on September 20, 2007.[^1] He served as Chief Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia from 1977 until approximately 1987, and continued as a senior judge thereafter.
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary. *The INSLAW Affair: Investigative Report.* House Report 102-857, 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, September 10, 1992. [^1]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, entry for Flannery, Thomas Aquinas (assistant U.S. attorney, D.C., 1950 to 1962; U.S. attorney, D.C., 1969 to 1971; nominated November 18, 1971; senior status May 10, 1985; died September 20, 2007). https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/flannery-thomas-aquinas
[^2]: Federal Judicial Center. "Thomas A. Flannery." History of the Federal Judiciary. fjc.gov. [^2]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary. *The INSLAW Affair: Investigative Report.* House Report 102-857, 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, September 10, 1992.
[^3]: Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., *System Overview and Report Formats for PROMIS* (May 1971), prepared for the District of Columbia Government Office of Crime Analysis under LEAA Grant No. 70-DF-047, note 1 to the passage on the design team, NCJ 32469. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/32469NCJRS.pdf [^3]: Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., *System Overview and Report Formats for PROMIS* (May 1971), prepared for the District of Columbia Government Office of Crime Analysis under LEAA Grant No. 70-DF-047, note 1 to the passage on the design team, NCJ 32469. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/32469NCJRS.pdf

2
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Adnan Khashoggi.md
View file

@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ relations:
start: 1988 start: 1988
fn: 1 fn: 1
- type: prosecuted - type: prosecuted
with: "[[Southern District of New York]]" with: "[[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York]]"
reverse: true reverse: true
role: "racketeering and fraud; acquitted with Imelda Marcos" role: "racketeering and fraud; acquitted with Imelda Marcos"
end: 1990 end: 1990

139
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Adolf Hitler.md
View file

@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ born: 1889-04-20
died: 1945-04-30 died: 1945-04-30
location: "Braunau am Inn, Austria" location: "Braunau am Inn, Austria"
created: 2026-10-14 created: 2026-10-14
updated: 2026-10-14 updated: 2026-10-15
relations: relations:
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[Nazi Germany]]" with: "[[Nazi Germany]]"
@ -34,32 +34,32 @@ relations:
with: "[[Eva Braun]]" with: "[[Eva Braun]]"
start: 1945-04-29 start: 1945-04-29
role: "married in the Berlin bunker on the date of his private will, which names her as his wife" role: "married in the Berlin bunker on the date of his private will, which names her as his wife"
fn: 21 fn: 22
- type: appointed - type: appointed
with: "[[Karl Dönitz]]" with: "[[Karl Dönitz]]"
start: 1945-04-29 start: 1945-04-29
role: "named President of the Reich and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces in the political testament" role: "named President of the Reich and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces in the political testament"
fn: 22 fn: 23
- type: appointed - type: appointed
with: "[[Martin Bormann]]" with: "[[Martin Bormann]]"
start: 1945-04-29 start: 1945-04-29
role: "named executor of the private will with full legal authority, and Party Minister in the testament's cabinet list" role: "named executor of the private will with full legal authority, and Party Minister in the testament's cabinet list"
fn: 21 fn: 22
- type: subject_of - type: subject_of
with: "[[Office of Strategic Services]]" with: "[[Office of Strategic Services]]"
start: 1943 start: 1943
role: "subject of the 1943 psychoanalytic profile by Walter Langer and the October 1943 personality analysis by Henry Murray, both prepared for the OSS" role: "subject of the 1943 psychoanalytic profile by Walter Langer and the October 1943 personality analysis by Henry Murray, both prepared for the OSS"
fn: 11 fn: 12
- type: subject_of - type: subject_of
with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]" with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]"
start: 1945-09-21 start: 1945-09-21
role: "Los Angeles report titled Hitler Hideout, file 105-410, on a claim that he was in hiding in Argentina" role: "Los Angeles report titled Hitler Hideout, file 105-410, on a claim that he was in hiding in Argentina"
fn: 30 fn: 31
- type: subject_of - type: subject_of
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]" with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
start: 1955-10-03 start: 1955-10-03
role: "Maracaibo station dispatch forwarding a claim that he was alive in South America" role: "Maracaibo station dispatch forwarding a claim that he was alive in South America"
fn: 33 fn: 34
--- ---
Adolf Hitler (born April 20, 1889, in [[Braunau am Inn]], Austria; died April 30, 1945, in [[Berlin]]) was the leader of the [[Nazi Party]] and the dictator of [[Nazi Germany]] from 1934 to 1945.[^1] He was the central figure in the rise of Nazism, the Holocaust, and World War II.[^2] Adolf Hitler (born April 20, 1889, in [[Braunau am Inn]], Austria; died April 30, 1945, in [[Berlin]]) was the leader of the [[Nazi Party]] and the dictator of [[Nazi Germany]] from 1934 to 1945.[^1] He was the central figure in the rise of Nazism, the Holocaust, and World War II.[^2]
@ -68,67 +68,67 @@ The International Military Tribunal at [[Nuremberg]] described the [[SS]] as cre
### Nuremberg luncheon, 1936 ### Nuremberg luncheon, 1936
[[Richard Helms]], then a [[United Press]] correspondent sent alone to cover the 1936 Nazi Party Congress at Nuremberg, received an invitation from Hitler's press representative to a light luncheon with the Fuehrer at the Nuremberg Castle. Helms was introduced to [[Rudolf Hess]] and [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]]. Asked why he staged the annual congress, Hitler answered that the party leaders worked hard all year, that "Money prizes would break the Treasury," and that he brought them to the congress to give them the show and a chance to meet one another.[^4] [[Richard Helms]], then a [[United Press]] correspondent sent alone to cover the 1936 Nazi Party Congress at Nuremberg, received an invitation from Hitler's press representative to a light luncheon with the Fuehrer at the Nuremberg Castle. Helms was introduced to [[Rudolf Hess]] and [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]]. Asked why he staged the annual congress, Hitler answered that the party leaders worked hard all year, that "Money prizes would break the Treasury," and that he brought them to the congress to give them the show and a chance to meet one another.[^4][^5]
### Occult milieu and the Hess flight ### Occult milieu and the Hess flight
Hitler was reportedly dismissive of mysticism. [[Albert Speer]] wrote that when [[Heinrich Himmler]] mythologized the SS, Hitler remarked: "What nonsense! Here we have at last reached an age that has left all mysticism behind it, and now he wants to start that all over again. We might just as well have stayed with the church."[^5] Himmler was deeply invested in paranormal research. The [[Ahnenerbe]], the research body he founded in 1935, investigated extrasensory perception, astrology and map dowsing, according to [[Annie Jacobsen]].[^6] The regime had a complex relationship with the occult, and the Nazi government's use of astrology and other forms of divination for propaganda purposes is well-documented.[^6] Hitler was reportedly dismissive of mysticism. [[Albert Speer]] wrote that when [[Heinrich Himmler]] mythologized the SS, Hitler remarked: "What nonsense! Here we have at last reached an age that has left all mysticism behind it, and now he wants to start that all over again. We might just as well have stayed with the church."[^6] Himmler was deeply invested in paranormal research. The [[Ahnenerbe]], the research body he founded in 1935, investigated extrasensory perception, astrology and map dowsing, according to [[Annie Jacobsen]].[^7] The regime had a complex relationship with the occult, and the Nazi government's use of astrology and other forms of divination for propaganda purposes is well-documented.[^7]
Jacobsen wrote that Hitler's reaction to Rudolf Hess's flight to [[Scotland]], which he attributed to the influence of astrologers, led to a crackdown on occult practices in Germany.[^6] Accounts of the flight name two astrologers. [[Karl Krafft]], a Swiss astrologer, is said to have produced a star chart that fixed the date of the flight, and [[Sybil Leek]], a British astrologer working for British intelligence, is said to have written a phony horoscope that drew Hess toward Scotland.[^6] The arrests that followed, under the name [[Special Action Hess|Sonderaktion Heß]], reportedly took in more than 600 astrologers, fortune tellers, clairvoyants and faith healers, among them [[Wilhelm Wulff]], who had become Himmler's personal astrologer.[^6] The historian [[Eric Kurlander]] wrote that the action had the Gestapo round up astrologers, clairvoyants and occultists, that hundreds were detained or arrested, and that thousands of books and items of esoteric paraphernalia were confiscated.[^7] Jacobsen wrote that Hitler's reaction to Rudolf Hess's flight to [[Scotland]], which he attributed to the influence of astrologers, led to a crackdown on occult practices in Germany.[^7] Accounts of the flight name two astrologers. [[Karl Krafft]], a Swiss astrologer, is said to have produced a star chart that fixed the date of the flight, and [[Sybil Leek]], a British astrologer working for British intelligence, is said to have written a phony horoscope that drew Hess toward Scotland.[^7] The arrests that followed, under the name [[Special Action Hess|Sonderaktion Heß]], reportedly took in more than 600 astrologers, fortune tellers, clairvoyants and faith healers, among them [[Wilhelm Wulff]], who had become Himmler's personal astrologer.[^7] The historian [[Eric Kurlander]] wrote that the action had the Gestapo round up astrologers, clairvoyants and occultists, that hundreds were detained or arrested, and that thousands of books and items of esoteric paraphernalia were confiscated.[^8]
A CIA-released survey of parapsychology research states that [[Louis Pauwels]] and [[Jacques Bergier]], in [[The Morning of the Magicians]] (1960), maintained that Hitler was clairvoyant and surrounded himself with astrologers and prophets. The same survey says that [[Erik Jan Hanussen]], a stage clairvoyant, was assassinated by the Nazis because his ability to see their secret projects threatened the regime.[^8] A 1930 and 1931 report by the Dutch researcher [[P.A. Dietz]] on a test of Hanussen's psychometric ability appears in an annotated CIA-released abstract. The annotator described Hanussen, who visited the [[Netherlands]] in 1930, as someone who "later would often be consulted by Adolph Hitler."[^9] A CIA-released survey of parapsychology research states that [[Louis Pauwels]] and [[Jacques Bergier]], in [[The Morning of the Magicians]] (1960), maintained that Hitler was clairvoyant and surrounded himself with astrologers and prophets. The same survey says that [[Erik Jan Hanussen]], a stage clairvoyant, was assassinated by the Nazis because his ability to see their secret projects threatened the regime.[^9] A 1930 and 1931 report by the Dutch researcher [[P.A. Dietz]] on a test of Hanussen's psychometric ability appears in an annotated CIA-released abstract. The annotator described Hanussen, who visited the [[Netherlands]] in 1930, as someone who "later would often be consulted by Adolph Hitler."[^10]
### Profiles by the OSS and Harvard ### Profiles by the OSS and Harvard
In 1943 [[William J. Donovan|William Donovan]] of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] asked the [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] psychoanalyst [[Walter Langer]] to analyze Hitler without direct access to him. Langer wrote in his 1972 book that Donovan asked, "What light could psychoanalysis shed on these pressing problems?" and then, "And how would you go about getting it?"[^10] The OSS report of 1943, A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler: His Life and Legend, lists as collaborators [[Henry Murray]] of the Harvard Psychological Clinic, [[Ernst Kris]] of the [[New School for Social Research]] and [[Bertram Lewin]] of the New York Psychoanalytic Institute.[^11] In 1943 [[William J. Donovan|William Donovan]] of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] asked the [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] psychoanalyst [[Walter Langer]] to analyze Hitler without direct access to him. Langer wrote in his 1972 book that Donovan asked, "What light could psychoanalysis shed on these pressing problems?" and then, "And how would you go about getting it?"[^11] The OSS report of 1943, A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler: His Life and Legend, lists as collaborators [[Henry Murray]] of the Harvard Psychological Clinic, [[Ernst Kris]] of the [[New School for Social Research]] and [[Bertram Lewin]] of the New York Psychoanalytic Institute.[^12]
The 1943 report stated that there was "unanimous agreement among the four psychoanalysts who have studied the material that Hitler is an hysteric bordering on schizophrenia and not a true paranoiac as so frequently supposed."[^12] In the 1972 book the same passage reads "general agreement among the collaborators that Hitler is probably a neurotic psychopath bordering on schizophrenia."[^13] The 1943 report described his behavior as "masochistic in the extreme" and stated that "there is a large feminine component in his physical makeup."[^14] Its eighth prediction read: "Hitler might commit suicide. This is the most plausible outcome."[^15] The 1943 report stated that there was "unanimous agreement among the four psychoanalysts who have studied the material that Hitler is an hysteric bordering on schizophrenia and not a true paranoiac as so frequently supposed."[^13] In the 1972 book the same passage reads "general agreement among the collaborators that Hitler is probably a neurotic psychopath bordering on schizophrenia."[^14] The 1943 report described his behavior as "masochistic in the extreme" and stated that "there is a large feminine component in his physical makeup."[^15] Its eighth prediction read: "Hitler might commit suicide. This is the most plausible outcome."[^16]
In October 1943 Murray of the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] Psychological Clinic completed a memorandum titled *Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler*, marked "O.S.S. Confidential," with predictions of his future behavior and suggestions for dealing with him now and after [[Germany]]'s surrender.[^16] Murray wrote that Hitler's neurotic spells would increase in frequency and duration, and that there was some evidence his mental powers had been deteriorating since November 1942.[^17] He considered it possible that the military command or a revolutionary faction might seize Hitler and immure him in a prison fortress, an outcome that would end the myth of the invincible hero. He judged that Hitler being shot by a German was "possible but not very likely."[^17] In October 1943 Murray of the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] Psychological Clinic completed a memorandum titled *Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler*, marked "O.S.S. Confidential," with predictions of his future behavior and suggestions for dealing with him now and after [[Germany]]'s surrender.[^17] Murray wrote that Hitler's neurotic spells would increase in frequency and duration, and that there was some evidence his mental powers had been deteriorating since November 1942.[^18] He considered it possible that the military command or a revolutionary faction might seize Hitler and immure him in a prison fortress, an outcome that would end the myth of the invincible hero. He judged that Hitler being shot by a German was "possible but not very likely."[^18]
Murray proposed that Hitler might arrange to be killed by a German, perhaps by a Jew, completing the myth of the hero's death at the hand of a trusted follower, on the pattern of Siegfried stabbed by Hagen, Caesar by Brutus, and Christ betrayed by Judas.[^18] On suicide, Murray wrote that Hitler had often vowed he would kill himself if his plans miscarried, but that if he chose that course he would do it at the last moment and in the most dramatic possible manner.[^18] In the closing section Murray named insanity to some extent, dramatic suicide and death at the front as the outcomes that seemed most probable, on the assumption that Hitler's chief concern was the immortality of his legend.[^19] Murray proposed that Hitler might arrange to be killed by a German, perhaps by a Jew, completing the myth of the hero's death at the hand of a trusted follower, on the pattern of Siegfried stabbed by Hagen, Caesar by Brutus, and Christ betrayed by Judas.[^19] On suicide, Murray wrote that Hitler had often vowed he would kill himself if his plans miscarried, but that if he chose that course he would do it at the last moment and in the most dramatic possible manner.[^19] In the closing section Murray named insanity to some extent, dramatic suicide and death at the front as the outcomes that seemed most probable, on the assumption that Hitler's chief concern was the immortality of his legend.[^20]
### Assassination schemes ### Assassination schemes
[[Stanley Lovell]], who headed OSS Research and Development, wrote in his memoir of several schemes to kill Hitler. He took up Langer's idea that Hitler had feminine tendencies and got permission to try to push him over the gender line with female hormones, hoping his moustache would fall off and his voice would rise. The OSS agent network was used to try to slip the hormones into Hitler's food. Other plans included blinding him with mustard gas and a drug to aggravate his suspected epilepsy, and a plan to hypnotize a German prisoner into assassinating him, which a consulting psychiatrist judged unworkable. Lovell also reported that the main problem in these operations was getting Hitler to take the medicine.[^20] [[Stanley Lovell]], who headed OSS Research and Development, wrote in his memoir of several schemes to kill Hitler. He took up Langer's idea that Hitler had feminine tendencies and got permission to try to push him over the gender line with female hormones, hoping his moustache would fall off and his voice would rise. The OSS agent network was used to try to slip the hormones into Hitler's food. Other plans included blinding him with mustard gas and a drug to aggravate his suspected epilepsy, and a plan to hypnotize a German prisoner into assassinating him, which a consulting psychiatrist judged unworkable. Lovell also reported that the main problem in these operations was getting Hitler to take the medicine.[^21]
### Marriage, will and testament, April 1945 ### Marriage, will and testament, April 1945
The document the prosecution at Nuremberg numbered 3569-PS is a translation of a private will and a political testament dated April 29, 1945, with a covering note from Martin Bormann of the same date. In the private will Hitler wrote that he had decided to take as his wife the woman who had entered the besieged city to share his fate, that at her desire she went with him into death, and that he and his wife chose death "in order to escape the disgrace of deposition or capitulation" and wished to be burnt on the spot. He named Bormann executor, and left his picture collections to a gallery in [[Linz]]. The will bears the signatures of Bormann, Dr. Fuhr and [[Nicolaus von Below]] as witnesses.[^21] The document the prosecution at Nuremberg numbered 3569-PS is a translation of a private will and a political testament dated April 29, 1945, with a covering note from Martin Bormann of the same date. In the private will Hitler wrote that he had decided to take as his wife the woman who had entered the besieged city to share his fate, that at her desire she went with him into death, and that he and his wife chose death "in order to escape the disgrace of deposition or capitulation" and wished to be burnt on the spot. He named Bormann executor, and left his picture collections to a gallery in [[Linz]]. The will bears the signatures of Bormann, Dr. Fuhr and [[Nicolaus von Below]] as witnesses.[^22]
In the political testament Hitler attributed the outbreak of the war to international statesmen of Jewish descent or working for Jewish interests, and stated that he would remain in Berlin and choose death. In the second part he expelled Göring and Himmler from the party for secret negotiations with the enemy, appointed Grand Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]] President of the Reich and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, [[Joseph Goebbels]] Chancellor, Bormann Party Minister, and named [[Karl Hanke]] to succeed Himmler as Reichsführer-SS. The testament is witnessed by Josef Fuhr, [[Wilhelm Burgdorf]], Bormann and [[Hans Krebs]]. The editors of the Nuremberg volume noted that the document was not introduced into evidence because there was not sufficient time to verify its authenticity.[^22] In the political testament Hitler attributed the outbreak of the war to international statesmen of Jewish descent or working for Jewish interests, and stated that he would remain in Berlin and choose death. In the second part he expelled Göring and Himmler from the party for secret negotiations with the enemy, appointed Grand Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]] President of the Reich and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, [[Joseph Goebbels]] Chancellor, Bormann Party Minister, and named [[Karl Hanke]] to succeed Himmler as Reichsführer-SS. The testament is witnessed by Josef Fuhr, [[Wilhelm Burgdorf]], Bormann and [[Hans Krebs]]. The editors of the Nuremberg volume noted that the document was not introduced into evidence because there was not sufficient time to verify its authenticity.[^23]
The FBI file on Hitler contains a March 6, 1946 memorandum recording that the Army's Military Intelligence Service had prepared a bound brochure of the marriage certificate, private will and political testament from captured documents, that General Vandenberg wanted the Bureau to compare the signatures with captured official documents, and that the Army asked that its possession of the documents be kept secret until the President announced it. The Bureau's laboratory report of March 13, 1946, addressed to the Chief of Staff, G-2, War Department, analyzed paper, condition, typewriting and handwriting. It stated that the paper was consistent in every respect with the ostensible source, that the marriage form had been completed in ink by a registrar, Walter Wagner, and that entries in other inks and hands were evidence of the impromptu nature of the ceremony.[^23] The FBI file on Hitler contains a March 6, 1946 memorandum recording that the Army's Military Intelligence Service had prepared a bound brochure of the marriage certificate, private will and political testament from captured documents, that General Vandenberg wanted the Bureau to compare the signatures with captured official documents, and that the Army asked that its possession of the documents be kept secret until the President announced it. The Bureau's laboratory report of March 13, 1946, addressed to the Chief of Staff, G-2, War Department, analyzed paper, condition, typewriting and handwriting. It stated that the paper was consistent in every respect with the ostensible source, that the marriage form had been completed in ink by a registrar, Walter Wagner, and that entries in other inks and hands were evidence of the impromptu nature of the ceremony.[^24]
In notes that Bormann took during the final months, published by [[François Genoud]], Hitler recalled [[Frederick the Great]]'s winter of 1762, when Frederick resolved to take poison if no change came by a date he had fixed. A few days before that date the Tsarina died, and the situation reversed.[^24] In notes that Bormann took during the final months, published by [[François Genoud]], Hitler recalled [[Frederick the Great]]'s winter of 1762, when Frederick resolved to take poison if no change came by a date he had fixed. A few days before that date the Tsarina died, and the situation reversed.[^25]
### Death in Berlin and the Soviet record ### Death in Berlin and the Soviet record
[[Morris Leikind]], whose medical study of Hitler was released by the CIA, wrote that it is generally believed he shot himself, and that information published in [[Russia]] alleged death by cyanide poisoning rather than a gunshot wound.[^1] Leikind wrote that Hitler died by suicide in his bunker beneath the ruins of the Chancellery on April 30, 1945, with his newly wedded wife, [[Eva Braun]].[^1] [[Morris Leikind]], whose medical study of Hitler was released by the CIA, wrote that it is generally believed he shot himself, and that information published in [[Russia]] alleged death by cyanide poisoning rather than a gunshot wound.[^1] Leikind wrote that Hitler died by suicide in his bunker beneath the ruins of the Chancellery on April 30, 1945, with his newly wedded wife, [[Eva Braun]].[^1]
A Soviet forensic commission sitting at [[Berlin-Buch]] on May 8, 1945 examined a fire-damaged male corpse presumed to be Hitler's. It concluded that death was caused by poisoning with cyanide compounds, and the identification that followed rested in part on dental bridgework and jawbone fragments.[^25] The commission's summary reached the same conclusion for the female corpse presumed to be Braun's.[^26] Leikind wrote that, contrary to other published reports, the protocols showed poisoning, with the odor of cyanide still detectable in the mouth and slivers of glass from a capsule present, and that the protocols seemed to have been "edited."[^27] A Soviet forensic commission sitting at [[Berlin-Buch]] on May 8, 1945 examined a fire-damaged male corpse presumed to be Hitler's. It concluded that death was caused by poisoning with cyanide compounds, and the identification that followed rested in part on dental bridgework and jawbone fragments.[^26] The commission's summary reached the same conclusion for the female corpse presumed to be Braun's.[^27] Leikind wrote that, contrary to other published reports, the protocols showed poisoning, with the odor of cyanide still detectable in the mouth and slivers of glass from a capsule present, and that the protocols seemed to have been "edited."[^28]
An OSS cable of August 7, 1945 discussed transmitting a report on Hitler's dentition to Soviet officers, and suggested that [[Allen Dulles]] be instructed to give copies of the reports directly to Russian officers in Berlin. According to the OSS message, the War Department was disturbed over the exchange of communications through [[John R. Deane]].[^28] A related message in the same file concerns fingerprints that were to be obtained from [[Munich]] police records.[^28] An OSS cable of August 7, 1945 discussed transmitting a report on Hitler's dentition to Soviet officers, and suggested that [[Allen Dulles]] be instructed to give copies of the reports directly to Russian officers in Berlin. According to the OSS message, the War Department was disturbed over the exchange of communications through [[John R. Deane]].[^29] A related message in the same file concerns fingerprints that were to be obtained from [[Munich]] police records.[^29]
### Claims of survival ### Claims of survival
On September 21, 1945, the Los Angeles office of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] filed a report titled "Hitler Hideout" on information obtained from a [[Hollywood]] source in July 1945. The source reported that a friend, talking in front of the Melody Lane restaurant, said he was one of four men who met Hitler when he landed from two submarines in [[Argentina]] about two and a half weeks after the fall of Berlin. The account described a ranch in the foothills of the southern Andes, six Argentine officials who had aided the party, and a payment of $15,000 for helping in the hiding place. According to the source, Hitler suffered from asthma and ulcers and had shaved off his mustache.[^29] The information was given to a reporter for the [[Los Angeles Examiner]] on July 29, 1945.[^29] The Bureau's summary says that the information could not be verified, that efforts to locate the friend were negative, and that there was no record of Hitler in police or [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]] files.[^30] On September 21, 1945, the Los Angeles office of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] filed a report titled "Hitler Hideout" on information obtained from a [[Hollywood]] source in July 1945. The source reported that a friend, talking in front of the Melody Lane restaurant, said he was one of four men who met Hitler when he landed from two submarines in [[Argentina]] about two and a half weeks after the fall of Berlin. The account described a ranch in the foothills of the southern Andes, six Argentine officials who had aided the party, and a payment of $15,000 for helping in the hiding place. According to the source, Hitler suffered from asthma and ulcers and had shaved off his mustache.[^30] The information was given to a reporter for the [[Los Angeles Examiner]] on July 29, 1945.[^30] The Bureau's summary says that the information could not be verified, that efforts to locate the friend were negative, and that there was no record of Hitler in police or [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]] files.[^31]
The same file holds translations dated July 28, 1948 of two newspaper items from [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]]. The first summarized a letter dated April 27, 1948 from [[Oranjestad]], [[Aruba]], addressed to the newspaper [[El Tiempo]] and signed "Amigo, amigo, amigo," which stated that Hitler was in Bogotá, had landed from a submarine on the coast of the Guajira on July 19, 1945 with six men and three million dollars, and intended after a war between the United States and the Soviet Union to head a western crusade against Bolshevism.[^31] In El Tiempo of June 20, 1948, under a headline connecting the story to the assassination of [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]], a second correspondent who claimed to be Colombian wrote that he had known of Hitler's plans since January 1945 and that the death of Gaitán would have been a master coup against Communism on Hitler's part; the newspaper reported that the first writer had demanded 50,000 dollars to reveal more.[^31] The Director of the Bureau forwarded translations of the clippings to the State Department's Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, with a copy to the Director of Central Intelligence.[^31] The same file holds translations dated July 28, 1948 of two newspaper items from [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]]. The first summarized a letter dated April 27, 1948 from [[Oranjestad]], [[Aruba]], addressed to the newspaper [[El Tiempo]] and signed "Amigo, amigo, amigo," which stated that Hitler was in Bogotá, had landed from a submarine on the coast of the Guajira on July 19, 1945 with six men and three million dollars, and intended after a war between the United States and the Soviet Union to head a western crusade against Bolshevism.[^32] In El Tiempo of June 20, 1948, under a headline connecting the story to the assassination of [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]], a second correspondent who claimed to be Colombian wrote that he had known of Hitler's plans since January 1945 and that the death of Gaitán would have been a master coup against Communism on Hitler's part; the newspaper reported that the first writer had demanded 50,000 dollars to reveal more.[^32] The Director of the Bureau forwarded translations of the clippings to the State Department's Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, with a copy to the Director of Central Intelligence.[^32]
On October 3, 1955, the acting chief of a CIA station forwarded a report to the chief of the [[Western Hemisphere Division]] from a source in [[Maracaibo]], identified by the codename MELODY-3. In the latter part of September 1955 a friend who had served under the source in Europe told him that a former German SS trooper, identified by the codename CITROEN, had said that Hitler was still alive. CITROEN was said to have contacted Hitler about once a month in Colombia while working for a Dutch shipping company in Maracaibo, and to have said that Hitler left Colombia for Argentina around January 1955.[^32] The friend obtained a photograph that CITROEN referred to. On September 29 the source was shown it to obtain his reaction to the possible veracity of the story, and the station made photostats before the photograph went back to its owner the next day. The station's assessment was that the man on the right is "undoubtedly the person which CITROEN claims is HITLER." The reverse carried an inscription with the first name Adolf, a town in Colombia and the year 1954.[^32] The station wrote that neither it nor the source was in a position to give an intelligent evaluation of the information, which was forwarded as of possible interest.[^33] On October 3, 1955, the acting chief of a CIA station forwarded a report to the chief of the [[Western Hemisphere Division]] from a source in [[Maracaibo]], identified by the codename MELODY-3. In the latter part of September 1955 a friend who had served under the source in Europe told him that a former German SS trooper, identified by the codename CITROEN, had said that Hitler was still alive. CITROEN was said to have contacted Hitler about once a month in Colombia while working for a Dutch shipping company in Maracaibo, and to have said that Hitler left Colombia for Argentina around January 1955.[^33] The friend obtained a photograph that CITROEN referred to. On September 29 the source was shown it to obtain his reaction to the possible veracity of the story, and the station made photostats before the photograph went back to its owner the next day. The station's assessment was that the man on the right is "undoubtedly the person which CITROEN claims is HITLER." The reverse carried an inscription with the first name Adolf, a town in Colombia and the year 1954.[^33] The station wrote that neither it nor the source was in a position to give an intelligent evaluation of the information, which was forwarded as of possible interest.[^34]
### Neo-Nazi veneration ### Neo-Nazi veneration
[[James Mason]]'s *[[Siege]]*, the collected newsletters of the [[National Socialist Liberation Front]], names Hitler throughout. In an issue dated August 1980 Mason wrote that [[Joseph Tommasi]] "did the very same thing as Adolf Hitler" and that "perhaps his is the closest comparison to Hitler's methodology to date."[^34] The 2021 edition carries a foreword by Mason that closes "Heil Hitler!"[^34] The [[International Centre for Counter-Terrorism]] study by Bethan Johnson and Matthew Feldman states that propaganda of the "Siege Culture" milieu falls into three categories, the first being praise of Nazi and neo-Nazi predecessors, in which images of Hitler, Mason, Tommasi and Charles Manson are often featured in imposing stances.[^35] The same study records that activists of the [[Iron March]] forum released what became the third edition of Siege in 2015, and that [[Atomwaffen Division]], which publicly emerged that year, made the book required reading for new members.[^36] The [[Counter Extremism Project]] reports that the original Siege Culture website's library included Hitler's *Mein Kampf*, and that Atomwaffen Division posted a video in 2017 of masked members raising their arms in a "Heil Hitler" salute before a swastika flag with the message "Join your local Nazis."[^37] [[James Mason]]'s *[[Siege]]*, the collected newsletters of the [[National Socialist Liberation Front]], names Hitler throughout. In an issue dated August 1980 Mason wrote that [[Joseph Tommasi]] "did the very same thing as Adolf Hitler" and that "perhaps his is the closest comparison to Hitler's methodology to date."[^35] The 2021 edition carries a foreword by Mason that closes "Heil Hitler!"[^35] The [[International Centre for Counter-Terrorism]] study by Bethan Johnson and Matthew Feldman states that propaganda of the "Siege Culture" milieu falls into three categories, the first being praise of Nazi and neo-Nazi predecessors, in which images of Hitler, Mason, Tommasi and Charles Manson are often featured in imposing stances.[^36] The same study records that activists of the [[Iron March]] forum released what became the third edition of Siege in 2015, and that [[Atomwaffen Division]], which publicly emerged that year, made the book required reading for new members.[^37] The [[Counter Extremism Project]] reports that the original Siege Culture website's library included Hitler's *Mein Kampf*, and that Atomwaffen Division posted a video in 2017 of masked members raising their arms in a "Heil Hitler" salute before a swastika flag with the message "Join your local Nazis."[^38]
[[Combat 18]], founded in early 1992 by [[Charlie Sargent]] and [[Wilf Browning]] as a stewarding group for the [[British National Party]], takes its name from the initials of Adolf Hitler (A=1, H=8), according to [[Nick Lowles]].[^38] The German [[Federal Ministry of the Interior]] banned the association Combat 18 Deutschland on January 23, 2020; Combat 18 does not appear in Schedule 2 of the Terrorism Act 2000.[^39] [[Jack Reed]] described himself in writing as a "natural sadist" and expressed admiration for Hitler, according to press reports of his case.[^40] [[Jacek Tchorzewski]] kept a collection of extreme right-wing material that praised Hitler, neo-Nazism and Satanism, including antisemitic content calling for genocide, according to the [[Campaign Against Antisemitism]].[^41] [[Combat 18]], founded in early 1992 by [[Charlie Sargent]] and [[Wilf Browning]] as a stewarding group for the [[British National Party]], takes its name from the initials of Adolf Hitler (A=1, H=8), according to [[Nick Lowles]].[^39] The German [[Federal Ministry of the Interior]] banned the association Combat 18 Deutschland on January 23, 2020; Combat 18 does not appear in Schedule 2 of the Terrorism Act 2000.[^40] [[Jack Reed]] described himself in writing as a "natural sadist" and expressed admiration for Hitler, according to press reports of his case.[^41] [[Jacek Tchorzewski]] kept a collection of extreme right-wing material that praised Hitler, neo-Nazism and Satanism, including antisemitic content calling for genocide, according to the [[Campaign Against Antisemitism]].[^42]
### Postwar continuities ### Postwar continuities
[[Edwin Black]] wrote that after the Nazi government awarded [[Thomas J. Watson]], chairman of [[IBM]], the Merit Cross of the German Eagle with Star in 1937, Watson on May 16, 1940 asked Secretary of State [[Cordell Hull]] whether the government wanted him to return the medal. Hull replied that the decision "will have to rest entirely with you, and is not one upon which this Government would be able to take a position." Watson returned the medal to Hitler on June 6, 1940 with a letter, released to the newspapers, stating that "the present policies of your government are contrary to the causes for which I have been working and for which I received the decoration."[^42] [[Edwin Black]] wrote that after the Nazi government awarded [[Thomas J. Watson]], chairman of [[IBM]], the Merit Cross of the German Eagle with Star in 1937, Watson on May 16, 1940 asked Secretary of State [[Cordell Hull]] whether the government wanted him to return the medal. Hull replied that the decision "will have to rest entirely with you, and is not one upon which this Government would be able to take a position." Watson returned the medal to Hitler on June 6, 1940 with a letter, released to the newspapers, stating that "the present policies of your government are contrary to the causes for which I have been working and for which I received the decoration."[^43]
[[Reinhard Gehlen]], who had headed the [[Wehrmacht]]'s [[Fremde Heere Ost]] directorate, wrote in his memoir that Hitler ordered his dismissal about a month after March 5, 1945, that his staff held a farewell party on April 12, and that he supervised the microfilming and burying of the directorate's files in secret locations in the Bavarian mountains, with three hideouts for his staff in the Alps.[^43] A statement by his deputy [[Gerhard Wessel]], reproduced in a CIA documentary history, records that Hitler relieved Gehlen on April 9, 1945 after Gehlen was presented to him in February or March, and that the microfilmed files were moved to three sites in southern Germany, near Schliersee, the Wilder Kaiser and Marquartstein.[^44] [[Reinhard Gehlen]], who had headed the [[Wehrmacht]]'s [[Fremde Heere Ost]] directorate, wrote in his memoir that Hitler ordered his dismissal about a month after March 5, 1945, that his staff held a farewell party on April 12, and that he supervised the microfilming and burying of the directorate's files in secret locations in the Bavarian mountains, with three hideouts for his staff in the Alps.[^44] A statement by his deputy [[Gerhard Wessel]], reproduced in a CIA documentary history, records that Hitler relieved Gehlen on April 9, 1945 after Gehlen was presented to him in February or March, and that the microfilmed files were moved to three sites in southern Germany, near Schliersee, the Wilder Kaiser and Marquartstein.[^45]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -136,43 +136,44 @@ On October 3, 1955, the acting chief of a CIA station forwarded a report to the
[^2]: International Military Tribunal, Judgment, October 1, 1946. Avalon Project, Yale Law School. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/judnazi.asp [^2]: International Military Tribunal, Judgment, October 1, 1946. Avalon Project, Yale Law School. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/judnazi.asp
[^3]: International Military Tribunal, Judgment, October 1, 1946, section on the Gestapo. Avalon Project, Yale Law School. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/judnazi.asp [^3]: International Military Tribunal, Judgment, October 1, 1946, section on the Gestapo. Avalon Project, Yale Law School. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/judnazi.asp
[^4]: Helms, Richard, with William Hood. *A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency*. New York: Random House, 2003, pp. 22-25. [^4]: Helms, Richard, with William Hood. *A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency*. New York: Random House, 2003, pp. 22-25.
[^5]: Speer, Albert. *Inside the Third Reich*. Translated by Richard and Clara Winston. Macmillan, 1970, pp. 94-95. https://archive.org/details/inside-the-third-reich-memoirs-by-albert-speer [^5]: Georgetown University Library, Booth Family Center for Special Collections, "Richard M. Helms Papers," biographical note, https://findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/10290 (United Press staff correspondent 1935 to 1937; "he attended a lunch given by Adolph Hitler in 1936").
[^6]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017. [^6]: Speer, Albert. *Inside the Third Reich*. Translated by Richard and Clara Winston. Macmillan, 1970, pp. 94-95. https://archive.org/details/inside-the-third-reich-memoirs-by-albert-speer
[^7]: Kurlander, Eric. "The Nazi Magicians' Controversy: Enlightenment, 'Border Science,' and Occultism in the Third Reich." *Central European History* 48, no. 4 (December 2015): 498-522, as quoted in Frey, Angelica. "Border Science vs. Commercial Occultism: A Nazi Debate." JSTOR Daily. https://daily.jstor.org/border-science-vs-commercial-occultism-a-nazi-debate/ [^7]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^8]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, p. 208, chapter "New Psychic Frontiers," citing Louis Pauwels and Jacques Bergier, *The Morning of the Magicians* (1960). [^8]: Kurlander, Eric. "The Nazi Magicians' Controversy: Enlightenment, 'Border Science,' and Occultism in the Third Reich." *Central European History* 48, no. 4 (December 2015): 498-522, as quoted in Frey, Angelica. "Border Science vs. Commercial Occultism: A Nazi Debate." JSTOR Daily. https://daily.jstor.org/border-science-vs-commercial-occultism-a-nazi-debate/
[^9]: Dietz, P.A. "A successful psychometric experiment with the clairvoyant E. Hanussen." *Tijdschrift voor Parapsychologie*, 1930/31, 3, 70-76, as annotated in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP96-00792R000700700002-2, item 01377. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00792r000700700002-2 [^9]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, p. 208, chapter "New Psychic Frontiers," citing Louis Pauwels and Jacques Bergier, *The Morning of the Magicians* (1960).
[^10]: Langer, Walter C. *The Mind of Adolf Hitler: The Secret Wartime Report*. Basic Books, 1972, chapter on the OSS request. [^10]: Dietz, P.A. "A successful psychometric experiment with the clairvoyant E. Hanussen." *Tijdschrift voor Parapsychologie*, 1930/31, 3, 70-76, as annotated in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP96-00792R000700700002-2, item 01377. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00792r000700700002-2
[^11]: Langer, Walter C. *A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler: His Life and Legend*. Office of Strategic Services, 1943 (title page). CIA Reading Room document C02571145. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-02571145 [^11]: Langer, Walter C. *The Mind of Adolf Hitler: The Secret Wartime Report*. Basic Books, 1972, chapter on the OSS request.
[^12]: Langer, *A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler*, 1943, p. 86 as paginated in the CIA copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-02571145 [^12]: Langer, Walter C. *A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler: His Life and Legend*. Office of Strategic Services, 1943 (title page). CIA Reading Room document C02571145. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-02571145
[^13]: Langer, *The Mind of Adolf Hitler*, 1972, chapter on the collaborators' diagnosis. [^13]: Langer, *A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler*, 1943, p. 86 as paginated in the CIA copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-02571145
[^14]: Langer, *A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler*, 1943, section "Femininity," p. 122 as paginated in the CIA copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-02571145 [^14]: Langer, *The Mind of Adolf Hitler*, 1972, chapter on the collaborators' diagnosis.
[^15]: Langer, *A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler*, 1943, p. 155 as paginated in the CIA copy; repeated in *The Mind of Adolf Hitler*, 1972, section "Hitler's Death." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-02571145 [^15]: Langer, *A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler*, 1943, section "Femininity," p. 122 as paginated in the CIA copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-02571145
[^16]: Murray, Henry A. *Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler, with Predictions of His Future Behavior and Suggestions for Dealing with Him Now and after Germany's Surrender*. Harvard Psychological Clinic, October 1943. https://archive.org/details/AnalysisOfThePersonalityOfAdolphHitler. Same text in CIA Reading Room document 02617886. [^16]: Langer, *A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler*, 1943, p. 155 as paginated in the CIA copy; repeated in *The Mind of Adolf Hitler*, 1972, section "Hitler's Death." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-02571145
[^17]: Murray, *Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler*, pp. 29-30. https://archive.org/details/AnalysisOfThePersonalityOfAdolphHitler [^17]: Murray, Henry A. *Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler, with Predictions of His Future Behavior and Suggestions for Dealing with Him Now and after Germany's Surrender*. Harvard Psychological Clinic, October 1943. https://archive.org/details/AnalysisOfThePersonalityOfAdolphHitler. Same text in CIA Reading Room document 02617886.
[^18]: Murray, *Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler*, pp. 30-32. https://archive.org/details/AnalysisOfThePersonalityOfAdolphHitler [^18]: Murray, *Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler*, pp. 29-30. https://archive.org/details/AnalysisOfThePersonalityOfAdolphHitler
[^19]: Murray, *Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler*, p. 33. https://archive.org/details/AnalysisOfThePersonalityOfAdolphHitler [^19]: Murray, *Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler*, pp. 30-32. https://archive.org/details/AnalysisOfThePersonalityOfAdolphHitler
[^20]: Lovell, Stanley P. *Of Spies and Stratagems*. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963, pp. 84-85 and 89-90. https://archive.org/details/ofspiesstratagem0000stan [^20]: Murray, *Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler*, p. 33. https://archive.org/details/AnalysisOfThePersonalityOfAdolphHitler
[^21]: Office of United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality. *Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression*, vol. VI. Government Printing Office, 1946. Document 3569-PS, translation of the covering letter of Martin Bormann, April 29, 1945, and Hitler's "Private Will and Testament," pp. 257-259. https://archive.org/details/naziconspiracyag06unit [^21]: Lovell, Stanley P. *Of Spies and Stratagems*. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963, pp. 84-85 and 89-90. https://archive.org/details/ofspiesstratagem0000stan
[^22]: Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, vol. VI, document 3569-PS, "My political Testament" and "Second Part of the Political Testament," pp. 259-262, with the editors' note on authentication. https://archive.org/details/naziconspiracyag06unit [^22]: Office of United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality. *Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression*, vol. VI. Government Printing Office, 1946. Document 3569-PS, translation of the covering letter of Martin Bormann, April 29, 1945, and Hitler's "Private Will and Testament," pp. 257-259. https://archive.org/details/naziconspiracyag06unit
[^23]: FBI Vault, Adolf Hitler file: office memorandum of March 6, 1946 and Laboratory report of March 13, 1946 on the examination of the bound "Adolf Hitler: Certificate of Marriage, Private Will and Political Testament" for the War Department. https://vault.fbi.gov/adolf-hitler [^23]: Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, vol. VI, document 3569-PS, "My political Testament" and "Second Part of the Political Testament," pp. 259-262, with the editors' note on authentication. https://archive.org/details/naziconspiracyag06unit
[^24]: Martin Bormann's notes of Hitler's conversations, February to April 1945, published as *The Political Testament of Adolf Hitler*, edited by François Genoud (1961 edition). https://archive.org/details/PoliticalTestamentOfAdolfHitler [^24]: FBI Vault, Adolf Hitler file: office memorandum of March 6, 1946 and Laboratory report of March 13, 1946 on the examination of the bound "Adolf Hitler: Certificate of Marriage, Private Will and Political Testament" for the War Department. https://vault.fbi.gov/adolf-hitler
[^25]: CIA Reading Room document C00416337, "The Death of Adolf Hitler: Unknown Documents from Soviet Archives," Document No. 12, forensic examination of a male corpse at Berlin-Buch, May 8, 1945. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00416337 [^25]: Martin Bormann's notes of Hitler's conversations, February to April 1945, published as *The Political Testament of Adolf Hitler*, edited by François Genoud (1961 edition). https://archive.org/details/PoliticalTestamentOfAdolfHitler
[^26]: CIA Reading Room document C00416337, "The Death of Adolf Hitler: Unknown Documents from Soviet Archives," Document No. 13 and the commission summary. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00416337 [^26]: CIA Reading Room document C00416337, "The Death of Adolf Hitler: Unknown Documents from Soviet Archives," Document No. 12, forensic examination of a male corpse at Berlin-Buch, May 8, 1945. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00416337
[^27]: Leikind, Morris. "Studies in Pathography II: Adolph Hitler," p. 32. CIA Reading Room document C00416336. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00416336 [^27]: CIA Reading Room document C00416337, "The Death of Adolf Hitler: Unknown Documents from Soviet Archives," Document No. 13 and the commission summary. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00416337
[^28]: OSS cable of August 7, 1945, in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP13X00001R000100200005-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp13x00001r000100200005-7 [^28]: Leikind, Morris. "Studies in Pathography II: Adolph Hitler," p. 32. CIA Reading Room document C00416336. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00416336
[^29]: FBI Vault, "Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)," Part 01 of 04, "Report on Hitler Hideout," Los Angeles file 105-410, September 21, 1945, p. 2. https://vault.fbi.gov/adolf-hitler [^29]: OSS cable of August 7, 1945, in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP13X00001R000100200005-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp13x00001r000100200005-7
[^30]: FBI Vault, "Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)," Part 01 of 04, "Report on Hitler Hideout," Los Angeles file 105-410, September 21, 1945, p. 1 (synopsis). https://vault.fbi.gov/adolf-hitler [^30]: FBI Vault, "Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)," Part 01 of 04, "Report on Hitler Hideout," Los Angeles file 105-410, September 21, 1945, p. 2. https://vault.fbi.gov/adolf-hitler
[^31]: FBI Vault, Adolf Hitler file: translations summarized July 28, 1948 of "Nueva York al Dia," May 22, 1948, and *El Tiempo* (Bogotá), June 20, 1948, with the Director's transmittal to the Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, State Department, copy to the Director of Central Intelligence. https://archive.org/details/fbi-hitler-adolf-ocr [^31]: FBI Vault, "Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)," Part 01 of 04, "Report on Hitler Hideout," Los Angeles file 105-410, September 21, 1945, p. 1 (synopsis). https://vault.fbi.gov/adolf-hitler
[^32]: CIA Reading Room document C00460209, dispatch No. 2592 from the acting chief of station to the Chief, WHD, dated October 3, 1955. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00460209 [^32]: FBI Vault, Adolf Hitler file: translations summarized July 28, 1948 of "Nueva York al Dia," May 22, 1948, and *El Tiempo* (Bogotá), June 20, 1948, with the Director's transmittal to the Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, State Department, copy to the Director of Central Intelligence. https://archive.org/details/fbi-hitler-adolf-ocr
[^33]: CIA Reading Room document C00460209, dispatch of October 3, 1955, closing paragraph. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00460209 [^33]: CIA Reading Room document C00460209, dispatch No. 2592 from the acting chief of station to the Chief, WHD, dated October 3, 1955. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00460209
[^34]: Mason, James. *Siege: The Collected Writings of James Mason*, 2021 edition, foreword and "Serious Steps," *Siege* vol. IX, no. 4 (August 1980). https://archive.org/details/siege-the-collected-writings-james-mason [^34]: CIA Reading Room document C00460209, dispatch of October 3, 1955, closing paragraph. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00460209
[^35]: Johnson, Bethan, and Matthew Feldman. "Siege Culture After Siege: Anatomy of a Neo-Nazi Terrorist Doctrine." International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, p. 12. https://icct.nl/sites/default/files/2022-12/siege-culture-neo-nazi-terrorist-doctrine.pdf [^35]: Mason, James. *Siege: The Collected Writings of James Mason*, 2021 edition, foreword and "Serious Steps," *Siege* vol. IX, no. 4 (August 1980). https://archive.org/details/siege-the-collected-writings-james-mason
[^36]: Johnson and Feldman, "Siege Culture After Siege," pp. 12-13. https://icct.nl/sites/default/files/2022-12/siege-culture-neo-nazi-terrorist-doctrine.pdf [^36]: Johnson, Bethan, and Matthew Feldman. "Siege Culture After Siege: Anatomy of a Neo-Nazi Terrorist Doctrine." International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, p. 12. https://icct.nl/sites/default/files/2022-12/siege-culture-neo-nazi-terrorist-doctrine.pdf
[^37]: Counter Extremism Project. "James Mason's Siege: Ties to Extremists," March 4, 2022. https://www.counterextremism.com/themes/custom/cep/templates/reports/sieges_ties_to_extremists/files/James_Mason_Siege_Ties_to_Extremists_030422.pdf [^37]: Johnson and Feldman, "Siege Culture After Siege," pp. 12-13. https://icct.nl/sites/default/files/2022-12/siege-culture-neo-nazi-terrorist-doctrine.pdf
[^38]: Lowles, Nick. *White Riot: The Violent Story of Combat 18*. Milo Books, 2001. [^38]: Counter Extremism Project. "James Mason's Siege: Ties to Extremists," March 4, 2022. https://www.counterextremism.com/themes/custom/cep/templates/reports/sieges_ties_to_extremists/files/James_Mason_Siege_Ties_to_Extremists_030422.pdf
[^39]: Beck-aktuell. "Seehofer verbietet rechtsextremistischen Verein 'Combat 18 Deutschland,'" January 23, 2020. https://www.beck-aktuell.de/heute-im-recht/rechtsgeschehen/seehofer-verbietet-rechtsextremistischen-verein-combat-18-deutschland-2020-01-23; Terrorism Act 2000, Schedule 2, as amended, https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/11/schedule/2; Home Office, "Proscribed terrorist groups or organisations," updated July 7, 2026. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/proscribed-terror-groups-or-organisations--2 [^39]: Lowles, Nick. *White Riot: The Violent Story of Combat 18*. Milo Books, 2001.
[^40]: Enfield Independent. "Nazi terrorist named after judge rejects anonymity bid." 2021. https://www.enfieldindependent.co.uk/news/national/19002125.nazi-terrorist-named-judge-rejects-anonymity-bid/ [^40]: Beck-aktuell. "Seehofer verbietet rechtsextremistischen Verein 'Combat 18 Deutschland,'" January 23, 2020. https://www.beck-aktuell.de/heute-im-recht/rechtsgeschehen/seehofer-verbietet-rechtsextremistischen-verein-combat-18-deutschland-2020-01-23; Terrorism Act 2000, Schedule 2, as amended, https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/11/schedule/2; Home Office, "Proscribed terrorist groups or organisations," updated July 7, 2026. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/proscribed-terror-groups-or-organisations--2
[^41]: Campaign Against Antisemitism. "Hitler-loving neo-Nazi who said it was his 'dream' to create a bloodbath arrested at Luton Airport and sentenced to four years." September 2019. https://antisemitism.org/hitler-loving-neo-nazi-who-said-it-was-his-dream-to-create-a-bloodbath-arrested-at-luton-airport-and-sentenced-to-four-years-in-prison [^41]: Enfield Independent. "Nazi terrorist named after judge rejects anonymity bid." 2021. https://www.enfieldindependent.co.uk/news/national/19002125.nazi-terrorist-named-judge-rejects-anonymity-bid/
[^42]: Black, Edwin. *IBM and the Holocaust*. Crown, 2001, chapters on 1940. https://archive.org/details/ibm-and-the-holocaust-the-strategic-alliance-between-nazi-germany-and-americas-m [^42]: Campaign Against Antisemitism. "Hitler-loving neo-Nazi who said it was his 'dream' to create a bloodbath arrested at Luton Airport and sentenced to four years." September 2019. https://antisemitism.org/hitler-loving-neo-nazi-who-said-it-was-his-dream-to-create-a-bloodbath-arrested-at-luton-airport-and-sentenced-to-four-years-in-prison
[^43]: Gehlen, Reinhard. *The Service: The Memoirs of General Reinhard Gehlen*. World Publishing, 1972. https://archive.org/details/theservicethememoirsofgeneralreinhardgehlen [^43]: Black, Edwin. *IBM and the Holocaust*. Crown, 2001, chapters on 1940. https://archive.org/details/ibm-and-the-holocaust-the-strategic-alliance-between-nazi-germany-and-americas-m
[^44]: Central Intelligence Agency. *Forging an Intelligence Partnership: CIA and the Origins of the BND, 1945-49*, vol. I, Document 1, "Statement of Gerhard Wessel on Development of the German Organization," and chronology. https://archive.org/details/CIAANDTHEORIGINSOFTHEBND1945-49VOL1-0001 [^44]: Gehlen, Reinhard. *The Service: The Memoirs of General Reinhard Gehlen*. World Publishing, 1972. https://archive.org/details/theservicethememoirsofgeneralreinhardgehlen
[^45]: Central Intelligence Agency. *Forging an Intelligence Partnership: CIA and the Origins of the BND, 1945-49*, vol. I, Document 1, "Statement of Gerhard Wessel on Development of the German Organization," and chronology. https://archive.org/details/CIAANDTHEORIGINSOFTHEBND1945-49VOL1-0001

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10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Alexander M. Haig, Jr..md
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@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ relations:
- type: reported_to - type: reported_to
with: "[[Henry A. Kissinger]]" with: "[[Henry A. Kissinger]]"
role: "assistant and deputy assistant to the president for national security affairs" role: "assistant and deputy assistant to the president for national security affairs"
fn: 5 fn: 6
- type: participant_in - type: participant_in
with: "[[Halperin v. Kissinger]]" with: "[[Halperin v. Kissinger]]"
start: 1973-06 start: 1973-06
@ -43,14 +43,14 @@ relations:
start: 1973 start: 1973
end: 1974 end: 1974
role: "white house chief of staff" role: "white house chief of staff"
fn: 13 fn: 14
- type: investigated - type: investigated
with: "[[Church Committee]]" with: "[[Church Committee]]"
reverse: true reverse: true
start: 1975-08-15 start: 1975-08-15
end: 1975-08-15 end: 1975-08-15
role: "testified on chile track ii" role: "testified on chile track ii"
fn: 5 fn: 6
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe]]" with: "[[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe]]"
start: 1974 start: 1974
@ -68,12 +68,12 @@ relations:
reverse: true reverse: true
end: 1982-06-25 end: 1982-06-25
role: "secretary of state" role: "secretary of state"
fn: 22 fn: 23
- type: participant_in - type: participant_in
with: "[[Haig v. Agee]]" with: "[[Haig v. Agee]]"
end: 1981-06-29 end: 1981-06-29
role: "petitioner as secretary of state" role: "petitioner as secretary of state"
fn: 17 fn: 18
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[Worldwide Associates]]" with: "[[Worldwide Associates]]"
start: 1984 start: 1984
@ -85,37 +85,37 @@ relations:
start: 1988-01-27 start: 1988-01-27
end: 1988-01-27 end: 1988-01-27
role: "$1,000 to haig for president" role: "$1,000 to haig for president"
fn: 14 fn: 15
- type: director_of - type: director_of
with: "[[MGM Mirage]]" with: "[[MGM Mirage]]"
start: 1990 start: 1990
role: "director" role: "director"
fn: 29 fn: 30
- type: contractor_to - type: contractor_to
with: "[[MGM Mirage]]" with: "[[MGM Mirage]]"
start: 1990-05 start: 1990-05
role: "consultant; fees of $50,000 in 2000" role: "consultant; fees of $50,000 in 2000"
fn: 29 fn: 30
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[MGM Mirage PAC]]" with: "[[MGM Mirage PAC]]"
start: 2000-12-19 start: 2000-12-19
end: 2004-05-04 end: 2004-05-04
role: "three contributions totaling $2,500" role: "three contributions totaling $2,500"
fn: 14 fn: 15
- type: director_of - type: director_of
with: "[[Interneuron Pharmaceuticals]]" with: "[[Interneuron Pharmaceuticals]]"
role: "director" role: "director"
fn: 29 fn: 30
- type: contractor_to - type: contractor_to
with: "[[SDC International]]" with: "[[SDC International]]"
start: 1999-05 start: 1999-05
role: "strategic advisor; 1 to 2 percent of contracts obtained through his efforts" role: "strategic advisor; 1 to 2 percent of contracts obtained through his efforts"
fn: 13 fn: 14
- type: director_of - type: director_of
with: "[[SDC International]]" with: "[[SDC International]]"
start: 2002-01 start: 2002-01
role: "director and proxy holder" role: "director and proxy holder"
fn: 13 fn: 14
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[DOR BioPharma]]" with: "[[DOR BioPharma]]"
start: 2002-12-23 start: 2002-12-23
@ -126,15 +126,15 @@ relations:
start: 1994-01-11 start: 1994-01-11
end: 2008-05-07 end: 2008-05-07
role: "contributions of $750 to $5,000 listing worldwide associates as employer" role: "contributions of $750 to $5,000 listing worldwide associates as employer"
fn: 14 fn: 15
- type: contractor_to - type: contractor_to
with: "[[International Signal and Control]]" with: "[[International Signal and Control]]"
start: 1985 start: 1985
end: 1987 end: 1987
role: "consulting work through Worldwide Associates, according to Haig's 1988 candidate filing" role: "consulting work through Worldwide Associates, according to Haig's 1988 candidate filing"
fn: 27 fn: 28
created: 2026-10-01 created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-08 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Alexander Meigs Haig Jr. was born on December 2, 1924, in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania, and died at about 1:30 a.m. on February 20, 2010, at [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] in [[Baltimore]], at the age of 85; a hospital spokesman attributed his death to complications of an infection.[^1] He was military adviser and then deputy to [[Henry A. Kissinger]] at the [[National Security Council]], [[White House]] chief of staff to [[Richard Nixon]], Supreme Allied Commander in Europe, president of [[United Technologies Corporation]], and Secretary of State under President [[Ronald Reagan]].[^1][^2] Nixon promoted him in 1972 from two-star to four-star rank, passing over 240 officers with greater seniority.[^1] Alexander Meigs Haig Jr. was born on December 2, 1924, in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania, and died at about 1:30 a.m. on February 20, 2010, at [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] in [[Baltimore]], at the age of 85; a hospital spokesman attributed his death to complications of an infection.[^1] He was military adviser and then deputy to [[Henry A. Kissinger]] at the [[National Security Council]], [[White House]] chief of staff to [[Richard Nixon]], Supreme Allied Commander in Europe, president of [[United Technologies Corporation]], and Secretary of State under President [[Ronald Reagan]].[^1][^2] Nixon promoted him in 1972 from two-star to four-star rank, passing over 240 officers with greater seniority.[^1]
@ -149,105 +149,106 @@ A memorandum from Haig to Kissinger dated June 4, 1969, supplied "talking points
Halperin and his family sued in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] in June 1973 (Civil Action No. 1187-73), within a month of the government's admission at the trial of [[Daniel Ellsberg]] that Ellsberg had been overheard on the tap. The defendants were Nixon, Mitchell, Kissinger, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Haig, [[Jeb Magruder]], FBI Director [[Clarence Kelley]], the FBI official [[William C. Sullivan]] and Assistant Attorney General [[Robert Mardian]]; the [[Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company]] was also named. On cross-motions for summary judgment in December 1976 the district court ruled for all defendants except Nixon, Mitchell and Haldeman (424 F.Supp. 838), and in August 1977 it awarded $1 in nominal damages.[^3] Halperin and his family sued in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] in June 1973 (Civil Action No. 1187-73), within a month of the government's admission at the trial of [[Daniel Ellsberg]] that Ellsberg had been overheard on the tap. The defendants were Nixon, Mitchell, Kissinger, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Haig, [[Jeb Magruder]], FBI Director [[Clarence Kelley]], the FBI official [[William C. Sullivan]] and Assistant Attorney General [[Robert Mardian]]; the [[Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company]] was also named. On cross-motions for summary judgment in December 1976 the district court ruled for all defendants except Nixon, Mitchell and Haldeman (424 F.Supp. 838), and in August 1977 it awarded $1 in nominal damages.[^3]
On July 12, 1979, the court of appeals (606 F.2d 1192) reversed on the application of Title III of the [[Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968]], on damages and on the summary judgment for Kissinger.[^3] The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] affirmed in 1981 by an equally divided Court and dismissed certiorari as to Haldeman (452 U.S. 713). On remand the district court granted summary judgment to all defendants on qualified immunity (578 F.Supp. 231 (1984)). On December 5, 1986, in an opinion by Circuit Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] (807 F.2d 180), the court of appeals held that summary judgment was proper as to the initiation of the wiretap but not as to its continuation after May 1970, and remanded.[^4] On July 12, 1979, the court of appeals (606 F.2d 1192) reversed on the application of Title III of the [[Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968]], on damages and on the summary judgment for Kissinger.[^3] In [[Kissinger v. Halperin]], 452 U.S. 713 (1981), decided per curiam on June 22, 1981, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] affirmed the judgment as to Kissinger, Nixon and [[John N. Mitchell]] by an equally divided Court, and dismissed the writ of certiorari as to Haldeman as improvidently granted.[^4] On remand the district court granted summary judgment to all defendants on qualified immunity (578 F.Supp. 231 (1984)). On December 5, 1986, in an opinion by Circuit Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] (807 F.2d 180), the court of appeals held that summary judgment was proper as to the initiation of the wiretap but not as to its continuation after May 1970, and remanded.[^5]
### Laos and Chile, 1970 and 1971 ### Laos and Chile, 1970 and 1971
The Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, the [[Church Committee]], described Haig as "Kissinger's deputy" and recorded his contacts with [[Thomas Karamessines]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s Deputy Director for Plans, in October 1970, during the CIA's effort to prevent the inauguration of [[Salvador Allende]] in [[Chile]], the operation the Committee called Track II and the CIA's memoranda carried as [[Project FUBELT]]. Karamessines's calendar showed a lunch with Haig on October 8 and meetings on October 15, 19 and 22; on October 10 Karamessines told Haig by telephone, according to a CIA memorandum, that the Station had "made direct contact with a number of the senior military officers" and "received pessimistic reactions from all." At the October 15 meeting of Kissinger, Haig and Karamessines, the CIA memorandum recorded that General [[Roberto Viaux]] did not have more than one chance in twenty of a successful coup, that a message would be sent warning him against precipitate action, and that Kissinger instructed Karamessines to preserve Agency assets in Chile and keep up the pressure on Allende. The CIA cable sent to the Station on October 16 stated that it was "firm and continuing policy that Allende be overthrown by a coup."[^5] The Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, the [[Church Committee]], described Haig as "Kissinger's deputy" and recorded his contacts with [[Thomas Karamessines]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s Deputy Director for Plans, in October 1970, during the CIA's effort to prevent the inauguration of [[Salvador Allende]] in [[Chile]], the operation the Committee called Track II and the CIA's memoranda carried as [[Project FUBELT]]. Karamessines's calendar showed a lunch with Haig on October 8 and meetings on October 15, 19 and 22; on October 10 Karamessines told Haig by telephone, according to a CIA memorandum, that the Station had "made direct contact with a number of the senior military officers" and "received pessimistic reactions from all." At the October 15 meeting of Kissinger, Haig and Karamessines, the CIA memorandum recorded that General [[Roberto Viaux]] did not have more than one chance in twenty of a successful coup, that a message would be sent warning him against precipitate action, and that Kissinger instructed Karamessines to preserve Agency assets in Chile and keep up the pressure on Allende. The CIA cable sent to the Station on October 16 stated that it was "firm and continuing policy that Allende be overthrown by a coup."[^6]
Kissinger and Haig testified that the October 15 meeting turned off the Agency's coup efforts and that afterwards they were neither informed of nor authorized Track II activities; CIA officials testified that their activities after October 15 were known to and authorized by the White House, and the Committee reported that it could not resolve the conflict. Haig testified on August 15, 1975, that he left the October 15 meeting "with the impression that there was nothing authorized," that he was not familiar with the Valenzuela plan or "$50,000" and had no recollection of a meeting with Karamessines on October 19, the afternoon of the day the Station's cable outlining the plan arrived, that word of the shooting of General [[Rene Schneider]] on October 22 came as "a great shock," and, asked whether he was informed before the attempted abduction, "I don't believe I was at all."[^5] Kissinger and Haig testified that the October 15 meeting turned off the Agency's coup efforts and that afterwards they were neither informed of nor authorized Track II activities; CIA officials testified that their activities after October 15 were known to and authorized by the White House, and the Committee reported that it could not resolve the conflict. Haig testified on August 15, 1975, that he left the October 15 meeting "with the impression that there was nothing authorized," that he was not familiar with the Valenzuela plan or "$50,000" and had no recollection of a meeting with Karamessines on October 19, the afternoon of the day the Station's cable outlining the plan arrived, that word of the shooting of General [[Rene Schneider]] on October 22 came as "a great shock," and, asked whether he was informed before the attempted abduction, "I don't believe I was at all."[^6]
On February 3, 1971, Karamessines sent Brigadier General Haig, then Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, two "Top Secret Sensitive/Exclusively Eyes Only" messages for Haig from Ambassador [[William H. Godley]] in [[Laos]], captioned "Operation Gold," received through CIA channels. One reported that a Lao official, Sisouk, had let Godley glance at the Royal Lao Government's draft declaration to be issued after the operation against Tchepone began, and that the Prime Minister had agreed on the need for discretion but wondered whether anything could be kept secret.[^6] On February 3, 1971, Karamessines sent Brigadier General Haig, then Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, two "Top Secret Sensitive/Exclusively Eyes Only" messages for Haig from Ambassador [[William H. Godley]] in [[Laos]], captioned "Operation Gold," received through CIA channels. One reported that a Lao official, Sisouk, had let Godley glance at the Royal Lao Government's draft declaration to be issued after the operation against Tchepone began, and that the Prime Minister had agreed on the need for discretion but wondered whether anything could be kept secret.[^7]
On January 12, 1972, the CIA's Office of Legislative Counsel recorded that the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] had telephoned Haig about the nomination of a new Deputy Director of Central Intelligence. Haig said the nomination might be presented in the very near future, that he was unaware of plans to alert key senators in advance but thought Senator [[John Stennis]] might be advised, and that he would tell the Director the White House "game plan" once it was decided.[^7] On January 12, 1972, the CIA's Office of Legislative Counsel recorded that the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] had telephoned Haig about the nomination of a new Deputy Director of Central Intelligence. Haig said the nomination might be presented in the very near future, that he was unaware of plans to alert key senators in advance but thought Senator [[John Stennis]] might be advised, and that he would tell the Director the White House "game plan" once it was decided.[^8]
### Chief of staff and the August 1974 meetings with Ford ### Chief of staff and the August 1974 meetings with Ford
Haig succeeded Haldeman as White House chief of staff in 1973.[^1] In sworn testimony to the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice of the House Judiciary Committee on October 17, 1974, President [[Gerald R. Ford]] described two meetings with Haig on August 1, 1974, when Ford was Vice President. In the early morning Haig told him of additional tape evidence due to be delivered to Judge [[John Sirica]] on Monday, August 5. Haig came again at about 3:30 in the afternoon for roughly three-quarters of an hour and told him of the damaging nature of a June 23, 1972, conversation on one of the tapes, of which White House lawyers had told him. Ford testified that Haig outlined the courses under discussion in the White House, among them the President stepping aside under the 25th Amendment, a censure vote, "the question of whether the President could pardon himself," "pardoning various Watergate defendants, then himself, followed by resignation," and "a pardon to the President, should he resign"; that Haig "indicated he was not advocating any of the options"; and that, asked about the pardon power, Haig said it was his understanding from a White House lawyer that a President could grant a pardon before any criminal action was taken. Ford testified that on the morning of August 2 the Nixon lawyer [[James St. Clair]] told him he had not been the source of any opinion about the pardon power, and that late on August 2 he telephoned Haig to say that nothing they had discussed should be given any consideration in Nixon's decision, to which Haig replied that he was in full agreement. Asked whether Haig had discussed a pardon with Nixon or his representatives during the week of August 4 or afterward, Ford answered: "not to my knowledge."[^8] Haig succeeded Haldeman as White House chief of staff in 1973.[^1] In sworn testimony to the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice of the House Judiciary Committee on October 17, 1974, President [[Gerald R. Ford]] described two meetings with Haig on August 1, 1974, when Ford was Vice President. In the early morning Haig told him of additional tape evidence due to be delivered to Judge [[John Sirica]] on Monday, August 5. Haig came again at about 3:30 in the afternoon for roughly three-quarters of an hour and told him of the damaging nature of a June 23, 1972, conversation on one of the tapes, of which White House lawyers had told him. Ford testified that Haig outlined the courses under discussion in the White House, among them the President stepping aside under the 25th Amendment, a censure vote, "the question of whether the President could pardon himself," "pardoning various Watergate defendants, then himself, followed by resignation," and "a pardon to the President, should he resign"; that Haig "indicated he was not advocating any of the options"; and that, asked about the pardon power, Haig said it was his understanding from a White House lawyer that a President could grant a pardon before any criminal action was taken. Ford testified that on the morning of August 2 the Nixon lawyer [[James St. Clair]] told him he had not been the source of any opinion about the pardon power, and that late on August 2 he telephoned Haig to say that nothing they had discussed should be given any consideration in Nixon's decision, to which Haig replied that he was in full agreement. Asked whether Haig had discussed a pardon with Nixon or his representatives during the week of August 4 or afterward, Ford answered: "not to my knowledge."[^9]
The Associated Press obituary states that Haig "suggested to President Gerald Ford that he pardon his predecessor," that he played a key role in persuading Nixon to resign, and that he repeatedly denied speculation that he was "Deep Throat."[^1] It states that he stayed about six weeks with the Ford administration.[^1] [[Donald Rumsfeld]] became Ford's chief of staff on September 27, 1974.[^9] The Associated Press obituary states that Haig "suggested to President Gerald Ford that he pardon his predecessor," that he played a key role in persuading Nixon to resign, and that he repeatedly denied speculation that he was "Deep Throat."[^1] It states that he stayed about six weeks with the Ford administration.[^1] [[Donald Rumsfeld]] became Ford's chief of staff on September 27, 1974.[^10]
### Supreme Allied Commander Europe ### Supreme Allied Commander Europe
Haig was Supreme Allied Commander in Europe from 1974 to 1979.[^2] On December 5, 1975, George A. Carver Jr., the CIA's Deputy for National Intelligence Officers, informed Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld in writing that, at General Haig's request, the CIA had arranged to provide him intelligence support tailored to his needs, concentrating on current political and economic developments and supplementary to the support he received through military channels, and that the arrangements had been endorsed by Rumsfeld's predecessor and the Chairman of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] and set up with the knowledge of the Director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]]. A copy went to a CIA file labeled "HAIG SUPPORT."[^10] A CIA reminder of March 6, 1978, directed that General Haig be sent a personal copy of National Intelligence Estimate 4-1 when it came off the press.[^11] Haig was Supreme Allied Commander in Europe from 1974 to 1979.[^2] On December 5, 1975, George A. Carver Jr., the CIA's Deputy for National Intelligence Officers, informed Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld in writing that, at General Haig's request, the CIA had arranged to provide him intelligence support tailored to his needs, concentrating on current political and economic developments and supplementary to the support he received through military channels, and that the arrangements had been endorsed by Rumsfeld's predecessor and the Chairman of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] and set up with the knowledge of the Director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]]. A copy went to a CIA file labeled "HAIG SUPPORT."[^11] A CIA reminder of March 6, 1978, directed that General Haig be sent a personal copy of National Intelligence Estimate 4-1 when it came off the press.[^12]
[[Rowland Evans]] and [[Robert Novak]] wrote in a column printed in the [[Boston Globe]] on January 25, 1981, that in his last days as President, [[Jimmy Carter]] summoned General [[Robert Huyser]], Haig's deputy at [[NATO]] whom Carter had sent to [[Tehran]] in January 1979 over Haig's objections, for a conversation the columnists described as an unsuccessful ploy against Haig's confirmation as Secretary of State; they cited "an intimate of both Huyser and Haig" as saying Huyser was "unshakable" in praising Haig.[^12] [[Rowland Evans]] and [[Robert Novak]] wrote in a column printed in the [[Boston Globe]] on January 25, 1981, that in his last days as President, [[Jimmy Carter]] summoned General [[Robert Huyser]], Haig's deputy at [[NATO]] whom Carter had sent to [[Tehran]] in January 1979 over Haig's objections, for a conversation the columnists described as an unsuccessful ploy against Haig's confirmation as Secretary of State; they cited "an intimate of both Huyser and Haig" as saying Huyser was "unshakable" in praising Haig.[^13]
### United Technologies ### United Technologies
Haig's later corporate biographies give different dates for his presidency of United Technologies: the 2004 proxy statement of DOR BioPharma gives 1978 to 1981, and the 2002 proxy statement of SDC International gives 1979 to 1981 and states that he "remains as a consultant."[^2][^13] The Associated Press obituary places the move after he briefly explored a presidential run in 1979.[^1] On August 15, 1980, "Haig, Alexander M Jr" of Farmington, Connecticut, employer United Technologies, gave $500 to the United Technologies Corporation political action committee.[^14] Haig's later corporate biographies give different dates for his presidency of United Technologies: the 2004 proxy statement of DOR BioPharma gives 1978 to 1981, and the 2002 proxy statement of SDC International gives 1979 to 1981 and states that he "remains as a consultant."[^2][^14] The Associated Press obituary places the move after he briefly explored a presidential run in 1979.[^1] On August 15, 1980, "Haig, Alexander M Jr" of Farmington, Connecticut, employer United Technologies, gave $500 to the United Technologies Corporation political action committee.[^15]
### Secretary of State ### Secretary of State
A memorandum by [[Robert Gates]] records the subjects raised at a breakfast between Director of Central Intelligence [[William J. Casey]] and Haig on March 20, 1981, among them NATO security, with State to work with NATO Secretary General [[Joseph Luns]].[^15] On March 30, 1981, after the attempted assassination of Reagan, Haig told reporters in the White House briefing room: "Constitutionally gentlemen, you have the president, the vice president and the secretary of state, in that order, and should the president decide he wants to transfer the helm to the vice president, he will do so. As for now, I'm in control here, in the White House, pending the return of the vice president and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course."[^1] A memorandum by [[Robert Gates]] records the subjects raised at a breakfast between Director of Central Intelligence [[William J. Casey]] and Haig on March 20, 1981, among them NATO security, with State to work with NATO Secretary General [[Joseph Luns]].[^16] On March 30, 1981, after the attempted assassination of Reagan, Haig told reporters in the White House briefing room: "Constitutionally gentlemen, you have the president, the vice president and the secretary of state, in that order, and should the president decide he wants to transfer the helm to the vice president, he will do so. As for now, I'm in control here, in the White House, pending the return of the vice president and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course."[^1]
[[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that Haig was present at a meeting of Reagan's high command following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at Osirak in June 1981 (the [[Osirak bombing]]), and that while the [[State Department]] formally condemned the bombing, Haig was privately forbearing.[^16] [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that Haig was present at a meeting of Reagan's high command following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at Osirak in June 1981 (the [[Osirak bombing]]), and that while the [[State Department]] formally condemned the bombing, Haig was privately forbearing.[^17]
On June 29, 1981, the Supreme Court decided [[Haig v. Agee]], in which Haig, as Secretary of State, was the petitioner. The Court upheld the revocation of the passport of [[Philip Agee]], a CIA employee from 1957 to 1968 who had announced a campaign to expose CIA officers and agents; the revocation had been ordered in December 1979, before Haig took office.[^17] On June 29, 1981, the Supreme Court decided [[Haig v. Agee]], in which Haig, as Secretary of State, was the petitioner. The Court upheld the revocation of the passport of [[Philip Agee]], a CIA employee from 1957 to 1968 who had announced a campaign to expose CIA officers and agents; the revocation had been ordered in December 1979, before Haig took office.[^18]
CIA scheduling memoranda record that Casey planned a meeting with Haig on October 1, 1981, at 3:30 p.m., and that Casey and his deputy, Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], were scheduled for breakfast with Haig on October 6, 1981, and again on January 26, 1982.[^18] The National Intelligence Officer for [[Latin America]] prepared Casey for the October 1 meeting with a memorandum listing four policy alternatives on Cuba and [[Central America]], the third being increased support for [[El Salvador]], Guatemala and Honduras "plus replacement of Sandinista Directorate by Third Force moderates to include the use of US forces to deter or interdict Cuban reinforcement of Nicaragua," and the fourth "direct pressure on Cuba," including an oil blockade. The memorandum stated that there was "virtual consensus among Defense, most of CIA and State" for the third alternative.[^19] CIA scheduling memoranda record that Casey planned a meeting with Haig on October 1, 1981, at 3:30 p.m., and that Casey and his deputy, Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], were scheduled for breakfast with Haig on October 6, 1981, and again on January 26, 1982.[^19] The National Intelligence Officer for [[Latin America]] prepared Casey for the October 1 meeting with a memorandum listing four policy alternatives on Cuba and [[Central America]], the third being increased support for [[El Salvador]], Guatemala and Honduras "plus replacement of Sandinista Directorate by Third Force moderates to include the use of US forces to deter or interdict Cuban reinforcement of Nicaragua," and the fourth "direct pressure on Cuba," including an oil blockade. The memorandum stated that there was "virtual consensus among Defense, most of CIA and State" for the third alternative.[^20]
On April 2, 1982, Casey sent Haig ("Dear Al") a quick intelligence assessment of the military aspects of the "Falkland affair" in the [[Falkland Islands]], which referred to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President [[George H.W. Bush]].[^20] On April 14, 1982, Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] told the House of Commons that Haig had made two visits to the [[United Kingdom]] and one to [[Buenos Aires]], praised his "tireless efforts," and said that on his second visit he had put forward ideas concerning the withdrawal of troops and an interim period for negotiations. On April 29 she said that Haig had put formal American proposals to the [[Argentina|Argentine]] government, and on May 4 that he was pursuing initiatives through the Peruvian government.[^21] On April 2, 1982, Casey sent Haig ("Dear Al") a quick intelligence assessment of the military aspects of the "Falkland affair" in the [[Falkland Islands]], which referred to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President [[George H.W. Bush]].[^21] On April 14, 1982, Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] told the House of Commons that Haig had made two visits to the [[United Kingdom]] and one to [[Buenos Aires]], praised his "tireless efforts," and said that on his second visit he had put forward ideas concerning the withdrawal of troops and an interim period for negotiations. On April 29 she said that Haig had put formal American proposals to the [[Argentina|Argentine]] government, and on May 4 that he was pursuing initiatives through the Peruvian government.[^22]
Reagan accepted Haig's resignation by letter on June 25, 1982. Haig's letter of the same date states that he and Reagan had agreed that "consistency, clarity and steadiness of purpose were essential to success" and that "in recent months, it has become clear to me that the foreign policy on which we embarked together was shifting from that careful course which we had laid out."[^22] [[George P. Shultz]] succeeded him.[^1] Reagan accepted Haig's resignation by letter on June 25, 1982. Haig's letter of the same date states that he and Reagan had agreed that "consistency, clarity and steadiness of purpose were essential to success" and that "in recent months, it has become clear to me that the foreign policy on which we embarked together was shifting from that careful course which we had laid out."[^23] [[George P. Shultz]] succeeded him.[^1]
### Worldwide Associates and the CIA, 1984 and 1985 ### Worldwide Associates and the CIA, 1984 and 1985
[[Worldwide Associates]], a Washington international advisory firm, had Haig as chairman and president from 1984.[^2] Deputy Director of Central Intelligence [[John McMahon|John N. McMahon]] wrote to Haig ("Al") on January 5, 1984, at 1155 15th Street, N.W., Suite 800, that a doctoral candidate and former military officer whose resume Haig had passed to the Agency, whose name is redacted, would join the CIA as a career trainee on April 16, adding: "We're always on the lookout for good people and appreciate your keeping us in mind."[^23] The same address is given for Haig in the 2002 proxy statement of SDC International.[^13] [[Worldwide Associates]], a Washington international advisory firm, had Haig as chairman and president from 1984.[^2] Deputy Director of Central Intelligence [[John McMahon|John N. McMahon]] wrote to Haig ("Al") on January 5, 1984, at 1155 15th Street, N.W., Suite 800, that a doctoral candidate and former military officer whose resume Haig had passed to the Agency, whose name is redacted, would join the CIA as a career trainee on April 16, adding: "We're always on the lookout for good people and appreciate your keeping us in mind."[^24] The same address is given for Haig in the 2002 proxy statement of SDC International.[^14]
The appointment log of Director of Central Intelligence Casey for 1985, as released, lists under Haig a reception and screening of "That's Dancing" hosted by Mr. and Mrs. Haig at the [[Motion Picture Association]], 1600 I Street, N.W., on January 22; a breakfast with Haig at the Madison Hotel on April 10; a reception and screening of "A View to a Kill" at the same address hosted by General and Mrs. Haig on May 31; a breakfast with General Haig at CIA headquarters on November 13; and a cocktail buffet hosted by General and Mrs. Haig on December 20.[^24] The appointment log of Director of Central Intelligence Casey for 1985, as released, lists under Haig a reception and screening of "That's Dancing" hosted by Mr. and Mrs. Haig at the [[Motion Picture Association]], 1600 I Street, N.W., on January 22; a breakfast with Haig at the Madison Hotel on April 10; a reception and screening of "A View to a Kill" at the same address hosted by General and Mrs. Haig on May 31; a breakfast with General Haig at CIA headquarters on November 13; and a cocktail buffet hosted by General and Mrs. Haig on December 20.[^25]
No registrant named Worldwide Associates, and none named Haig, appears in the [[Foreign Agents Registration Act]] registrant lists, active or terminated, retrieved from the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s FARA e-file interface on October 1, 2026; the only near matches are the law firm Haight, Gardner, Poor & Havens and related Haight registrants.[^25] The Senate and House lobbying disclosure database, which begins in 1999, returns no registrant named Worldwide Associates and no lobbyist named Haig.[^26] No registrant named Worldwide Associates, and none named Haig, appears in the [[Foreign Agents Registration Act]] registrant lists, active or terminated, retrieved from the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s FARA e-file interface on October 1, 2026; the only near matches are the law firm Haight, Gardner, Poor & Havens and related Haight registrants.[^26] The Senate and House lobbying disclosure database, which begins in 1999, returns no registrant named Worldwide Associates and no lobbyist named Haig.[^27]
### International Signal and Control, 1985 to 1987 ### International Signal and Control, 1985 to 1987
Worldwide Associates did consulting work for [[International Signal and Control]] between 1985 and 1987, according to a filing Haig made when he ran for president in 1988.[^27] Haig and Bobby Ray Inman were among the well-known Washingtonians who had lent their names to the business of [[James Guerin]].[^27] Worldwide Associates did consulting work for [[International Signal and Control]] between 1985 and 1987, according to a filing Haig made when he ran for president in 1988.[^28] Haig and Bobby Ray Inman were among the well-known Washingtonians who had lent their names to the business of [[James Guerin]].[^28]
At the 1992 trial of [[Thomas P. Jasin]], Jasin's attorney, Gaar Steiner, told the court that Haig, a consultant for ISC, and officials of the Central Intelligence Agency and the Army were aware of plans to import South African Striker missile components into the United States and that no one objected. The Assistant U.S. Attorney, [[Robert E. Goldman]], replied: "Haig was never told they were bringing in missile parts from South Africa."[^28] At the 1992 trial of [[Thomas P. Jasin]], Jasin's attorney, Gaar Steiner, told the court that Haig, a consultant for ISC, and officials of the Central Intelligence Agency and the Army were aware of plans to import South African Striker missile components into the United States and that no one objected. The Assistant U.S. Attorney, [[Robert E. Goldman]], replied: "Haig was never told they were bringing in missile parts from South Africa."[^29]
### Corporate boards ### Corporate boards
The proxy statement of [[MGM Mirage]] filed March 27, 2001, lists Haig as a director since 1990 and a consultant to the company since May 1990, holder of options on 10,000 shares, and recipient in 2000 of $50,000 in consulting fees; it describes him as chairman of Worldwide Associates, host of the weekly television program "World Business Review," and a director of [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] Inc., CompuServe Interactive Services and [[Interneuron Pharmaceuticals]]. [[Tracinda]], of which [[Kirk Kerkorian]] was sole director and stockholder, owned 91,221,432 MGM Mirage shares.[^29] The proxy statement of [[MGM Mirage]] filed March 27, 2001, lists Haig as a director since 1990 and a consultant to the company since May 1990, holder of options on 10,000 shares, and recipient in 2000 of $50,000 in consulting fees; it describes him as chairman of Worldwide Associates, host of the weekly television program "World Business Review," and a director of [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] Inc., CompuServe Interactive Services and [[Interneuron Pharmaceuticals]]. [[Tracinda]], of which [[Kirk Kerkorian]] was sole director and stockholder, owned 91,221,432 MGM Mirage shares.[^30]
[[SDC International]] named Haig a director in January 2002; he had been its strategic advisor since May 1999. Its proxy statement filed December 6, 2002, discloses that SDC paid him $85,000 in September 2001 for past services, issued him fully vested options on 300,000 shares at $0.40 when the agreement was renewed on September 9, 2001, and agreed to pay him "between one and two percent of the total gross contract amount of any contract entered into by SDC or any of its subsidiaries which was obtained through the efforts of General Haig." SDC's principal operating entity was its Czech subsidiary [[Tatra]]; [[Terex Corporation]], which had received shares as a strategic advisor, held 12 percent. Haig held 505,000 shares, 2.47 percent, and was one of the two persons named to vote stockholders' proxies.[^13] [[SDC International]] named Haig a director in January 2002; he had been its strategic advisor since May 1999. Its proxy statement filed December 6, 2002, discloses that SDC paid him $85,000 in September 2001 for past services, issued him fully vested options on 300,000 shares at $0.40 when the agreement was renewed on September 9, 2001, and agreed to pay him "between one and two percent of the total gross contract amount of any contract entered into by SDC or any of its subsidiaries which was obtained through the efforts of General Haig." SDC's principal operating entity was its Czech subsidiary [[Tatra]]; [[Terex Corporation]], which had received shares as a strategic advisor, held 12 percent. Haig held 505,000 shares, 2.47 percent, and was one of the two persons named to vote stockholders' proxies.[^14]
[[DOR BioPharma]] entered into a letter agreement with Haig on December 23, 2002, making him chairman of its board for a retainer of $50,000 a year and options on 2,000,000 shares; its 2004 proxy statement adds that he received a further $50,000 a year for consulting services. The company had executed licence agreements for ricin and botulinum toxin vaccines in January 2003, and its 2003 private placement was handled by [[Paramount Capital]], an investment bank affiliated with its largest stockholder, [[Lindsay Rosenwald]]. The statement lists Haig, then 79, as a director of MGM Mirage, [[Indevus Pharmaceuticals]], SDC International and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and gives Worldwide Associates' address as 4301 North Fairfax Drive, Arlington, Virginia.[^2] [[DOR BioPharma]] entered into a letter agreement with Haig on December 23, 2002, making him chairman of its board for a retainer of $50,000 a year and options on 2,000,000 shares; its 2004 proxy statement adds that he received a further $50,000 a year for consulting services. The company had executed licence agreements for ricin and botulinum toxin vaccines in January 2003, and its 2003 private placement was handled by [[Paramount Capital]], an investment bank affiliated with its largest stockholder, [[Lindsay Rosenwald]]. The statement lists Haig, then 79, as a director of MGM Mirage, [[Indevus Pharmaceuticals]], SDC International and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and gives Worldwide Associates' address as 4301 North Fairfax Drive, Arlington, Virginia.[^2]
### Political contributions and the 1988 campaign ### Political contributions and the 1988 campaign
Haig for President (FEC committee C00214189), with treasurer Dominic J. Saraceno of Virginia, reported receipts of $2,633,083 for the 1988 cycle, including $140,442 in federal matching funds, and remained registered through 2000.[^30] Rumsfeld gave it $1,000 on January 27, 1988.[^14] The Associated Press obituary records that Haig ran unsuccessfully for president in 1988.[^1] Haig for President (FEC committee C00214189), with treasurer Dominic J. Saraceno of Virginia, reported receipts of $2,633,083 for the 1988 cycle, including $140,442 in federal matching funds, and remained registered through 2000.[^31] Rumsfeld gave it $1,000 on January 27, 1988.[^15] The Associated Press obituary records that Haig ran unsuccessfully for president in 1988.[^1]
[[Federal Election Commission]] records list contributions by entries in the name of Haig giving Worldwide Associates as employer, among them $750 to the [[Republican National Committee]] on January 11, 1994, $1,000 to Pete Wilson for President on May 1, 1995, $5,000 to the RNC on July 19, 1996, November 10, 1998, and February 1, 2000, and $2,300 to John McCain 2008 on April 10, 2007. A $1,000 contribution to McCain 2000 dated June 15, 1999, comes from "Haig, Alexander M. Mr. Jr." of [[Palm Beach, Florida|Palm Beach]] with no employer listed. The records list contributions to the MGM Mirage political action committee of $500 on December 19, 2000, $1,000 on January 31, 2002, and $1,000 on May 4, 2004.[^14] [[Federal Election Commission]] records list contributions by entries in the name of Haig giving Worldwide Associates as employer, among them $750 to the [[Republican National Committee]] on January 11, 1994, $1,000 to Pete Wilson for President on May 1, 1995, $5,000 to the RNC on July 19, 1996, November 10, 1998, and February 1, 2000, and $2,300 to John McCain 2008 on April 10, 2007. A $1,000 contribution to McCain 2000 dated June 15, 1999, comes from "Haig, Alexander M. Mr. Jr." of [[Palm Beach, Florida|Palm Beach]] with no employer listed. The records list contributions to the MGM Mirage political action committee of $500 on December 19, 2000, $1,000 on January 31, 2002, and $1,000 on May 4, 2004.[^15]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: "Alexander Haig, Presidential Adviser, Dies," CBS News and Associated Press, February 20, 2010, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/alexander-haig-presidential-adviser-dies/ [^1]: "Alexander Haig, Presidential Adviser, Dies," CBS News and Associated Press, February 20, 2010, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/alexander-haig-presidential-adviser-dies/
[^2]: DOR BioPharma, Inc., Definitive Proxy Statement (DEF 14A), filed April 28, 2004, accession 0000812796-04-000012, nominee table and biography of General Alexander M. Haig, Jr., "Board of Directors Agreements," "Director Compensation," "Related Party Transactions" and beneficial ownership table, note 8, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/812796/000081279604000012/defproxy.htm [^2]: DOR BioPharma, Inc., Definitive Proxy Statement (DEF 14A), filed April 28, 2004, accession 0000812796-04-000012, nominee table and biography of General Alexander M. Haig, Jr., "Board of Directors Agreements," "Director Compensation," "Related Party Transactions" and beneficial ownership table, note 8, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/812796/000081279604000012/defproxy.htm
[^3]: Halperin v. Kissinger, 606 F.2d 1192 (D.C. Cir. 1979), Nos. 77-2014 and 77-2015, argued February 9, 1979, decided July 12, 1979, appeal from Civil Action No. 1187-73 (D.D.C.), Part I (statement of facts) and notes 1, 4, 17 to 20, 39 to 41, 82 and 84 (June 4, 1969 memorandum, Joint Appendix 57; H. Rept. 93-1305 at 35 and 146), https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F2/606/606.F2d.1192.77-2015.77-2014.html [^3]: Halperin v. Kissinger, 606 F.2d 1192 (D.C. Cir. 1979), Nos. 77-2014 and 77-2015, argued February 9, 1979, decided July 12, 1979, appeal from Civil Action No. 1187-73 (D.D.C.), Part I (statement of facts) and notes 1, 4, 17 to 20, 39 to 41, 82 and 84 (June 4, 1969 memorandum, Joint Appendix 57; H. Rept. 93-1305 at 35 and 146), https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F2/606/606.F2d.1192.77-2015.77-2014.html
[^4]: Halperin v. Kissinger, 807 F.2d 180 (D.C. Cir. 1986), No. 84-5095, argued May 1, 1985, decided December 5, 1986, opinion of Circuit Justice Scalia (procedural history citing 424 F.Supp. 838, 434 F.Supp. 1193, 452 U.S. 713 and 578 F.Supp. 231), https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F2/807/807.F2d.180.84-5095.html [^4]: *Kissinger v. Halperin*, 452 U.S. 713 (1981) (per curiam), decided June 22, 1981. https://static.case.law/us/452/cases/0713-01.json
[^5]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report," S. Rept. 94-465, November 20, 1975, chapter on Chile, findings and section "CIA/White House Communication During Track II" (chronology for October 8, 10, 15, 16, 19 and 22, 1970), citing Haig testimony of August 15, 1975, pp. 12, 13, 26-27, 36 and 38-39, https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf [^5]: Halperin v. Kissinger, 807 F.2d 180 (D.C. Cir. 1986), No. 84-5095, argued May 1, 1985, decided December 5, 1986, opinion of Circuit Justice Scalia (procedural history citing 424 F.Supp. 838, 434 F.Supp. 1193, 452 U.S. 713 and 578 F.Supp. 231), https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F2/807/807.F2d.180.84-5095.html
[^6]: Thomas H. Karamessines, Deputy Director for Plans, memorandum for Brigadier General Alexander M. Haig, February 3, 1971, with two attached messages from Ambassador Godley, "Operation Gold," CIA Reading Room, LOC-HAK-477-18-13-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-loc-hak-477-18-13-9 [^6]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report," S. Rept. 94-465, November 20, 1975, chapter on Chile, findings and section "CIA/White House Communication During Track II" (chronology for October 8, 10, 15, 16, 19 and 22, 1970), citing Haig testimony of August 15, 1975, pp. 12, 13, 26-27, 36 and 38-39, https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf
[^7]: Legislative Counsel, memorandum for the record, "Director's Conversation with General Al Haig, White House Staff, Re DDCI Nomination," OLC 72-0040, January 12, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP75B00380R000100020156-1, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP75B00380R000100020156-1 [^7]: Thomas H. Karamessines, Deputy Director for Plans, memorandum for Brigadier General Alexander M. Haig, February 3, 1971, with two attached messages from Ambassador Godley, "Operation Gold," CIA Reading Room, LOC-HAK-477-18-13-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-loc-hak-477-18-13-9
[^8]: Gerald R. Ford, statement before the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, House Committee on the Judiciary, October 17, 1974, typescript pp. 6-14, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library, Philip Buchen Files, Box 34, "Nixon Pardon Hungate Subcommittee, Ford Testimony, 1974/10/17," https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0019/4520699.pdf [^8]: Legislative Counsel, memorandum for the record, "Director's Conversation with General Al Haig, White House Staff, Re DDCI Nomination," OLC 72-0040, January 12, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP75B00380R000100020156-1, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP75B00380R000100020156-1
[^9]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Armed Services, S. Hrg. 107-749, hearing of January 11, 2001, Committee on Armed Services Form for Donald H. Rumsfeld, Part A, items 9 and 10 (Assistant to the President under Ford, September 27, 1974, to November 18, 1975), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-107shrg75903/html/CHRG-107shrg75903.htm [^9]: Gerald R. Ford, statement before the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, House Committee on the Judiciary, October 17, 1974, typescript pp. 6-14, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library, Philip Buchen Files, Box 34, "Nixon Pardon Hungate Subcommittee, Ford Testimony, 1974/10/17," https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0019/4520699.pdf
[^10]: George A. Carver Jr., Deputy for National Intelligence Officers, memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, "Intelligence Support for General Haig," December 5, 1975, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91M00696R000500010003-8, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP91M00696R000500010003-8 [^10]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Armed Services, S. Hrg. 107-749, hearing of January 11, 2001, Committee on Armed Services Form for Donald H. Rumsfeld, Part A, items 9 and 10 (Assistant to the President under Ford, September 27, 1974, to November 18, 1975), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-107shrg75903/html/CHRG-107shrg75903.htm
[^11]: CIA reminder memo, March 6, 1978 ("Send General Haig a personal copy of NIE 4-1"), CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80B01554R003200280018-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01554r003200280018-2 [^11]: George A. Carver Jr., Deputy for National Intelligence Officers, memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, "Intelligence Support for General Haig," December 5, 1975, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91M00696R000500010003-8, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP91M00696R000500010003-8
[^12]: Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, "Carter failed in effort to block Haig," Boston Globe, January 25, 1981, CIA Reading Room clipping, CIA-RDP90-00965R000301900078-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000301900078-7 [^12]: CIA reminder memo, March 6, 1978 ("Send General Haig a personal copy of NIE 4-1"), CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80B01554R003200280018-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01554r003200280018-2
[^13]: SDC International, Inc., preliminary proxy statement (PRE 14A), filed December 6, 2002, accession 0000943440-02-000519, questions and answers, beneficial ownership table, director biographies and "Certain Transactions with Management," https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1005841/000094344002000519/proxy-1202.txt [^13]: Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, "Carter failed in effort to block Haig," Boston Globe, January 25, 1981, CIA Reading Room clipping, CIA-RDP90-00965R000301900078-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000301900078-7
[^14]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A itemized receipts, API queries for contributor names "Haig, Alexander" (two-year periods 1980 to 2010; New Jersey donors of the same name excluded) and "Rumsfeld, Donald" (HAIG FOR PRESIDENT, January 27, 1988), run October 1, 2026, https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/ [^14]: SDC International, Inc., preliminary proxy statement (PRE 14A), filed December 6, 2002, accession 0000943440-02-000519, questions and answers, beneficial ownership table, director biographies and "Certain Transactions with Management," https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1005841/000094344002000519/proxy-1202.txt
[^15]: Robert M. Gates, Director, DCI/DDCI Executive Staff, memorandum, "Haig Breakfast, 20 March 1981," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP89G00720R000100040085-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89g00720r000100040085-3 [^15]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A itemized receipts, API queries for contributor names "Haig, Alexander" (two-year periods 1980 to 2010; New Jersey donors of the same name excluded) and "Rumsfeld, Donald" (HAIG FOR PRESIDENT, January 27, 1988), run October 1, 2026, https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/
[^16]: Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991). [^16]: Robert M. Gates, Director, DCI/DDCI Executive Staff, memorandum, "Haig Breakfast, 20 March 1981," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP89G00720R000100040085-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89g00720r000100040085-3
[^17]: Haig v. Agee, 453 U.S. 280 (1981), No. 80-83, argued January 24, 1981, decided June 29, 1981, opinion of Chief Justice Burger, Part I, https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/453/280 [^17]: Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991).
[^18]: CIA Executive Secretary, memoranda "DCI Meeting with Secretary of State Haig, Thursday, 1 October 1981" (September 28, 1981), CIA-RDP84B00890R000300080052-2; "DCI and DDCI Meeting with Secretary of State Haig, Tuesday, 6 October 1981" (September 29, 1981), CIA-RDP84B00890R000300080051-3; and "DCI and DDCI Meeting with Secretary of State Haig, Tuesday, 26 January 1982" (January 19, 1982), CIA-RDP84M00395R000600260026-0, CIA Reading Room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00890r000300080052-2 [^18]: Haig v. Agee, 453 U.S. 280 (1981), No. 80-83, argued January 24, 1981, decided June 29, 1981, opinion of Chief Justice Burger, Part I, https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/453/280
[^19]: National Intelligence Officer for Latin America, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Cuba/Central America Strategy Issues for Your Meeting with Secretary Haig, 1 October 1981," September 30, 1981, secret, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R001203100015-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r001203100015-4 [^19]: CIA Executive Secretary, memoranda "DCI Meeting with Secretary of State Haig, Thursday, 1 October 1981" (September 28, 1981), CIA-RDP84B00890R000300080052-2; "DCI and DDCI Meeting with Secretary of State Haig, Tuesday, 6 October 1981" (September 29, 1981), CIA-RDP84B00890R000300080051-3; and "DCI and DDCI Meeting with Secretary of State Haig, Tuesday, 26 January 1982" (January 19, 1982), CIA-RDP84M00395R000600260026-0, CIA Reading Room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00890r000300080052-2
[^20]: William J. Casey to Alexander M. Haig, Jr., April 2, 1982, with "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs (April 2, 1982)," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R000701780017-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000701780017-6 [^20]: National Intelligence Officer for Latin America, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Cuba/Central America Strategy Issues for Your Meeting with Secretary Haig, 1 October 1981," September 30, 1981, secret, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R001203100015-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r001203100015-4
[^21]: House of Commons, "Falkland Islands," HC Deb 14 April 1982 vol 21 cc1146-208, HC Deb 29 April 1982 vol 22 cc980-1059, and HC Deb 4 May 1982 vol 23 cc16-8 (statements of the Prime Minister), https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1982/apr/14/falkland-islands, https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1982/apr/29/falkland-islands and https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1982/may/04/falkland-islands [^21]: William J. Casey to Alexander M. Haig, Jr., April 2, 1982, with "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs (April 2, 1982)," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R000701780017-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000701780017-6
[^22]: Ronald Reagan, "Letter Accepting the Resignation of Alexander M. Haig, Jr., as Secretary of State," June 25, 1982, with Haig's letter of resignation of the same date, Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-accepting-the-resignation-alexander-m-haig-jr-secretary-state [^22]: House of Commons, "Falkland Islands," HC Deb 14 April 1982 vol 21 cc1146-208, HC Deb 29 April 1982 vol 22 cc980-1059, and HC Deb 4 May 1982 vol 23 cc16-8 (statements of the Prime Minister), https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1982/apr/14/falkland-islands, https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1982/apr/29/falkland-islands and https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1982/may/04/falkland-islands
[^23]: John N. McMahon, Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, to General Alexander M. Haig, Jr., USA (Ret.), January 5, 1984, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00885R000100060077-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00885r000100060077-6 [^23]: Ronald Reagan, "Letter Accepting the Resignation of Alexander M. Haig, Jr., as Secretary of State," June 25, 1982, with Haig's letter of resignation of the same date, Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-accepting-the-resignation-alexander-m-haig-jr-secretary-state
[^24]: Director of Central Intelligence, appointment and contact log for 1985, entries under "HAIG, Alexander," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP93-00415R000200210008-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp93-00415r000200210008-9 [^24]: John N. McMahon, Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, to General Alexander M. Haig, Jr., USA (Ret.), January 5, 1984, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00885R000100060077-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00885r000100060077-6
[^25]: U.S. Department of Justice, FARA e-file API, Registrants (Active, 537 rows) and Registrants (Terminated, 6,552 rows), retrieved October 1, 2026, https://efile.fara.gov/api/v1/Registrants/json/Active and https://efile.fara.gov/api/v1/Registrants/json/Terminated (name search; short-form registrants and foreign principals not searched). [^25]: Director of Central Intelligence, appointment and contact log for 1985, entries under "HAIG, Alexander," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP93-00415R000200210008-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp93-00415r000200210008-9
[^26]: Lobbying Disclosure Act filings database, API queries for registrant name "Worldwide Associates" and lobbyist name "Haig," run October 1, 2026, https://lda.gov/api/v1/filings/ [^26]: U.S. Department of Justice, FARA e-file API, Registrants (Active, 537 rows) and Registrants (Terminated, 6,552 rows), retrieved October 1, 2026, https://efile.fara.gov/api/v1/Registrants/json/Active and https://efile.fara.gov/api/v1/Registrants/json/Terminated (name search; short-form registrants and foreign principals not searched).
[^27]: Glenn Frankel, "British Firm Claims It Was Duped by Pa. Arms Maker," *Washington Post*, September 29, 1989. The article describes the filing as one "Haig made when running for president last year." https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1989/09/29/british-firm-claims-it-was-duped-by-pa-arms-maker/5b675f69-e5e0-4c25-9aee-ced8b8e07efa/ [^27]: Lobbying Disclosure Act filings database, API queries for registrant name "Worldwide Associates" and lobbyist name "Haig," run October 1, 2026, https://lda.gov/api/v1/filings/
[^28]: "Weapons-smuggling plot tied to Pa. executive on trial for trade violations," Knight-Ridder News Service, *Baltimore Sun*, November 10, 1992. The article describes Haig as "a consultant for ISC" in reporting the attorney's statement; the quoted reply is Goldman's. https://www.baltimoresun.com/1992/11/10/weapons-smuggling-plot-tied-to-pa-executive-on-trial-for-trade-violations/ [^28]: Glenn Frankel, "British Firm Claims It Was Duped by Pa. Arms Maker," *Washington Post*, September 29, 1989. The article describes the filing as one "Haig made when running for president last year." https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1989/09/29/british-firm-claims-it-was-duped-by-pa-arms-maker/5b675f69-e5e0-4c25-9aee-ced8b8e07efa/
[^29]: MGM Mirage, Definitive Proxy Statement (DEF 14A), filed March 27, 2001, accession 0000912057-01-008537, nominee table, notes on options, and "Certain Transactions," https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/789570/000091205701008537/a2041387zdef14a.htm [^29]: "Weapons-smuggling plot tied to Pa. executive on trial for trade violations," Knight-Ridder News Service, *Baltimore Sun*, November 10, 1992. The article describes Haig as "a consultant for ISC" in reporting the attorney's statement; the quoted reply is Goldman's. https://www.baltimoresun.com/1992/11/10/weapons-smuggling-plot-tied-to-pa-executive-on-trial-for-trade-violations/
[^30]: Federal Election Commission, committee C00214189, Haig for President, committee record and financial totals by cycle, https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/committee/C00214189/totals/ [^30]: MGM Mirage, Definitive Proxy Statement (DEF 14A), filed March 27, 2001, accession 0000912057-01-008537, nominee table, notes on options, and "Certain Transactions," https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/789570/000091205701008537/a2041387zdef14a.htm
[^31]: Federal Election Commission, committee C00214189, Haig for President, committee record and financial totals by cycle, https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/committee/C00214189/totals/

5
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Daniel Inouye.md
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@ -15,5 +15,10 @@ location: "Honolulu, Hawaii"
As a highly respected and influential senator, and a decorated World War II veteran who had lost an arm in combat, Inouye was a key member of the bipartisan trio that controlled congressional spending for "black budget" programs within the [[Pentagon]]. His support was crucial in securing the $22 million appropriation that established AAWSAP in 2007. His involvement, along with that of his colleagues, ensured that the program had the necessary resources to begin its investigation into the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena|UAP]] issue.[^1] As a highly respected and influential senator, and a decorated World War II veteran who had lost an arm in combat, Inouye was a key member of the bipartisan trio that controlled congressional spending for "black budget" programs within the [[Pentagon]]. His support was crucial in securing the $22 million appropriation that established AAWSAP in 2007. His involvement, along with that of his colleagues, ensured that the program had the necessary resources to begin its investigation into the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena|UAP]] issue.[^1]
A [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] talking paper of May 4, 2009, "Senator Reid Visit to Director, DIA," states that Senator Inouye and Senator Reid sponsored language in the July 2008 supplemental appropriation bill for the agency to initiate an investigation of foreign advanced aerospace weapon threats from the present out to 40 years in the future.[^2] A 2010 DIA information memorandum, U-10-2552, states that the program was first sponsored in the fiscal year 2008 Defense Supplemental Appropriation Act by Senators Reid and Inouye with a $10 million add.[^3]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024. [^1]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024.
[^2]: Defense Intelligence Agency, talking paper, "(U) Senator Reid Visit to Director, DIA," May 4, 2009, paragraph 2, "Background." https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/dia/AAWSAP/DR_Reid_Mtg_May09.pdf
[^3]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Information Memorandum U-10-2552, "Advanced Aerospace Threat and Identification Program," 2010. https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/dia/AAWSAP/U-10-2552CE-IM-ATL.pdf

6
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/David F. Levi.md
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@ -5,10 +5,12 @@ tags:
- PROMIS - PROMIS
- Lawyer - Lawyer
summary: "U.S. Attorney named in a Writ of Mandamus for refusing to investigate corruption in Mariposa County tied to the Queen's Accident case." summary: "U.S. Attorney named in a Writ of Mandamus for refusing to investigate corruption in Mariposa County tied to the Queen's Accident case."
updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
[[David F. Levi]] was a [[United States Attorney|United States Attorney]]. He was named in a Writ of Mandamus filed by [[Ben Wagner]] for refusing to investigate corruption in Mariposa County.[^1] [[David F. Levi]] was [[United States Attorney|United States Attorney]] for the [[Eastern District of California]] from 1986 to 1990, after serving as an assistant United States attorney in the same district from 1983 to 1986, and became a federal district judge in 1990.[^1] He was named in a Writ of Mandamus filed by [[Ben Wagner]] for refusing to investigate corruption in Mariposa County.[^2]
--- ---
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro’s Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010. [^1]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, entry for David F. Levi (service as assistant U.S. attorney, E.D. Cal., 1983 to 1986; U.S. attorney, E.D. Cal., 1986 to 1990; judge from October 1, 1990; nominated by George H.W. Bush August 3, 1990; resigned June 30, 2007; chief judge 2003 to 2007; dean of Duke Law 2007 to 2018). https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/levi-david-f
[^2]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro’s Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010.

26
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Dexter Lehtinen.md Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
---
aliases:
- Dexter Leitenen
category: "Law Enforcement & Legal"
tags:
- Person
- Lawyer
- FBI
- LawEnforcement
summary: "Assistant U.S. Attorney and former Green Beret, legal confidant to Allan Boyak before Boyak approached the FBI about Robert Booth Nichols, later Interim U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Florida."
updated: 2026-10-15
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida]]"
start: 1988-06-17
role: "Interim United States Attorney"
fn: 1
---
[[Dexter Lehtinen]] was an assistant [[United States Attorney|U.S. Attorney]] and a close friend of [[Allan Boyak]] from his Green Beret days. He later became the Miami [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida|U.S. Attorney]]. He was named Interim United States Attorney for the Southern District of Florida effective June 17, 1988.[^1] The Senate's 1992 report on [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] calls him "the former U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Florida, Dexter Lehtinen," among the critics of the Justice Department's handling of the bank.[^2] Boyak consulted with Lehtinen before going to the Los Angeles [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] office with his suspicions about [[Robert Booth Nichols]]' activities.[^3]
### Footnotes
[^1]: *United States Attorneys' Bulletin,* vol. 36, July 15, 1988, p. 166, "Personnel": Dexter Lehtinen took the oath of office, effective June 17, 1988, as Interim United States Attorney for the Southern District of Florida. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/usao/legacy/2010/10/12/usab3607.pdf
[^2]: Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *The BCCI Affair* (Kerry-Brown report), 1992, ch. 8 ("the former U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Florida, Dexter Lehtinen"). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/08just.htm
[^3]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro’s Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010 (the text spells the name "Leitenen").

15
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Dexter Leitenen.md
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@ -1,15 +0,0 @@
---
category: "Law Enforcement & Legal"
tags:
- Person
- Lawyer
- FBI
- LawEnforcement
summary: "Assistant U.S. Attorney and former Green Beret who served as legal confidant to Allan Boyak before Boyak approached the FBI about Robert Booth Nichols."
---
[[Dexter Leitenen]] was an assistant [[United States Attorney|U.S. Attorney]] and a close friend of [[Allan Boyak]] from his Green Beret days. He later became the Miami [[United States Attorney|U.S. Attorney]]. Boyak consulted with Leitenen before going to the Los Angeles [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] office with his suspicions about [[Robert Booth Nichols]]' activities.[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro’s Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010.

21
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Donald M. Kerr.md
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@ -9,6 +9,21 @@ tags:
- Israel - Israel
summary: "Acting director of defense programs at the Department of Energy, identified by Hersh, Richelson and Weiss as head of the Nuclear Intelligence Panel review of the 1979 Vela satellite flash." summary: "Acting director of defense programs at the Department of Energy, identified by Hersh, Richelson and Weiss as head of the Nuclear Intelligence Panel review of the 1979 Vela satellite flash."
relations: relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Psychoenergetics Science Advisory Panel]]"
start: 1984-02
role: "member, Psychoenergetics Science Advisory Panel, listed as director of Los Alamos National Laboratory"
fn: 5
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Department of Energy]]"
start: 1979
end: 1980
role: "acting director of defense programs, according to the National Security Archive's account"
fn: 8
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Science Applications International Corporation]]"
role: "corporate executive vice president (listed in the fiscal 1995 Form 10-K)"
fn: 6
- type: investigated - type: investigated
with: "[[VELA Satellite]]" with: "[[VELA Satellite]]"
role: "identified by Richelson and Weiss as head of the Nuclear Intelligence Panel review of the event" role: "identified by Richelson and Weiss as head of the Nuclear Intelligence Panel review of the event"
@ -23,9 +38,15 @@ Donald M. Kerr, Jr. served in the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration as acti
Donald M. Kerr was the director of [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] in [[New Mexico]]. He was a member of the new science panel for the [[Stargate Project|Sun Streak]] program, which was established on January 31, 1986[^4]. Donald M. Kerr was the director of [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] in [[New Mexico]]. He was a member of the new science panel for the [[Stargate Project|Sun Streak]] program, which was established on January 31, 1986[^4].
An SRI document of February 1984 describes a Psychoenergetics Science Advisory Panel "composed of Dr. Donald Kerr, Director, Los Alamos National Laboratory," with [[Fred Zachariasen]] and [[W. Ross Adey|Ross Adey]]. The document places Kerr as the Los Alamos director in that month.[^5] The Science Applications International Corporation Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended January 31, 1995 describes him as formerly president of [[EG&G]] and as its corporate executive vice president.[^6] The National Security Archive's narrative of the Vela incident describes the Nuclear Intelligence Panel as chaired by Donald Kerr, who had served in the Carter administration as acting director of defense programs at the Energy Department, while the committee memorandum of February 14, 1980 names Louis H. Roddis, Jr. as Panel Chairman.[^7][^8]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Joint Atomic Energy Intelligence Committee, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Judgments of the DCI's Nuclear Intelligence Panel on the 22 September 1979 Event," February 14, 1980, Secret. Document 6 in Richelson, Jeffrey T., ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006, whose narrative names Kerr as chairman. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/06.pdf [^1]: Joint Atomic Energy Intelligence Committee, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Judgments of the DCI's Nuclear Intelligence Panel on the 22 September 1979 Event," February 14, 1980, Secret. Document 6 in Richelson, Jeffrey T., ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006, whose narrative names Kerr as chairman. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/06.pdf
[^2]: Weiss, Leonard. "Flash from the Past: Why an Apparent Israeli Nuclear Test in 1979 Matters Today." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September 8, 2015. https://thebulletin.org/2015/09/flash-from-the-past-why-an-apparent-israeli-nuclear-test-in-1979-matters-today/ [^2]: Weiss, Leonard. "Flash from the Past: Why an Apparent Israeli Nuclear Test in 1979 Matters Today." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September 8, 2015. https://thebulletin.org/2015/09/flash-from-the-past-why-an-apparent-israeli-nuclear-test-in-1979-matters-today/
[^3]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20. [^3]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20.
[^4]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017. [^4]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^5]: SRI document on the Psychoenergetics Science Advisory Panel, February 1984, CIA-RDP96-00792R000600310001-7.
[^6]: Science Applications International Corporation, Form 10-K, fiscal year ended January 31, 1995, executive officer listing.
[^7]: Joint Atomic Energy Intelligence Committee, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, February 14, 1980, "Judgments of the DCI's Nuclear Intelligence Panel on the 22 September 1979 Event," Secret, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, doc. 6, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/06.pdf
[^8]: Jeffrey T. Richelson, ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006, narrative, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/index.htm

2
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Erika Kellerhals.md
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@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ On September 21, 2012 Epstein's bookkeeper [[Harry Beller]] faxed [[JPMorgan Cha
### Trusts and the Foundation ### Trusts and the Foundation
A [[Deutsche Bank]] know-your-customer page headed "The 2013 Butterfly Trust," produced to a federal grand jury in the [[Southern District of New York]], lists Kellerhals as a current trustee with the note "(Deutsche Bank already has on file)," and names among the trust's "Current Potential Beneficiaries" Epstein's assistant [[Lesley Groff]], his pilot [[Larry Visoski|Lawrence Paul Visoski Jr.]] and his lawyer [[Darren Indyke]]. The Internal Revenue Service record of Gratitude America Ltd, recognized as a private foundation in September 2012, gives its address as 9053 Estate Thomas, Suite 101, St. Thomas, "in care of Erika Kellerhals." It reported revenue and assets of one dollar for 2012 through 2014 and gross contributions of 10,003,000 dollars for 2015.[^5][^8] A [[Deutsche Bank]] know-your-customer page headed "The 2013 Butterfly Trust," produced to a federal grand jury in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], lists Kellerhals as a current trustee with the note "(Deutsche Bank already has on file)," and names among the trust's "Current Potential Beneficiaries" Epstein's assistant [[Lesley Groff]], his pilot [[Larry Visoski|Lawrence Paul Visoski Jr.]] and his lawyer [[Darren Indyke]]. The Internal Revenue Service record of Gratitude America Ltd, recognized as a private foundation in September 2012, gives its address as 9053 Estate Thomas, Suite 101, St. Thomas, "in care of Erika Kellerhals." It reported revenue and assets of one dollar for 2012 through 2014 and gross contributions of 10,003,000 dollars for 2015.[^5][^8]
In September 2025 Senator [[Ron Wyden]] introduced the Produce Epstein Treasury Records Act, S. 2746, which would require the Treasury to produce suspicious activity reports relating to Epstein and a list of individuals and entities that includes "Erika Kellerhals," alongside Indyke, [[Richard Kahn]], Beller, Southern Trust Company, the Butterfly Trust and Gratitude America Ltd.[^9] In September 2025 Senator [[Ron Wyden]] introduced the Produce Epstein Treasury Records Act, S. 2746, which would require the Treasury to produce suspicious activity reports relating to Epstein and a list of individuals and entities that includes "Erika Kellerhals," alongside Indyke, [[Richard Kahn]], Beller, Southern Trust Company, the Butterfly Trust and Gratitude America Ltd.[^9]

2
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Ethan Phelan Melzer.md
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@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ The stated purpose of providing this information was to enable ISIS to plan and
### Case Number and Court ### Case Number and Court
The case was filed in the [[Southern District of New York]] as United States v. Melzer, 1:20-cr-00314-GHW. The presiding judge was [[U.S. District Judge Gregory H. Woods]], an Obama appointee. The prosecution was handled by the SDNY [[National Security Unit]].[^3] The case was filed in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]] as United States v. Melzer, 1:20-cr-00314-GHW. The presiding judge was [[U.S. District Judge Gregory H. Woods]], an Obama appointee. The prosecution was handled by the SDNY [[National Security Unit]].[^3]
### Charges in the Superseding Indictment ### Charges in the Superseding Indictment

14
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Eugene Jhong.md
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@ -21,28 +21,28 @@ relations:
with: "[[Blake Masters]]" with: "[[Blake Masters]]"
role: "5,800 dollars on December 27, 2021 (two 2,900 dollar entries earmarked through WinRed) to Blake Masters for Senate, per FEC records under the name \"Jhong, Eugene\" of Los Altos" role: "5,800 dollars on December 27, 2021 (two 2,900 dollar entries earmarked through WinRed) to Blake Masters for Senate, per FEC records under the name \"Jhong, Eugene\" of Los Altos"
start: 2021-12-27 start: 2021-12-27
fn: 3 fn: 4
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[Brian Forde]]" with: "[[Brian Forde]]"
role: "2,700 dollars on May 10, 2018, with the memo \"0.59101569 bitcoins received, not liquidated,\" to Brian Forde for Congress, per FEC records under the name \"Jhong, Eugene\" of Los Altos" role: "2,700 dollars on May 10, 2018, with the memo \"0.59101569 bitcoins received, not liquidated,\" to Brian Forde for Congress, per FEC records under the name \"Jhong, Eugene\" of Los Altos"
start: 2018-05-10 start: 2018-05-10
fn: 3 fn: 4
created: 2026-10-03 created: 2026-10-03
updated: 2026-10-03 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
[[Eugene Jhong]] is listed first among the members of the Philanthropic Advisory Board of Harvard's [[Galileo Project]], with the credentials "Undergraduate (AB) and law degree (JD) from [[Harvard University]]" and "MS in Computer Science, [[Stanford University]]."[^1] The advisory board is described as providing "philanthropic advice to The Galileo Project." Its other listed entries are Vinny Jain, Teddy Jones, the [[Laukien Science Foundation]], Joerg Laukien, [[William A. Linton]] of [[Promega Corporation]] and the [[Usona Institute]], and Adnan Sen. The project's July 26, 2021 release states that it has "initial funding from generous donations and pledges by individuals and foundations listed on the Galileo Project website."[^1][^2] [[Eugene Jhong]] is listed first among the members of the Philanthropic Advisory Board of Harvard's [[Galileo Project]], with the credentials "Undergraduate (AB) and law degree (JD) from [[Harvard University]]" and "MS in Computer Science, [[Stanford University]]."[^1] The advisory board is described as providing "philanthropic advice to The Galileo Project." Its other listed entries are Vinny Jain, Teddy Jones, the [[Laukien Science Foundation]], Joerg Laukien, [[William A. Linton]] of [[Promega Corporation]] and the [[Usona Institute]], and Adnan Sen. The project's July 26, 2021 release states that it has "initial funding from generous donations and pledges by individuals and foundations listed on the Galileo Project website."[^1][^2]
### Patent ### Patent
The [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] granted U.S. Patent 6,259,458 B1, "Method of generating and navigating a 3-D representation of a hierarchical data structure," on July 10, 2001 to an inventor named Eugene Jhong (with co-inventor Karen E. Theisen), assignee Elastic Technology, Inc.; the application was filed January 29, 1999 and claims priority to August 6, 1997. The patent record does not tie the inventor to the Galileo Project or to [[Google]], and no source read for this page states that Jhong worked at Google.[^4] The [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] granted U.S. Patent 6,259,458 B1, "Method of generating and navigating a 3-D representation of a hierarchical data structure," on July 10, 2001 to an inventor named Eugene Jhong (with co-inventor Karen E. Theisen), assignee Elastic Technology, Inc.; the application was filed January 29, 1999 and claims priority to August 6, 1997.[^3]
### Federal Election Commission records ### Federal Election Commission records
The [[Federal Election Commission|FEC]]'s itemized receipts list contributions under the name "Jhong, Eugene" of Los Altos, California; no record read states that this donor is the Galileo adviser, though the Galileo biography (Stanford master's in computer science) and the occupation fields (engineer in 2012, retired or investor later) are consistent with it. The entries: 201.20 dollars to the Ron Paul 2012 presidential campaign (January 14, 2012; occupation engineer, employer self); 2,700 dollars to Brian Forde for Congress on May 10, 2018 with the memo "0.59101569 bitcoins received, not liquidated" (the itemization also carries offsetting negative entries of the same amount, which appear to be amendment reporting), and on July 14, 2018 a 2,700 dollar entry and its reversal marked "redesignation of general 2018 contribution"; 8,302.24 dollars on May 22, 2018 to the 314 Action Fund, itemized as a "non-contribution account" of 1.00 bitcoin, not liquidated; 500 dollars on March 5, 2019, 2,000 dollars on October 28, 2019 and 250 dollars on December 31, 2019 to Friends of Andrew Yang; 5,800 dollars on December 27, 2021 to Blake Masters for Senate (two 2,900 dollar entries earmarked through WinRed, with a matching 5,800 dollar WinRed conduit entry); 2,900 dollars on April 25, 2022 to Bruce Fenton for Liberty (occupation investor, employer self); and 2,900 dollars on November 3, 2022 to Gillibrand for Senate.[^3] The [[Federal Election Commission|FEC]]'s itemized receipts list contributions under the name "Jhong, Eugene" of Los Altos, California; no record read states that this donor is the Galileo adviser, though the Galileo biography (Stanford master's in computer science) and the occupation fields (engineer in 2012, retired or investor later) are consistent with it. The entries: 201.20 dollars to the Ron Paul 2012 presidential campaign (January 14, 2012; occupation engineer, employer self); 2,700 dollars to Brian Forde for Congress on May 10, 2018 with the memo "0.59101569 bitcoins received, not liquidated" (the itemization also carries offsetting negative entries of the same amount, which appear to be amendment reporting), and on July 14, 2018 a 2,700 dollar entry and its reversal marked "redesignation of general 2018 contribution"; 8,302.24 dollars on May 22, 2018 to the 314 Action Fund, itemized as a "non-contribution account" of 1.00 bitcoin, not liquidated; 500 dollars on March 5, 2019, 2,000 dollars on October 28, 2019 and 250 dollars on December 31, 2019 to Friends of Andrew Yang; 5,800 dollars on December 27, 2021 to Blake Masters for Senate (two 2,900 dollar entries earmarked through WinRed, with a matching 5,800 dollar WinRed conduit entry); 2,900 dollars on April 25, 2022 to Bruce Fenton for Liberty (occupation investor, employer self); and 2,900 dollars on November 3, 2022 to Gillibrand for Senate.[^4]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: "Advisory Boards." The Galileo Project website, snapshot of December 25, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20221225170229/https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/galileo/organization/advisory-boards [^1]: "Advisory Boards." The Galileo Project website, snapshot of December 25, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20221225170229/https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/galileo/organization/advisory-boards
[^2]: The Galileo Project. "Press Release and Press Conference Announcement," July 26, 2021. https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/files/galileo/files/galileo_project-announcement_pr-7.26.21.pdf (Internet Archive copy). [^2]: The Galileo Project. "Press Release and Press Conference Announcement," July 26, 2021. https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/files/galileo/files/galileo_project-announcement_pr-7.26.21.pdf (Internet Archive copy).
[^3]: Federal Election Commission, schedule A receipts, contributor name "JHONG, EUGENE" (OpenFEC API query run October 3, 2026). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=JHONG%2C%20EUGENE [^3]: Jhong, Eugene, and Karen E. Theisen. U.S. Patent 6,259,458 B1, granted July 10, 2001. https://patents.google.com/patent/US6259458B1/en (patent record; the Google Patents site is used only to display the USPTO document).
[^4]: Jhong, Eugene, and Karen E. Theisen. U.S. Patent 6,259,458 B1, granted July 10, 2001. https://patents.google.com/patent/US6259458B1/en (patent record; the Google Patents site is used only to display the USPTO document). [^4]: Federal Election Commission, schedule A receipts, contributor name "JHONG, EUGENE" (OpenFEC API query run October 3, 2026). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=JHONG%2C%20EUGENE

4
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/George Knapp.md
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@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ tags:
summary: "George Knapp is the chief investigative reporter of KLAS-TV in Las Vegas, whose UFO coverage began with the 1989 Bob Lazar series and who testified before a House task force on September 9, 2025." summary: "George Knapp is the chief investigative reporter of KLAS-TV in Las Vegas, whose UFO coverage began with the 1989 Bob Lazar series and who testified before a House task force on September 9, 2025."
location: "Las Vegas, Nevada" location: "Las Vegas, Nevada"
created: 2026-10-09 created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09 updated: 2026-10-15
relations: relations:
- type: employed_by - type: employed_by
with: "[[KLAS-TV]]" with: "[[KLAS-TV]]"
@ -141,7 +141,7 @@ On October 13, 2022 KLAS posted a Knapp report on [[Radiance Technologies]] unde
[^17]: Senator Harry Reid to Deputy Secretary of Defense William Lynn, June 24, 2009, released by DIA to The Black Vault, https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/dia/AAWSAP/20090624_Reid_to_DEPSECDEF_ref_AAITP_in_SAP.pdf [^17]: Senator Harry Reid to Deputy Secretary of Defense William Lynn, June 24, 2009, released by DIA to The Black Vault, https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/dia/AAWSAP/20090624_Reid_to_DEPSECDEF_ref_AAITP_in_SAP.pdf
[^18]: George Knapp and Matt Adams, "EXCLUSIVE: I-Team obtains some key documents related to Pentagon UFO study," originally aired July 25, 2018, KLAS-TV, republished on Mystery Wire September 27, 2019, https://www.mysterywire.com/ufo/exclusive-i-team-obtains-some-key-documents-related-to-pentagon-ufo-study/ [^18]: George Knapp and Matt Adams, "EXCLUSIVE: I-Team obtains some key documents related to Pentagon UFO study," originally aired July 25, 2018, KLAS-TV, republished on Mystery Wire September 27, 2019, https://www.mysterywire.com/ufo/exclusive-i-team-obtains-some-key-documents-related-to-pentagon-ufo-study/
[^19]: The Black Vault, "The Advanced Aerospace Weapon System Applications Program (AAWSAP) Documentation," originally published April 2022 and updated, https://www.theblackvault.com/documentarchive/the-advanced-aerospace-weapon-system-applications-program-aawsap-documentation/ [^19]: The Black Vault, "The Advanced Aerospace Weapon System Applications Program (AAWSAP) Documentation," originally published April 2022 and updated, https://www.theblackvault.com/documentarchive/the-advanced-aerospace-weapon-system-applications-program-aawsap-documentation/
[^20]: Knapp's September 9, 2025 written testimony (note 4) gives the 2023 Lacatski revelation and the Lockheed negotiation, relying for the Lockheed discussion on a source who was present. The 2011 date is from Keith Basterfield, "Lockheed Martin and BAASS," November 30, 2023, quoting Lacatski, Kelleher and Knapp, Inside the US Government Covert UFO Program: Initial Revelations (2023), https://ufos-scientificresearch.blogspot.com/2023/11/lockheed-martin-and-baass.html [^20]: Knapp's September 9, 2025 written testimony (note 4) gives the 2023 Lacatski revelation and the Lockheed negotiation, relying for the Lockheed discussion on a source who was present. The 2011 date attaches to Lacatski's craft statement at his meeting with a senator and an under secretary, and is from Keith Basterfield, "Lockheed Martin and BAASS," November 30, 2023, quoting Lacatski, Kelleher and Knapp, Inside the US Government Covert UFO Program: Initial Revelations (2023), https://ufos-scientificresearch.blogspot.com/2023/11/lockheed-martin-and-baass.html
[^21]: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Accountability, hearing "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena: Implications on National Security, Public Safety, and Government Transparency," July 26, 2023, GovInfo CHRG-118hhrg53022, index entry "Statement for the Record, by George Knapp; submitted by Rep. Burchett," https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118hhrg53022/html/CHRG-118hhrg53022.htm [^21]: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Accountability, hearing "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena: Implications on National Security, Public Safety, and Government Transparency," July 26, 2023, GovInfo CHRG-118hhrg53022, index entry "Statement for the Record, by George Knapp; submitted by Rep. Burchett," https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118hhrg53022/html/CHRG-118hhrg53022.htm
[^22]: House Committee Repository, hearing of July 26, 2023, witnesses Fravor, Graves and Grusch and support documents "UC - Burchett - Statement for the Record - George Knapp" and "UC - Burchett - Report - 'The UAP Puzzle' - Jeremy Corbell" (added August 21, 2023), https://docs.house.gov/Committee/Calendar/ByEvent.aspx?EventID=116282 [^22]: House Committee Repository, hearing of July 26, 2023, witnesses Fravor, Graves and Grusch and support documents "UC - Burchett - Statement for the Record - George Knapp" and "UC - Burchett - Report - 'The UAP Puzzle' - Jeremy Corbell" (added August 21, 2023), https://docs.house.gov/Committee/Calendar/ByEvent.aspx?EventID=116282
[^23]: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, hearing page "Restoring Public Trust Through UAP Transparency and Whistleblower Protection," Task Force on the Declassification of Federal Secrets, September 9, 2025, 10:00 am, HVC-210, https://oversight.house.gov/hearing/restoring-public-trust-through-uap-transparency-and-whistleblower-protection/ ; Luna opening remarks, press release of September 9, 2025, https://oversight.house.gov/release/luna-opens-hearing-on-restoring-public-trust-through-uap-transparency/ [^23]: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, hearing page "Restoring Public Trust Through UAP Transparency and Whistleblower Protection," Task Force on the Declassification of Federal Secrets, September 9, 2025, 10:00 am, HVC-210, https://oversight.house.gov/hearing/restoring-public-trust-through-uap-transparency-and-whistleblower-protection/ ; Luna opening remarks, press release of September 9, 2025, https://oversight.house.gov/release/luna-opens-hearing-on-restoring-public-trust-through-uap-transparency/

2
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Ghislaine Maxwell.md
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@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ Robert Maxwell was accused across multiple documented sources of operating as an
### The Intelligence-Operation Question ### The Intelligence-Operation Question
Ghislaine Maxwell moved to [[New York|New York]] in 1991 after her father's death and the collapse of the family's reputation, reportedly with a financial settlement from the family estate. She met Epstein shortly after. Her lawyers have argued that her father's death "set her on a path" toward Epstein. The documented combination of Robert Maxwell's intelligence legacy, Ghislaine's role as Epstein's social partner and the principal recruiter of the trafficking operation, the documented [[Ehud Barak|Israeli-intelligence]] contacts through Epstein, and the broader pattern of Epstein's relationships with intelligence officials ([[William Burns]]) and technology principals ([[Peter Thiel|Thiel]], [[Elon Musk|Musk]]) has produced the recurring analytical question of whether the Epstein-Maxwell operation functioned as an intelligence-linked compromise or "honeypot" operation. The question is not confirmed in any primary document and is flagged here as a documented analytical thread.[^3][^14] Ghislaine Maxwell moved to [[New York City|New York]] in 1991 after her father's death and the collapse of the family's reputation, reportedly with a financial settlement from the family estate. She met Epstein shortly after. Her lawyers have argued that her father's death "set her on a path" toward Epstein. The documented combination of Robert Maxwell's intelligence legacy, Ghislaine's role as Epstein's social partner and the principal recruiter of the trafficking operation, the documented [[Ehud Barak|Israeli-intelligence]] contacts through Epstein, and the broader pattern of Epstein's relationships with intelligence officials ([[William Burns]]) and technology principals ([[Peter Thiel|Thiel]], [[Elon Musk|Musk]]) has produced the recurring analytical question of whether the Epstein-Maxwell operation functioned as an intelligence-linked compromise or "honeypot" operation. The question is not confirmed in any primary document and is flagged here as a documented analytical thread.[^3][^14]
The strongest version of the intelligence claim traces to [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], a self-described former Israeli Military Intelligence figure, who alleged in interviews and in his book *Profits of War* (1992) that Robert Maxwell was a "full-service" Mossad asset and that Epstein and Ghislaine were introduced into Israeli intelligence work through the Maxwell connection.[^15] Ben-Menashe's reliability is contested: his account is uncorroborated by any declassified file, he has made other claims that proved unverifiable, and no intelligence service has confirmed any of it, so the assertion that Ghislaine inherited her father's intelligence ties is reported allegation rather than established fact.[^15] What is documented in the trial record and contemporaneous reporting is narrower: that Maxwell maintained the social access (to figures including Prince Andrew and a transatlantic donor class) through which Epstein's operation functioned, and that Epstein separately cultivated relationships with Barak and others. Whether that access was directed by any service, or was simply the by-product of inherited wealth and connections weaponized for blackmail-adjacent leverage, remains unproven in any primary source.[^3][^14] The strongest version of the intelligence claim traces to [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], a self-described former Israeli Military Intelligence figure, who alleged in interviews and in his book *Profits of War* (1992) that Robert Maxwell was a "full-service" Mossad asset and that Epstein and Ghislaine were introduced into Israeli intelligence work through the Maxwell connection.[^15] Ben-Menashe's reliability is contested: his account is uncorroborated by any declassified file, he has made other claims that proved unverifiable, and no intelligence service has confirmed any of it, so the assertion that Ghislaine inherited her father's intelligence ties is reported allegation rather than established fact.[^15] What is documented in the trial record and contemporaneous reporting is narrower: that Maxwell maintained the social access (to figures including Prince Andrew and a transatlantic donor class) through which Epstein's operation functioned, and that Epstein separately cultivated relationships with Barak and others. Whether that access was directed by any service, or was simply the by-product of inherited wealth and connections weaponized for blackmail-adjacent leverage, remains unproven in any primary source.[^3][^14]

2
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Howard Hunt.md
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@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ Hunt also managed the political exile leadership, working to maintain cohesion a
### Bay of Pigs ### Bay of Pigs
Hunt was assigned as the CIA's political officer for the Bay of Pigs invasion, responsible for the [[Cuban Revolutionary Council]] - the exile political organization that would form a provisional government after the expected overthrow of [[Fidel Castro]]. He worked with the exile leadership in [[Miami]] and later in [[New York]], managing their political expectations and organizational disputes. Hunt was assigned as the CIA's political officer for the Bay of Pigs invasion, responsible for the [[Cuban Revolutionary Council]] - the exile political organization that would form a provisional government after the expected overthrow of [[Fidel Castro]]. He worked with the exile leadership in [[Miami]] and later in [[New York City|New York]], managing their political expectations and organizational disputes.
The Bay of Pigs was a catastrophic failure, and Hunt's political operation collapsed along with the military operation. The exile political leadership was not told the operation was under way until it had already failed, and Hunt's management of their expectations was blamed by exile leaders for contributing to the political disorder. His role in the operation was not publicly acknowledged.[^1] The Bay of Pigs was a catastrophic failure, and Hunt's political operation collapsed along with the military operation. The exile political leadership was not told the operation was under way until it had already failed, and Hunt's management of their expectations was blamed by exile leaders for contributing to the political disorder. His role in the operation was not publicly acknowledged.[^1]

25
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/J. Edgar Hoover.md
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@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ aliases:
- John Edgar Hoover - John Edgar Hoover
- Edgar Hoover - Edgar Hoover
created: 2026-05-17 created: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-10-12 updated: 2026-10-15
category: "Law Enforcement & Legal" category: "Law Enforcement & Legal"
tags: tags:
- KeyFigure - KeyFigure
@ -23,31 +23,34 @@ location: "Washington, D.C."
J. Edgar Hoover served as the first Director of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] (and its predecessor, the Bureau of Investigation) for 48 years, from 1924 until his death in 1972. His long tenure was marked by both his law enforcement activities and his connections to influential political and business figures. J. Edgar Hoover served as the first Director of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] (and its predecessor, the Bureau of Investigation) for 48 years, from 1924 until his death in 1972. His long tenure was marked by both his law enforcement activities and his connections to influential political and business figures.
Hoover worked at the [[Library of Congress]] and attended night classes at the [[George Washington University]] law school, and was awarded the LL.B. in 1916 and the LL.M. in 1917.[^1] He entered on duty with the [[Department of Justice]] on July 26, 1917 and in 1919 led its General Intelligence Division.[^1]
### COINTELPRO ### COINTELPRO
Hoover created [[COINTELPRO]] (Counter Intelligence Program) in 1956, initially targeting the Communist Party USA. The program expanded to target the Socialist Workers Party (1961), white hate groups (1964), Black nationalist organizations (1967), and New Left groups (1968). COINTELPRO used infiltration, fabricated communications designed to sow internal discord, coordination with local law enforcement, and referrals for prosecution. A 1967 Hoover memo described the program's objective regarding Black activists as preventing "the rise of a 'messiah' who could unify and electrify the militant Black Nationalist movement." The program was formally terminated by Hoover on April 27, 1971, after documents were stolen from the FBI's Media, Pennsylvania field office by the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI on March 8, 1971, and distributed to the press. The Church Committee subsequently documented COINTELPRO as a systematic campaign against legal political activity.[^1] Hoover created [[COINTELPRO]] (Counter Intelligence Program) in 1956, initially targeting the Communist Party USA. The program expanded to target the Socialist Workers Party (1961), white hate groups (1964), Black nationalist organizations (1967), and New Left groups (1968). COINTELPRO used infiltration, fabricated communications designed to sow internal discord, coordination with local law enforcement, and referrals for prosecution. A 1967 Hoover memo described the program's objective regarding Black activists as preventing "the rise of a 'messiah' who could unify and electrify the militant Black Nationalist movement." The program was formally terminated by Hoover on April 27, 1971, after documents were stolen from the FBI's Media, Pennsylvania field office by the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI on March 8, 1971, and distributed to the press. The Church Committee subsequently documented COINTELPRO as a systematic campaign against legal political activity.[^2]
### Relationship with British Security Coordination ### Relationship with British Security Coordination
During World War II, Hoover initially cooperated with [[British Security Coordination]] (BSC), reportedly suggesting the organization's name and permitting BSC to use FBI radio channels. He became increasingly hostile as evidence accumulated that BSC was conducting unilateral covert operations on U.S. soil, which he regarded as exclusively FBI territory. The Berle surveillance incident (1942), in which, according to the biographer Richard Gid Powers, the BSC operative Dennis Paine surveilled Assistant Secretary of State Adolf Berle, was one documented flashpoint. Hoover eventually refused further dealings with BSC and had to rebuild intelligence relationships with MI5 and MI6 from scratch post-war.[^1] During World War II, Hoover initially cooperated with [[British Security Coordination]] (BSC), reportedly suggesting the organization's name and permitting BSC to use FBI radio channels. He became increasingly hostile as evidence accumulated that BSC was conducting unilateral covert operations on U.S. soil, which he regarded as exclusively FBI territory. The Berle surveillance incident (1942), in which, according to the biographer Richard Gid Powers, the BSC operative Dennis Paine surveilled Assistant Secretary of State Adolf Berle, was one documented flashpoint. Hoover eventually refused further dealings with BSC and had to rebuild intelligence relationships with MI5 and MI6 from scratch post-war.[^2]
### Secret Files and Political Durability ### Secret Files and Political Durability
The Church Committee documented that Hoover maintained extensive personal files on political figures, and that these files provided leverage that contributed to his ability to remain as FBI Director across eight presidential administrations despite periodic efforts to remove him. He died on May 2, 1972, in office, while COINTELPRO was under investigation.[^1] The Church Committee documented that Hoover maintained extensive personal files on political figures, and that these files provided leverage that contributed to his ability to remain as FBI Director across eight presidential administrations despite periodic efforts to remove him. He died on May 2, 1972, in office, while COINTELPRO was under investigation.[^2]
### Hotel Del Charro Connections ### Hotel Del Charro Connections
Hoover was a frequent visitor to the Hotel Del Charro in La Jolla, California, an exclusive hotel opened by [[Clint Murchison, Sr.]] in the early 1950s. Hoover visited the hotel every summer between 1953 and 1959. During these visits, Clint Murchison, Sr. covered Hoover's tab, which amounted to approximately $19,000 in free vacations over those years. [[Richard Nixon]] and Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] were also often seen at Murchison's Hotel Del Charro.[^2] Hoover was a frequent visitor to the Hotel Del Charro in La Jolla, California, an exclusive hotel opened by [[Clint Murchison, Sr.]] in the early 1950s. Hoover visited the hotel every summer between 1953 and 1959. During these visits, Clint Murchison, Sr. covered Hoover's tab, which amounted to approximately $19,000 in free vacations over those years. [[Richard Nixon]] and Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] were also often seen at Murchison's Hotel Del Charro.[^3]
### NUMEC Investigation and CIA Conflicts ### NUMEC Investigation and CIA Conflicts
In October 1965, the [[Atomic Energy Commission|AEC]] referred the [[Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation|NUMEC]] losses to the FBI. However, Hoover saw no basis for an investigation, concluding that the situation was an administrative matter. He was in the midst of a bitter dispute with [[James Jesus Angleton]]'s counterintelligence shop over the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s handling of defectors and illegal spying inside the [[United States]]. Hoover chose to spar with [[Richard Helms|Helms]] over the [[Zalman Mordecai Shapiro|Shapiro]] issue, telling the CIA to go to [[Israel]] and get inside [[Dimona]] to find evidence of the alleged uranium diversion.[^3] In October 1965, the [[Atomic Energy Commission|AEC]] referred the [[Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation|NUMEC]] losses to the FBI. However, Hoover saw no basis for an investigation, concluding that the situation was an administrative matter. He was in the midst of a bitter dispute with [[James Jesus Angleton]]'s counterintelligence shop over the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s handling of defectors and illegal spying inside the [[United States]]. Hoover chose to spar with [[Richard Helms|Helms]] over the [[Zalman Mordecai Shapiro|Shapiro]] issue, telling the CIA to go to [[Israel]] and get inside [[Dimona]] to find evidence of the alleged uranium diversion.[^4]
A June 10, 1970 Central Intelligence Agency memorandum on releasing the Trace Metal Detection Technique to police gave friction between a police professional association and Hoover as one reason for choosing the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as the distribution channel. The memorandum stated that "it is probable that Mr. Hoover would resent our use of the Association in invading what he has traditionally considered his exclusive domain."[^4] A June 10, 1970 Central Intelligence Agency memorandum on releasing the Trace Metal Detection Technique to police gave friction between a police professional association and Hoover as one reason for choosing the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as the distribution channel. The memorandum stated that "it is probable that Mr. Hoover would resent our use of the Association in invading what he has traditionally considered his exclusive domain."[^5]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976. Powers, Richard Gid. *Secrecy and Power: The Life of J. Edgar Hoover*. Free Press, 1987. Medsger, Betty. *The Burglary: The Discovery of J. Edgar Hoover's Secret FBI*. Knopf, 2014. "British Security Coordination: The Secret History of British Intelligence in the Americas, 1940-45." Fromm International Publishing, 1998. [^1]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, "J. Edgar Hoover, May 10, 1924 - May 2, 1972," Directors, Then and Now. https://www.fbi.gov/history/directors/j-edgar-hoover ("J. Edgar Hoover's GW Years," GW Today, December 11, 2011, https://gwtoday.gwu.edu/j-edgar-hoovers-gw-years, gives fall 1913 entry and the bar examination of July 25, 1917.)
[^2]: Seymour, Cheri. _The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal_. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010. [^2]: Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976. Powers, Richard Gid. *Secrecy and Power: The Life of J. Edgar Hoover*. Free Press, 1987. Medsger, Betty. *The Burglary: The Discovery of J. Edgar Hoover's Secret FBI*. Knopf, 2014. "British Security Coordination: The Secret History of British Intelligence in the Americas, 1940-45." Fromm International Publishing, 1998.
[^3]: Hersh, Seymour M. _The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy_. Random House, 1991. Chapter 18. [^3]: Seymour, Cheri. _The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal_. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010.
[^4]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5 [^4]: Hersh, Seymour M. _The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy_. Random House, 1991. Chapter 18.
[^5]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5

4
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Kenneth A. Kress.md
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@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ tags:
- CIA - CIA
- SRI - SRI
summary: "Kress was the lead analyst assigned to the operation involving Pat Price's Remote Viewing of URDF-3, a highly classified Soviet research and development facility in Kazakhstan." summary: "Kress was the lead analyst assigned to the operation involving Pat Price's Remote Viewing of URDF-3, a highly classified Soviet research and development facility in Kazakhstan."
updated: 2026-10-08 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Kenneth A. Kress was a physicist, engineer, and analyst with the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. He is considered by some to be the "father of America's remote-viewing program" as he was responsible for giving [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI]] its first [[Psi]] research contract in 1972[^1]. Kress, then a young, dark-haired engineer, was instrumental in bringing [[Hal Puthoff]] and [[Ingo Swann]] into the Central Intelligence Agency's orbit for psychic research[^1]. Kenneth A. Kress was a physicist, engineer, and analyst with the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. He is considered by some to be the "father of America's remote-viewing program" as he was responsible for giving [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI]] its first [[Psi]] research contract in 1972[^1]. Kress, then a young, dark-haired engineer, was instrumental in bringing [[Hal Puthoff]] and [[Ingo Swann]] into the Central Intelligence Agency's orbit for psychic research[^1].
@ -45,5 +45,5 @@ In the review Kress wrote that the [[DARPA|Defense Advanced Research Projects Ag
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017. [^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^2]: Kress, Kenneth A. "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence,* vol. 21, no. 4, winter 1977, declassified, document NSA-RDP96X00790R000100010031-3; reprinted with the author's postscript of January 1999 in *Journal of Scientific Exploration,* vol. 13, no. 1, 1999. [^2]: Kress, Kenneth A. "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence,* vol. 21, no. 4, winter 1977, declassified, document CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0; reprinted with the author's postscript of January 1999 in *Journal of Scientific Exploration,* vol. 13, no. 1, 1999.
[^3]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, "Briefing of Representative Charles Rose (D., N.C.), Member of the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, 9 February 1978," OLC 78-0576, CIA-RDP81M00980R000600250087-4, first page only. [^3]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, "Briefing of Representative Charles Rose (D., N.C.), Member of the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, 9 February 1978," OLC 78-0576, CIA-RDP81M00980R000600250087-4, first page only.

2
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Kenneth Mapp.md
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@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ created: 2026-09-25
updated: 2026-09-25 updated: 2026-09-25
--- ---
Kenneth E. Mapp (born November 2, 1955, in [[New York]]) is a [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] politician who was governor of the territory from January 5, 2015 to January 7, 2019, between [[John de Jongh]] and [[Albert Bryan]]. He governed while [[Jeffrey Epstein]], a registered sex offender in the territory, bought and built on [[Great St. James]], and [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] releases in 2026 showed years of direct correspondence between the two, including a 2016 request that Epstein lend the territorial government 275 million dollars and a 2018 request for 50,000 dollars for his political action committee. Deposed in 2023 in the territory's suit against [[JPMorgan Chase]], Mapp, like the other officials deposed, said he had no knowledge of Epstein's crimes. A federal trafficking suit naming him was dismissed for lack of personal jurisdiction in 2025.[^1][^2][^3][^4] Kenneth E. Mapp (born November 2, 1955, in [[New York City|New York]]) is a [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] politician who was governor of the territory from January 5, 2015 to January 7, 2019, between [[John de Jongh]] and [[Albert Bryan]]. He governed while [[Jeffrey Epstein]], a registered sex offender in the territory, bought and built on [[Great St. James]], and [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] releases in 2026 showed years of direct correspondence between the two, including a 2016 request that Epstein lend the territorial government 275 million dollars and a 2018 request for 50,000 dollars for his political action committee. Deposed in 2023 in the territory's suit against [[JPMorgan Chase]], Mapp, like the other officials deposed, said he had no knowledge of Epstein's crimes. A federal trafficking suit naming him was dismissed for lack of personal jurisdiction in 2025.[^1][^2][^3][^4]
### Career ### Career

7
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Laura Menninger.md
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@ -47,14 +47,14 @@ relations:
start: 2020 start: 2020
fn: 8 fn: 8
created: 2026-09-25 created: 2026-09-25
updated: 2026-09-25 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Laura A. Menninger is an American trial lawyer, a shareholder of the [[Denver]] firm [[Haddon, Morgan and Foreman]], who with her partner Jeffrey S. Pagliuca represented [[Ghislaine Maxwell]] in [[Virginia Giuffre]]'s 2015 defamation suit, [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]], and in the 2020 criminal prosecution [[United States v. Maxwell]] in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]]. Before law school she was a financial analyst at [[Goldman Sachs]]; after it she clerked for Judge [[Lewis A. Kaplan]] of the same court. In 2022 her firm sued Maxwell, her brother [[Kevin Maxwell]] and her husband [[Scott Borgerson]] for more than 878,000 dollars in unpaid fees.[^1][^2][^3] Laura A. Menninger is an American trial lawyer, a shareholder of the [[Denver]] firm [[Haddon, Morgan and Foreman]], who with her partner Jeffrey S. Pagliuca represented [[Ghislaine Maxwell]] in [[Virginia Giuffre]]'s 2015 defamation suit, [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]], and in the 2020 criminal prosecution [[United States v. Maxwell]] in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]]. Before law school she was a financial analyst at [[Goldman Sachs]]; after it she clerked for Judge [[Lewis A. Kaplan]] of the same court. In 2022 her firm sued Maxwell, her brother [[Kevin Maxwell]] and her husband [[Scott Borgerson]] for more than 878,000 dollars in unpaid fees.[^1][^2][^3]
### Education and Career ### Education and Career
Menninger graduated magna cum laude from [[Duke University]] in 1991 and worked as a financial analyst in the Corporate Finance Department of Goldman, Sachs & Co. in [[New York]]. She took her J.D. with distinction from [[Stanford Law School]] in 1997, where she was an associate editor of the Stanford Law Review, and clerked for Kaplan in 1997 and 1998. She was a litigation associate at [[Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison]] in New York from 1998 to 2002, then moved to [[Colorado]], where she spent five years as a trial lawyer with the Colorado State Public Defender before joining [[Holland & Hart]]. She joined Haddon, Morgan and Foreman as a shareholder in 2012. She is a Fellow of the [[American College of Trial Lawyers]] and has chaired the Criminal Justice Act Standing Committee of the [[U.S. District Court for the District of Colorado]].[^1] Menninger graduated magna cum laude from [[Duke University]] in 1991 and worked as a financial analyst in the Corporate Finance Department of Goldman, Sachs & Co. in [[New York City|New York]]. She took her J.D. with distinction from [[Stanford Law School]] in 1997, where she was an associate editor of the Stanford Law Review, and clerked for Kaplan in 1997 and 1998. She was a litigation associate at [[Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison]] in New York from 1998 to 2002, then moved to [[Colorado]], where she spent five years as a trial lawyer with the Colorado State Public Defender before joining [[Holland & Hart]]. She joined Haddon, Morgan and Foreman as a shareholder in 2012. She is a Fellow of the [[American College of Trial Lawyers]] and has chaired the Criminal Justice Act Standing Committee of the [[U.S. District Court for the District of Colorado]].[^1]
### Giuffre v. Maxwell ### Giuffre v. Maxwell
@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ Maxwell's lead pretrial motion, filed over the signatures of Mark S. Cohen of [[
### The Fee Suit ### The Fee Suit
On August 22, 2022 Haddon, Morgan and Foreman sued Maxwell, Kevin Maxwell and Borgerson in Denver, alleging that it had not been paid more than 878,000 dollars for defending her at trial and on appeal. The complaint alleged that Maxwell had put her brother in charge of paying her legal fees after her 2020 arrest, that he paid "a fraction" of what was billed through trial while urging the firm to keep working on appeal issues, that he blamed Borgerson for obstructing payment, and that Borgerson formed a limited liability company to buy real estate in order to shield his wife's assets from creditors. Menninger and Pagliuca were named as members of the trial team. [[Ian Maxwell]] said that no family member, including Ghislaine, would comment on the litigation.[^3] On August 22, 2022 Haddon, Morgan and Foreman sued Maxwell, Kevin Maxwell and Borgerson in Denver, alleging that it had not been paid more than 878,000 dollars for defending her at trial and on appeal. The complaint alleged that Maxwell had put her brother in charge of paying her legal fees after her 2020 arrest, that he paid "a fraction" of what was billed through trial while urging the firm to keep working on appeal issues, that he blamed Borgerson for obstructing payment, and that Borgerson formed a limited liability company to buy real estate in order to shield his wife's assets from creditors. Menninger and Pagliuca were named as members of the trial team. In the Second Circuit appeals in the civil case, the opinions of July 3, 2019, October 19, 2020 and July 23, 2025 list Adam Mueller of the firm as counsel for Maxwell.[^10] [[Ian Maxwell]] said that no family member, including Ghislaine, would comment on the litigation.[^3]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -83,3 +83,4 @@ On August 22, 2022 Haddon, Morgan and Foreman sued Maxwell, Kevin Maxwell and Bo
[^7]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00088205, DataSet 9, letter, Jeffrey S. Pagliuca, Haddon, Morgan and Foreman, P.C., to Hon. Alison J. Nathan, "Re: Reply in Support of Request to Modify Protective Order (Under Seal), United States v. Ghislaine Maxwell, 20 Cr. 330 (AJN)," August 24, 2020. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00088205.pdf [^7]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00088205, DataSet 9, letter, Jeffrey S. Pagliuca, Haddon, Morgan and Foreman, P.C., to Hon. Alison J. Nathan, "Re: Reply in Support of Request to Modify Protective Order (Under Seal), United States v. Ghislaine Maxwell, 20 Cr. 330 (AJN)," August 24, 2020. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00088205.pdf
[^8]: United States v. Maxwell, No. 1:20-cr-00330 (S.D.N.Y.), Notice of Motion to Dismiss Superseding Indictment for Breach of Non-Prosecution Agreement, ECF No. 141 (filed Feb. 4, 2021). https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.nysd.539612/gov.uscourts.nysd.539612.141.0.pdf ; Opinion and Order, ECF No. 207 (April 16, 2021). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/17318376/united-states-v-maxwell/ [^8]: United States v. Maxwell, No. 1:20-cr-00330 (S.D.N.Y.), Notice of Motion to Dismiss Superseding Indictment for Breach of Non-Prosecution Agreement, ECF No. 141 (filed Feb. 4, 2021). https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.nysd.539612/gov.uscourts.nysd.539612.141.0.pdf ; Opinion and Order, ECF No. 207 (April 16, 2021). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/17318376/united-states-v-maxwell/
[^9]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00016268, DataSet 8, letter, Haddon, Morgan and Foreman, P.C., defense expert disclosure, United States v. Maxwell, 20 Cr. 330 (S.D.N.Y.), November 1, 2021 (duplicate at EFTA02835304, Court Records). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%208/EFTA00016268.pdf [^9]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00016268, DataSet 8, letter, Haddon, Morgan and Foreman, P.C., defense expert disclosure, United States v. Maxwell, 20 Cr. 330 (S.D.N.Y.), November 1, 2021 (duplicate at EFTA02835304, Court Records). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%208/EFTA00016268.pdf
[^10]: *Brown v. Maxwell*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. July 3, 2019), counsel block (Ty Gee and Adam Mueller, Haddon, Morgan and Foreman, for Maxwell), https://static.case.law/f3d/929/cases/0041-01.json ; *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, summary order, No. 20-2413-cv (2d Cir. Oct. 19, 2020), counsel for defendant-appellant: Adam Mueller (Ty Gee on the brief), Haddon, Morgan and Foreman, P.C.; *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, consolidated appeals decided July 23, 2025, counsel block (Adam Mueller, Haddon, Morgan & Foreman, P.C.).

18
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Leslie Kean.md
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@ -18,30 +18,32 @@ relations:
start: 2017-12-16 start: 2017-12-16
fn: 1 fn: 1
created: 2026-10-03 created: 2026-10-03
updated: 2026-10-03 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
[[Leslie Kean]] grew up in [[New York City]], attended the [[Spence School]] and [[Bard College]], helped found a Zen center in upstate New York, and worked as a photographer at the [[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]], before a 1990s trip to [[Myanmar|Burma]] to interview political prisoners led to investigative journalism, according to *[[The New Yorker]]*. She worked as a producer and host of "[[Flashpoints]]" at the [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] radio station [[KPFA]]. Her grandfather [[Robert Winthrop Kean]] served ten terms in [[United States Congress|Congress]] and her uncle [[Thomas Kean]] was governor of [[New Jersey]] and chaired the [[9/11 Commission]].[^1] [[Leslie Kean]] grew up in [[New York City]], attended the [[Spence School]] and [[Bard College]], helped found a Zen center in upstate New York, and worked as a photographer at the [[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]], before a 1990s trip to [[Myanmar|Burma]] to interview political prisoners led to investigative journalism, according to *[[The New Yorker]]*. She worked as a producer and host of "[[Flashpoints]]" at the [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] radio station [[KPFA]]. Her grandfather [[Robert Winthrop Kean]] served ten terms in [[United States Congress|Congress]] and her uncle [[Thomas Kean]] was governor of [[New Jersey]] and chaired the [[9/11 Commission]].[^1]
### Early UFO work ### Early UFO work
In 1999 a journalist friend in Paris sent Kean the report of the French group [[COMETA]], "Les OVNI et la Défense," and in 2000 she wrote a summary for the *[[Boston Globe]]* Focus section, published May 21, 2000.[^1] *The New Yorker* described her as "an independent investigative journalist and a novice U.F.O. researcher who had worked with Greer" ([[Steven Greer]]) when she watched his May 9, 2001 [[Disclosure Project]] event at the [[National Press Club]], where she "knew then that I had to walk away" because of speakers' "outrageous, grandiose claims."[^1] In 2002 [[Larry Landsman]], director of projects for the [[Syfy|Sci Fi Channel]] (now Syfy), invited her to lead a public effort to obtain government records on the [[Kecksburg incident|Kecksburg]], [[Pennsylvania]] incident of December 9, 1965. Sci Fi hired lawyers, researchers and the Washington firm [[PodestaMattoon]]; its [[Edwin S. Rothschild]] introduced her to [[John Podesta]], who agreed to support publicly her lawsuit against [[NASA]]. The case ran four years and ended in a settlement; Kean received "hundreds of largely irrelevant documents."[^1][^2] By March 2003 the effort included an online petition at signpetition.com asking [[United States Congress|Congress]] to direct the [[Government Accountability Office|General Accounting Office]] to examine Kecksburg and a plan to sue, through a law firm doing freedom-of-information work, wherever agencies short-changed requests for declassified files. Kean said of the case, "This case is so incredibly fascinating. Even now, the trail is not cold." [[Stan Gordon]] of Greensburg, then 53, was also part of the records effort, and Landsman said, "We're committed to solving this." The drive was "bankrolled by" the Sci Fi Channel, and Kean was described as a San Francisco-area freelance journalist whose writing had appeared on the opinion pages of the *[[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]* and the news pages of the *Boston Globe*.[^3] Podesta wrote the foreword to her 2010 book *UFOs: Generals, Pilots, and Government Officials Go on the Record* ([[Random House]] imprint), and in June 2011 invited her to make a confidential presentation at the [[Center for American Progress]], which he had founded. In August 2014 she met Podesta, then an adviser to [[Barack Obama]], in the West Wing and proposed that one person in the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]] be assigned to the subject; the proposal went nowhere.[^1] In 1999 a journalist friend in Paris sent Kean the report of the French group [[COMETA]], "Les OVNI et la Défense," and in 2000 she wrote a summary for the *[[Boston Globe]]* Focus section, published May 21, 2000.[^1] *The New Yorker* described her as "an independent investigative journalist and a novice U.F.O. researcher who had worked with Greer" ([[Steven Greer]]) when she watched his May 9, 2001 [[Disclosure Project]] event at the [[National Press Club]], where she "knew then that I had to walk away" because of speakers' "outrageous, grandiose claims."[^1] In 2002 [[Larry Landsman]], director of projects for the [[Syfy|Sci Fi Channel]] (now Syfy), invited her to lead a public effort to obtain government records on the [[Kecksburg incident|Kecksburg]], [[Pennsylvania]] incident of December 9, 1965. Sci Fi hired lawyers, researchers and the Washington firm [[PodestaMattoon]]; its [[Edwin S. Rothschild]] introduced her to [[John Podesta]], who agreed to support publicly her lawsuit against [[NASA]]. The case ran four years and ended in a settlement; Kean received "hundreds of largely irrelevant documents."[^1][^2] The suit, *Kean v. National Aeronautics and Space Administration*, Civil Action No. 03-2509 (EGS), was heard in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] by Judge [[Emmet G. Sullivan]] on a request Kean submitted to NASA on January 31, 2003. The court's memorandum opinion of March 27, 2007 recites that NASA admitted that its first two searches were inadequate, that three of nineteen boxes of archived records sought from the Washington National Record Center were "reported as having been missing for quite some time," and that the parties were to propose search procedures by April 30, 2007.[^3] The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press reported in October and December 2007 that NASA had agreed, and been ordered, to search its archives again.[^4] By March 2003 the effort included an online petition at signpetition.com asking [[United States Congress|Congress]] to direct the [[Government Accountability Office|General Accounting Office]] to examine Kecksburg and a plan to sue, through a law firm doing freedom-of-information work, wherever agencies short-changed requests for declassified files. Kean said of the case, "This case is so incredibly fascinating. Even now, the trail is not cold." [[Stan Gordon]] of Greensburg, then 53, was also part of the records effort, and Landsman said, "We're committed to solving this." The drive was "bankrolled by" the Sci Fi Channel, and Kean was described as a San Francisco-area freelance journalist whose writing had appeared on the opinion pages of the *[[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]* and the news pages of the *Boston Globe*.[^5] Podesta wrote the foreword to her 2010 book *UFOs: Generals, Pilots, and Government Officials Go on the Record* ([[Random House]] imprint), and in June 2011 invited her to make a confidential presentation at the [[Center for American Progress]], which he had founded. In August 2014 she met Podesta, then an adviser to [[Barack Obama]], in the West Wing and proposed that one person in the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]] be assigned to the subject; the proposal went nowhere.[^1]
Her later [[Huffington Post]] work drew on material from the [[Chilean government]]'s [[Comité de Estudios de Fenómenos Aéreos Anómalos]] (CEFAA). Her January 6, 2017 piece "Groundbreaking UFO Video Just Released by Chilean [[United States Navy|Navy]]" was analyzed on the forum [[Metabunk]] by [[Mick West]] and others, who concluded by January 11 that the object was [[Iberia]] flight IB6830 from [[Santiago]] to [[Madrid]]; Kean said of West that "if Mick were really interested in this stuff, he wouldn't debunk every single video."[^1] *[[New York Magazine]]* describes her late partner as [[Budd Hopkins]], the abduction researcher, in connection with her book *[[Surviving Death]]*.[^4] Her later [[Huffington Post]] work drew on material from the [[Chilean government]]'s [[Comité de Estudios de Fenómenos Aéreos Anómalos]] (CEFAA). Her January 6, 2017 piece "Groundbreaking UFO Video Just Released by Chilean [[United States Navy|Navy]]" was analyzed on the forum [[Metabunk]] by [[Mick West]] and others, who concluded by January 11 that the object was [[Iberia]] flight IB6830 from [[Santiago]] to [[Madrid]]; Kean said of West that "if Mick were really interested in this stuff, he wouldn't debunk every single video."[^1] *[[New York Magazine]]* describes her late partner as [[Budd Hopkins]], the abduction researcher, in connection with her book *[[Surviving Death]]*.[^6]
### The December 2017 placement ### The December 2017 placement
Kean told [[Gideon Lewis-Kraus]] that on October 4, 2017, at the behest of [[Christopher Mellon]], she was called to a confidential meeting in the bar of a hotel near the [[Pentagon]], where [[Hal Puthoff]] and [[Jim Semivan]] introduced her to [[Luis Elizondo]], who had left the Pentagon the previous day. She was shown documents for three hours and told she could have the videos, with chain-of-custody documentation, "if she could place a story in the Times." She telephoned [[Ralph Blumenthal]], who wrote to executive editor [[Dean Baquet]]; the *[[New York Times]]* assigned [[Helene Cooper]], and the three published "Glowing Auras and 'Black Money': The Pentagon's Mysterious U.F.O. Program" on December 16, 2017. Kean told Lewis-Kraus: "I never would have ever imagined I could have ended up writing for the Times," and gave "all the credit to Elizondo and Mellon for coming forward." She also said she developed doubts about [[Tom DeLonge]] after his appearance on [[Joe Rogan]]'s podcast, while having "full confidence" in Elizondo.[^1] See [[December 2017 New York Times AATIP Report]]. Kean told [[Gideon Lewis-Kraus]] that on October 4, 2017, at the behest of [[Christopher Mellon]], she was called to a confidential meeting in the bar of a hotel near the [[Pentagon]], where [[Hal Puthoff]] and [[Jim Semivan]] introduced her to [[Luis Elizondo]], who had left the Pentagon the previous day. She was shown documents for three hours and told she could have the videos, with chain-of-custody documentation, "if she could place a story in the Times." She telephoned [[Ralph Blumenthal]], who wrote to executive editor [[Dean Baquet]]; the *[[New York Times]]* assigned [[Helene Cooper]], and the three published "Glowing Auras and 'Black Money': The Pentagon's Mysterious U.F.O. Program" on December 16, 2017. Kean told Lewis-Kraus: "I never would have ever imagined I could have ended up writing for the Times," and gave "all the credit to Elizondo and Mellon for coming forward." She also said she developed doubts about [[Tom DeLonge]] after his appearance on [[Joe Rogan]]'s podcast, while having "full confidence" in Elizondo.[^1] See [[December 2017 New York Times AATIP Report]].
[[Keith Kloor]] reported in *[[The Intercept]]* in 2019 that Kean "wrote in 2016 that she was 'privileged to welcome' Chris Mellon into the UFO organization to which she belonged."[^5] The Pentagon's 2019 statements that Elizondo had "no responsibilities" for [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program|AATIP]] while in the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence, and the dispute with [[Bryan Bender]]'s December 2017 reporting, are set out on the event page. [[Keith Kloor]] reported in *[[The Intercept]]* in 2019 that Kean "wrote in 2016 that she was 'privileged to welcome' Chris Mellon into the UFO organization to which she belonged."[^7] The Pentagon's 2019 statements that Elizondo had "no responsibilities" for [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program|AATIP]] while in the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence, and the dispute with [[Bryan Bender]]'s December 2017 reporting, are set out on the event page.
### After 2017 ### After 2017
Kean has since covered the subject for the Times, sharing bylines with Blumenthal. A July 2020 article by the two referred to unclassified slides shown at congressional briefings that mentioned "off-world" vehicles and "crash retrievals" and said [[Harry Reid]] "believed that crashes of vehicles from other worlds had occurred and that retrieved materials had been studied secretly for decades, often by aerospace companies under government contracts." The Times corrected the sentence the next day. Reid told Lewis-Kraus he had never seen proof of remnants and that he had "been told for decades that [[Lockheed Martin|Lockheed]] had some of these retrieved materials." A former Pentagon official told Lewis-Kraus that terms in Kean's slides were ones "we would never say." Kean told Lewis-Kraus she had come to believe that fragments had been "hoarded somewhere" and cited [[Jacques Vallee]], who is working with [[Stanford University|Stanford]] immunologist [[Garry Nolan]] on purported crash material.[^1] In June 2023 she and Blumenthal published the first account of the claims of [[David Grusch]] on [[The Debrief]].[^4] Kean has since covered the subject for the Times, sharing bylines with Blumenthal. A July 2020 article by the two referred to unclassified slides shown at congressional briefings that mentioned "off-world" vehicles and "crash retrievals" and said [[Harry Reid]] "believed that crashes of vehicles from other worlds had occurred and that retrieved materials had been studied secretly for decades, often by aerospace companies under government contracts." The Times corrected the sentence the next day. Reid told Lewis-Kraus he had never seen proof of remnants and that he had "been told for decades that [[Lockheed Martin|Lockheed]] had some of these retrieved materials." A former Pentagon official told Lewis-Kraus that terms in Kean's slides were ones "we would never say." Kean told Lewis-Kraus she had come to believe that fragments had been "hoarded somewhere" and cited [[Jacques Vallee]], who is working with [[Stanford University|Stanford]] immunologist [[Garry Nolan]] on purported crash material.[^1] In June 2023 she and Blumenthal published the first account of the claims of [[David Grusch]] on [[The Debrief]].[^6]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Lewis-Kraus, Gideon. "How the Pentagon Started Taking U.F.O.s Seriously." *The New Yorker,* May 10, 2021. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/05/10/how-the-pentagon-started-taking-ufos-seriously. The date of the Reid correction and the July 2020 article are inferred from the text ("published last July") of a May 2021 piece. [^1]: Lewis-Kraus, Gideon. "How the Pentagon Started Taking U.F.O.s Seriously." *The New Yorker,* May 10, 2021. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/05/10/how-the-pentagon-started-taking-ufos-seriously. The date of the Reid correction and the July 2020 article are inferred from the text ("published last July") of a May 2021 piece.
[^2]: Same, on the 2002 PodestaMattoon engagement, Rothschild's introduction and Podesta's support of the lawsuit. [^2]: Same, on the 2002 PodestaMattoon engagement, Rothschild's introduction and Podesta's support of the lawsuit.
[^3]: Gibb, Tom. "Reality 'X-file': People in Kecksburg want to resolve what fell from the sky in 1965." *Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,* March 9, 2003, p. 21, via newspapers.com image 90896474. Quotations as printed. [^3]: *Kean v. National Aeronautics and Space Administration*, Civil Action No. 03-2509 (EGS) (D.D.C.), Memorandum Opinion, Document 45, filed March 27, 2007 (Sullivan, J.), pp. 1 to 10 and 19 to 21. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.dcd.106063/gov.uscourts.dcd.106063.45.0.pdf
[^4]: Baker, Nicholson. "How We Lost Our Minds About UFOs." *New York Magazine,* January 31, 2024. https://nymag.com/intelligencer/article/leslie-kean-ufo-sightings-aliens.html [^4]: Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, "Was It a UFO? NASA Agrees to Search Its Files on 1965 Incident Again," October 29, 2007, https://www.rcfp.org/was-it-ufo-nasa-agrees-search-its-files-1965-incident-again/ ; "NASA Ordered to Review Its Records for Data on 'UFO' Sighting," December 10, 2007, https://www.rcfp.org/nasa-ordered-review-its-records-data-ufo-sighting/
[^5]: Kloor, Keith. "The Media Loves This UFO Expert Who Says He Worked for an Obscure Pentagon Program. Did He?" *The Intercept,* June 1, 2019. https://theintercept.com/2019/06/01/ufo-unidentified-history-channel-luis-elizondo-pentagon/. Kloor does not name the organization or the venue of Kean's 2016 statement; his article is the only source read for it. [^5]: Gibb, Tom. "Reality 'X-file': People in Kecksburg want to resolve what fell from the sky in 1965." *Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,* March 9, 2003, p. 21, via newspapers.com image 90896474. Quotations as printed.
[^6]: Baker, Nicholson. "How We Lost Our Minds About UFOs." *New York Magazine,* January 31, 2024. https://nymag.com/intelligencer/article/leslie-kean-ufo-sightings-aliens.html
[^7]: Kloor, Keith. "The Media Loves This UFO Expert Who Says He Worked for an Obscure Pentagon Program. Did He?" *The Intercept,* June 1, 2019. https://theintercept.com/2019/06/01/ufo-unidentified-history-channel-luis-elizondo-pentagon/. Kloor does not name the organization or the venue of Kean's 2016 statement; his article is the only source read for it.

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10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Linda Moulton Howe.md
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@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ Linda Moulton Howe is a television documentary producer who, as Director of Spec
### A Strange Harvest and the HBO contract ### A Strange Harvest and the HBO contract
Howe wrote that the research began on September 1, 1979 as an environmental story and became an accumulation of testimony that "implicated the presence of extraterrestrial mutilators," and that after the program she received hundreds of calls and letters.[^1] During the fall of 1982, she wrote, an HBO executive who had screened the documentary asked for a proposal that "went beyond the mutilation investigation and focused primarily on evidence for extraterrestrial interactions." On March 20, 1983, in [[New York]], she had dinner with the attorney [[Peter Gersten]] of [[Citizens Against UFO Secrecy]] (CAUS), who told her he had an Air Force contact, Richard Doty, who might discuss a 1977 landing at [[Ellsworth Air Force Base]]; Gersten had met Doty in [[Albuquerque]] on January 10, 1983. The next afternoon [[Jean Abounader]], director of HBO's documentary unit and previously with CBS, with an assistant, accepted a proposal titled *UFOS: The E.T. Factor* and asked her to sign a development contract to deliver a shooting script.[^2] Gersten then called Doty, who in a telephone call was "cordial" and agreed to meet on April 9.[^2] On March 26, 1983 Howe and [[Larry Fawcett]] visited [[Robert Emenegger]] in [[Los Angeles]] about the 1964 [[Holloman Air Force Base|Holloman]] landing; two weeks later, she wrote, Emenegger told her that his [[Department of Defense]] sources had told him not to take part.[^2] Howe wrote that the research began on September 1, 1979 as an environmental story and became an accumulation of testimony that "implicated the presence of extraterrestrial mutilators," and that after the program she received hundreds of calls and letters.[^1] During the fall of 1982, she wrote, an HBO executive who had screened the documentary asked for a proposal that "went beyond the mutilation investigation and focused primarily on evidence for extraterrestrial interactions." On March 20, 1983, in [[New York City|New York]], she had dinner with the attorney [[Peter Gersten]] of [[Citizens Against UFO Secrecy]] (CAUS), who told her he had an Air Force contact, Richard Doty, who might discuss a 1977 landing at [[Ellsworth Air Force Base]]; Gersten had met Doty in [[Albuquerque]] on January 10, 1983. The next afternoon [[Jean Abounader]], director of HBO's documentary unit and previously with CBS, with an assistant, accepted a proposal titled *UFOS: The E.T. Factor* and asked her to sign a development contract to deliver a shooting script.[^2] Gersten then called Doty, who in a telephone call was "cordial" and agreed to meet on April 9.[^2] On March 26, 1983 Howe and [[Larry Fawcett]] visited [[Robert Emenegger]] in [[Los Angeles]] about the 1964 [[Holloman Air Force Base|Holloman]] landing; two weeks later, she wrote, Emenegger told her that his [[Department of Defense]] sources had told him not to take part.[^2]
### April 9, 1983 ### April 9, 1983

4
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Michael Mastromarino.md
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@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ relations:
end: 2008-10-22 end: 2008-10-22
fn: 1 fn: 1
created: 2026-09-23 created: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-09-23 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Michael Mastromarino (died July 7, 2013) was a [[New Jersey]] oral surgeon who, after losing his dental license, founded [[Biomedical Tissue Services]] (BTS) in 2002 and ran it as a business "selling human tissue from cadavers to tissue banks around the country." Between 2001 and 2005, by his own admission, he and a team of "cutters" removed bone, skin, tendon and other tissue from the bodies of people who had not consented to donation, forged consent forms and death records, and sold the tissue to processors whose products were transplanted into patients. He pleaded guilty in [[Brooklyn]] in March 2008 and in [[Philadelphia]] in August 2008, and was serving concurrent sentences of 18 to 54 years in [[New York (state)|New York]] and 25 to 58 years in [[Pennsylvania]] when he died of cancer, aged 49.[^1][^2][^3] Michael Mastromarino (died July 7, 2013) was a [[New Jersey]] oral surgeon who, after losing his dental license, founded [[Biomedical Tissue Services]] (BTS) in 2002 and ran it as a business "selling human tissue from cadavers to tissue banks around the country." Between 2001 and 2005, by his own admission, he and a team of "cutters" removed bone, skin, tendon and other tissue from the bodies of people who had not consented to donation, forged consent forms and death records, and sold the tissue to processors whose products were transplanted into patients. He pleaded guilty in [[Brooklyn]] in March 2008 and in [[Philadelphia]] in August 2008, and was serving concurrent sentences of 18 to 54 years in [[New York (state)|New York]] and 25 to 58 years in [[Pennsylvania]] when he died of cancer, aged 49.[^1][^2][^3]
@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ Among the bodies was that of the broadcaster [[Alistair Cooke]], who died in Mar
On February 23, 2006, the Kings County District Attorney, [[Charles J. Hynes]], announced a 122-count indictment of Mastromarino, Nicelli, Cruceta and Christopher Aldorasi for enterprise corruption, body stealing, opening graves, unlawful dissection, forgery, grand larceny and falsifying business records. "What happened here," Hynes said, "is like something out of a cheap horror movie."[^5] The four were charged with removing bone and tissue from 1,077 bodies at funeral homes without the permission of families.[^8] On March 18, 2008, Mastromarino pleaded guilty in Brooklyn to fourteen counts including enterprise corruption, body stealing and reckless endangerment, admitting that he had carried out the scheme from 2001 to 2005 and had forged records of the time of death and ages of the dead and switched blood and tissue samples; he agreed to forfeit 4.68 million dollars, and his wife, Barbra, 190,000 dollars. "What he did was wrong," said his lawyer, Mario Gallucci.[^2] At his sentencing to 18 to 54 years before Judge Albert Tomei, relatives of the dead addressed him; a woman who said she had contracted hepatitis from one of his bones implanted in her back called his actions "sick, disgusting, appalling." Mastromarino said: "I'd just like to take the opportunity to apologize for the pain and grief I've caused to the donor families and the donor recipients... God have mercy on my soul."[^9] Aldorasi was sentenced to 9 to 27 years; Cruceta pleaded guilty and testified against him.[^10] On February 23, 2006, the Kings County District Attorney, [[Charles J. Hynes]], announced a 122-count indictment of Mastromarino, Nicelli, Cruceta and Christopher Aldorasi for enterprise corruption, body stealing, opening graves, unlawful dissection, forgery, grand larceny and falsifying business records. "What happened here," Hynes said, "is like something out of a cheap horror movie."[^5] The four were charged with removing bone and tissue from 1,077 bodies at funeral homes without the permission of families.[^8] On March 18, 2008, Mastromarino pleaded guilty in Brooklyn to fourteen counts including enterprise corruption, body stealing and reckless endangerment, admitting that he had carried out the scheme from 2001 to 2005 and had forged records of the time of death and ages of the dead and switched blood and tissue samples; he agreed to forfeit 4.68 million dollars, and his wife, Barbra, 190,000 dollars. "What he did was wrong," said his lawyer, Mario Gallucci.[^2] At his sentencing to 18 to 54 years before Judge Albert Tomei, relatives of the dead addressed him; a woman who said she had contracted hepatitis from one of his bones implanted in her back called his actions "sick, disgusting, appalling." Mastromarino said: "I'd just like to take the opportunity to apologize for the pain and grief I've caused to the donor families and the donor recipients... God have mercy on my soul."[^9] Aldorasi was sentenced to 9 to 27 years; Cruceta pleaded guilty and testified against him.[^10]
In Philadelphia, after a grand jury investigation begun on May 4, 2006, Mastromarino entered an open plea of guilty on August 29, 2008, and on October 22, 2008, was sentenced to 25 to 58 years, concurrent with his New York sentence. The judge sentenced him on 32 of the 244 theft counts consecutively and gave aggravated sentences for abuse of corpse because the conduct was "so beyond the pale of what the guidelines contemplate." Because he had forfeited 300,000 dollars in cash, the Commonwealth sought no further restitution. The [[Superior Court of Pennsylvania|Superior Court]] affirmed the sentence on July 21, 2010.[^1] In Philadelphia, after a grand jury investigation begun on May 4, 2006, Mastromarino entered an open plea of guilty on August 29, 2008, and on October 22, 2008, was sentenced to 25 to 58 years, concurrent with his New York sentence. The judge sentenced him on 32 of the 244 theft counts consecutively and gave aggravated sentences for abuse of corpse because the conduct was "so beyond the pale of what the guidelines contemplate." Because he had forfeited 300,000 dollars in cash, in one account of the sentencing, the Commonwealth sought no further restitution; the Superior Court's opinion records the forfeited sum as 800,000 dollars in cash. The [[Superior Court of Pennsylvania|Superior Court]] affirmed the sentence on July 21, 2010.[^1]
### Death ### Death

12
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Mike Harari.md
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@ -17,22 +17,22 @@ born: 1927-02-18
died: 2014-09-21 died: 2014-09-21
location: "Tel Aviv, Israel" location: "Tel Aviv, Israel"
created: 2026-09-22 created: 2026-09-22
updated: 2026-09-22 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Mike Harari (February 18, 1927, [[Tel Aviv]], to September 21, 2014) was the [[Mossad]] officer who ran its special operations section in the years after the Munich massacre and who led the team that killed Ahmed Bouchiki, a Moroccan waiter mistaken for the [[Black September]] planner Ali Hassan Salameh, at Lillehammer, [[Norway]], in July 1973. [[Ari Ben-Menashe]] writes that Harari "had just left Israel because of his failure in the 'Moroccan Waiter Affair'" when he joined the private arms network that [[Ariel Sharon]] ran in [[Central America]] from the late 1970s, and that he "was a close associate of Panama's military intelligence chief, [[Manuel Noriega]]." By 1981, in Ben-Menashe's account, "Sharon and Harari were running what Harari described as more of a [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] network than an Israeli operation," supplying the [[Contras]] and financing itself, "according to Harari," by "transporting cocaine from [[South America]] to the [[United States]] via Central America," with Noriega "a major player."[^1] Mike Harari (February 18, 1927, [[Tel Aviv]], to September 21, 2014) was the [[Mossad]] officer who ran its special operations section in the years after the Munich massacre and who led the team that killed Ahmed Bouchiki, a Moroccan waiter mistaken for the [[Black September]] planner Ali Hassan Salameh, at Lillehammer, [[Norway]], in July 1973. [[Ari Ben-Menashe]] writes that Harari "had just left Israel because of his failure in the 'Moroccan Waiter Affair'" when he joined the private arms network that [[Ariel Sharon]] ran in [[Central America]] from the late 1970s, and that he "was a close associate of Panama's military intelligence chief, [[Manuel Noriega]]." By 1981, in Ben-Menashe's account, "Sharon and Harari were running what Harari described as more of a [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] network than an Israeli operation," supplying the [[Contras]] and financing itself, "according to Harari," by "transporting cocaine from [[South America]] to the [[United States]] via Central America," with Noriega "a major player."[^1]
### Panama ### Panama
In February 1988 [[Jose Blandon]], Noriega's former consul general in New York, testified before the Senate Foreign Relations [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee|Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations]] under Senator [[John Kerry]]. On February 9 he named "Mike Harari" among those with "legal dealings" with Noriega, "an Israeli general who retired and worked for 10 years with the Israel intelligence forces services, and he now works for Noriega"; asked by Kerry whether Harari trained Noriega's personal guards, he answered, "Yes. But more than training Noriega's personal guards, he has very important dealings with Noriega in the area of weapons trafficking, because he uses what is called the end user certificate," and said that "his signature on those certificates produces millions of dollars." On February 10 he said that falsifying end-user certificates was "one of Noriega's businesses. I told you that with Harari he has that business."[^4] He was also quoted as saying that "Michael Harare" had "close contacts with Noriega and was Panama's honorary consul in Tel Aviv," and that his network did "business with Noriega in Panama for a series of companies for arms contraband, smuggling to supply arms to Central America and to the counterrevolution, the Nicaragua counterrevolution." Asked by Kerry what "other things" the network handled, Blandon answered, "Drugs," and confirmed "a direct linkage" between "the Harare network and these airstrips, in which guns would go in one shipment and drugs would come out in another." "The Harare network is a network that was established with Israeli citizens, Panamanians and U.S. citizens for arms supply purposes," he said. The Israeli embassy spokesman Yosef Gal replied that Harari was "acting as a private citizen" and that Israel "had no knowledge of his activities." Harari was not named in the Miami and Tampa indictments of Noriega that month, left [[Panama]] at the time of the American invasion of December 1989 and returned to [[Israel]].[^2][^3] In February 1988 [[Jose Blandon]], Noriega's former consul general in New York, testified before the Senate Foreign Relations [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee|Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations]] under Senator [[John Kerry]]. On February 9 he named "Mike Harari" among those with "legal dealings" with Noriega, "an Israeli general who retired and worked for 10 years with the Israel intelligence forces services, and he now works for Noriega"; asked by Kerry whether Harari trained Noriega's personal guards, he answered, "Yes. But more than training Noriega's personal guards, he has very important dealings with Noriega in the area of weapons trafficking, because he uses what is called the end user certificate," and said that "his signature on those certificates produces millions of dollars." On February 10 he said that falsifying end-user certificates was "one of Noriega's businesses. I told you that with Harari he has that business."[^2] He was also quoted as saying that "Michael Harare" had "close contacts with Noriega and was Panama's honorary consul in Tel Aviv," and that his network did "business with Noriega in Panama for a series of companies for arms contraband, smuggling to supply arms to Central America and to the counterrevolution, the Nicaragua counterrevolution." Asked by Kerry what "other things" the network handled, Blandon answered, "Drugs," and confirmed "a direct linkage" between "the Harare network and these airstrips, in which guns would go in one shipment and drugs would come out in another." "The Harare network is a network that was established with Israeli citizens, Panamanians and U.S. citizens for arms supply purposes," he said. The Israeli embassy spokesman Yosef Gal replied that Harari was "acting as a private citizen" and that Israel "had no knowledge of his activities." Harari was not named in the Miami and Tampa indictments of Noriega that month, left [[Panama]] at the time of the American invasion of December 1989 and returned to [[Israel]].[^3][^4]
### PROMIS ### PROMIS
Ben-Menashe's account of the sale of a modified [[PROMIS]] to [[Guatemala]] states that "the price Israel had to pay for this agreement was that the [[Eagle]] company, run by [[Pesach Ben-Or]] in Guatemala and his associate Mike Harari in Panama, and overseen by Ariel Sharon, would continue selling weapons to the Guatemalan government." The special counsel [[Nicholas J. Bua]] found Ben-Menashe's PROMIS affidavits contradicted by his later testimony, and no official inquiry examined Harari's part. He received the Mossad chief's medal of distinction in 2007 and was the subject of a 2014 Hebrew biography by Aaron J. Klein.[^1][^3] Ben-Menashe's account of the sale of a modified [[PROMIS]] to [[Guatemala]] states that "the price Israel had to pay for this agreement was that the [[Eagle]] company, run by [[Pesach Ben-Or]] in Guatemala and his associate Mike Harari in Panama, and overseen by Ariel Sharon, would continue selling weapons to the Guatemalan government." The special counsel [[Nicholas J. Bua]] found Ben-Menashe's PROMIS affidavits contradicted by his later testimony, and no official inquiry examined Harari's part. He received the Mossad chief's medal of distinction in 2007 and was the subject of a 2014 Hebrew biography by Aaron J. Klein.[^1][^4]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network,* Sheridan Square, 1992, chs. "The First Billion" and "Promis." https://archive.org/details/profits-of-war-1992-ari-ben-menashe [^1]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network,* Sheridan Square, 1992, chs. "The First Billion" and "Promis." https://archive.org/details/profits-of-war-1992-ari-ben-menashe
[^2]: "Ex-agent of the Mossad Implicated in Drug Deals with Panamanian," *Jewish Telegraphic Agency,* February 1988. https://www.jta.org/archive/ex-agent-of-the-mossad-implicated-in-drug-deals-with-panamanian The subcommittee's report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy,* December 1988, does not mention Harari. [^2]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics, and International Communications. *Drugs, Law Enforcement, and Foreign Policy: Panama,* hearings, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., part 2, February 8-11, 1988, pp. 93-94 (February 9) and 169 (February 10). https://hdl.handle.net/2027/pur1.32754076926512
[^3]: U.S. Department of Justice, *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua,* March 1993. Harari's birth and death dates, the Lillehammer role, his absence from the 1988 Noriega indictments, his departure from Panama in December 1989, the 2007 medal and the Klein biography are as given in obituaries and press accounts. [^3]: "Ex-agent of the Mossad Implicated in Drug Deals with Panamanian," *Jewish Telegraphic Agency,* April 14, 1988. https://www.jta.org/archive/ex-agent-of-the-mossad-implicated-in-drug-deals-with-panamanian The subcommittee's report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy,* December 1988, does not mention Harari.
[^4]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics, and International Communications. *Drugs, Law Enforcement, and Foreign Policy: Panama,* hearings, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., part 2, February 8-11, 1988, pp. 93-94 (February 9) and 169 (February 10). https://hdl.handle.net/2027/pur1.32754076926512 [^4]: U.S. Department of Justice, *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua,* March 1993. Harari's birth and death dates, the Lillehammer role, his absence from the 1988 Noriega indictments, his departure from Panama in December 1989, the 2007 medal and the Klein biography are as given in obituaries and press accounts.

10
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Morris K. Jessup.md
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@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ relations:
role: "Varo retyped the annotated paperback; Barker wrote that Jessup was called in by Varo, shown the book and given several copies" role: "Varo retyped the annotated paperback; Barker wrote that Jessup was called in by Varo, shown the book and given several copies"
fn: 2 fn: 2
created: 2026-10-02 created: 2026-10-02
updated: 2026-10-03 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Morris Ketchum Jessup (born March 2, 1900) wrote four books on unidentified flying objects, the first of which, [[The Case for the UFO]], was published in 1955.[^1][^2] A copy of the paperback reprint carrying handwritten annotations in three inks reached the [[Office of Naval Research]] (ONR), and the [[Varo Manufacturing Company]] of [[Garland, Texas]] retyped it with the annotations in red type for a small number of copies, now called the Varo Edition or Annotated Edition.[^3] [[Gray Barker]] wrote that on the evening of April 20, 1959, Jessup died in his station wagon in a [[Dade County, Florida]] park from automobile exhaust piped in by hose, and described the death as a suicide; he added that after the death ufologists began delving into it and into its connection with the book.[^2] Morris Ketchum Jessup (born March 2, 1900) wrote four books on unidentified flying objects, the first of which, [[The Case for the UFO]], was published in 1955.[^1][^2] A copy of the paperback reprint carrying handwritten annotations in three inks reached the [[Office of Naval Research]] (ONR), and the [[Varo Manufacturing Company]] of [[Garland, Texas]] retyped it with the annotations in red type for a small number of copies, now called the Varo Edition or Annotated Edition.[^3] [[Gray Barker]] wrote that on the evening of April 20, 1959, Jessup died in his station wagon in a [[Dade County, Florida]] park from automobile exhaust piped in by hose, and described the death as a suicide; he added that after the death ufologists began delving into it and into its connection with the book.[^2]
@ -54,9 +54,11 @@ Barker's preface to the 1973 facsimile gives a different sequence. He wrote that
The annotations are in three hands, identified in the introduction as Mr. A, Mr. B and "Jemi," and are said there to refer to two kinds of space people, "L-M's" and "S-M's," the first described as peaceful and the second as not, as well as undersea cities and a "stasis neutral." The introduction proposes that the writers were Gypsies and that two of them may have been twins.[^3] Barker wrote that a copy had been given to the late [[Bryant H. Reeves]], an author published by [[Ray Palmer]]; that [[Riley H. Crabb]], director of [[Borderland Sciences Research Foundation]], told him he saw it while visiting Reeves in [[Virginia Beach, Virginia]], that Crabb said he and Reeves felt "under surveillance," and that a loaned copy Crabb posted to himself in [[California]] was lost in the mail.[^2] The annotations are in three hands, identified in the introduction as Mr. A, Mr. B and "Jemi," and are said there to refer to two kinds of space people, "L-M's" and "S-M's," the first described as peaceful and the second as not, as well as undersea cities and a "stasis neutral." The introduction proposes that the writers were Gypsies and that two of them may have been twins.[^3] Barker wrote that a copy had been given to the late [[Bryant H. Reeves]], an author published by [[Ray Palmer]]; that [[Riley H. Crabb]], director of [[Borderland Sciences Research Foundation]], told him he saw it while visiting Reeves in [[Virginia Beach, Virginia]], that Crabb said he and Reeves felt "under surveillance," and that a loaned copy Crabb posted to himself in [[California]] was lost in the mail.[^2]
The Office of Naval Research states that the origin of the [[Philadelphia Experiment]] story dates to 1955 with the publication of *The Case for the UFO*, after which Jessup received correspondence from a Carlos Miquel Allende describing a 1943 naval experiment in Philadelphia, and that in 1956 a copy of the book with hand-written annotations was mailed anonymously to ONR, where two officers "took a personal interest in the book," showed it to Jessup, and arranged for a typewritten reprint of 25 copies. ONR's information sheet of September 8, 1996 states that "ONR has never conducted any investigations on invisibility, either in 1943 or at any other time," and the Naval Historical Center's statement of June 17, 1996 states that the ship named in the account, the USS Eldridge, was commissioned on August 27, 1943 at the New York Navy Yard and was "never in Philadelphia" during the period reviewed.[^6][^7]
### Death ### Death
Barker's 1973 preface opens with the statement that "on the evening of April 20, 1959, an astronomer committed suicide in Dade County Park, Florida," that he inhaled automobile exhaust which he had run by hose from the tail pipe into his station wagon, and that he died "unheralded and almost unrecognized in his discipline."[^2] The [[Miami Herald]] of April 22, 1959 reported under the headline "Author A Suicide, Police Say" that Metro detectives said on Tuesday, April 21, that Morris K. Jessup, 59, an astronomer and author of several books on flying space objects, had committed suicide by asphyxiating himself; that his body was found on Monday, April 20, in his parked car at [[Matheson Hammock Park|Matheson Hammock]]; and that investigators said a hose ran from the car's exhaust pipe to the inside of the automobile. The item states that he was survived by his wife, Ruby, that he lived at 1531 Saragossa Avenue in [[Coral Gables, Florida|Coral Gables]], having moved there six months earlier, and that he was a onetime instructor at the University of Michigan and Drake University and the author of The Case for the UFO, a 1955 publication, with another book on outer space flight before his publishers at his death. It gives no time of death and does not mention Varo or Allende. The Herald calls the vehicle a car and gives Monday as the day of discovery; Barker calls it a station wagon and gives the evening of April 20 as the time of death.[^6] Barker added that a "tradition of bad luck or strange circumstances" attached to owners of the Varo Edition: a house destroyed by fire, the heart attack of Captain [[Edward J. Ruppelt]], former head of [[Project Blue Book]], "allegedly shortly after he read a borrowed copy," and the early death of the author [[Robert Loftin]]. He wrote that "except for the deaths, this is purely hearsay."[^2] Barker also wrote that "at least two national magazine articles explored Jessup's death and his connection with the book," and that [[Brad Steiger]] published reduced reproductions of three pages in [[Saga]] magazine for November 1967, in the article "Fantastic Key to the Flying Saucer Mystery," from a microfilm copy owned by [[Stephen Yankee]].[^2] Barker's 1973 preface opens with the statement that "on the evening of April 20, 1959, an astronomer committed suicide in Dade County Park, Florida," that he inhaled automobile exhaust which he had run by hose from the tail pipe into his station wagon, and that he died "unheralded and almost unrecognized in his discipline."[^2] The [[Miami Herald]] of April 22, 1959 reported under the headline "Author A Suicide, Police Say" that Metro detectives said on Tuesday, April 21, that Morris K. Jessup, 59, an astronomer and author of several books on flying space objects, had committed suicide by asphyxiating himself; that his body was found on Monday, April 20, in his parked car at [[Matheson Hammock Park|Matheson Hammock]]; and that investigators said a hose ran from the car's exhaust pipe to the inside of the automobile. The item states that he was survived by his wife, Ruby, that he lived at 1531 Saragossa Avenue in [[Coral Gables, Florida|Coral Gables]], having moved there six months earlier, and that he was a onetime instructor at the University of Michigan and Drake University and the author of The Case for the UFO, a 1955 publication, with another book on outer space flight before his publishers at his death. It gives no time of death and does not mention Varo or Allende. The Herald calls the vehicle a car and gives Monday as the day of discovery; Barker calls it a station wagon and gives the evening of April 20 as the time of death.[^8] Barker added that a "tradition of bad luck or strange circumstances" attached to owners of the Varo Edition: a house destroyed by fire, the heart attack of Captain [[Edward J. Ruppelt]], former head of [[Project Blue Book]], "allegedly shortly after he read a borrowed copy," and the early death of the author [[Robert Loftin]]. He wrote that "except for the deaths, this is purely hearsay."[^2] Barker also wrote that "at least two national magazine articles explored Jessup's death and his connection with the book," and that [[Brad Steiger]] published reduced reproductions of three pages in [[Saga]] magazine for November 1967, in the article "Fantastic Key to the Flying Saucer Mystery," from a microfilm copy owned by [[Stephen Yankee]].[^2]
Barker acquired an original copy in 1971 from a friend of Jessup to whom Jessup had given one, decided in July 1972 to publish, and issued a facsimile through [[Saucerian Press]] in 1973, stating the run would be no more than 500 copies.[^2] The transcription at the [[Internet Archive]] was prepared by the [[Quantum Future Group]] of Castelnau-Barbarens, [[France]], in 2003.[^2] Barker acquired an original copy in 1971 from a friend of Jessup to whom Jessup had given one, decided in July 1972 to publish, and issued a facsimile through [[Saucerian Press]] in 1973, stating the run would be no more than 500 copies.[^2] The transcription at the [[Internet Archive]] was prepared by the [[Quantum Future Group]] of Castelnau-Barbarens, [[France]], in 2003.[^2]
@ -67,4 +69,6 @@ Barker acquired an original copy in 1971 from a friend of Jessup to whom Jessup
[^3]: Unsigned "Introduction" to the Annotated Edition, in the same volume, pp. 7 to 9; Barker's preface states that the original gives no information on its authorship. [^3]: Unsigned "Introduction" to the Annotated Edition, in the same volume, pp. 7 to 9; Barker's preface states that the original gives no information on its authorship.
[^4]: "Appendix: The first letter received by Mr. Jessup from Carlos Allende," and "Days Later," in M. K. Jessup, The Case for the UFO, Varo Edition, transcribed by the Quantum Future Group, Castelnau-Barbarens, 2003, from the Saucerian Press facsimile of 1973, pp. 15 to 18, https://archive.org/details/THECASEFORTHEUFOVaroEditionM.K.Jessup (djvu text, reread 2026-10-03). [^4]: "Appendix: The first letter received by Mr. Jessup from Carlos Allende," and "Days Later," in M. K. Jessup, The Case for the UFO, Varo Edition, transcribed by the Quantum Future Group, Castelnau-Barbarens, 2003, from the Saucerian Press facsimile of 1973, pp. 15 to 18, https://archive.org/details/THECASEFORTHEUFOVaroEditionM.K.Jessup (djvu text, reread 2026-10-03).
[^5]: Naval Research Reviews, vol. 9, no. 1 (January 1956), cover caption and "New Chief of Naval Research" and "Admiral Furth Goes Ashore," pp. 22 to 23, Office of Naval Research, https://www.onr.navy.mil/media/document/naval-research-reviews-vol-9-no-1-january-1956 (reopened 2026-10-03). [^5]: Naval Research Reviews, vol. 9, no. 1 (January 1956), cover caption and "New Chief of Naval Research" and "Admiral Furth Goes Ashore," pp. 22 to 23, Office of Naval Research, https://www.onr.navy.mil/media/document/naval-research-reviews-vol-9-no-1-january-1956 (reopened 2026-10-03).
[^6]: "Author A Suicide, Police Say," Miami Herald (Miami), April 22, 1959, p. 9, https://www.newspapers.com/image/619508003/ [^6]: Office of Naval Research, "Information Sheet: Philadelphia Experiment," September 8, 1996, as published by the Naval Historical Center, https://web.archive.org/web/19981203102110/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq21-2.htm.
[^7]: Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, "The 'Philadelphia Experiment'," June 17, 1996, https://web.archive.org/web/19981203102110/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq21-1.htm.
[^8]: "Author A Suicide, Police Say," Miami Herald (Miami), April 22, 1959, p. 9, https://www.newspapers.com/image/619508003/

4
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Norman Lamont.md
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@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ relations:
start: 1991 start: 1991
fn: 3 fn: 3
created: 2026-09-23 created: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-09-23 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Norman Stewart Hughson Lamont, Lord Lamont of Lerwick (born May 8, 1942), is a British [[Conservative Party]] politician who sat as Member of Parliament for [[Kingston upon Thames]] from 1972 to 1997 and was [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] from November 28, 1990, to May 27, 1993. As Chancellor he answered in the [[House of Commons]] for the government after the [[Bank of England]] closed the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] (BCCI) in July 1991, and with the Governor of the Bank, [[Robin Leigh-Pemberton]], he commissioned the inquiry of Lord Justice [[Thomas Bingham]] into the supervision of the bank.[^1][^2][^3] Norman Stewart Hughson Lamont, Lord Lamont of Lerwick (born May 8, 1942), is a British [[Conservative Party]] politician who sat as Member of Parliament for [[Kingston upon Thames]] from 1972 to 1997 and was [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] from November 28, 1990, to May 27, 1993. As Chancellor he answered in the [[House of Commons]] for the government after the [[Bank of England]] closed the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] (BCCI) in July 1991, and with the Governor of the Bank, [[Robin Leigh-Pemberton]], he commissioned the inquiry of Lord Justice [[Thomas Bingham]] into the supervision of the bank.[^1][^2][^3]
@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ In the Commons Lamont was parliamentary private secretary to [[Norman St John-St
His government posts, as recorded by Parliament, were:[^1] His government posts, as recorded by Parliament, were:[^1]
- Parliamentary Under-Secretary, [[Department of Energy]], May 7, 1979, to September 5, 1981 - Parliamentary Under-Secretary, [[United Kingdom Department of Energy|Department of Energy (United Kingdom)]], May 7, 1979, to September 5, 1981
- Minister of State, [[Department of Industry]], September 14, 1981, to June 12, 1983 - Minister of State, [[Department of Industry]], September 14, 1981, to June 12, 1983
- Minister of State, [[Department of Trade and Industry]], June 13, 1983, to September 2, 1985 - Minister of State, [[Department of Trade and Industry]], June 13, 1983, to September 2, 1985
- Minister of State for Defence Procurement, [[Ministry of Defence]], September 2, 1985, to May 20, 1986 - Minister of State for Defence Procurement, [[Ministry of Defence]], September 2, 1985, to May 20, 1986

19
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Orlando Letelier.md
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@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ summary: "Former Chilean foreign minister killed with his colleague Ronni Moffit
died: 1976-09-21 died: 1976-09-21
location: "Washington, D.C." location: "Washington, D.C."
created: 2026-09-21 created: 2026-09-21
updated: 2026-09-21 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Orlando Letelier was ambassador to the [[United States]] and then foreign and defense minister in the government of [[Salvador Allende]]. After a year in the prison camps of the junta he settled in Washington at the [[Institute for Policy Studies]]. On September 21, 1976, a bomb fixed under his car exploded at [[Sheridan Circle]] and killed him and his American colleague [[Ronni Moffitt]]. The bomb was placed by [[Michael Townley]], an American working for the Chilean secret police, [[DINA]], with men from the [[Cuban Nationalist Movement]]. Six weeks earlier the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] had received photographs of the passports with which DINA first tried to send its agents to Washington.[^1][^2] Orlando Letelier was ambassador to the [[United States]] and then foreign and defense minister in the government of [[Salvador Allende]]. After a year in the prison camps of the junta he settled in Washington at the [[Institute for Policy Studies]]. On September 21, 1976, a bomb fixed under his car exploded at [[Sheridan Circle]] and killed him and his American colleague [[Ronni Moffitt]]. The bomb was placed by [[Michael Townley]], an American working for the Chilean secret police, [[DINA]], with men from the [[Cuban Nationalist Movement]]. Six weeks earlier the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] had received photographs of the passports with which DINA first tried to send its agents to Washington.[^1][^2]
@ -37,15 +37,15 @@ On August 23, 1976, the [[State Department]] drafted an instruction to the ambas
Assistant U.S. Attorney [[Eugene Propper]] met Letelier's widow, [[Isabel Letelier]], and his colleagues at the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] on October 21, 1976. They asked [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] to subpoena the CIA's records, and Levi declined, saying the agency was cooperating. The [[Washington Post|Washington Post]] reported on November 1 that the agency believed Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, and that "[[Director of Central Intelligence|CIA Director]] Bush expressed this view in a conversation late last week with [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] Kissinger." The agency's first report naming Contreras as a suspect is dated October 6, 1976. It met him about six times in 1977, three of them to ask about the murder, and broke contact on November 3, 1977, when he was moved out of intelligence work.[^4][^7] Assistant U.S. Attorney [[Eugene Propper]] met Letelier's widow, [[Isabel Letelier]], and his colleagues at the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] on October 21, 1976. They asked [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] to subpoena the CIA's records, and Levi declined, saying the agency was cooperating. The [[Washington Post|Washington Post]] reported on November 1 that the agency believed Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, and that "[[Director of Central Intelligence|CIA Director]] Bush expressed this view in a conversation late last week with [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] Kissinger." The agency's first report naming Contreras as a suspect is dated October 6, 1976. It met him about six times in 1977, three of them to ask about the murder, and broke contact on November 3, 1977, when he was moved out of intelligence work.[^4][^7]
Townley was expelled from [[Chile]] in 1978, pleaded guilty, and testified for the government. Chile refused to extradite Contreras and his deputy, [[Pedro Espinoza]]. [[Guillermo Novo]] and [[Alvin Ross Díaz]] were convicted of the murders and [[Ignacio Novo]] of lying to the grand jury. The [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]] reversed all three convictions on December 9, 1980. The case against Guillermo Novo and Ross had rested on cellmates who were working for the government, testimony the Supreme Court had ruled inadmissible six months earlier, and Ignacio Novo should have been tried separately. [[Armando Fernandez Larios]], the DINA officer who had conducted the surveillance and met Townley at [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|Kennedy Airport]] on September 9, 1976, pleaded guilty in 1987 to being an accessory after the fact and was paroled after five months. A federal court held Chile liable to the families in 1980.[^8][^9][^10] Townley was expelled from [[Chile]] in 1978, pleaded guilty, and testified for the government. Chile refused to extradite Contreras and his deputy, [[Pedro Espinoza]]. [[Guillermo Novo]] and [[Alvin Ross Díaz]] were convicted of the murders and [[Ignacio Novo]] of lying to the grand jury. The [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]] reversed all three convictions on September 15, 1980 and denied rehearing on December 9, 1980.[^8] The case against Guillermo Novo and Ross had rested on cellmates who were working for the government, testimony the Supreme Court had ruled inadmissible six months earlier, and Ignacio Novo should have been tried separately. [[Armando Fernandez Larios]], the DINA officer who had conducted the surveillance and met Townley at [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|Kennedy Airport]] on September 9, 1976, pleaded guilty in 1987 to being an accessory after the fact and was paroled after five months. A federal court held Chile liable to the families in 1980.[^9][^10][^11]
### Compensation ### Compensation
The families sued Chile in 1978. Chile defaulted, and Judge [[Joyce Hens Green]] entered judgment on November 5, 1980, for more than five million dollars. Townley, Ross, and Ignacio Novo had been in default since September 20, 1978, and Guillermo Novo since October 24; Contreras, Espinoza, and Fernández Larios, served by registered mail in 1978 and by letters rogatory on September 22, 1980, were defaulted on October 23. The judgment against Chile, Contreras, Espinoza, Fernández, Townley, Ross, and Guillermo Novo, jointly and severally, included 30,000 dollars for Letelier's pain and suffering, one million in punitive damages, and 1,526,479 dollars in wrongful death, and for Ronni Moffitt 80,000, one million, and 916,096 dollars. They then tried to collect from the [[New York City|New York]] assets of the state airline, [[LAN Chile]], which the district court found had carried Townley, his explosives, and his money. Judge [[Morris Lasker]] called Chile's use of the airline a "gross abuse of the corporate form." The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Second Circuit]] reversed him on November 20, 1984, finding only that "Michael Townley was able to enlist the cooperation of certain LAN pilots and officials with whom he had a pre-existing social relationship," and added that "hard cases make bad law." After Pinochet left office the two governments agreed on June 11, 1990, that Chile, "without admitting liability," would make an ex gratia payment to be fixed by a commission under a treaty of 1914. The commission awarded 2,611,892 dollars on January 11, 1992: 1.2 million to Isabel Letelier and her four sons for lost support, with 160,000 to her and 80,000 to each of them in moral damages, 483,000 to [[Michael Moffitt]], and 300,000 to Ronni Moffitt's parents. It excluded Letelier's income from lectures and publications and "took into account the significant steps undertaken by the Chilean Government and Congress to remedy human rights problems." The payment extinguished all other claims.[^11] The families sued Chile in 1978. Chile defaulted, and Judge [[Joyce Hens Green]] entered judgment on November 5, 1980, for more than five million dollars. Townley, Ross, and Ignacio Novo had been in default since September 20, 1978, and Guillermo Novo since October 24; Contreras, Espinoza, and Fernández Larios, served by registered mail in 1978 and by letters rogatory on September 22, 1980, were defaulted on October 23. The judgment against Chile, Contreras, Espinoza, Fernández, Townley, Ross, and Guillermo Novo, jointly and severally, included 30,000 dollars for Letelier's pain and suffering, one million in punitive damages, and 1,526,479 dollars in wrongful death, and for Ronni Moffitt 80,000, one million, and 916,096 dollars. They then tried to collect from the [[New York City|New York]] assets of the state airline, [[LAN Chile]], which the district court found had carried Townley, his explosives, and his money. Judge [[Morris Lasker]] ruled that Chile's alleged use of the airline to transport Townley and explosives to the United States, if proven, "would constitute a gross abuse of the corporate form." The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Second Circuit]] reversed him on November 20, 1984, finding only that "Michael Townley was able to enlist the cooperation of certain LAN pilots and officials with whom he had a pre-existing social relationship," and added that "hard cases make bad law." After Pinochet left office the two governments agreed on June 11, 1990, that Chile, "without admitting liability," would make an ex gratia payment to be fixed by a commission under a treaty of 1914. The commission awarded 2,611,892 dollars on January 11, 1992: 1.2 million to Isabel Letelier and her four sons for lost support, with 160,000 to her and 80,000 to each of them in moral damages, 483,000 to [[Michael Moffitt]], and 300,000 to Ronni Moffitt's parents. It excluded Letelier's income from lectures and publications and "took into account the significant steps undertaken by the Chilean Government and Congress to remedy human rights problems." The payment extinguished all other claims.[^12]
### The 1987 Assessment ### The 1987 Assessment
In 1987 Secretary of State [[George Shultz]] asked the CIA to assess responsibility. Its report of May 1, 1987, "Pinochet's Role in the Letelier Assassination and Subsequent Coverup," concluded that [[Augusto Pinochet]] "personally ordered" the killing and had afterward considered eliminating Contreras. Shultz wrote to President [[Ronald Reagan]] on October 6 that the agency had "convincing evidence" and called the murder "a blatant example of a chief of state's direct involvement in an act of state terrorism." A State Department cable of January 22, 1987, quoted Contreras as saying he "authorized the assassination of Letelier on orders from Pinochet." The documents were withheld until 2015 and 2016, when they were given to President [[Michelle Bachelet]]. Most of the underlying intelligence remains classified.[^12] In 1987 Secretary of State [[George Shultz]] asked the CIA to assess responsibility. Its report of May 1, 1987, "Pinochet's Role in the Letelier Assassination and Subsequent Coverup," concluded that [[Augusto Pinochet]] "personally ordered" the killing and had afterward considered eliminating Contreras. Shultz wrote to President [[Ronald Reagan]] on October 6 that the agency had "convincing evidence" and called the murder "a blatant example of a chief of state's direct involvement in an act of state terrorism." A State Department cable of January 22, 1987, quoted Contreras as saying he "authorized the assassination of Letelier on orders from Pinochet." The documents were withheld until 2015 and 2016, when they were given to President [[Michelle Bachelet]]. Most of the underlying intelligence remains classified.[^13]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -56,8 +56,9 @@ In 1987 Secretary of State [[George Shultz]] asked the CIA to assess responsibil
[^5]: O'Leary, Jeremiah. "U.S. Envoy's Testimony Puts CIA Twist in Letelier Case," *The Washington Star,* February 9, 1979, and Burnham, David, report of the same date in *The New York Times,* CIA Reading Room clipping. [^5]: O'Leary, Jeremiah. "U.S. Envoy's Testimony Puts CIA Twist in Letelier Case," *The Washington Star,* February 9, 1979, and Burnham, David, report of the same date in *The New York Times,* CIA Reading Room clipping.
[^6]: Department of State, cable State 209192, "Operation Condor," August 23, 1976; cable SECTO 27128, "Actions Taken," September 16, 1976; cable San José 4526, "Operation Condor," September 20, 1976, in Osorio, Carlos, ed. "Kissinger Blocked Demarche on International Assassinations to Condor States," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 312, 2010. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB312/ ; Inouye, Daniel K., letter to George Bush, September 29, 1976, CIA Reading Room document 03303946. [^6]: Department of State, cable State 209192, "Operation Condor," August 23, 1976; cable SECTO 27128, "Actions Taken," September 16, 1976; cable San José 4526, "Operation Condor," September 20, 1976, in Osorio, Carlos, ed. "Kissinger Blocked Demarche on International Assassinations to Condor States," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 312, 2010. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB312/ ; Inouye, Daniel K., letter to George Bush, September 29, 1976, CIA Reading Room document 03303946.
[^7]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post,* November 1, 1976, in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6. [^7]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post,* November 1, 1976, in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6.
[^8]: De Letelier v. Republic of Chile, 488 F. Supp. 665 (D.D.C. 1980). [^8]: *United States v. Novo Sampol*, 636 F.2d 621 (D.C. Cir. 1980) (Nos. 79-1541, 79-1542 and 79-1808; per curiam; MacKinnon and Robb, JJ., and Corcoran, D.J.), argued June 10, 1980, decided September 15, 1980, rehearing denied December 9, 1980. https://cite.case.law/f2d/636/621/
[^9]: Kornbluh, Peter, ed. "'Worst of the Worst': ICE and the Case of Chilean Intelligence Operative Armando Fernandez Larios," National Security Archive, July 10, 2026. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2026-07-10/worst-worst-ice-and-case-chilean-intelligence-operative-armando [^9]: De Letelier v. Republic of Chile, 488 F. Supp. 665 (D.D.C. 1980).
[^10]: United States v. Henry, 447 U.S. 264 (1980). [^10]: Kornbluh, Peter, ed. "'Worst of the Worst': ICE and the Case of Chilean Intelligence Operative Armando Fernandez Larios," National Security Archive, July 10, 2026. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2026-07-10/worst-worst-ice-and-case-chilean-intelligence-operative-armando
[^11]: *Letelier v. Republic of Chile,* 502 F. Supp. 259 (D.D.C. 1980), memorandum opinion of November 5, 1980. De Letelier v. Republic of Chile, 748 F.2d 790 (2d Cir. 1984); "Dispute Concerning Responsibility for the Deaths of Letelier and Moffitt (United States, Chile)," decision of January 11, 1992, *Reports of International Arbitral Awards,* vol. XXV, pp. 1-19. https://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXV/1-19.pdf [^11]: United States v. Henry, 447 U.S. 264 (1980).
[^12]: Kornbluh, Peter, ed. "CIA: 'Pinochet personally ordered' Letelier bombing," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 560, September 23, 2016. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2016-09-23/cia-pinochet-personally-ordered-letelier-bombing ; "The Pinochet File: U.S. Declassifies Missing Documents in the Letelier-Moffitt Case," Electronic Briefing Book No. 532, October 8, 2015. [^12]: *Letelier v. Republic of Chile,* 502 F. Supp. 259 (D.D.C. 1980), memorandum opinion of November 5, 1980. De Letelier v. Republic of Chile, 748 F.2d 790 (2d Cir. 1984), https://static.case.law/f2d/748/cases/0790-01.json ; "Dispute Concerning Responsibility for the Deaths of Letelier and Moffitt (United States, Chile)," decision of January 11, 1992, *Reports of International Arbitral Awards,* vol. XXV, pp. 1-19. https://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXV/1-19.pdf
[^13]: Kornbluh, Peter, ed. "CIA: 'Pinochet personally ordered' Letelier bombing," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 560, September 23, 2016. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2016-09-23/cia-pinochet-personally-ordered-letelier-bombing ; "The Pinochet File: U.S. Declassifies Missing Documents in the Letelier-Moffitt Case," Electronic Briefing Book No. 532, October 8, 2015.

18
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Paul Hoch.md
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@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ born: 1902-10-31
died: 1964-12-15 died: 1964-12-15
location: Budapest, Hungary location: Budapest, Hungary
created: 2026-06-03 created: 2026-06-03
updated: 2026-06-04 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Paul Hoch was born on October 31, 1902, in Budapest, Hungary, and received his medical degree from the University of Göttingen in 1926. He trained at the Psychiatric Clinic in [[Zurich]] from 1928 to 1930 before emigrating to the [[United States]] in 1933. He joined the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] (NYSPI) as an assistant physician in 1943 and served as director of experimental research from 1948 to 1955, holding simultaneous appointments at [[Columbia University]]'s College of Physicians and Surgeons, eventually as clinical professor of psychiatry from 1956. In 1955 he was appointed [[New York]] State Commissioner of Mental Hygiene, overseeing 28 state hospitals and approximately 100,000 patients. He died on December 15, 1964, in New York City. Paul Hoch was born on October 31, 1902, in Budapest, Hungary, and received his medical degree from the University of Göttingen in 1926. He trained at the Psychiatric Clinic in [[Zurich]] from 1928 to 1930 before emigrating to the [[United States]] in 1933. He joined the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] (NYSPI) as an assistant physician in 1943 and served as director of experimental research from 1948 to 1955, holding simultaneous appointments at [[Columbia University]]'s College of Physicians and Surgeons, eventually as clinical professor of psychiatry from 1956. In 1955 he was appointed [[New York]] State Commissioner of Mental Hygiene, overseeing 28 state hospitals and approximately 100,000 patients. He died on December 15, 1964, in New York City.
@ -35,13 +35,15 @@ Under this contract, Hoch administered high doses of mescaline and LSD to psychi
[[Harold Blauer]], a New York tennis professional admitted to NYSPI for depression, died on January 8, 1953, after Hoch administered a mescaline derivative supplied by the Army Chemical Corps. The compound had been provided for NYSPI to test its psychiatric effects so the Chemical Corps could determine its suitability as a chemical warfare agent. [[Harold Blauer]], a New York tennis professional admitted to NYSPI for depression, died on January 8, 1953, after Hoch administered a mescaline derivative supplied by the Army Chemical Corps. The compound had been provided for NYSPI to test its psychiatric effects so the Chemical Corps could determine its suitability as a chemical warfare agent.
The Second Circuit Court of Appeals found in *Barrett v. United States* (798 F.2d 565, 1986) that Hoch "was well aware that the mescaline derivative was a new compound not being administered for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes but as an experiment to study its effect for chemical warfare purposes." Hoch later testified that Blauer's death was caused by the injection and that its administration "was not in accordance with generally accepted medical practice." Cattell, Hoch's collaborator on the experiments, told Army investigators: "We didn't know whether it was dog piss or what it was we were giving him."[^5] In *Barrett v. United States* (798 F.2d 565, 1986) the Second Circuit recited the estate's allegation that Hoch, while conceding that the injections were not in accordance with generally accepted medical routine, testified before the [[New York Court of Claims]] that the drug had been administered "for diagnostic purposes to Mr. Blauer," and that "in fact, according to the estate, Dr. Hoch was well aware that the mescaline derivative was a new compound not being administered for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes but as an experiment to study its effect for chemical warfare purposes."[^5] The opinion describes Hoch as "the NYSPI medical official in charge of administering the mescaline compound to Blauer."[^5] At the Court of Claims hearing, Hoch testified that Blauer's death was caused by the injection and that its administration "was not in accordance with generally accepted medical practice."[^5] Cattell, Hoch's collaborator on the experiments, told Army investigators: "We didn't know whether it was dog piss or what it was we were giving him."[^6]
Within 48 hours of Blauer's death, Army Chemical Corps contract officer Amedeo Marrazzi directed efforts to conceal the Army's involvement. At a July 1954 meeting of federal counsel and medical personnel, Hoch and Marrazzi discussed apprehension about anticipated malpractice claims. The death certificate listed the cause as "coronary arteriosclerosis; sudden death after intravenous injection of a mescaline derivative," omitting the Army's role.[^5] Within 48 hours of Blauer's death, Army Chemical Corps contract officer Amedeo Marrazzi directed efforts to conceal the Army's involvement. At a July 1954 meeting of federal counsel and medical personnel, Hoch and Marrazzi discussed apprehension about anticipated malpractice claims. The death certificate listed the cause as "coronary arteriosclerosis; sudden death after intravenous injection of a mescaline derivative," omitting the Army's role.[^6]
The opinion in *Barrett* places a conference of federal counsel and medical personnel in early July 1954, at which, according to records relied on by the estate, Dr. Amedeo Marazzi of the Chemical Corps and Hoch expressed apprehension about anticipated malpractice claims. At a meeting in Washington on July 12, 1954, Hoch stated that he would not have used the new compound for experimental purposes but for the institute's contract with the Army, and that the experimental nature of the treatment made it a departure from accepted medical practice.[^5] The Second Circuit records that the Court of Claims ordered an $18,000 settlement on July 7, 1955, of which the Army paid $9,000 on June 9, 1955, in an action filed in April 1953. The CIA inspector general's memorandum of August 13, 1975 gives other figures: "The estate sued New York State for $500 K; it was settled out of court for $125 K."[^5][^7]
### Commissioner of Mental Hygiene and the 1959 LSD Conference ### Commissioner of Mental Hygiene and the 1959 LSD Conference
Hoch was appointed New York State Commissioner of Mental Hygiene in 1955, the year after the internal cover-up meeting. He oversaw the state's entire psychiatric hospital system while maintaining his CIA consulting relationship and Army Chemical Corps affiliation. In 1959 he chaired the first international LSD therapy conference, held under [[Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation|Macy Foundation]] sponsorship, with [[Harold Abramson]] serving as recording secretary.[^6] Hoch was appointed New York State Commissioner of Mental Hygiene in 1955, the year after the July 1954 conference of federal counsel. [[Averell Harriman]] was elected governor in 1954; [[Mary Lasker]] recalled that [[Lester Markel]] of the [[New York Times]] telephoned to ask whether she knew Hoch, then in charge of research at the institute, and that the appointment was "finally announced in July of '55."[^8] A 1956 University at Albany record identifies him as Commissioner of Mental Hygiene.[^9] He oversaw the state's entire psychiatric hospital system while maintaining his CIA consulting relationship and Army Chemical Corps affiliation. In 1959 he chaired the first international LSD therapy conference, held under [[Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation|Macy Foundation]] sponsorship, with [[Harold Abramson]] serving as recording secretary.[^10]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -49,5 +51,9 @@ Hoch was appointed New York State Commissioner of Mental Hygiene in 1955, the ye
[^2]: Hoch, Paul H., Cattell, James P., and Pennes, Harry H. "Effects of mescaline and lysergic acid (d-LSD-25)." *American Journal of Psychiatry* 108(8):579-584, February 1952; Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlain, *Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond*. Grove Press, 1985. Chapter 1. [^2]: Hoch, Paul H., Cattell, James P., and Pennes, Harry H. "Effects of mescaline and lysergic acid (d-LSD-25)." *American Journal of Psychiatry* 108(8):579-584, February 1952; Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlain, *Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond*. Grove Press, 1985. Chapter 1.
[^3]: H.P. Albarelli Jr., *A Terrible Mistake: The Murder of Frank Olson and the CIA's Secret Cold War Experiments*. Trine Day, 2009; CIA memorandum, January 1954, uncovered 2000 by the New York City Attorney General's Office. [^3]: H.P. Albarelli Jr., *A Terrible Mistake: The Murder of Frank Olson and the CIA's Secret Cold War Experiments*. Trine Day, 2009; CIA memorandum, January 1954, uncovered 2000 by the New York City Attorney General's Office.
[^4]: Lee and Shlain, *Acid Dreams*, Chapter 1; Alan Scheflin and Edward Opton, *The Mind Manipulators*. Paddington Press, 1978. [^4]: Lee and Shlain, *Acid Dreams*, Chapter 1; Alan Scheflin and Edward Opton, *The Mind Manipulators*. Paddington Press, 1978.
[^5]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. 1986); John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapter 4. [^5]: *Barrett v. United States,* 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. July 31, 1986), statement of facts and discussion. https://static.case.law/f2d/798/cases/0565-01.json
[^6]: Lee and Shlain, *Acid Dreams*, Chapters 1 and 2. [^6]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. 1986); John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapter 4.
[^7]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of the Inspector General, memorandum, "Drug-Related Death of Harold Blauer," August 13, 1975, CIA Reading Room document 00146161. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00146161
[^8]: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Research Office, Mary Lasker oral history, transcript pages laskerm_1_19_570 and laskerm_1_19_572. https://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/laskerm/transcripts/laskerm_1_19_572.html
[^9]: University at Albany, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, record of a 1956 interview of Dr. Paul H. Hoch, Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap015aspace_033e27487bc26a06ec8cf9fd535fb0c3
[^10]: Lee and Shlain, *Acid Dreams*, Chapters 1 and 2.

17
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/R. S. Hawke.md
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@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ relations:
role: "laboratory visited by committee members; Annex 7 of the December 1979 report evaluates his experiments" role: "laboratory visited by committee members; Annex 7 of the December 1979 report evaluates his experiments"
fn: 11 fn: 11
created: 2026-09-22 created: 2026-09-22
updated: 2026-10-05 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Ronald S. Hawke, who signed his technical writing "R. S. Hawke," was a research physicist in the Engineering Research Division of the Electronics Engineering Department at [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] (then Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, University of California) in the 1970s.[^1] His published and patented work at the laboratory concerned electromagnetic railguns and hypervelocity launchers: the May 8, 1979 preprint UCRL-82677, "Magnetic Propulsion Railguns: Their Design and Capabilities," written with Jonathan K. Scudder for the Second International Conference on Megagauss Magnetic Field Generation, concluded that projectiles could be accelerated to more than 20 kilometers per second; a July 1979 companion paper (UCRL-82296) examined railgun impactors for generating pressures of 1 to 10 terapascals; and United States Patent 4,343,223, "Multiple stage railgun," was filed May 23, 1980 by Hawke, Scudder and Kristian Aaland and issued August 10, 1982.[^1][^2] The laboratory's report series carries his name on railgun and plasma armature papers through 1991, among them "Results of Railgun Experiments" (UCRL-88703, 1983, with [[Los Alamos]] authors) and a 1991 progress report on a transition armature technology project.[^2] Ronald S. Hawke, who signed his technical writing "R. S. Hawke," was a research physicist in the Engineering Research Division of the Electronics Engineering Department at [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] (then Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, University of California) in the 1970s.[^1] His published and patented work at the laboratory concerned electromagnetic railguns and hypervelocity launchers: the May 8, 1979 preprint UCRL-82677, "Magnetic Propulsion Railguns: Their Design and Capabilities," written with Jonathan K. Scudder for the Second International Conference on Megagauss Magnetic Field Generation, concluded that projectiles could be accelerated to more than 20 kilometers per second; a July 1979 companion paper (UCRL-82296) examined railgun impactors for generating pressures of 1 to 10 terapascals; and United States Patent 4,343,223, "Multiple stage railgun," was filed May 23, 1980 by Hawke, Scudder and Kristian Aaland and issued August 10, 1982.[^1][^2] The laboratory's report series carries his name on railgun and plasma armature papers through 1991, among them "Results of Railgun Experiments" (UCRL-88703, 1983, with [[Los Alamos]] authors) and a 1991 progress report on a transition armature technology project.[^2]
@ -70,13 +70,17 @@ A routing note in the same file, unsigned, reads: "This piece may offer us excel
The Army's [[Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee]], chaired by [[Manfred Gale]], listed Lawrence Livermore Laboratory and "Dr. Hawke" among the places and individuals contacted in the autumn of 1979 (Annex 2). Its December 1979 report states that "Committee members who visited Dr. Hawke's laboratory were very impressed by the scientific approach used in his investigations," and that his experiments were "considerably more valuable than PK effects on random number generators." Annex 7 records that "highly specific physical phenomena are recovered by instruments while PK 'intent' is being 'exerted' by a Subject," with control experiments performed and no mechanisms adduced; "Hawke's experiments are the most objective and scientific of the investigations we have reviewed... vastly more valuable than the PK effects on random number generators." The annex adds: "A means exists for conduct of these experiments on a compartmentalized basis: Since the experiments utilize measuring equipment commonly used in weapons development, 'cover' and access restrictions are relatively straightforward," proposing as an example that Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, which "is just now initiating development of contact fuzing utilizing... acoustic emission of materials transitioning the plastic deformation regime," could host "a small development project on 'AE applications to guided missile fuzing'" that "would provide easily administered and controlled PK experiments by Hawke." Elsewhere in the report, the committee's discussion of the Army MICOM random-number experiment says that an experiment using "the modification of the physical aspect of a structure" might be more convincing, and that "the acoustic emission experiment by Hawke might be an example of an attempt to do this."[^11][^12] The Army's [[Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee]], chaired by [[Manfred Gale]], listed Lawrence Livermore Laboratory and "Dr. Hawke" among the places and individuals contacted in the autumn of 1979 (Annex 2). Its December 1979 report states that "Committee members who visited Dr. Hawke's laboratory were very impressed by the scientific approach used in his investigations," and that his experiments were "considerably more valuable than PK effects on random number generators." Annex 7 records that "highly specific physical phenomena are recovered by instruments while PK 'intent' is being 'exerted' by a Subject," with control experiments performed and no mechanisms adduced; "Hawke's experiments are the most objective and scientific of the investigations we have reviewed... vastly more valuable than the PK effects on random number generators." The annex adds: "A means exists for conduct of these experiments on a compartmentalized basis: Since the experiments utilize measuring equipment commonly used in weapons development, 'cover' and access restrictions are relatively straightforward," proposing as an example that Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, which "is just now initiating development of contact fuzing utilizing... acoustic emission of materials transitioning the plastic deformation regime," could host "a small development project on 'AE applications to guided missile fuzing'" that "would provide easily administered and controlled PK experiments by Hawke." Elsewhere in the report, the committee's discussion of the Army MICOM random-number experiment says that an experiment using "the modification of the physical aspect of a structure" might be more convincing, and that "the acoustic emission experiment by Hawke might be an example of an attempt to do this."[^11][^12]
On November 28, 1979, Hawke met Dr. Ruth M. Davis, Assistant for Research Applications at the [[Department of Energy]], and Dr. W. LaBerge of the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering. In a letter of December 26, 1979 (EMS79-0117) he wrote that, after talking to the laboratory's acoustic emission, metallurgy and ceramics staff, "the equivalent of 5-7 full employees would be the optimum," with tasks distributed "among 10-15 researchers, technicians and other consultants and advisors," enough in a one-year program "to obtain reliable data or nearly exhaust the possibility of obtaining such data." He had sounded out Henry McDonald (Associate Director for Engineering) and Dale Nielsen (Associate Director for Administration), who said "such types of multidisciplinary and discrete research are within the capability of LLL," and reported that director Roger Batzel "has been informed that such a project might be suggested by DOE and/or DOD"; Batzel was named as the person to contact. Copies went to Batzel, McDonald, Nielsen and LaBerge.[^13] An Army memorandum of October 22, 1979 set the visit to Hawke's laboratory for November 6, 1979.[^13]
Two Defense Intelligence Agency documents from 1984 list the Livermore work on psychoenergetics. An undated DIA summary of American psychoenergetics research facilities gives "Lawrence Livermore Laboratories (L3), Livermore, CA (Lab of R. Hawke)" and adds the note "Not willing to do classified work."[^14] A DIA document of August 7, 1984 lists Livermore among laboratories "under consideration for contracts in FY 1985," together with [[McDonnell Douglas]] and the [[Mind Science Foundation]].[^15]
On November 28, 1979, Hawke met Dr. Ruth M. Davis, Assistant for Research Applications at the [[Department of Energy]], and Dr. W. LaBerge of the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering. In a letter of December 26, 1979 (EMS79-0117) he wrote that, after talking to the laboratory's acoustic emission, metallurgy and ceramics staff, "the equivalent of 5-7 full employees would be the optimum," with tasks distributed "among 10-15 researchers, technicians and other consultants and advisors," enough in a one-year program "to obtain reliable data or nearly exhaust the possibility of obtaining such data." He had sounded out Henry McDonald (Associate Director for Engineering) and Dale Nielsen (Associate Director for Administration), who said "such types of multidisciplinary and discrete research are within the capability of LLL," and reported that director Roger Batzel "has been informed that such a project might be suggested by DOE and/or DOD"; Batzel was named as the person to contact. Copies went to Batzel, McDonald, Nielsen and LaBerge.[^16]
### After 1979 ### After 1979
After the December 1979 letter, the laboratory's published record under Hawke's name consists of the railgun and launcher papers listed above.[^2] After the December 1979 letter, the laboratory's published record under Hawke's name consists of the railgun and launcher papers listed above.[^2]
Accounts of a Livermore group that experienced apparitions after its Geller sessions come from [[Jim Schnabel]], who gives the physicists the pseudonyms [[Peter Crane]], [[Mike Russo]] and [[Don Curtis]]; Schnabel's account does not name Hawke.[^14] Accounts of a Livermore group that experienced apparitions after its Geller sessions come from [[Jim Schnabel]], who gives the physicists the pseudonyms [[Peter Crane]], [[Mike Russo]] and [[Don Curtis]]; Schnabel's account does not name Hawke.[^17]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -92,5 +96,8 @@ Accounts of a Livermore group that experienced apparitions after its Geller sess
[^10]: Envelope addressed to Maj. Bill Stoner, DAMI 2E453, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100005-5; Army routing slip, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100008-2. [^10]: Envelope addressed to Maj. Bill Stoner, DAMI 2E453, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100005-5; Army routing slip, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100008-2.
[^11]: *Report by the Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee*, December 1979, Manfred Gale, chairman, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5, Chapter 2 paragraph 4b, Annex 2 (places visited, p. 43) and Annex 7 (pp. 66-67). https://archive.org/download/CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5/CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5_djvu.txt. [^11]: *Report by the Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee*, December 1979, Manfred Gale, chairman, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5, Chapter 2 paragraph 4b, Annex 2 (places visited, p. 43) and Annex 7 (pp. 66-67). https://archive.org/download/CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5/CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5_djvu.txt.
[^12]: Same report, critique of the Army [[MICOM]] random-number experiment. [^12]: Same report, critique of the Army [[MICOM]] random-number experiment.
[^13]: R. S. Hawke to Dr. Ruth M. Davis, December 26, 1979, EMS79-0117, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100003-7, https://archive.org/download/CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100003-7/CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100003-7_djvu.txt. [^13]: Army memorandum, October 22, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230014-0.
[^14]: Jim Schnabel, *Remote Viewers: The Secret History of America's Psychic Spies* (Dell, 1997), as excerpted in Rudy Havenstein, "Dr. Green and the Goblins of Langley," July 11, 2025, https://rudy.substack.com/p/dr-green-and-the-goblins-of-langley. [^14]: Undated Defense Intelligence Agency summary of American psychoenergetics research facilities, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100260003-0.
[^15]: Defense Intelligence Agency document, August 7, 1984, CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0.
[^16]: R. S. Hawke to Dr. Ruth M. Davis, December 26, 1979, EMS79-0117, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100003-7, https://archive.org/download/CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100003-7/CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100003-7_djvu.txt.
[^17]: Jim Schnabel, *Remote Viewers: The Secret History of America's Psychic Spies* (Dell, 1997), as excerpted in Rudy Havenstein, "Dr. Green and the Goblins of Langley," July 11, 2025, https://rudy.substack.com/p/dr-green-and-the-goblins-of-langley.

102
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Richard Helms.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
--- ---
created: 2026-05-15 created: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-10-14 updated: 2026-10-15
title: Richard Helms title: Richard Helms
aliases: aliases:
- Richard McGarrah Helms - Richard McGarrah Helms
@ -27,14 +27,22 @@ relations:
- type: partner_of - type: partner_of
with: "[[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani]]" with: "[[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani]]"
role: "principal partner in Safeer, the consulting firm Helms founded; Irvani was also its chief financier" role: "principal partner in Safeer, the consulting firm Helms founded; Irvani was also its chief financier"
fn: 28 fn: 30
- type: employed_by
with: "[[United Press International]]"
start: 1935
end: 1937
role: "United Press staff correspondent"
fn: 3
--- ---
Richard McGarrah Helms (March 30, 1913 - October 22, 2002) served as [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] [[Director of Central Intelligence]] from June 30, 1966, to February 2, 1973 - the only career CIA clandestine officer ever to hold that position, and the only DCI ever convicted of a criminal offense related to his service. A professional intelligence officer who entered the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] during [[World War II]] and spent thirty years in the CIA, Helms authorized [[Operation CHAOS]] domestic surveillance, approved continuation of the [[MKULTRA]] human experimentation program, ordered the destruction of both programs' records before congressional investigators could access them, and in 1977 pleaded no contest to making false statements to Congress about CIA operations against Chilean President [[Salvador Allende]]. He simultaneously held the personal conviction, disclosed to his deputies, that [[Israel]] was using American intelligence as "an open pipeline for pumping intelligence to [[Moscow]]" - a view he never officially reported.[^1] Richard McGarrah Helms (March 30, 1913 - October 22, 2002) served as [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] [[Director of Central Intelligence]] from June 30, 1966, to February 2, 1973 - the only career CIA clandestine officer ever to hold that position, and the only DCI ever convicted of a criminal offense related to his service. A professional intelligence officer who entered the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] during [[World War II]] and spent thirty years in the CIA, Helms authorized [[Operation CHAOS]] domestic surveillance, approved continuation of the [[MKULTRA]] human experimentation program, ordered the destruction of both programs' records before congressional investigators could access them, and in 1977 pleaded no contest to making false statements to Congress about CIA operations against Chilean President [[Salvador Allende]]. He simultaneously held the personal conviction, disclosed to his deputies, that [[Israel]] was using American intelligence as "an open pipeline for pumping intelligence to [[Moscow]]" - a view he never officially reported.[^1]
### OSS and Early CIA Career ### OSS and Early CIA Career
Helms attended Williams College and briefly worked as a journalist in [[Germany]], interviewing [[Adolf Hitler]] for United Press in 1936. Sent alone to the Nazi Party Congress at Nuremberg that year, he received an invitation to a luncheon with Hitler at the Nuremberg Castle, where he was introduced to [[Rudolf Hess]] and [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]].[^2] Commissioned into the [[U.S. Navy]] during World War II, he was transferred to the OSS and worked in London and the European theater on propaganda and agent operations. He joined the [[Central Intelligence Group]] (the CIA's predecessor organization) in 1947 and transferred into the CIA at its founding. Helms attended Williams College and briefly worked as a journalist in [[Germany]], interviewing [[Adolf Hitler]] for United Press in 1936. Sent alone to the Nazi Party Congress at Nuremberg that year, he received an invitation to a luncheon with Hitler at the Nuremberg Castle, where he was introduced to [[Rudolf Hess]] and [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]].[^2] The Georgetown University finding aid for Helms's papers records that he was a United Press staff correspondent from 1935 to 1937, covered the 1936 Berlin Olympics, and attended a lunch given by Hitler in 1936; from 1937 to 1942 he wrote for the [[Indianapolis Times]].[^3] Commissioned into the [[U.S. Navy]] during World War II, he was transferred to the OSS and worked in London and the European theater on propaganda and agent operations. He joined the [[Central Intelligence Group]] (the CIA's predecessor organization) in 1947 and transferred into the CIA at its founding.
In 1977 [[Carl Bernstein]] identified Helms, whom he described as a former UPI correspondent, among the deputy directors and division chiefs who initiated contacts with the heads of news-gathering organizations.[^4]
His career progressed through the CIA's clandestine service. By the late 1950s he was serving as Deputy Director of Plans (DDP), the agency's chief of covert operations - a position he held through the [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion of 1961 and the early Kennedy years. As DDP he oversaw the [[ZR/RIFLE]] assassination planning program targeting [[Fidel Castro]] through the CIA-organized crime connection, and he personally knew about the CIA-Mafia assassination plots that he subsequently failed to disclose to the [[Warren Commission]] investigating Kennedy's death. His career progressed through the CIA's clandestine service. By the late 1950s he was serving as Deputy Director of Plans (DDP), the agency's chief of covert operations - a position he held through the [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion of 1961 and the early Kennedy years. As DDP he oversaw the [[ZR/RIFLE]] assassination planning program targeting [[Fidel Castro]] through the CIA-organized crime connection, and he personally knew about the CIA-Mafia assassination plots that he subsequently failed to disclose to the [[Warren Commission]] investigating Kennedy's death.
@ -42,33 +50,33 @@ President [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Lyndon Johnson]] appointed Helms as DCI in 1966, t
### The Warren Commission and ZR/RIFLE ### The Warren Commission and ZR/RIFLE
When the Warren Commission was established in November 1963 to investigate Kennedy's assassination, Helms as DDP was the CIA officer most directly responsible for the ZR/RIFLE program - the CIA's ongoing assassination plots against Castro using organized crime intermediaries [[Johnny Roselli]], [[Sam Giancana]], and [[Santos Trafficante, Jr.|Santo Trafficante Jr.]] Helms did not disclose the existence of these plots to the Commission. The [[Church Committee]]'s final report states that neither the CIA nor the FBI told the Commission about the CIA attempts to assassinate Castro, and that none of the testimony or documents the Commission received mentioned them.[^3] [[David Belin]], the Commission's counsel, wrote in 1975 that "[a]t no time did the CIA disclose to the Warren Commission any facts which pertained to alleged assassination plans to kill Fidel Castro."[^4] When the Warren Commission was established in November 1963 to investigate Kennedy's assassination, Helms as DDP was the CIA officer most directly responsible for the ZR/RIFLE program - the CIA's ongoing assassination plots against Castro using organized crime intermediaries [[Johnny Roselli]], [[Sam Giancana]], and [[Santos Trafficante, Jr.|Santo Trafficante Jr.]] Helms did not disclose the existence of these plots to the Commission. The [[Church Committee]]'s final report states that neither the CIA nor the FBI told the Commission about the CIA attempts to assassinate Castro, and that none of the testimony or documents the Commission received mentioned them.[^5] [[David Belin]], the Commission's counsel, wrote in 1975 that "[a]t no time did the CIA disclose to the Warren Commission any facts which pertained to alleged assassination plans to kill Fidel Castro."[^6]
The Church Committee's 1975 interim report states that Helms "failed to inform the Warren Commission of the plots because the precise question was not asked."[^5] Helms testified to the committee in July 1975. Asked by Senator Morgan whether he was charged with furnishing the Commission information from the CIA that he thought was relevant, he answered: "No sir. I was instructed to reply to inquiries from the Warren Commission for information from the Agency. I was not asked to initiate any particular thing." To Morgan's statement "if you weren't asked for it, you didn't give it," he answered: "That's right, sir." He said he did not recall being instructed, or deciding on his own, to cover the precise details of the Agency's operations with the Commission, and that his recollection at the time was that it was public knowledge the United States was trying to get rid of Castro.[^6] He said that [[Allen Dulles]] "was sitting right there" in the Commission's deliberations and "knew about this," and that he did not know what Dulles had said to the Commission about the plots.[^6] Book V records that Helms was the only CIA official who was both in contact with the Commission and knowledgeable of the AMLASH operation, although he would not characterize that operation as an assassination plot.[^6][^7] The Church Committee's 1975 interim report states that Helms "failed to inform the Warren Commission of the plots because the precise question was not asked."[^7] Helms testified to the committee in July 1975. Asked by Senator Morgan whether he was charged with furnishing the Commission information from the CIA that he thought was relevant, he answered: "No sir. I was instructed to reply to inquiries from the Warren Commission for information from the Agency. I was not asked to initiate any particular thing." To Morgan's statement "if you weren't asked for it, you didn't give it," he answered: "That's right, sir." He said he did not recall being instructed, or deciding on his own, to cover the precise details of the Agency's operations with the Commission, and that his recollection at the time was that it was public knowledge the United States was trying to get rid of Castro.[^8] He said that [[Allen Dulles]] "was sitting right there" in the Commission's deliberations and "knew about this," and that he did not know what Dulles had said to the Commission about the plots.[^8] Book V records that Helms was the only CIA official who was both in contact with the Commission and knowledgeable of the AMLASH operation, although he would not characterize that operation as an assassination plot.[^8][^9]
The Church Committee's final report of 1976 states that why senior FBI and CIA officials permitted the Commission to reach its conclusion without all relevant information "is still unclear," and that "the possibility exists that senior officials in both agencies made conscious decisions not to disclose potentially important information."[^8] The House Select Committee on Assassinations reported that Helms indicated he did not inform the Commission of the anti-Castro plots because he was never asked to testify before it about operations, and stated in a note that it considered this an unacceptable explanation, since the Commission was unaware of the plots and could not make a specific request about them. The same committee stated that only Helms would have been in a position to have both the knowledge and the power to cover up the plots, and that it was satisfied, on the basis of its investigation, that it was highly unlikely he did.[^9][^10] The Church Committee's final report of 1976 states that why senior FBI and CIA officials permitted the Commission to reach its conclusion without all relevant information "is still unclear," and that "the possibility exists that senior officials in both agencies made conscious decisions not to disclose potentially important information."[^10] The House Select Committee on Assassinations reported that Helms indicated he did not inform the Commission of the anti-Castro plots because he was never asked to testify before it about operations, and stated in a note that it considered this an unacceptable explanation, since the Commission was unaware of the plots and could not make a specific request about them. The same committee stated that only Helms would have been in a position to have both the knowledge and the power to cover up the plots, and that it was satisfied, on the basis of its investigation, that it was highly unlikely he did.[^11][^12]
The CIA Inspector General's report of May 23, 1967 on plots to assassinate Castro, which according to its covering memorandum had been read only by Helms, the Inspector General and two of its authors, records that according to [[Desmond FitzGerald]], he discussed the planned October 29, 1963 meeting with the Cuban official code-named AMLASH with Helms, who decided it was not necessary to seek [[Robert Kennedy]]'s approval for FitzGerald to speak in his name.[^11] It states that "it is likely that at the very moment President Kennedy was shot a CIA officer was meeting with a Cuban agent in Paris and giving him an assassination device for use against Castro," and that "The AMLASH project was probably about as widely known within the Clandestine Services as any other project of a similar nature."[^12] The CIA Inspector General's report of May 23, 1967 on plots to assassinate Castro, which according to its covering memorandum had been read only by Helms, the Inspector General and two of its authors, records that according to [[Desmond FitzGerald]], he discussed the planned October 29, 1963 meeting with the Cuban official code-named AMLASH with Helms, who decided it was not necessary to seek [[Robert Kennedy]]'s approval for FitzGerald to speak in his name.[^13] It states that "it is likely that at the very moment President Kennedy was shot a CIA officer was meeting with a Cuban agent in Paris and giving him an assassination device for use against Castro," and that "The AMLASH project was probably about as widely known within the Clandestine Services as any other project of a similar nature."[^14]
### Operation CHAOS Authorization and Records Destruction ### Operation CHAOS Authorization and Records Destruction
In August 1967, Helms received President Johnson's instruction to determine whether foreign powers were directing the American antiwar movement. He tasked [[James Jesus Angleton|James Angleton]]'s Counterintelligence Staff with establishing the Special Operations Group that became MHCHAOS. He subsequently expanded the program under President Nixon's administration, approving Project MERRIMAC (domestic infiltration of antiwar organizations) and [[Project RESISTANCE]] (coordination with campus administrators and local police to compile dossiers on student organizations). In August 1967, Helms received President Johnson's instruction to determine whether foreign powers were directing the American antiwar movement. He tasked [[James Jesus Angleton|James Angleton]]'s Counterintelligence Staff with establishing the Special Operations Group that became MHCHAOS. He subsequently expanded the program under President Nixon's administration, approving Project MERRIMAC (domestic infiltration of antiwar organizations) and [[Project RESISTANCE]] (coordination with campus administrators and local police to compile dossiers on student organizations).
In December 1972, knowing that Watergate-related congressional investigations were expanding, Helms ordered the operational records of MHCHAOS destroyed. A partial cache of budget and administrative documents survived only because it had been misfiled in a different location. The records of MKULTRA, the CIA's two-decade human experimentation program using LSD and other substances on unwitting subjects, were destroyed in January 1973. Technical Services Division personnel destroyed them on the verbal orders of [[Sidney Gottlieb]]. Gottlieb testified that he was carrying out a verbal order from Helms in doing so, and Helms confirmed that the order was his.[^13] The Church Committee found that these records destructions had permanently deprived investigators of a complete documentary record of both programs.[^1] In December 1972, knowing that Watergate-related congressional investigations were expanding, Helms ordered the operational records of MHCHAOS destroyed. A partial cache of budget and administrative documents survived only because it had been misfiled in a different location. The records of MKULTRA, the CIA's two-decade human experimentation program using LSD and other substances on unwitting subjects, were destroyed in January 1973. Technical Services Division personnel destroyed them on the verbal orders of [[Sidney Gottlieb]]. Gottlieb testified that he was carrying out a verbal order from Helms in doing so, and Helms confirmed that the order was his.[^15] The Church Committee found that these records destructions had permanently deprived investigators of a complete documentary record of both programs.[^1]
### Proposing and Protecting MKULTRA ### Proposing and Protecting MKULTRA
Helms was the program's originator as much as its protector. On April 3, 1953 he formally proposed to Director Allen Dulles a program under Sidney Gottlieb for the "covert use of biological and chemical materials," arguing that "the development of a comprehensive capability in this field gives us a thorough knowledge of the enemy's theoretical potential" against "a foe who might not be as restrained ... as we are"; Dulles approved it as MKULTRA ten days later. Helms nurtured Gottlieb as his personal specialist and, bypassing the layers of command between them, dealt with him directly, embodying the conviction he later voiced in Senate testimony, that a clandestine operator "can't count on the honesty of your agent ... unless you own him body and soul." When the program needed a new charter in 1964 he agreed to rename it [[MKSEARCH]] on the condition that its substance remain the same.[^14] Helms was the program's originator as much as its protector. On April 3, 1953 he formally proposed to Director Allen Dulles a program under Sidney Gottlieb for the "covert use of biological and chemical materials," arguing that "the development of a comprehensive capability in this field gives us a thorough knowledge of the enemy's theoretical potential" against "a foe who might not be as restrained ... as we are"; Dulles approved it as MKULTRA ten days later. Helms nurtured Gottlieb as his personal specialist and, bypassing the layers of command between them, dealt with him directly, embodying the conviction he later voiced in Senate testimony, that a clandestine operator "can't count on the honesty of your agent ... unless you own him body and soul." When the program needed a new charter in 1964 he agreed to rename it [[MKSEARCH]] on the condition that its substance remain the same.[^16]
### MKULTRA Continuation and Psychic Research ### MKULTRA Continuation and Psychic Research
Helms had approved continuation of MKULTRA through his DDP years and as DCI. He was aware of the program's scope, including the experiments conducted on unconsenting patients at Canadian psychiatric facilities under the direction of Dr. [[D. Ewen Cameron]] at McGill University's [[Allan Memorial Institute]] (Subproject 68), and the experiments using unwitting American subjects in safe houses operated through the Sexual Freedom Project in [[San Francisco]] and [[New York]]. Helms had approved continuation of MKULTRA through his DDP years and as DCI. He was aware of the program's scope, including the experiments conducted on unconsenting patients at Canadian psychiatric facilities under the direction of Dr. [[D. Ewen Cameron]] at McGill University's [[Allan Memorial Institute]] (Subproject 68), and the experiments using unwitting American subjects in safe houses operated through the Sexual Freedom Project in [[San Francisco]] and [[New York City|New York]].
Separately, Helms authorized and expanded the CIA's psychic research program based in part on assessments of Soviet parapsychology research. He approved testing of [[Uri Geller]] at [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI]] and the broader program that evolved into [[Project Stargate]]. His authorization reflected a characteristically pragmatic judgment: if the Soviets were investing in the capability, the CIA needed to assess whether it was real.[^15] Separately, Helms authorized and expanded the CIA's psychic research program based in part on assessments of Soviet parapsychology research. He approved testing of [[Uri Geller]] at [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI]] and the broader program that evolved into [[Project Stargate]]. His authorization reflected a characteristically pragmatic judgment: if the Soviets were investing in the capability, the CIA needed to assess whether it was real.[^17]
### Chile: Covert Action and Congressional Perjury ### Chile: Covert Action and Congressional Perjury
In September 1970, following the election of Socialist candidate Salvador Allende in [[Chile]], President Nixon instructed Helms in a meeting at the [[White House]] to conduct covert operations to prevent Allende from assuming the presidency. At the White House meeting of September 15, 1970, attended by [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] and Attorney General [[John N. Mitchell]], Helms's notes record "1 in 10 chance perhaps, but save Chile!", "$10,000,000 available, more if necessary" and "game plan make the economy scream." The Church Committee wrote that Nixon instructed the CIA at that meeting to play a direct role in organizing a military coup.[^16][^17] In his August 12, 1975 testimony Kissinger said that at that meeting "President Nixon did almost all of the talking."[^18] On September 12, 1970, Kissinger told Helms by telephone that he was calling a [[40 Committee]] meeting for the following Monday, and said: "We will not let Chile go down the drain."[^19] A CIA memorandum for the record of September 16, 1970, "Genesis of Project FUBELT," records Helms telling CIA officials that "President Nixon had decided that an Allende regime in Chile was not acceptable to the United States."[^20] In September 1970, following the election of Socialist candidate Salvador Allende in [[Chile]], President Nixon instructed Helms in a meeting at the [[White House]] to conduct covert operations to prevent Allende from assuming the presidency. At the White House meeting of September 15, 1970, attended by [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] and Attorney General [[John N. Mitchell]], Helms's notes record "1 in 10 chance perhaps, but save Chile!", "$10,000,000 available, more if necessary" and "game plan make the economy scream." The Church Committee wrote that Nixon instructed the CIA at that meeting to play a direct role in organizing a military coup.[^18][^19] In his August 12, 1975 testimony Kissinger said that at that meeting "President Nixon did almost all of the talking."[^20] On September 12, 1970, Kissinger told Helms by telephone that he was calling a [[40 Committee]] meeting for the following Monday, and said: "We will not let Chile go down the drain."[^21] A CIA memorandum for the record of September 16, 1970, "Genesis of Project FUBELT," records Helms telling CIA officials that "President Nixon had decided that an Allende regime in Chile was not acceptable to the United States."[^22]
The CIA subsequently funded opposition media, political parties, and military factions. General [[Augusto Pinochet]] seized power in a coup on September 11, 1973 - the same year Helms was replaced as DCI and sent as U.S. Ambassador to [[Iran]]. The CIA subsequently funded opposition media, political parties, and military factions. General [[Augusto Pinochet]] seized power in a coup on September 11, 1973 - the same year Helms was replaced as DCI and sent as U.S. Ambassador to [[Iran]].
@ -76,19 +84,19 @@ In February 1973, when Helms testified before the [[Senate Foreign Relations Com
### The Israeli estimate and the June 1967 warning ### The Israeli estimate and the June 1967 warning
On May 25, 1967, Helms had the [[Office of National Estimates]] appraise an Israeli intelligence estimate within five hours. The appraisal stated: "We do not believe that the Israeli appreciation . . . was a serious estimate of the sort they would submit to their own high officials. We think it is probably a gambit intended to influence the US to do one or more of the following: (a) provide military supplies, (b) make more public commitments to Israel, (c) approve Israeli military initiatives, and (d) put more pressure on Nasser." [[David S. Robarge]], the CIA's chief historian, describes the Israeli paper as a [[Mossad]] estimate and writes that the Israelis may have been exploiting their special relationship with James Jesus Angleton.[^21][^22] On May 25, 1967, Helms had the [[Office of National Estimates]] appraise an Israeli intelligence estimate within five hours. The appraisal stated: "We do not believe that the Israeli appreciation . . . was a serious estimate of the sort they would submit to their own high officials. We think it is probably a gambit intended to influence the US to do one or more of the following: (a) provide military supplies, (b) make more public commitments to Israel, (c) approve Israeli military initiatives, and (d) put more pressure on Nasser." [[David S. Robarge]], the CIA's chief historian, describes the Israeli paper as a [[Mossad]] estimate and writes that the Israelis may have been exploiting their special relationship with James Jesus Angleton.[^23][^24]
On June 1, 1967, Helms's deputy, Vice Admiral [[Rufus Taylor]], wrote the memorandum of the conversation between Major General [[Meir Amit]] and Secretary of Defense [[Robert S. McNamara]], captioned "Personal and Eyes Only for the Secretary of Defense and the Director of Central Intelligence."[^23] Robarge writes that Helms met a senior Israeli official on June 1 who hinted that Israel could no longer avoid a decision, that the official left the United States on June 2, and that that morning Helms wrote an "Eyes Only" letter to President Johnson forewarning that Israel probably would start a war within a few days.[^24] Helms was awakened at 3:00 a.m. on June 5 by a call from the CIA Operations Center. He recalled that "in the midst of one meeting" during the war Johnson asked how accurate his intelligence on the progress of the war was, and that he answered: "It's accurate just as long as the Israelis are winning."[^22] On June 1, 1967, Helms's deputy, Vice Admiral [[Rufus Taylor]], wrote the memorandum of the conversation between Major General [[Meir Amit]] and Secretary of Defense [[Robert S. McNamara]], captioned "Personal and Eyes Only for the Secretary of Defense and the Director of Central Intelligence."[^25] Robarge writes that Helms met a senior Israeli official on June 1 who hinted that Israel could no longer avoid a decision, that the official left the United States on June 2, and that that morning Helms wrote an "Eyes Only" letter to President Johnson forewarning that Israel probably would start a war within a few days.[^26] Helms was awakened at 3:00 a.m. on June 5 by a call from the CIA Operations Center. He recalled that "in the midst of one meeting" during the war Johnson asked how accurate his intelligence on the progress of the war was, and that he answered: "It's accurate just as long as the Israelis are winning."[^24]
### NUMEC letter, April 1968 ### NUMEC letter, April 1968
On April 2, 1968, Helms wrote to Attorney General [[Ramsey Clark]] asking that the FBI "initiate a discreet intelligence investigation of an all source nature of Dr. Shapiro in order to establish the nature and extent of his relationship with the Government of Israel," and asked that the letter be returned to him once the Attorney General had acted, because the subject matter was "so sensitive for obvious reasons." A twelve-line passage before the request remains redacted.[^25] The subject was [[Zalman Mordecai Shapiro]] of the [[Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation]]. On April 2, 1968, Helms wrote to Attorney General [[Ramsey Clark]] asking that the FBI "initiate a discreet intelligence investigation of an all source nature of Dr. Shapiro in order to establish the nature and extent of his relationship with the Government of Israel," and asked that the letter be returned to him once the Attorney General had acted, because the subject matter was "so sensitive for obvious reasons." A twelve-line passage before the request remains redacted.[^27] The subject was [[Zalman Mordecai Shapiro]] of the [[Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation]].
### Israel: The "Open Pipeline" Assessment ### Israel: The "Open Pipeline" Assessment
Helms developed a personal conviction, disclosed to his deputies, that Israel was providing American satellite intelligence to the [[Soviet Union]] as part of an undisclosed intelligence exchange - characterizing Israel as "an open pipeline for pumping intelligence to Moscow." He never officially reported this assessment or commissioned a formal investigation, and he took no documented action on it. His reluctance reflected both the sensitivity of accusing an ally and the particular weight of any assessment that ran against the interests managed by Angleton's [[KK MOUNTAIN]] Israeli liaison program. Helms developed a personal conviction, disclosed to his deputies, that Israel was providing American satellite intelligence to the [[Soviet Union]] as part of an undisclosed intelligence exchange - characterizing Israel as "an open pipeline for pumping intelligence to Moscow." He never officially reported this assessment or commissioned a formal investigation, and he took no documented action on it. His reluctance reflected both the sensitivity of accusing an ally and the particular weight of any assessment that ran against the interests managed by Angleton's [[KK MOUNTAIN]] Israeli liaison program.
When President Johnson sought an intelligence assessment of whether Israel had manufactured nuclear weapons, Helms provided the estimate (four warheads) and then obeyed Johnson's instruction that the finding be buried rather than formally reported. Johnson did not want intelligence conclusions that would require him to act on them politically. Helms's willingness to suppress an accurate intelligence product at presidential direction exemplified the institutional failure the Church Committee later documented.[^26] When President Johnson sought an intelligence assessment of whether Israel had manufactured nuclear weapons, Helms provided the estimate (four warheads) and then obeyed Johnson's instruction that the finding be buried rather than formally reported. Johnson did not want intelligence conclusions that would require him to act on them politically. Helms's willingness to suppress an accurate intelligence product at presidential direction exemplified the institutional failure the Church Committee later documented.[^28]
### Iran, Retirement, and Memoirs ### Iran, Retirement, and Memoirs
@ -98,40 +106,42 @@ He published his memoirs, *A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intell
### Irvani, Safeer and the 1978 Financial General Bid ### Irvani, Safeer and the 1978 Financial General Bid
Helms was dismissed as director of central intelligence by President Richard Nixon in February 1973 and was then appointed ambassador to Iran until 1977, where he met [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani]], an Iranian industrialist who had founded the Melli Industrial Group in 1949.[^27] On October 31, 1977 Helms pleaded no contest to two charges, in return for a government recommendation that he not be sentenced to prison. In the fall of 1977 [[Clark Clifford]] visited a senior Justice Department official to argue against an indictment, saying that such charges could damage the U.S. intelligence community.[^27] Helms was dismissed as director of central intelligence by President Richard Nixon in February 1973 and was then appointed ambassador to Iran until 1977, where he met [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani]], an Iranian industrialist who had founded the Melli Industrial Group in 1949.[^29] On October 31, 1977 Helms pleaded no contest to two charges, in return for a government recommendation that he not be sentenced to prison. In the fall of 1977 [[Clark Clifford]] visited a senior Justice Department official to argue against an indictment, saying that such charges could damage the U.S. intelligence community.[^29]
Helms ran an international consulting firm, Safeer, which the Senate report says was named for the Iranian word for "Ambassador." Irvani financed the firm at the time the presiding federal judge described Helms as "in disgrace and shame." According to corporate records and documents filed in civil litigation in Gwinnett County, Georgia, Irvani capitalized and owned 80 percent of Safeer, and [[Roy P. M. Carlson]], a former Bank of America officer whom [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] had introduced to Irvani, became its vice president and handled much of its early business.[^28] Helms ran an international consulting firm, Safeer, which the Senate report says was named for the Iranian word for "Ambassador." Irvani financed the firm at the time the presiding federal judge described Helms as "in disgrace and shame." According to corporate records and documents filed in civil litigation in Gwinnett County, Georgia, Irvani capitalized and owned 80 percent of Safeer, and [[Roy P. M. Carlson]], a former Bank of America officer whom [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] had introduced to Irvani, became its vice president and handled much of its early business.[^30]
The original 1978 filing with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] listed Irvani as a 5 percent shareholder of [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH), and the Senate report describes him as BCCI's lead front man in the early 1978 takeover attempt against [[Financial General Bankshares]]. The report says that Helms advised Irvani on how to be protected from any liability in that role, and that several documents introduced in litigation in Georgia describe Abedi recruiting Irvani in early 1978 to act as a front man.[^29] The original 1978 filing with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] listed Irvani as a 5 percent shareholder of [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH), and the Senate report describes him as BCCI's lead front man in the early 1978 takeover attempt against [[Financial General Bankshares]]. The report says that Helms advised Irvani on how to be protected from any liability in that role, and that several documents introduced in litigation in Georgia describe Abedi recruiting Irvani in early 1978 to act as a front man.[^31]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Powers, Thomas. *The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA.* Knopf, 1979 (the essential biography, based on extensive interviews). Church Committee (Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities). Final Report, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976. [^1]: Powers, Thomas. *The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA.* Knopf, 1979 (the essential biography, based on extensive interviews). Church Committee (Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities). Final Report, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976.
[^2]: Helms, Richard, with William Hood. *A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency*. New York: Random House, 2003, pp. 22-25. [^2]: Helms, Richard, with William Hood. *A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency*. New York: Random House, 2003, pp. 22-25.
[^3]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Book V, Final Report, April 23, 1976, p. 5. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf [^3]: Georgetown University Library, Booth Family Center for Special Collections, "Richard M. Helms Papers," biographical note, https://findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/10290
[^4]: Book V, p. 73 (Belin memorandum to the Rockefeller Commission, May 20, 1975, p. 1). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf [^4]: Carl Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, text at https://archive.org/stream/nsia-BernsteinRollingStoneArticlesCIA/nsia-BernsteinRollingStoneArticlesCIA/Bernstein%20CIA%2001_djvu.txt
[^5]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, p. 269 and note 1. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit [^5]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Book V, Final Report, April 23, 1976, p. 5. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^6]: Book V, pp. 70-72 (Helms testimony of July 17 and 18, 1975; testimony of 7/17/75, pp. 118-119, and 7/18/75, pp. 36-37). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf [^6]: Book V, p. 73 (Belin memorandum to the Rockefeller Commission, May 20, 1975, p. 1). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^7]: Book V, p. 69. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf [^7]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, p. 269 and note 1. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^8]: Book V, p. 7. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf [^8]: Book V, pp. 70-72 (Helms testimony of July 17 and 18, 1975; testimony of 7/17/75, pp. 118-119, and 7/18/75, pp. 36-37). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^9]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report of the Select Committee on Assassinations*, 1979, Part I-D, p. 253 and note 8. https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/select-committee-report/part-1d.html [^9]: Book V, p. 69. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^10]: Same report, Part I-C, p. 128. https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/select-committee-report/part-1c.html [^10]: Book V, p. 7. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Inspector General (J. S. Earman), "Report on Plots to Assassinate Fidel Castro," May 23, 1967, covering memorandum and pp. 88-89 (JFK record 104-10213-10101). https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/104-10213-10101.pdf [^11]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report of the Select Committee on Assassinations*, 1979, Part I-D, p. 253 and note 8. https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/select-committee-report/part-1d.html
[^12]: Same report, p. 94. https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/104-10213-10101.pdf [^12]: Same report, Part I-C, p. 128. https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/select-committee-report/part-1c.html
[^13]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, p. 389 (MKULTRA records destroyed January 1973 on Gottlieb's verbal orders; Gottlieb testifying that he carried out Helms's verbal order; Helms confirming). [^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, Inspector General (J. S. Earman), "Report on Plots to Assassinate Fidel Castro," May 23, 1967, covering memorandum and pp. 88-89 (JFK record 104-10213-10101). https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/104-10213-10101.pdf
[^14]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1, 4, 12. [^14]: Same report, p. 94. https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/104-10213-10101.pdf
[^15]: Church Committee. "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders." Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975 (documents ZR/RIFLE). Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis.* Little, Brown, 2017. [^15]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, p. 389 (MKULTRA records destroyed January 1973 on Gottlieb's verbal orders; Gottlieb testifying that he carried out Helms's verbal order; Helms confirming).
[^16]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973*, Staff Report, December 1975, PDF pages 29 and 37. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94chile.pdf [^16]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1, 4, 12.
[^17]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969-1973, document 93, Editorial Note, with Helms's notes. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d93 [^17]: Church Committee. "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders." Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975 (documents ZR/RIFLE). Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis.* Little, Brown, 2017.
[^18]: Kissinger testimony of August 12, 1975, as quoted in *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 93, Editorial Note: "President Nixon did almost all of the talking." [^18]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973*, Staff Report, December 1975, PDF pages 29 and 37. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94chile.pdf
[^19]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger and Chile: The Declassified Record on Regime Change," Electronic Briefing Book No. 437, document 1, Helms-Kissinger telephone conversation, September 12, 1970, 12:00 noon. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB437/ [^19]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969-1973, document 93, Editorial Note, with Helms's notes. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d93
[^20]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 94, Memorandum for the Record, Washington, September 16, 1970. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d94 [^20]: Kissinger testimony of August 12, 1975, as quoted in *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 93, Editorial Note: "President Nixon did almost all of the talking."
[^21]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XIX, Document 61, Memorandum from Rostow to President Johnson, May 25, 1967, with attached CIA appraisal. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v19/d61 [^21]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger and Chile: The Declassified Record on Regime Change," Electronic Briefing Book No. 437, document 1, Helms-Kissinger telephone conversation, September 12, 1970, 12:00 noon. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB437/
[^22]: Robarge, David S. "Getting it Right: CIA Analysis of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War." *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 1 (March 2005). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/CIA-Analysis-1967-War.pdf [^22]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 94, Memorandum for the Record, Washington, September 16, 1970. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d94
[^23]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XIX, Document 124, Memorandum for the Record by Vice Admiral Rufus Taylor, June 1, 1967 (prepared June 2). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v19/d124 [^23]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XIX, Document 61, Memorandum from Rostow to President Johnson, May 25, 1967, with attached CIA appraisal. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v19/d61
[^24]: Robarge, David S. "Getting it Right: CIA Analysis of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War." *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 1 (March 2005). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/CIA-Analysis-1967-War.pdf For the June 1 to 2 meeting Robarge relies on published accounts, among them Michael B. Oren's, which rest on Amit's interviews and writings. [^24]: Robarge, David S. "Getting it Right: CIA Analysis of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War." *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 1 (March 2005). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/CIA-Analysis-1967-War.pdf
[^25]: National Security Archive, "The NUMEC Affair: Did Highly Enriched Uranium from the U.S. Aid Israel's Nuclear Weapons Program?" (November 2, 2016), Document 8, Letter from Richard Helms to Ramsey Clark, April 2, 1968 (ISCAP Appeal No. 2013-062). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-11-02/numec-affair-did-highly-enriched-uranium-us-aid-israels-nuclear-weapons-program [^25]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XIX, Document 124, Memorandum for the Record by Vice Admiral Rufus Taylor, June 1, 1967 (prepared June 2). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v19/d124
[^26]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991. Chapters 11, 14, 16. [^26]: Robarge, David S. "Getting it Right: CIA Analysis of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War." *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 1 (March 2005). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/CIA-Analysis-1967-War.pdf For the June 1 to 2 meeting Robarge relies on published accounts, among them Michael B. Oren's, which rest on Amit's interviews and writings.
[^27]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence" (the section on Richard Helms and Mohammed Irvani; text preceding notes 49 to 51). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm [^27]: National Security Archive, "The NUMEC Affair: Did Highly Enriched Uranium from the U.S. Aid Israel's Nuclear Weapons Program?" (November 2, 2016), Document 8, Letter from Richard Helms to Ramsey Clark, April 2, 1968 (ISCAP Appeal No. 2013-062). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-11-02/numec-affair-did-highly-enriched-uranium-us-aid-israels-nuclear-weapons-program
[^28]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 11 (Safeer's name, its capitalization and the Carlson passages; text following note 51 through note 57; *G&H Montage GmbH v. Irvani*, Superior Court of Gwinnett County, Georgia, 88-A-03571-6). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm [^28]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991. Chapters 11, 14, 16.
[^29]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry" (Irvani listed in the original SEC filing as a 5 percent shareholder of CCAH; recruitment by Abedi in early 1978, note 49); ch. 11 (Helms's advice to Irvani on liability). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm [^29]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence" (the section on Richard Helms and Mohammed Irvani; text preceding notes 49 to 51). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^30]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 11 (Safeer's name, its capitalization and the Carlson passages; text following note 51 through note 57; *G&H Montage GmbH v. Irvani*, Superior Court of Gwinnett County, Georgia, 88-A-03571-6). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^31]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry" (Irvani listed in the original SEC filing as a 5 percent shareholder of CCAH; recruitment by Abedi in early 1978, note 49); ch. 11 (Helms's advice to Irvani on liability). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm

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10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Robert Jahn.md
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@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ born: 1930-04-01
died: 2017-11-15 died: 2017-11-15
location: "Princeton, New Jersey" location: "Princeton, New Jersey"
created: 2026-09-22 created: 2026-09-22
updated: 2026-09-22 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Robert George Jahn was born in Kearny, [[New Jersey]], on April 1, 1930, took his Princeton degree in mechanical engineering in 1951 and his physics doctorate there in 1955, taught at Lehigh and [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]], returned to [[Princeton University|Princeton]] in 1962 and was appointed the fourth dean of its School of Engineering and Applied Science in 1971, serving until 1986. His research lay in "fluid mechanics, ionized gases, plasmadynamics, and most recently, electric propulsion"; "during the 1960s as student protests roiled campus, Jahn became active in guiding revisions to University governance, particularly in managing research sponsored by the U.S. military." He died on November 15, 2017.[^1][^2] Robert George Jahn was born in Kearny, [[New Jersey]], on April 1, 1930, took his Princeton degree in mechanical engineering in 1951 and his physics doctorate there in 1955, taught at Lehigh and [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]], returned to [[Princeton University|Princeton]] in 1962 and was appointed the fourth dean of its School of Engineering and Applied Science in 1971, serving until 1986. His research lay in "fluid mechanics, ionized gases, plasmadynamics, and most recently, electric propulsion"; "during the 1960s as student protests roiled campus, Jahn became active in guiding revisions to University governance, particularly in managing research sponsored by the U.S. military." He died on November 15, 2017.[^1][^2]
@ -25,14 +25,31 @@ In his own account, "late in the spring of 1977, [[Carol Kay Curry]] '79, an ele
"By 1979, Jahn started the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab and hired [[Brenda Dunne]] to run it," under "an agreement with University administrators by which he could continue the work but only with private funding and without graduate students." "He relied not on university or government money but on private donations, more than $10 million over the years, he estimated. The first and most generous donor was his friend [[James S. McDonnell]], a founder of the [[McDonnell Douglas]] Corporation. For a time, the philanthropist [[Laurance Rockefeller]] visited regularly and donated money for research." PEAR "published more than 60 research reports, most appearing in the journal of the [[Society for Scientific Exploration]]," of which Jahn and Dunne were officers; "one editor famously told Dr. Jahn that he would consider a paper 'if you can telepathically communicate it to me.'" It closed in 2007: "If people don't believe us after all the results we've produced, then they never will."[^2][^4] "By 1979, Jahn started the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab and hired [[Brenda Dunne]] to run it," under "an agreement with University administrators by which he could continue the work but only with private funding and without graduate students." "He relied not on university or government money but on private donations, more than $10 million over the years, he estimated. The first and most generous donor was his friend [[James S. McDonnell]], a founder of the [[McDonnell Douglas]] Corporation. For a time, the philanthropist [[Laurance Rockefeller]] visited regularly and donated money for research." PEAR "published more than 60 research reports, most appearing in the journal of the [[Society for Scientific Exploration]]," of which Jahn and Dunne were officers; "one editor famously told Dr. Jahn that he would consider a paper 'if you can telepathically communicate it to me.'" It closed in 2007: "If people don't believe us after all the results we've produced, then they never will."[^2][^4]
Jahn's 1982 invited paper in the *Proceedings of the IEEE*, written as dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science, lists its supporting bodies in the acknowledgments: the McDonnell Foundation, Inc., the John E. Fetzer Foundation, Inc., [[Explorers Club|The Explorers Club]], the [[Institute of Noetic Science|Institute of Noetic Sciences]] and the Little River Foundation.[^5] The paper reproduces remote perception transcripts headed "Princeton, NJ," one dated September 5, 1978, and a figure captioned "Remote perception target: Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton."[^5]
The [[National Research Council]] committee chaired by John A. Swets (*Enhancing Human Performance*, 1988) named Jahn's work first among the research it recommended the Army monitor, and its parapsychology subcommittee visited the Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory; the report's review states that the Schmidt and Jahn programs accounted for almost 60 percent of known random number generator experiments, and attributes to the reviewers Palmer and Alcock the points that one subject supplied about 23 percent of Jahn's formal series and that tampering precautions were inadequately documented.[^6] The [[Office of Technology Assessment]] workshop of September 30, 1988 (report February 22, 1989) heard Jahn describe criteria for strengthening PK experiments.[^7] A [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] psychoenergetics briefing of August 7, 1984 lists the "Engineering Anomalies Laboratory, Princeton University" among laboratories under consideration for FY 1985 contracts.[^8]
### The Army and the Senator ### The Army and the Senator
The Army's [[Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee]] visited "Dean Jahn" at Princeton on September 8, 1979, and listed "the investigations by Dr. Hawke at Livermore Laboratories, Dr. Jahn at Princeton University, and Dr. Phillips at Washington University" among the psychokinesis work it had seen. Its coordinator, Major [[William Stoner]], recorded the chairman's claim that "Dean Jahn at Princeton has a two-year leash on his PK program and had to invoke freedom of inquiry, the academic Magna Carta, before the University President allowed him to go ahead," and answered: "In fact, Dean Jahn does not have a drop dead time two years out. He explained, and twice reconfirmed that the two year marker is when he expects to have some credible results to report." When [[Claiborne Pell]] was briefed on Grill Flame on September 29, 1982, the record noted that "he was also acquainted with the work of Dr. Robert Jahn, Dean, College of Engineering, Princeton University."[^5] A memorandum recording the House Standing Intelligence Oversight Committee session of February 13, 1979 asked what other organizations besides SRI were working on the subject; the answer recorded was "Only maybe Dr. Jahn at Princeton."[^9]
The Army's [[Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee]] visited "Dean Jahn" at Princeton on September 8, 1979, and listed "the investigations by Dr. Hawke at Livermore Laboratories, Dr. Jahn at Princeton University, and Dr. Phillips at Washington University" among the psychokinesis work it had seen. Its coordinator, Major [[William Stoner]], recorded the chairman's claim that "Dean Jahn at Princeton has a two-year leash on his PK program and had to invoke freedom of inquiry, the academic Magna Carta, before the University President allowed him to go ahead," and answered: "In fact, Dean Jahn does not have a drop dead time two years out. He explained, and twice reconfirmed that the two year marker is when he expects to have some credible results to report." When [[Claiborne Pell]] was briefed on Grill Flame on September 29, 1982, the record noted that "he was also acquainted with the work of Dr. Robert Jahn, Dean, College of Engineering, Princeton University."[^10]
### The INSCOM Briefing, 1985
On February 6, 1985 Lieutenant General [[William Odom]], then the Army's assistant chief of staff for intelligence, attended an [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command|INSCOM]] briefing for Under Secretary of the Army [[James Ambrose]] on the [[Center Lane]] project. The discussion opened with Jahn's work. Odom replied that INSCOM had not completed any work on the Jahn theories, but that Major General [[Garrison Rapmund|Rapmund]] was now an active participant in the field and planned to award an R&D contract to [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI International]], "which would include a subcontract to Dr. Jahn."[^11] The INSCOM record states that the Under Secretary's interest had been renewed by an inquiry from Secretary of the Army [[John Marsh]], who had been asked about Army involvement in psychoenergetics by Senator Claiborne Pell.[^11] SRI's final report for Project 1291 records a subcontract to the Princeton University Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory in fiscal 1987.[^12]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Schultz, Steven. "Robert Jahn, pioneer of deep space propulsion and mind-machine interactions, dies at 87." Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science, November 30, 2017. https://engineering.princeton.edu/news/2017/11/30/robert-jahn-pioneer-deep-space-propulsion-and-mind-machine-interactions-dies-87 [^1]: Schultz, Steven. "Robert Jahn, pioneer of deep space propulsion and mind-machine interactions, dies at 87." Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science, November 30, 2017. https://engineering.princeton.edu/news/2017/11/30/robert-jahn-pioneer-deep-space-propulsion-and-mind-machine-interactions-dies-87
[^2]: Carey, Benedict. "A Princeton Lab on ESP Plans to Close Its Doors." *New York Times,* February 10, 2007, read in a mirror copy at physics.smu.edu/pseudo/10princeton.html. [^2]: Carey, Benedict. "A Princeton Lab on ESP Plans to Close Its Doors." *New York Times,* February 10, 2007, available at physics.smu.edu/pseudo/10princeton.html.
[^3]: Jahn, Robert G. "Psychic Process, Energy Transfer, and Things that Go Bump in the Night." *Princeton Alumni Weekly,* special report, December 4, 1978, CIA copy CIA-RDP96-00787R000500070001-1. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection. Jahn, Robert G. "Psychic Research: New Dimensions or Old Delusions?" Council for the Advancement of Science Writing, New Horizons in Science briefing, Palo Alto, November 8, 1979, CIA copy CIA-RDP96-00787R000500380001-7. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection. [^3]: Jahn, Robert G. "Psychic Process, Energy Transfer, and Things that Go Bump in the Night." *Princeton Alumni Weekly,* special report, December 4, 1978, CIA copy CIA-RDP96-00787R000500070001-1. Jahn, Robert G. "Psychic Research: New Dimensions or Old Delusions?" Council for the Advancement of Science Writing, New Horizons in Science briefing, Palo Alto, November 8, 1979, CIA copy CIA-RDP96-00787R000500380001-7.
[^4]: Schultz, Steven. "Robert Jahn, pioneer of deep space propulsion and mind-machine interactions, dies at 87." Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science, November 30, 2017. https://engineering.princeton.edu/news/2017/11/30/robert-jahn-pioneer-deep-space-propulsion-and-mind-machine-interactions-dies-87 [^4]: Schultz, Steven. "Robert Jahn, pioneer of deep space propulsion and mind-machine interactions, dies at 87." Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science, November 30, 2017. https://engineering.princeton.edu/news/2017/11/30/robert-jahn-pioneer-deep-space-propulsion-and-mind-machine-interactions-dies-87
[^5]: *Report by the Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee,* December 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5; Stoner, William L., memorandum of conversation, January 17, 1980, on the briefing of January 14, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230017-7; Jachim, Robert J., "Information Briefing for Senator Clairborne Pell," October 6, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320001-5. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection. [^5]: Robert G. Jahn, "The Persistent Paradox of Psychic Phenomena: An Engineering Perspective," *Proceedings of the IEEE* 70, no. 2 (February 1982): 136ff, manuscript received July 15, 1981, acknowledgments and figure 20 (target Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton, August 28, 1980). CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100010004-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001100010004-6
[^6]: National Research Council, *Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques*, ed. Druckman and Swets (National Academy Press, 1988). CIA reading room copy CIA-RDP96-00791R000200320001-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00791r000200320001-1
[^7]: Office of Technology Assessment, Report of a Workshop on Experimental Parapsychology, February 22, 1989, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200450001-8. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r002200450001-8
[^8]: Defense Intelligence Agency, "Psychoenergetics Research (U)," August 7, 1984, CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001800210001-0
[^9]: Memorandum, "Comments made at 13 February 1979 Session of House Standing Intelligence Oversight Committee," Defense Department, February 15, 1979. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100060007-8. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001100060007-8
[^10]: *Report by the Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee,* December 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5; Stoner, William L., memorandum of conversation, January 17, 1980, on the briefing of January 14, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230017-7; Jachim, Robert J., "Information Briefing for Senator Clairborne Pell," October 6, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320001-5.
[^11]: INSCOM memorandum, TAGPA-F-SD, Fort George G. Meade, February 11, 1985, on the February 6, 1985 briefing of the Under Secretary of the Army. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001500020021-2. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001500020021-2
[^12]: SRI International, *Enhanced Human Performance Investigation*, final technical report, SRI Project 1291, December 1987, Objective I Task 4. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00787R000300100001-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000300100001-9

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@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Robert Lashbrook was [[Sidney Gottlieb]]'s deputy in the [[CIA]]'s [[TSS]] Chemi
### The Olson Case ### The Olson Case
After Olson's condition worsened, Lashbrook accompanied him and [[Vincent Ruwet]] to [[New York]] to see [[Harold Abramson]], the CIA-cleared allergist Gottlieb chose to treat Olson rather than following CIA regulations requiring notification of the [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]]. Lashbrook thought a visit to [[John Mulholland]], a magician under TSS contract to develop ways of slipping drugs into drinks, might amuse Olson, but Olson became "highly suspicious." That night, Olson became upset during a performance of *Me and Juliet* and told Ruwet people were waiting outside the theater to arrest him. After Olson wandered the streets tearing up his money, Lashbrook and Ruwet found him in the hotel lobby at 5:30 A.M.[^1] After Olson's condition worsened, Lashbrook accompanied him and [[Vincent Ruwet]] to [[New York City|New York]] to see [[Harold Abramson]], the CIA-cleared allergist Gottlieb chose to treat Olson rather than following CIA regulations requiring notification of the [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]]. Lashbrook thought a visit to [[John Mulholland]], a magician under TSS contract to develop ways of slipping drugs into drinks, might amuse Olson, but Olson became "highly suspicious." That night, Olson became upset during a performance of *Me and Juliet* and told Ruwet people were waiting outside the theater to arrest him. After Olson wandered the streets tearing up his money, Lashbrook and Ruwet found him in the hotel lobby at 5:30 A.M.[^1]
### The Death ### The Death

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@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ FBI agent Smith recalled that Lister was attempting to sell classified electroni
### Seized Documents and National Security Classification ### Seized Documents and National Security Classification
When L.A. detectives tried to obtain FBI files on the Lister investigation in 1996, FBI Special Agent Tim Bezick stated that "the FBI reports and the transcripts of Lister's grand jury testimony were protected by the National Security Act." Joel Levin, chief of the Criminal Division of the San Francisco [[U.S. Attorney's office]], confirmed a court order would be required. The personnel files from Lister's old employers were also inaccessible: Maywood Police Department files were "sealed by the City of Maywood," and Laguna Beach Police Department files had been purged entirely.[^3] When L.A. detectives tried to obtain FBI files on the Lister investigation in 1996, FBI Special Agent Tim Bezick stated that "the FBI reports and the transcripts of Lister's grand jury testimony were protected by the National Security Act." Joel Levin, chief of the Criminal Division of the San Francisco [[United States Attorney|U.S. Attorney's office]], confirmed a court order would be required. The personnel files from Lister's old employers were also inaccessible: Maywood Police Department files were "sealed by the City of Maywood," and Laguna Beach Police Department files had been purged entirely.[^3]
Documents seized during a 1986 narcotics raid on Lister's house included a ten-page handwritten document chronicling weapons and equipment deals, including meetings with a customer named "Ivan" at the Fairmont Hotel in [[San Jose]] and a visit to the Russian embassy in [[Washington, D.C.]] Lister's monthly calendars for 1985 contained "frequent references to the Contras," including notations reading "SF Contras," "LA Contras," "D-Contra" and at least one reference to the DIA. Agents seized weapons code sheets and a handwritten note bearing the names of several CIA operatives working with [[Eden Pastora]]'s [[ARDE]] group.[^3] Documents seized during a 1986 narcotics raid on Lister's house included a ten-page handwritten document chronicling weapons and equipment deals, including meetings with a customer named "Ivan" at the Fairmont Hotel in [[San Jose]] and a visit to the Russian embassy in [[Washington, D.C.]] Lister's monthly calendars for 1985 contained "frequent references to the Contras," including notations reading "SF Contras," "LA Contras," "D-Contra" and at least one reference to the DIA. Agents seized weapons code sheets and a handwritten note bearing the names of several CIA operatives working with [[Eden Pastora]]'s [[ARDE]] group.[^3]

2
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@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ The Kerry-Brown report says that the Abu Dhabi interests took control of BCCI in
Bingham records that Iqbal attended a Luxembourg board meeting on April 20, 1990, for the first time at that level, and that in the days that followed he "appeared to have superseded Naqvi in the day to day management of the group."[^11] Bingham records that Iqbal attended a Luxembourg board meeting on April 20, 1990, for the first time at that level, and that in the days that followed he "appeared to have superseded Naqvi in the day to day management of the group."[^11]
A memorandum by [[Robert Altman]] to the file, dated July 6, 1990, describes a meeting that day in [[London]] between Altman, Naqvi and a BCCI lawyer, [[Kim Gagne]]. It records that Altman had briefly seen Iqbal at the bank earlier that day, and that Iqbal said he did not know much about the First American issue in [[New York]] because his focus was solely on BCCI's operations. Iqbal also mentioned that BCCI had loans to some First American shareholders, and expressed confidence in [[Clark Clifford]] and Altman.[^12] Altman's memorandum describes the firm of [[Clifford & Warnke]] as general counsel to [[First American Bank]].[^12] A memorandum by [[Robert Altman]] to the file, dated July 6, 1990, describes a meeting that day in [[London]] between Altman, Naqvi and a BCCI lawyer, [[Kim Gagne]]. It records that Altman had briefly seen Iqbal at the bank earlier that day, and that Iqbal said he did not know much about the First American issue in [[New York City|New York]] because his focus was solely on BCCI's operations. Iqbal also mentioned that BCCI had loans to some First American shareholders, and expressed confidence in [[Clark Clifford]] and Altman.[^12] Altman's memorandum describes the firm of [[Clifford & Warnke]] as general counsel to [[First American Bank]].[^12]
A memorandum dated July 30, 1990, with the subject "CCAH," is addressed to Naqvi with a copy to Iqbal. It sets out alternative solutions to restrictions on interstate banking, limits on foreign ownership in Virginia and Florida, deposit limits, and the status of the New York operation.[^13] A memorandum dated July 30, 1990, with the subject "CCAH," is addressed to Naqvi with a copy to Iqbal. It sets out alternative solutions to restrictions on interstate banking, limits on foreign ownership in Virginia and Florida, deposit limits, and the status of the New York operation.[^13]

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@ -0,0 +1,285 @@
---
title: Barack Obama
aliases:
- Barack Obama
- Barack Hussein Obama
- Barack H. Obama
- President Obama
- President Barack Obama
category: "Political Figure"
created: 2026-10-15
updated: 2026-10-15
tags:
- KeyFigure
- Person
- Presidency
- JonathanPollard
- JeffreyEpstein
- ChelseaManning
- UAP
- NSASurveillance
- Clemency
summary: "44th U.S. president who commuted Chelsea Manning's sentence, declassified the 28 pages, and said in 2026 that aliens are real but that he had not seen them."
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[United States]]"
role: "44th President of the United States"
start: 2009-01-20
end: 2017-01-20
fn: 1
- type: appointed
with: "[[Paul Engelmayer]]"
reverse: true
role: "U.S. District Judge, Southern District of New York"
start: 2011-07-27
fn: 25
- type: appointed
with: "[[Alison Nathan]]"
reverse: true
role: "U.S. District Judge, Southern District of New York"
start: 2011-10-17
fn: 28
- type: appointed
with: "[[Kathryn Ruemmler]]"
reverse: true
role: "White House Counsel"
start: 2011
end: 2014
fn: 15
- type: appointed
with: "[[Larry Summers]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the National Economic Council"
end: 2010
fn: 18
- type: appointed
with: "[[Leon Panetta]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the Central Intelligence Agency"
start: 2009-02-13
fn: 40
- type: appointed
with: "[[James Clapper]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2010-08-05
fn: 41
- type: appointed
with: "[[John Brennan]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the Central Intelligence Agency"
start: 2013-03-08
fn: 42
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Ann Dunham]]"
role: "son"
fn: 3
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Business International Corporation]]"
role: "researcher and writer"
start: 1983
end: 1984
fn: 10
---
Barack Obama is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from January 2009 to January 2017.[^1] He was awarded the 2009 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] by the [[Norwegian Nobel Committee]].[^2]
### Ann Dunham, Lolo Soetoro and Indonesia
[[Ann Dunham]], Obama's mother, was born in Wichita, Kansas on November 29, 1942 and earned her bachelor's degree in anthropology at the [[University of Hawaii]] in 1967. She held a grant from the Technology and Development Institute of the [[East-West Center]] from 1973 to 1978, received a master's degree in 1975 and a doctorate in 1992, both in anthropology, and died in Honolulu on November 7, 1995.[^3] The chronology in her papers at the [[National Anthropological Archives]] lists a consultancy on international development for the [[U.S. Agency for International Development]] in 1979 and 1980, service from 1981 to 1984 as Program Officer for Women and Employment at the [[Ford Foundation]]'s Regional Office for Southeast Asia in Jakarta, a rural development consultancy to the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan in 1986 and 1987, and work from 1988 to 1992 as research coordinator and consultant to [[Bank Rakyat Indonesia]] under three contracts funded by the [[World Bank]] and USAID in microfinance.[^3] [[Duke University Press]] published her dissertation research on rural metalworkers in Java in December 2009 as Surviving against the Odds: Village Industry in Indonesia, edited by Alice G. Dewey and Nancy I. Cooper.[^4]
Her second husband, [[Lolo Soetoro]], was an Indonesian student; [[Janny Scott]] reported in the New York Times in 2008 that he was summoned home in 1966 after the turmoil surrounding the rise of [[Suharto]], and that Dunham and her son followed him.[^5] [[Foreign Policy]] described Soetoro as a geologist for the Indonesian army who later became a consultant for a Western oil company.[^6] Scott's 2008 article states that Dunham became a consultant for USAID on setting up a village credit program, then a Ford Foundation program officer in Jakarta, and later joined Indonesia's oldest bank to work on a microfinance program.[^5]
The journalist [[Wayne Madsen]], who has said he formerly worked for the [[National Security Agency]], stated in a 2010 interview with [[Press TV]], translated by the Indonesian outlet Rakyat Merdeka Online, that Obama's father, mother and Obama himself had deep connections to the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. In the interview Madsen said that the Ford Foundation program in Indonesia during Dunham's years there was essentially the responsibility of Peter Geithner, father of Treasury Secretary [[Timothy Geithner]], and that in CIA files he had found that the official responsible for microcredit payments to Javanese farmers, at the place where Obama's mother worked, held a cover post as an economic officer at the US Embassy in Jakarta.[^7] The outlet noted errors elsewhere in the interview, among them Madsen's statements about the ethnicity of those killed in Indonesia in 1965 and 1966 and about where Obama's grandmother died.[^7] A critical essay published by Berghahn Books describes Madsen's later book as partly relying on Scott's 2011 biography of Dunham, A Singular Woman.[^8]
### Business International, Occidental and Columbia
Obama attended [[Occidental College]] for his first two years of college and then transferred to [[Columbia University]], where he took his degree in 1983.[^9][^10] In the Columbia magazine Sundial of March 10, 1983 he published an article on the campus groups Arms Race Alternatives and Students Against Militarism, writing that the "military-industrial interests" benefited from the narrow focus of the nuclear freeze movement and kept "adding to their billion dollar erector sets."[^11]
In 1983 he took a job with [[Business International Corporation]] in New York. The New York Times, as quoted by FactCheck.org in 2008, described the company as "a small newsletter-publishing and research firm, with about 250 employees worldwide, that helped companies with foreign operations" and said Obama was a researcher and writer for the firm for about a year before he moved on to the New York Public Interest Research Group.[^10] On December 27, 1977 the New York Times, in an article by [[John M. Crewdson]] based on a three-month inquiry, reported that at least 22 American news organizations had employed American journalists who were also working for the CIA, and listed Business International among the lesser known organizations. The article quoted Elliott Haynes, whose father [[Eldridge Haynes]] had co-founded the company, as saying that his father had provided cover for four CIA employees in various countries between 1955 and 1960.[^12]
Madsen stated in the same 2010 interview that Obama had worked after Columbia for Business International, a company that used journalists as cover, and that CIA documents he had examined showed an active CIA recruitment program at Occidental College while Obama studied there from 1979 to 1981, with a recruiter reporting about 70 students in attendance.[^7]
### The Nobel Committee and the Epstein Calendar
[[Thorbjørn Jagland]] chaired the Norwegian Nobel Committee from 2009 to 2015, the years in which it awarded the peace prize to Obama and, in 2012, to the [[European Union]].[^13][^2] In 2014 [[Jeffrey Epstein]] told [[Bill Gates]] that Jagland "had been reelected as head of the Council of Europe," and Gates answered "That is good" and asked whether "his peace prize committee job is also up in the air?"[^14] In February 2026 lawyers said that Jagland had been charged after a Norwegian probe into alleged Epstein ties.[^14]
### Kathryn Ruemmler and the White House Counsel's Office
[[Kathryn Ruemmler]] served as [[White House Counsel]] to Obama from 2011 to 2014, then joined [[Latham & Watkins]] as a partner and in 2020 became general counsel of [[Goldman Sachs]].[^15] Epstein telephoned her within weeks of her departure from the White House in 2014, and his calendars record more than three dozen appointments with her through 2019.[^15] Epstein's staff asked him twice whether young women should be kept out of the townhouse while she was there.[^15] On January 8, 2015 she wrote to Epstein: "John Brennan gave me the CIA Agency Medal (the CIA's highest award) this morning. How cool is that?"[^16] Telling the Journal, she said: "I regret ever knowing Jeffrey Epstein."[^15] She announced in February 2026 that she would resign from Goldman Sachs effective June 30, 2026, after her name recurred in the [[Department of Justice]]'s Epstein releases.[^17]
### Larry Summers and the Economic Team
[[Larry Summers]] directed the [[National Economic Council]] in Obama's first term. In September 2010 he announced that he would leave at the end of that year and return to his professorship at [[Harvard University]].[^18] Summers resigned from the board of [[OpenAI]] in November 2025 after backlash over Epstein emails, was banned for life by the [[American Economic Association]] in December 2025, and resigned from Harvard on February 25, 2026.[^19] On November 14, 2025, at the request of [[Donald Trump]], Attorney General [[Pam Bondi]] assigned [[Jay Clayton]] to investigate Epstein's dealings with [[Bill Clinton]], Summers, [[Reid Hoffman]] and [[JPMorgan Chase]].[^20]
### William Burns
[[William Burns]] served as deputy secretary of state in the Obama administration. The [[Wall Street Journal]]'s reporting on Epstein's recovered calendar recorded three meetings between Burns and Epstein in 2014, the year Burns was preparing to leave government.[^21] When the reporting appeared in May 2023, Burns was director of the Central Intelligence Agency. The agency's spokeswoman, [[Tammy Kupperman Thorp]], said that Burns remembered "meeting Epstein once briefly in New York." The calendar records three meetings and the agency's statement describes one. The mutual friend who made the introduction was not named.[^22]
### The Epstein Files Transparency Act
The [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]] (H.R. 4405, Public Law 119-38) passed the House 427 to 1 on November 18, 2025 after a discharge petition by [[Thomas Massie]] and [[Ro Khanna]], and Trump signed it on November 19.[^23] The Justice Department missed the act's December 19, 2025 deadline, reported on December 24 that it had found more than a million additional documents, and on January 30, 2026 published the bulk of the material.[^24]
### Judges Appointed Under Obama
Obama appointed [[Paul Engelmayer]] to the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]], and the commission is dated July 27, 2011.[^25] Engelmayer later took over the criminal case of [[Ghislaine Maxwell]], [[United States v. Maxwell]], after [[Alison Nathan]] was elevated to the [[Second Circuit]]. In 2025 he first refused and then granted a request by [[Todd Blanche]], then the Deputy Attorney General, to unseal the case's grand jury record, the latter under the Epstein Files Transparency Act.[^26] In February 2025, sitting in emergency Part I, he barred political appointees and special government employees from Treasury payment systems.[^27]
Obama nominated Nathan on March 31, 2011, the Senate confirmed her on October 13, 2011, and her commission issued on October 17, 2011.[^28] She had been an associate White House counsel to Obama. She presided over the Maxwell prosecution from its unsealing in July 2020 through her sentencing of Maxwell to 20 years in prison on June 28, 2022.[^29]
### The 2016 Intelligence Record
The [[Durham report]] by special counsel [[John Durham]] devotes a section to intelligence received in late July 2016 about the purported "approval by Hillary Clinton on July 26, 2016 of a proposal from one of her foreign policy advisors to vilify Donald Trump by stirring up a scandal claiming interference by the Russian security services." The report calls it the Clinton Plan intelligence and reproduces the text that Director of National Intelligence [[John Ratcliffe]] declassified in September 2020: "The IC does not know the accuracy of this allegation or the extent to which the Russian intelligence analysis may reflect exaggeration or fabrication."[^30]
The report states that John Brennan, then director of the Central Intelligence Agency, met Obama and other White House personnel on July 28, 2016 to discuss the 2016 election and the creation of an interagency Fusion Cell on Russian influence, and that Brennan told the Office that the cell was put in motion after that meeting. Email traffic and witness interviews, the report says, reflect that at least some CIA personnel believed the Clinton Plan intelligence led to the decision to set up the cell.[^31] On August 3, 2016, according to the report, Brennan met the President, the Vice President and other senior officials, including the Attorney General (remotely) and the FBI Director, in the White House Situation Room, and Brennan's declassified handwritten notes reflect that he briefed the "alleged approval by Hillary Clinton on 26 July of a proposal from one of her [campaign] advisors to vilify Donald Trump by stirring up a scandal claiming interference by the Russian security services."[^32] On September 7, 2016, the report states, intelligence officials forwarded an investigative referral to FBI Director [[James Comey]] and Deputy Assistant Director of Counterintelligence [[Peter Strzok]].[^33]
In a closing discussion of compartmentation the report quotes Brennan as telling the Office that "[t]here was no effort at the CIA to restrict information because it was potentially embarrassing for Hillary Clinton .... Obama just wanted the right people involved."[^34] A footnote records notes taken by Deputy FBI Director [[Andrew McCabe]], who was not at the meeting, that "President Obama stated that the FBI should think about doing defensive briefs."[^35]
The Durham report states that the [[Perkins Coie]] lawyer [[Michael Sussmann]] gave the FBI's general counsel, [[James Baker]], data purporting to show a covert communications channel between the [[Trump Organization]] and [[Alfa Bank]], representing that he was not acting for any client; the Office's investigation, the report says, showed those representations were false because Sussmann was representing the Clinton campaign, as evidenced by his law firm's billing records and internal communications.[^36] A jury acquitted Sussmann of the false statement charge after a two-week trial.[^37] The report records that at the trial the campaign manager [[Robby Mook]] and the lawyer [[Marc Elias]] said the campaign did not authorize Sussmann to take the Alfa Bank allegations to the FBI, and that Mook testified that top campaign officials were aware of the allegations and that Clinton approved their dissemination to the media before questions about their accuracy had been resolved.[^38]
### Intelligence Appointees and the 2008 FISA Vote
On July 9, 2008, as a senator from Illinois, Obama voted for H.R. 6304, the bill amending the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, which passed the Senate 69 to 28.[^39] As president he named [[Leon Panetta]] Director of the CIA (sworn in February 13, 2009), [[James Clapper]] [[Director of National Intelligence]] (confirmed August 5, 2010) and Brennan Director of the CIA (sworn in March 8, 2013, the day after the Senate confirmed him following a nearly 13-hour filibuster by [[Rand Paul]]).[^40][^41][^42]
### Surveillance, Section 215 and the Snowden Disclosures
On August 9, 2013 Obama told a press conference that he would "work with Congress to pursue appropriate reforms to Section 215 of the Patriot Act," the program that collected telephone records. He also said the Justice Department would make public its legal rationale for collection under that section.[^1]
The [[Guardian]] reported on June 27, 2013, publishing a top-secret draft report by the National Security Agency's inspector general, that the agency had collected US email records in bulk for more than two years under Obama.[^43] On March 12, 2013 [[Ron Wyden]] asked James Clapper, then Director of National Intelligence, at an open hearing of the Senate Intelligence Committee whether the NSA collected "any type of data at all on millions or hundreds of millions of Americans." Clapper later apologized for testimony that [[NBC News]] and the [[Associated Press]] described as "clearly erroneous."[^44]
On January 17, 2014 Obama issued [[Presidential Policy Directive 28]] on signals intelligence. The directive says that "all persons should be treated with dignity and respect, regardless of their nationality or wherever they might reside." It also says that the collection of signals intelligence in bulk "may consequently result in the collection of information about persons whose activities are not of foreign intelligence or counterintelligence value," and that "The United States will therefore impose new limits on its use of signals intelligence collected in bulk."[^45] The directive followed the disclosures of [[Edward Snowden]], which began in June 2013.
### The bin Laden Raid and the Drone Program
On May 2, 2011 Obama announced the operation against [[Osama bin Laden]]: "Today, at my direction, the United States launched a targeted operation against that compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan." He said that bin Laden had "escaped across the Afghan border into Pakistan" and that "I met repeatedly with my national security team as we developed more information about the possibility that we had located bin Laden hiding within a compound deep inside of Pakistan."[^46]
In a speech at the [[National Defense University]] on May 23, 2013, Obama said that "From our use of drones to the detention of terrorist suspects, the decisions that we are making now will define the type of nation" the country would leave to its children. He described "lethal, targeted action against al Qaeda and its associated forces, including with remotely piloted aircraft commonly referred to as drones," and said that "the use of drones is heavily constrained."[^47]
### Stuxnet and the Olympic Games Program
In June 2012 [[David Sanger]] reported in the [[New York Times]] that Obama had accelerated cyberattacks against the uranium enrichment program at [[Natanz]] in [[Iran]]. The program had begun under the Bush administration and was code-named Olympic Games. A worm had escaped the plant in 2010 and spread across the internet. The last attack in the later series, Sanger reported, "temporarily took out nearly 1,000 of the 5,000 centrifuges Iran had spinning at the time to purify uranium."[^48] The account drew on interviews with current and former American, European and Israeli officials, none of whom would allow their names to be used. Sanger's 2012 book Confront and Conceal covers the same program.[^49] The article states that in a meeting at the White House days before his inauguration, [[George W. Bush]] urged Obama to preserve two classified programs, Olympic Games and the drone program in Pakistan, and that Obama took the advice. It states that Panetta, General James Cartwright, vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and [[Michael Morell]], deputy director of the CIA, told Obama in the summer of 2010 that the worm had escaped, and that the collaboration with [[Unit 8200]] of the Israeli military was driven in part by the American aim of dissuading Israel from a pre-emptive strike.[^48]
Cartwright pleaded guilty in October 2016 to making false statements to federal investigators in the leak inquiry; prosecutors said he had falsely told them he had not provided information that appeared in a news article and a book by Sanger.[^50]
### Executive Order 13581 and Transnational Criminal Organizations
On July 24, 2011 Obama signed [[Executive Order 13581]], "Blocking Property of Transnational Criminal Organizations." The order took effect at 12:01 a.m. eastern daylight time on July 25, 2011, was published in the Federal Register on July 27, 2011 and blocks the property of the organizations listed in its Annex, which names four entities: the Brothers' Circle, the [[Camorra]], the [[Yakuza]] (also called Boryokudan or Gokudo) and [[Los Zetas]].[^51]
### The 28 Pages
The [[Joint Inquiry]] into the September 11 attacks ended with a section that was classified after its 2002 publication. On July 15, 2016 the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]], under Chairman [[Devin Nunes]] and Ranking Member [[Adam Schiff]], approved publication of the section. The committee's release states that after a declassification review "the Obama Administration decided to declassify" the section, which was sent to congressional leadership with redactions to protect sources and methods.[^52] The release also says that the section "does not put forward vetted conclusions, but rather unverified leads that were later fully investigated by the Intelligence Community."[^52]
### Jonathan Pollard
[[Jonathan Pollard]] applied for commutation of his sentence on October 15, 2010. A letter from the [[Office of the Pardon Attorney]] dated March 14, 2011 stated that the application remained pending.[^53] On December 21, 2010 former Attorney General [[Michael Mukasey]] wrote to Obama asking that he commute the sentence. Mukasey wrote that former CIA director [[James Woolsey]] and former Senate Intelligence Committee chairman [[Dennis DeConcini]] had expressed "firmly their belief that his sentence should be commuted." He called the submission to the sentencing court of affidavits from [[Caspar Weinberger]], seeking a heavier sentence than the prosecutors requested, "deeply disturbing," and wrote that "a life sentence can only be considered utterly disproportionate to the crime."[^54] Mukasey also cited a submission by former Assistant Secretary of Defense [[Lawrence Korb]] on the affidavits.[^54] Pollard was released from prison on November 20, 2015 and placed on parole. The conditions included a curfew, an electronic monitor, limits on the jobs he could take, and a prohibition on leaving the United States.[^55] Israel had granted him citizenship in 1995.[^55]
### Chelsea Manning
On January 17, 2017 Obama commuted the sentence of [[Chelsea Manning]], who had been serving a 35-year term for the [[WikiLeaks]] disclosures. Release was set for May 17, 2017.[^56] The commutation was part of a clemency action that the White House counted as 209 commutations and 64 pardons.[^57] Among those pardoned that day was the retired Marine general [[James Cartwright]], who had pleaded guilty in October 2016 to making false statements in the investigation of a leak about the cyberattack on Iran's nuclear facilities.[^50]
### Unidentified Aerial Phenomena
On May 17, 2021 Obama appeared on [[The Late Late Show with James Corden]]. When [[James Corden]] handed the interview to the bandleader [[Reggie Watts]], the conversation turned to extraterrestrial life. Obama asked, "Is there a lab somewhere where we're keeping the alien specimens and spaceships?" and said the answer was no. He then said: "But what is true is that there is footage and records of objects in the sky that we don't know exactly what they are."[^58]
In an interview with the podcast host [[Brian Tyler Cohen]] published on February 14, 2026, Obama said of aliens, "They're real but I haven't seen them," and that they are not "being kept in... what is it? Area 51." On February 15 he posted a statement on Instagram: "I saw no evidence during my presidency that extraterrestrials have made contact with us. Really!"[^59] On February 19, 2026 Trump posted on Truth Social that he would direct the [[Pentagon]] to begin releasing government files on UAP, and told a reporter that Obama had given classified information when he said aliens were "real."[^60] On May 8, 2026 the Department of Defense began posting files at war.gov/UFO, with more than 160 files covering more than 400 incidents.[^61]
[[Leslie Kean]] wrote that in August 2014 she met [[John Podesta]], then an adviser to Obama, in the West Wing and proposed that one person in the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]] be assigned to the subject of UFOs. In her account the proposal went nowhere.[^62] Podesta had written the foreword to her 2010 book, and in June 2011 he invited her to make a confidential presentation at the [[Center for American Progress]], which he had founded. Kean's public records effort began in 2002, when [[Larry Landsman]] of the [[Syfy]] channel invited her to lead it on the [[Kecksburg incident]] of December 9, 1965, and the drive was "bankrolled by" the Sci Fi Channel.[^63]
[[Daniel Correa]], chief executive of the [[Federation of American Scientists]], was the Office of Science and Technology Policy's assistant director for innovation policy for four years under Obama.[^64]
### Campaign Money and Donors
Employees listing Goldman Sachs as their employer gave 553,638.39 dollars in 764 itemized contributions to [[Obama for America]] in the 2008 cycle. Employees listing [[Credit Suisse]] gave 256,403.03 dollars in 485 contributions, and employees listing [[UBS]] gave 267,344.97 dollars in 518.[^65]
On October 2, 2008 the Judicial Confirmation Network, later known as the [[Judicial Crisis Network]], filed a 24-hour notice of electioneering communications with the [[Federal Election Commission]]. The disbursements, dated September 29, 2008, included a placement with the [[Pittsburgh]] firm [[BrabenderCox]] for an advertisement titled "Chose" that named Obama. The notice reported 548,063 dollars in total. The persons listed as sharing or exercising control of the filing were [[Neil Corkery]], [[Gary Marx]], whose employer was [[Century Strategies]], and [[Dan Casey]], whose employer was [[DC Strategies]]. Marx signed the form.[^66]
The [[Horowitz Family Foundation]] gave 250,000 dollars to the [[Barack Obama Foundation]] in the year ended June 2019, according to its Form 990-PF filings.[^67] In April 2026 [[Kalshi]] announced [[Stephanie Cutter]], a former deputy campaign manager for Obama's 2012 campaign, as a policy adviser.[^68]
### Advisers, Appointees and Nominees
The 2014 board of the [[Counter Extremism Project]] included [[Dennis Ross]], whom the [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] described as an adviser on Middle East affairs to Presidents Clinton and Obama.[^69] The report states that the project declined to identify its sources of funding except for [[Thomas Kaplan]], a billionaire commodities investor, and that the project was "backed by a host of pro-Israel stalwarts."[^69] [[Brian Quintenz]] was nominated to the [[Commodity Futures Trading Commission]] by both Obama and Trump and served as a commissioner from August 15, 2017 to August 31, 2021.[^70] [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]] led the [[Domestic Policy Council]]'s teams on civil and criminal justice, public health, immigration and regulatory reform in Obama's first term, and had co-chaired the Obama-Biden transition's immigration working group. He later served on the [[President's Intelligence Advisory Board]].[^71] Ro Khanna served as a deputy assistant secretary of commerce in the Obama administration.[^72]
The papers of [[C.B. Scott Jones]] at the University of Colorado include drafts of letters to Presidents George W. Bush, Clinton and Obama.[^73] On May 25, 2016 in [[Ho Chi Minh City]], Obama thanked [[Bob Kerrey]], a former senator, for being "one of the key people to help lead this effort" on [[Fulbright University Vietnam]].[^74] Kerrey had been named chairman of the board of trustees of the university in May 2016. The [[Trust for University Innovation in Vietnam]], whose chairman [[Thomas J. Vallely]] called him "the ideal candidate for the job," promoted the project, and [[Asia Times]] reported that the appointment angered some people in Vietnam after the online outlet [[Zing]] published a story on Kerrey's role at Thanh Phong.[^75]
[[Charles C. Johnson]] promoted the claim that [[Susan Rice]], then Obama's national security adviser, had directed surveillance of the Trump campaign.[^76] Rice denied using intelligence to spy on Trump advisers.[^77] The New York Times described Johnson as a "notorious conservative provocateur" who played a pivotal early role alongside [[Peter Thiel]] in the formation of [[Clearview AI]].[^78] A business partner later sued Johnson, as reported by [[Semafor]], for falsely presenting himself as an intelligence agent.[^79]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Barack Obama, "Remarks by the President in a Press Conference," The White House, August 9, 2013. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/08/09/remarks-president-press-conference
[^2]: "The Nobel Peace Prize 2009," NobelPrize.org, announcement of the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize to Barack H. Obama. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2009/summary/
[^3]: S. Ann Dunham papers, NAA.2011-04, National Anthropological Archives, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, biographical note and chronology. https://sova.si.edu/record/naa.2011-04
[^4]: S. Ann Dunham, *Surviving against the Odds: Village Industry in Indonesia,* edited by Alice G. Dewey and Nancy I. Cooper (Durham: Duke University Press, December 2009). https://www.dukeupress.edu/surviving-against-the-odds
[^5]: Janny Scott, "A Free-Spirited Wanderer Who Set Obama's Path," *The New York Times,* March 14, 2008. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/14/us/politics/14obama.html
[^6]: Blake Hounshell, "Dreams From His Stepfather," *Foreign Policy,* June 4, 2010. https://foreignpolicy.com/2010/06/04/dreams-from-his-stepfather/
[^7]: Teguh Santosa, "Wayne Madens: Obama dan Keluarganya Dibesarkan CIA," *Rakyat Merdeka Online,* August 27, 2010, translating the Press TV interview with Wayne Madsen titled "White House happy with CIA-trained Obama." https://rmol.id/read/2010/08/27/2317/wayne-madens-obama-dan-keluarganya-dibesarkan-cia
[^8]: "Anthropological Issues and US President Obama," Berghahn Books blog. https://berghahnbooks.com/blog/the-presidents-mother-the-anthropologist-and-the-anthropologists-son
[^9]: "Obama earned his stripes during time as Tiger," *The Occidental,* January 1, 2016, quoting the Columbia alumni newsletter. https://theoccidentalnews.com/opinions/2016/01/01/obama-earned-his-stripes-during-time-as-tiger/2883082
[^10]: FactCheck.org, "Obama Polishes His Resume," June 2008, quoting *The New York Times* and *The Washington Post.* https://www.factcheck.org/2008/06/obama-polishes-his-resume-2/
[^11]: Barack Obama, "Breaking the War Mentality," *Sundial* (Columbia University), March 10, 1983, as reprinted by *Origins of Our Time,* May 1, 2024. https://ourtime.substack.com/p/breaking-the-war-mentality-guest
[^12]: John M. Crewdson, "C.I.A. Established Many Links to Journalists in U.S. and Abroad," *The New York Times,* December 27, 1977 (with reporting by Joseph B. Treaster). https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/27/archives/cia-established-many-links-to-journalists-in-us-and-abroad.html
[^13]: Lewis, Mark. "How Epstein leveraged the Nobel Peace Prize to connect with the world's most powerful," *Yahoo News,* February 14, 2026. https://www.yahoo.com/news/articles/epstein-levaraged-nobel-peace-prize-230549753.html
[^14]: "Thorbjørn Jagland: Norwegian ex-prime minister charged after probe into alleged Epstein ties, lawyers say," *CNN,* February 13, 2026. http://web.archive.org/web/20260420203121/https://www.cnn.com/2026/02/13/europe/norway-pm-jagland-charged-epstein-ties-intl-hnk
[^15]: "The Former Biglaw Partner In Jeffrey Epstein's Private Calendar," *Above the Law,* May 2023, summarizing the *Wall Street Journal*'s "Jeffrey Epstein's Private Calendar" series. https://abovethelaw.com/2023/05/the-former-biglaw-partner-in-jeffrey-epsteins-private-calendar/
[^16]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library: Kathy Ruemmler to Jeffrey Epstein, January 8, 2015, EFTA02386175 (DataSet 11). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02386175.pdf
[^17]: CBS News, February 2026, on Ruemmler's resignation as Goldman Sachs general counsel. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/kathryn-ruemmler-resigning-from-goldman-sachs-epstein-files/
[^18]: PBS NewsHour, "Obama economic team turning over as Larry Summers departs," September 21, 2010. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/obama-economic-team-turning-over-as-larry-summers-departs
[^19]: "Summers Resigns From OpenAI Board Amid Backlash Over Epstein Emails." *The Harvard Crimson,* November 19, 2025. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2025/11/19/summers-resigns-open-ai/ ; "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association." Associated Press via *Fortune,* December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
[^20]: "Bondi taps acting U.S. Attorney Jay Clayton to probe Democrats' ties to Epstein," *The Washington Times,* November 14, 2025. https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2025/nov/14/bondi-taps-acting-us-attorney-jay-clayton-probe-democrats-ties/
[^21]: Ponieman, Natan. *Benzinga,* May 2023, on Epstein's private calendar, summarizing the *Wall Street Journal.* https://www.benzinga.com/news/23/05/32134015/private-calendar-reveals-jeffrey-epsteins-meetings-with-cia-director-noamchomsky-and-goldman-sachs
[^22]: *The Daily Beast,* May 2023, on Epstein's calendar meetings with Noam Chomsky and William Burns. https://www.thedailybeast.com/epstein-calendar-reveals-meetings-with-noam-chomsky-and-former-cia-chief-william-burns/
[^23]: Epstein Files Transparency Act, Pub. L. No. 119-38, § 2(c)(1)(C), 139 Stat. 656. https://www.congress.gov/119/plaws/publ38/PLAW-119publ38.pdf ; Office of the Clerk, Roll Call 289, November 18, 2025. https://clerk.house.gov/Votes/2025289
[^24]: U.S. Department of Justice, Press Release No. 26-84, January 30, 2026. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/department-justice-publishes-35-million-responsive-pages-compliance-epstein-files
[^25]: Federal Judicial Center, "Engelmayer, Paul Adam," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/engelmayer-paul-adam
[^26]: United States v. Maxwell, No. 1:20-cr-00330 (S.D.N.Y.), ECF Nos. 784, 785 (July 18, 2025); Opinion and Order, ECF No. 809 (Aug. 11, 2025), reported at 794 F. Supp. 3d 215, 225-29; Opinion and Order, ECF No. 820 (Dec. 9, 2025). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/17318376/united-states-v-maxwell/
[^27]: Order, State of New York et al. v. Trump et al., No. 25 Civ. 1144 (JAV) (S.D.N.Y. Feb. 8, 2025), ECF No. 6 (Engelmayer, J., sitting in Part I). https://nysd.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/2025-02/25cv1144%20Order%20on%20TRO%202%208%2025_0.pdf
[^28]: Federal Judicial Center, "Nathan, Alison Julie," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/nathan-alison-julie
[^29]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02842688, Court Records (United States v. Maxwell, No. 1:20-cr-00330 (S.D.N.Y. 2020)), opinion, United States v. Maxwell, No. 22-1426-cr (2d Cir. Sept. 17, 2024). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/Court%20Records/United%20States%20v.%20Maxwell%2C%20No.%20120-cr-00330%20(S.D.N.Y.%202020)/EFTA02842688.pdf
[^30]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 81 (Clinton Plan intelligence; Ratcliffe letter of September 29, 2020 and Brennan Notes declassified October 6, 2020). https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^31]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 84. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^32]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 85 (Brennan White House briefing). https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^33]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 82. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^34]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 297. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^35]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 298, n. 1721. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^36]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 16. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^37]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 287. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^38]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, pp. 265-266. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^39]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 168, 110th Congress, 2nd Session, H.R. 6304, July 9, 2008. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1102/vote_110_2_00168.xml
[^40]: "CIA Director Sworn In, Emphasizes Importance of 'Honesty'," *ABC News,* February 13, 2009. https://abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/LawPolitics/story?id=6874727
[^41]: "Senate confirms Clapper as intell chief," *Defense Systems,* August 6, 2010. https://www.defenseone.com/defense-systems/2010/08/senate-confirms-clapper-as-intell-chief/189665
[^42]: Eyder Peralta, "John Brennan Is Sworn In As CIA Director," *NPR,* March 8, 2013. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/03/08/173826021/john-brennan-is-sworn-in-as-cia-director
[^43]: Glenn Greenwald and Spencer Ackerman, "NSA collected US email records in bulk for more than two years under Obama," *The Guardian,* June 27, 2013, publishing a top-secret draft report by the NSA inspector general. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/27/nsa-data-mining-authorised-obama
[^44]: NBC News / Associated Press, "Director of National Intelligence apologizes for his 'clearly erroneous' NSA testimony," July 2, 2013. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/amp/wbna52381116
[^45]: Presidential Policy Directive 28, "Signals Intelligence Activities," January 17, 2014, The White House. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/01/17/presidential-policy-directive-signals-intelligence-activities
[^46]: Barack Obama, "Remarks by the President on Osama Bin Laden," The White House, May 2, 2011. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/05/02/remarks-president-osama-bin-laden
[^47]: Barack Obama, "Remarks by the President at the National Defense University," The White House, May 23, 2013. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/05/23/remarks-president-national-defense-university
[^48]: David E. Sanger, "Obama Ordered Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran," *The New York Times,* June 1, 2012. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html
[^49]: David E. Sanger, *Confront and Conceal: Obama's Secret Wars and Surprising Use of American Power* (2012), excerpt as reported by *The Register,* June 1, 2012. https://www.theregister.com/2012/06/01/stuxnet_joint_us_israeli_op/
[^50]: "Obama pardons retired Gen. James Cartwright for lying during leak probe," *CBS News* (AP), January 17, 2017. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/james-cartwright-president-obama-pardons-lying-leak-probe
[^51]: Executive Order 13581 of July 24, 2011, "Blocking Property of Transnational Criminal Organizations," 76 Fed. Reg. 44757 (July 27, 2011). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2011-07-27/pdf/2011-19156.pdf
[^52]: House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, "Intel Committee publishes declassified '28 pages,'" press release, July 15, 2016. https://intelligence.house.gov/2016/07/15/intel-committee-publishes-declassified-28-pages/
[^53]: Office of the Pardon Attorney, U.S. Department of Justice, letter to Grant F. Smith, FOIA Request No. 2011-036, March 14, 2011. https://www.israellobby.org/pollard/03142011Pollard_release.pdf
[^54]: Michael B. Mukasey to President Barack Obama, letter of December 21, 2010. https://www.israellobby.org/pollard/12212010Mukasey.pdf
[^55]: Matthew S. Schwartz, "Jonathan Pollard, Who Sold Cold War Secrets To Israel, Completes Parole," NPR, carried by *Georgia Public Broadcasting,* November 21, 2020. https://www.gpb.org/news/2020/11/21/jonathan-pollard-who-sold-cold-war-secrets-israel-completes-parole
[^56]: "Obama Commutes Chelsea Manning's Prison Sentence for Leak," *Bloomberg,* January 17, 2017. https://www.bloomberg.com/politics/articles/2017-01-17/obama-commutes-sentences-of-chelsea-manning-and-former-general
[^57]: "President Barack Obama commutes sentence of Chelsea Manning," ABC30, January 17, 2017. https://abc30.com/post/president-barack-obama-commutes-sentence-of-chelsea-manning/1706866/
[^58]: "Obama says government doesn't have alien specimens but UFOs are real," *Vice,* May 18, 2021, on Obama's appearance on *The Late Late Show with James Corden,* May 17, 2021. https://vice.com/en/article/obama-says-government-doesnt-have-alien-specimens-but-ufos-are-real
[^59]: "Obama clarifies alien comments after telling podcast they're real," *KRDO,* February 16, 2026, on Obama's interview with Brian Tyler Cohen and his Instagram statement of February 15, 2026. https://krdo.com/news/2026/02/16/obama-clarifies-alien-comments-after-telling-podcast-theyre-real/
[^60]: "Trump says he's directing the Pentagon to release files related to UFOs and aliens." *NBC News,* February 19, 2026 (quoting Trump's Truth Social post). https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/trump-administration/trump-says-directing-pentagon-release-files-related-ufos-aliens-rcna259833
[^61]: "Pentagon releases declassified UFO files including videos and photos held by the government for decades." *NBC News,* May 8, 2026. https://www.nbcnews.com/science/ufos-and-anomalous-phenomena/ufo-uap-files-pentagon-release-trump-rcna344204
[^62]: Lewis-Kraus, Gideon. "How the Pentagon Started Taking U.F.O.s Seriously." *The New Yorker,* May 10, 2021. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/05/10/how-the-pentagon-started-taking-ufos-seriously
[^63]: Gibb, Tom. "Reality 'X-file': People in Kecksburg want to resolve what fell from the sky in 1965." *Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,* March 9, 2003, p. 21.
[^64]: Federation of American Scientists, "Daniel Correa," biography. https://fas.org/expert/daniel-correa/
[^65]: Federal Election Commission, OpenFEC API, schedule A contributions by employer, committee C00431445 (Obama for America), 2008 cycle, retrieved October 15, 2026. https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/by_employer/?committee_id=C00431445&cycle=2008
[^66]: Federal Election Commission, FEC Form 9, 24 Hour Notice of Disbursements/Obligations for Electioneering Communications, Judicial Confirmation Network, received October 2, 2008 (committee C30001242), Schedule 9-B, pages 2 to 4. https://docquery.fec.gov/pdf/424/28039843424/28039843424.pdf
[^67]: Horowitz Family Foundation (EIN 35-7050910), Form 990-PF for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2019 (IRS object 201903169349101270).
[^68]: PR News, "Kalshi Taps Precision's Cutter," *O'Dwyer's,* April 3, 2026. https://www.odwyerpr.com/story/public/24567/2026-04-03/kalshi-taps-precisions-cutter.html
[^69]: Uriel Heilman, "Backers of anti-Iran group create mirror group against violent Islamists," *Jewish Telegraphic Agency,* September 22, 2014, as published by the *AZ Jewish Post.* https://azjewishpost.com/2014/backers-of-anti-iran-group-create-mirror-group-against-violent-islamists/
[^70]: Commodity Futures Trading Commission, "Former Commissioners." https://www.cftc.gov/About/Commissioners/FormerCommissioners/index.htm
[^71]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuéllar," former president (2021 to 2026), biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
[^72]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
[^73]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, Rare and Distinctive Collections, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, biographical note and scope note. https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346
[^74]: Barack Obama, "Remarks by the President at YSEALI Town Hall," Ho Chi Minh City, May 25, 2016, The White House. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/05/25/remarks-president-obama-yseali-town-hall
[^75]: "Vietnam’s Kerrey dilemma: Fulbright U appointment is lightning rod for US ties," *Asia Times,* June 2016. https://asiatimes.com/2016/06/vietnams-kerrey-dilemma-fulbright-u-appointment-is-lightning-rod-for-us-ties/
[^76]: ABC30, "Susan Rice denies using intel to spy on Trump advisers," April 2017. https://abc30.com/post/susan-rice-denies-using-intel-to-spy-on-trump-advisers/1839001/
[^77]: MPR News, "Rice denies unmasking for political purposes," April 4, 2017. https://www.mprnews.org/story/2017/04/04/rice-denies-unmasking-for-political-purposes
[^78]: "What We Learned About Clearview AI's Hidden 'Co-Founder.'" *The New York Times,* March 18, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/18/technology/clearview-facial-recognition-ai.html
[^79]: "Business Partner Sues Chuck Johnson for Falsely Presenting as Intelligence Agent." *Semafor,* October 16, 2024. https://www.semafor.com/article/10/16/2024/business-partner-sues-chuck-johnson-for-falsely-presenting-as-intelligence-agent

55
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Claiborne Pell.md
View file

@ -16,16 +16,16 @@ relations:
- type: director_of - type: director_of
with: "[[Institute of Noetic Sciences]]" with: "[[Institute of Noetic Sciences]]"
role: "board member as of August 1994, per Jones" role: "board member as of August 1994, per Jones"
fn: 13 fn: 14
- type: director_of - type: director_of
with: "[[International Association for Near-Death Studies]]" with: "[[International Association for Near-Death Studies]]"
role: "advisory board, 1988" role: "advisory board, 1988"
fn: 7 fn: 8
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]" with: "[[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]"
role: "chairman as of July 1988 per UPI; term dates not verified" role: "chairman as of July 1988 per UPI; term dates not verified"
fn: 7 fn: 8
updated: 2026-10-03 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Claiborne Pell (1918-2009) was a powerful [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Senator from [[Rhode Island]] and a ranking member of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]. A former [[Foreign Service]] officer who had worked behind enemy lines in Nazi-occupied [[Hungary]], Pell was a firm supporter and proponent of [[Extrasensory Perception|extrasensory perception]] and the [[Remote Viewing]] program[^1]. Claiborne Pell (1918-2009) was a powerful [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Senator from [[Rhode Island]] and a ranking member of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]. A former [[Foreign Service]] officer who had worked behind enemy lines in Nazi-occupied [[Hungary]], Pell was a firm supporter and proponent of [[Extrasensory Perception|extrasensory perception]] and the [[Remote Viewing]] program[^1].
@ -38,45 +38,46 @@ Pell also played a role in the 1987 [[Geneva]] disarmament talks. He was present
### Education and Public Service ### Education and Public Service
Pell was born in [[New York City]] on November 22, 1918, graduated from [[Princeton University]] in 1940 and took a master's degree at [[Columbia University]] in 1946. He served in the [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] from 1941, spent seven years as a Foreign Service officer, was elected to the Senate from Rhode Island in 1960, served from 1961 to 1996, and died on January 1, 2009.[^2] Pell was born in [[New York City]] on November 22, 1918, graduated from [[Princeton University]] in 1940 and took a master's degree at [[Columbia University]] in 1946. He served in the [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] from 1941, spent seven years as a Foreign Service officer, was elected to the Senate from Rhode Island in 1960, served from January 3, 1961, to January 3, 1997,[^2] and died on January 1, 2009.[^3]
### The Briefing of September 29, 1982 ### The Briefing of September 29, 1982
From five to six that afternoon, in his office at the Capitol, Pell received "a GRILL FLAME information briefing" arranged by [[Jack Vorona]] of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] and given with Major [[Gerald Fox]] of the Army staff and representatives of [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command|INSCOM]], whose project manager, Lieutenant Colonel [[Robert Jachim]], wrote the record, with two of his aides present; "although Senator Pell had invited 8 members of the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] to attend the briefing none were present." The Army's part covered the history of its involvement, "how remote viewing is used for intelligence collection," and four projects whose names are redacted. "The briefing was well received. Senator Pell had had previous briefings concerning parapsychology from Dr. Vorona. He was also acquainted with the work of Dr. [[Robert Jahn]], Dean, College of Engineering, Princeton University. Senator Pell stated that while he could not assist in FY83, he offered to try to help in the future." Two days later the Army's operations lost their funding in the [[National Foreign Intelligence Program]]. In November 1983 INSCOM's chief of staff "asked for a status report on the Senator Pell project," and the [[Center Lane]] manager answered "that we were developing an operational plan to support the project, but as yet we had not collected any information."[^3] From five to six that afternoon, in his office at the Capitol, Pell received "a GRILL FLAME information briefing" arranged by [[Jack Vorona]] of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] and given with Major [[Gerald Fox]] of the Army staff and representatives of [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command|INSCOM]], whose project manager, Lieutenant Colonel [[Robert Jachim]], wrote the record, with two of his aides present; "although Senator Pell had invited 8 members of the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] to attend the briefing none were present." The Army's part covered the history of its involvement, "how remote viewing is used for intelligence collection," and four projects whose names are redacted. "The briefing was well received. Senator Pell had had previous briefings concerning parapsychology from Dr. Vorona. He was also acquainted with the work of Dr. [[Robert Jahn]], Dean, College of Engineering, Princeton University. Senator Pell stated that while he could not assist in FY83, he offered to try to help in the future." Two days later the Army's operations lost their funding in the [[National Foreign Intelligence Program]]. In November 1983 INSCOM's chief of staff "asked for a status report on the Senator Pell project," and the [[Center Lane]] manager answered "that we were developing an operational plan to support the project, but as yet we had not collected any information."[^4]
The chief of staff who asked Buzby for the status report on November 30, 1983, was Colonel Partridge; no later record in Buzby's memoranda names the project again. An undated DIA letter to Pell, S-22,600/DTI-S, refers to "your recent visit to DIA," at which "you raised the issue of the accuracy and reliability of certain journalistic claims regarding the possible existence of Russian psychoenergetic devices," and encloses "Psychoenergetics Devices: A Review and Assessment," with "a list of possible options and recommendations for your consideration" should "the journalist decide to go public with his allegations."[^4] The chief of staff who asked Buzby for the status report on November 30, 1983, was Colonel Partridge; no later record in Buzby's memoranda names the project again. An undated DIA letter to Pell, S-22,600/DTI-S, refers to "your recent visit to DIA," at which "you raised the issue of the accuracy and reliability of certain journalistic claims regarding the possible existence of Russian psychoenergetic devices," and encloses "Psychoenergetics Devices: A Review and Assessment," with "a list of possible options and recommendations for your consideration" should "the journalist decide to go public with his allegations."[^5]
### Scott Jones and the Human Potential Foundation ### Scott Jones and the Human Potential Foundation
From January 1985 to March 1991 Pell employed [[C. B. Scott Jones]], a retired [[United States Navy|Navy]] intelligence officer, as special assistant, "with the purpose of investigating consciousness research being conducted in other countries, primarily the USSR," according to the finding aid to Jones's papers.[^5] The [[Washington Times]] reported in 1989 that Pell, "perhaps Capitol Hill's most unabashed believer, has urged the [[National Science Foundation]], the [[Department of Defense|Defense Department]] and other government agencies to increase psychic research funding" and had a full-time staff member whose exclusive job was monitoring reports of psychic activities.[^6] [[United Press International]], summarizing the [[Providence Journal|Providence Sunday Journal]] of July 17, 1988, reported that Pell attended a national symposium on abduction in 1987, that Jones kept a top secret clearance and earned nearly 50,000 dollars a year, that Pell sat on the advisory board of the [[International Association for Near-Death Studies]] and had helped organize a Washington symposium on near-death experiences two years earlier, and that the psychologist [[Ray Hyman]] of the [[University of Oregon]], who had evaluated military applications of psychic research for the Army, said Pell had "been arguing very forcefully" for a "Manhattan Project-style effort" to catch up with the Russians, which Pell called "vastly exaggerated," saying he favored "a modest increase in financial support" for "intelligent, skeptical" research; the report adds that in 1987 Pell invited Geller to Washington for a demonstration before about 30 congressional and [[Pentagon]] aides.[^7] The version of Emery's Providence Journal story printed in *The [[San Francisco Examiner]]* of August 13, 1988 called Pell "Capitol Hill's best-known student of psychic phenomena, near-death experiences and other areas on the fringes of science," stated that he had had a full-time assistant for three years who promotes "developing human potential," and gave Jones's pay as $48,853 a year with a top-secret clearance (the UPI summary above says "nearly 50,000 dollars" and "top secret"). In that article Pell is reported to have invited Geller in April 1987 with at least one other member of Congress in the audience, and Pell described Hyman's account as "correct but vastly exaggerated."[^8] The *[[Winston-Salem Journal]]* of July 18, 1988, summarizing the same story, reported that Pell, then 69, told the Providence Journal he would "probably spend more time with this" if he were not in the Senate.[^9] The Pell papers at the [[University of Rhode Island]] list three files, "Human Potential Foundation: [[C.B. Scott Jones|Scott Jones]] File" (1987; 1987 to 1994; 1988 to 1991), in the subject file series, box 42, folders 464 to 466.[^10] From January 1985 to March 1991 Pell employed [[C. B. Scott Jones]], a retired [[United States Navy|Navy]] intelligence officer, as special assistant, "with the purpose of investigating consciousness research being conducted in other countries, primarily the USSR," according to the finding aid to Jones's papers.[^6] The [[Washington Times]] reported in 1989 that Pell, "perhaps Capitol Hill's most unabashed believer, has urged the [[National Science Foundation]], the [[Department of Defense|Defense Department]] and other government agencies to increase psychic research funding" and had a full-time staff member whose exclusive job was monitoring reports of psychic activities.[^7] [[United Press International]], summarizing the [[Providence Journal|Providence Sunday Journal]] of July 17, 1988, reported that Pell attended a national symposium on abduction in 1987, that Jones kept a top secret clearance and earned nearly 50,000 dollars a year, that Pell sat on the advisory board of the [[International Association for Near-Death Studies]] and had helped organize a Washington symposium on near-death experiences two years earlier, and that the psychologist [[Ray Hyman]] of the [[University of Oregon]], who had evaluated military applications of psychic research for the Army, said Pell had "been arguing very forcefully" for a "Manhattan Project-style effort" to catch up with the Russians, which Pell called "vastly exaggerated," saying he favored "a modest increase in financial support" for "intelligent, skeptical" research; the report adds that in 1987 Pell invited Geller to Washington for a demonstration before about 30 congressional and [[Pentagon]] aides.[^8] The version of Emery's Providence Journal story printed in *The [[San Francisco Examiner]]* of August 13, 1988 called Pell "Capitol Hill's best-known student of psychic phenomena, near-death experiences and other areas on the fringes of science," stated that he had had a full-time assistant for three years who promotes "developing human potential," and gave Jones's pay as $48,853 a year with a top-secret clearance (the UPI summary above says "nearly 50,000 dollars" and "top secret"). In that article Pell is reported to have invited Geller in April 1987 with at least one other member of Congress in the audience, and Pell described Hyman's account as "correct but vastly exaggerated."[^9] The *[[Winston-Salem Journal]]* of July 18, 1988, summarizing the same story, reported that Pell, then 69, told the Providence Journal he would "probably spend more time with this" if he were not in the Senate.[^10] The Pell papers at the [[University of Rhode Island]] list three files, "Human Potential Foundation: [[C.B. Scott Jones|Scott Jones]] File" (1987; 1987 to 1994; 1988 to 1991), in the subject file series, box 42, folders 464 to 466.[^11]
Pell created the [[Human Potential Foundation]] in 1989, according to the Jones papers finding aid, and a white paper of February 20, 1992 by [[Robert J. Durant]] states that Pell and the lawyer [[Mark Sandground]] sat on its board and that it was "reportedly funded by [[Laurance Rockefeller]]."[^5][^11] The same paper states that Pell's office was visited by Major General [[Michael Kerby]] of the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] legislative liaison office, who told Jones of a 1987 visit to [[Lee Graham]]; Jones is quoted as saying "Kerby knew of my interest in these matters."[^11] (The paper is hostile to Jones.) Pell created the [[Human Potential Foundation]] in 1989, according to the Jones papers finding aid, and a white paper of February 20, 1992 by [[Robert J. Durant]] states that Pell and the lawyer [[Mark Sandground]] sat on its board and that it was "reportedly funded by [[Laurance Rockefeller]]."[^6][^12] The same paper states that Pell's office was visited by Major General [[Michael Kerby]] of the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] legislative liaison office, who told Jones of a 1987 visit to [[Lee Graham]]; Jones is quoted as saying "Kerby knew of my interest in these matters."[^12] (The paper is hostile to Jones.)
### Rockefeller, Gibbons and the Clinton White House ### Rockefeller, Gibbons and the Clinton White House
Rockefeller's letter of May 7, 1993 to [[Billy Graham]] listed [[Maurice Strong]], possibly [[Javier Perez de Cuellar]], former President [[Jimmy Carter]] and several senators, among them Pell and [[Ted Stevens]], as possible co-signers of a letter to President [[Bill Clinton]] on UFO information; Graham declined on May 20, 1993.[^12] Jones's letter to [[John Gibbons|John H. Gibbons]] of August 11, 1994 notes that Pell sat on the board of the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]], whose founder [[Edgar Mitchell]] would meet Gibbons.[^13] Gibbons wrote in a handwritten note to Rockefeller in August 1994, "Incidentally, I told C. Pell about this situation yesterday," referring to the Air Force Roswell report; a second note, to "Clay," indexed September 19, 1994 and dated 8/19/94, thanks him for lunch and encloses the report's summary text and Gibbons's Zuckerman lecture.[^14] In the memorandum for the President of August 4, 1995 Gibbons wrote that Rockefeller's interests "are related to those of Senator Pell" and that "Senator Pell and others have supported the funding of research in social science to focus more on these phenomena."[^15] Rockefeller's letter of May 7, 1993 to [[Billy Graham]] listed [[Maurice Strong]], possibly [[Javier Perez de Cuellar]], former President [[Jimmy Carter]] and several senators, among them Pell and [[Ted Stevens]], as possible co-signers of a letter to President [[Bill Clinton]] on UFO information; Graham declined on May 20, 1993.[^13] Jones's letter to [[John Gibbons|John H. Gibbons]] of August 11, 1994 notes that Pell sat on the board of the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]], whose founder [[Edgar Mitchell]] would meet Gibbons.[^14] Gibbons wrote in a handwritten note to Rockefeller in August 1994, "Incidentally, I told C. Pell about this situation yesterday," referring to the Air Force Roswell report; a second note, to "Clay," indexed September 19, 1994 and dated 8/19/94, thanks him for lunch and encloses the report's summary text and Gibbons's Zuckerman lecture.[^15] In the memorandum for the President of August 4, 1995 Gibbons wrote that Rockefeller's interests "are related to those of Senator Pell" and that "Senator Pell and others have supported the funding of research in social science to focus more on these phenomena."[^16]
### Series 6 container titles in the Scott Jones papers ### Series 6 container titles in the Scott Jones papers
Series 6 of the [[C. B. Scott Jones]] papers at the University of Colorado Boulder is titled "Special Assistant to Senator Claiborne Pell." Its Legislation subseries lists drafts and correspondence for Senate Joint Resolutions 135 and 368 and House Joint Resolution 646, a Fetzer Foundation conference of June 23 to 25, 1988, International Forgiveness Day, Peace Contingency Planning, the Sadat Peace Foundation, "National Applications Office drafts" and a "Commission or Task Force on Maximizing Individual Potential draft." The Symposium on Consciousness and Survival of October 26 and 27, 1985 has files for the proceedings edited by John Shelby Spong, invitations, fundraising and event planning. The Soviet-American Relations subseries has files titled "[[Esalen Institute]]," "Russia Trip 1990," "Soviet Psychotronics correspondence and memos," "Intelligence," "Pell Trip to Soviet Union 1985" and "Russia Trip 1989."[^16] Series 6 of the [[C. B. Scott Jones]] papers at the University of Colorado Boulder is titled "Special Assistant to Senator Claiborne Pell." Its Legislation subseries lists drafts and correspondence for Senate Joint Resolutions 135 and 368 and House Joint Resolution 646, a Fetzer Foundation conference of June 23 to 25, 1988, International Forgiveness Day, Peace Contingency Planning, the Sadat Peace Foundation, "National Applications Office drafts" and a "Commission or Task Force on Maximizing Individual Potential draft." The Symposium on Consciousness and Survival of October 26 and 27, 1985 has files for the proceedings edited by John Shelby Spong, invitations, fundraising and event planning. The Soviet-American Relations subseries has files titled "[[Esalen Institute]]," "Russia Trip 1990," "Soviet Psychotronics correspondence and memos," "Intelligence," "Pell Trip to Soviet Union 1985" and "Russia Trip 1989."[^17]
The Paranormal Aide subseries lists "Reverse Speech Scandal" files, "Challenger Incident," "Vorona Project," four "Uri Geller Scandal" files, "Uri Geller Associates" and "1990 [[United States]] Senate Election in Rhode Island." The Reports and organizations subseries has files on the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]], the National Research Council report (five files), the Office of Technology Assessment (including "Workshop on Experimental Parapsychology" and "Maintaining the Defense Technology Base"), National Institute of Mental Health workshops at Airlie in 1987 and 1988, and the National Science Foundation, including "[[Andrija Puharich]] reports and correspondence." The Unidentified Flying Objects subseries lists files on the Fund for UFO Research, Richard F. Haines, Ed Komarek Jr., "Air Force Document of Mid-Air Collision 1953," "Howard J. Hoffman Government Liaison Project" and Donald R. Todd, and "A Model of Government Preparation for ET Contact and Cooperation" by Jones. The Speeches subseries includes an *OMNI* "First Word" column by Pell of February 1988 and speeches drafted by Jones and Pell. The tree gives titles only, without dates or box numbers.[^16] The Paranormal Aide subseries lists "Reverse Speech Scandal" files, "Challenger Incident," "Vorona Project," four "Uri Geller Scandal" files, "Uri Geller Associates" and "1990 [[United States]] Senate Election in Rhode Island." The Reports and organizations subseries has files on the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]], the National Research Council report (five files), the Office of Technology Assessment (including "Workshop on Experimental Parapsychology" and "Maintaining the Defense Technology Base"), National Institute of Mental Health workshops at Airlie in 1987 and 1988, and the National Science Foundation, including "[[Andrija Puharich]] reports and correspondence." The Unidentified Flying Objects subseries lists files on the Fund for UFO Research, Richard F. Haines, Ed Komarek Jr., "Air Force Document of Mid-Air Collision 1953," "Howard J. Hoffman Government Liaison Project" and Donald R. Todd, and "A Model of Government Preparation for ET Contact and Cooperation" by Jones. The Speeches subseries includes an *OMNI* "First Word" column by Pell of February 1988 and speeches drafted by Jones and Pell. The tree gives titles only, without dates or box numbers.[^17]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017. [^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^2]: University of Rhode Island Library, "Register to the Senatorial Papers of Claiborne Pell: Subject File," Mss. Gr. 71.4, biographical note, https://webarchives.apps.uri.edu/Pell%20XML%20Files/pell/Mss.%20Gr.%2071.4b.html. [^2]: "PELL, Claiborne de Borda," Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=P000193
[^3]: Jachim, Robert J., memorandum "Information Briefing for Senator Clairborne Pell," October 6, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320001-5; Buzby, Brian, information paper "GRILL FLAME Briefing Presented to Senator Pell," February 6, 1985, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320004-2. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection. Jachim, Robert J., memorandum "Briefing for MG A.N. Stubblebine III," October 8, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220022-7; Buzby, Brian, memoranda "CENTER LANE Briefing for CG, USAINSCOM," August 29, 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220011-9), "Meeting With MG Stubblebine on 30 November 1983," December 6, 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220010-0), and "Meeting with MG Stubblebine on 6 January 1984," January 17, 1984 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220009-2); letter of the ACSI to Stubblebine, "CENTER LANE," April 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220002-9). Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection. [^3]: University of Rhode Island Library, "Register to the Senatorial Papers of Claiborne Pell: Subject File," Mss. Gr. 71.4, biographical note, https://webarchives.apps.uri.edu/Pell%20XML%20Files/pell/Mss.%20Gr.%2071.4b.html.
[^4]: Buzby, Brian, "Meeting With MG Stubblebine on 30 November 1983," memorandum for record, December 6, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220010-0; Defense Intelligence Agency, S-22,600/DTI-S, letter to Senator Claiborne Pell, undated, with enclosure "Psychoenergetics Devices: A Review and Assessment," CIA-RDP96-00789R002600010004-9. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection. [^4]: Jachim, Robert J., memorandum "Information Briefing for Senator Clairborne Pell," October 6, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320001-5; Buzby, Brian, information paper "GRILL FLAME Briefing Presented to Senator Pell," February 6, 1985, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320004-2. Jachim, Robert J., memorandum "Briefing for MG A.N. Stubblebine III," October 8, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220022-7; Buzby, Brian, memoranda "CENTER LANE Briefing for CG, USAINSCOM," August 29, 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220011-9), "Meeting With MG Stubblebine on 30 November 1983," December 6, 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220010-0), and "Meeting with MG Stubblebine on 6 January 1984," January 17, 1984 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220009-2); letter of the ACSI to Stubblebine, "CENTER LANE," April 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220002-9).
[^5]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346. [^5]: Buzby, Brian, "Meeting With MG Stubblebine on 30 November 1983," memorandum for record, December 6, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220010-0; Defense Intelligence Agency, S-22,600/DTI-S, letter to Senator Claiborne Pell, undated, with enclosure "Psychoenergetics Devices: A Review and Assessment," CIA-RDP96-00789R002600010004-9.
[^6]: Tom Kelly, "In search of modern Merlins: Psychics gain wider credibility," Washington Times, June 26, 1989 (date per archive metadata), CIA-RDP96-00787R000200080027-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00787r000200080027-5. [^6]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346.
[^7]: United Press International, "Pell keen on psychic research," July 17, 1988, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/07/17/Pell-keen-on-psychic-research/3613585115200/. [^7]: Tom Kelly, "In search of modern Merlins: Psychics gain wider credibility," Washington Times, June 26, 1989, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200080027-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00787r000200080027-5.
[^8]: C. Eugene Emery Jr., "Sen. Pell flirts with phenomena on the fringe, UFOs, psychics," *The San Francisco Examiner* (from the Providence Journal), August 13, 1988, p. B-12 (newspapers.com p. 22), https://www.newspapers.com/image/461248717/. [^8]: United Press International, "Pell keen on psychic research," July 17, 1988, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/07/17/Pell-keen-on-psychic-research/3613585115200/.
[^9]: "Pell Probing Psychic Phenomena," *Winston-Salem Journal*, July 18, 1988, p. 2, https://www.newspapers.com/image/939997164/. [^9]: C. Eugene Emery Jr., "Sen. Pell flirts with phenomena on the fringe, UFOs, psychics," *The San Francisco Examiner* (from the Providence Journal), August 13, 1988, p. B-12 (newspapers.com p. 22), https://www.newspapers.com/image/461248717/.
[^10]: University of Rhode Island Library, "Register to the Senatorial Papers of Claiborne Pell: Subject File," Mss. Gr. 71.4, box 42, folders 464 to 466, https://webarchives.apps.uri.edu/Pell%20XML%20Files/pell/Mss.%20Gr.%2071.4b.html. [^10]: "Pell Probing Psychic Phenomena," *Winston-Salem Journal*, July 18, 1988, p. 2, https://www.newspapers.com/image/939997164/.
[^11]: Robert J. Durant, "Will the Real Scott Jones Please Stand Up?" (February 20, 1992), CIA-RDP96-00792R000400300004-7, https://cia.gov/readingroom/node/1697635. [^11]: University of Rhode Island Library, "Register to the Senatorial Papers of Claiborne Pell: Subject File," Mss. Gr. 71.4, box 42, folders 464 to 466, https://webarchives.apps.uri.edu/Pell%20XML%20Files/pell/Mss.%20Gr.%2071.4b.html.
[^12]: Rockefeller to Billy Graham, May 7, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95.htm. [^12]: Robert J. Durant, "Will the Real Scott Jones Please Stand Up?" (February 20, 1992), CIA-RDP96-00792R000400300004-7, https://cia.gov/readingroom/node/1697635.
[^13]: C. B. Scott Jones to John H. Gibbons, August 11, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-11-94.htm. [^13]: Rockefeller to Billy Graham, May 7, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95.htm.
[^14]: Gibbons, handwritten notes, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-17-94.htm and RID-9-19-94.htm. [^14]: C. B. Scott Jones to John H. Gibbons, August 11, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-11-94.htm.
[^15]: Gibbons, memorandum for the President, August 4, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-95.htm. [^15]: Gibbons, handwritten notes, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-17-94.htm and RID-9-19-94.htm.
[^16]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, Rare and Distinctive Collections, collection COU:4004 (the C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers), ArchivesSpace resource 346, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346, container tree for Series 6, fetched October 3, 2026 from the vault owner's browser (titles only; no dates or box numbers in the saved tree). [^16]: Gibbons, memorandum for the President, August 4, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-95.htm.
[^17]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, Rare and Distinctive Collections, collection COU:4004 (the C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers), ArchivesSpace resource 346, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346, container tree for Series 6, fetched October 3, 2026 from the vault owner's browser (titles only; no dates or box numbers in the saved tree).

21
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/David Sacks.md
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@ -14,26 +14,27 @@ summary: "David Sacks is a South African-born entrepreneur who was chief operati
born: 1972-05-25 born: 1972-05-25
location: "Cape Town, South Africa (born)" location: "Cape Town, South Africa (born)"
created: 2026-06-18 created: 2026-06-18
updated: 2026-10-14 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
[[David Sacks|David Sacks]] (born May 25, 1972, in [[Cape Town|Cape Town]], [[South Africa|South Africa]]) is a [[PayPal Mafia|PayPal Mafia]] principal who served as chief operating officer of [[PayPal]], founded [[Yammer|Yammer]] (the enterprise social network, acquired by [[Microsoft|Microsoft]] in 2012 for 1.2 billion dollars), produced the film *[[Thank You for Smoking|Thank You for Smoking]]* (2005), and was appointed Special Advisor on Artificial Intelligence and Cryptocurrency (the "AI and crypto czar") under the second [[Donald Trump|Trump]] administration. Sacks cohosted the [[All-In Podcast|All-In Podcast]], which became a media channel for the PayPal Mafia cohort's political positions during the 2022-2025 period.[^1][^2] [[David Sacks|David Sacks]] (born May 25, 1972, in [[Cape Town|Cape Town]], [[South Africa|South Africa]]) is a [[PayPal Mafia|PayPal Mafia]] principal who served as chief operating officer of [[PayPal]], founded [[Yammer|Yammer]] (the enterprise social network, acquired by [[Microsoft|Microsoft]] in 2012 for 1.1 billion dollars in cash)[^1], produced the film *[[Thank You for Smoking|Thank You for Smoking]]* (2005), and was appointed Special Advisor on Artificial Intelligence and Cryptocurrency (the "AI and crypto czar") under the second [[Donald Trump|Trump]] administration. Sacks cohosted the [[All-In Podcast|All-In Podcast]], which became a media channel for the PayPal Mafia cohort's political positions during the 2022-2025 period.[^2][^3]
### The PayPal COO Role and the Post-PayPal Ventures ### The PayPal COO Role and the Post-PayPal Ventures
Sacks joined PayPal in November 1999. The company's registration statement of September 2001 describes him as executive vice president of product since May 2000.[^3] Sacks became chief operating officer of PayPal in February 2002.[^4] He served in that role through the 2002 eBay acquisition, managing the company's operations alongside [[Peter Thiel|Thiel]] (chief executive) and [[Max Levchin|Levchin]] (chief technology officer). The COO role placed Sacks in operational control of the company's day-to-day execution during the period when the anti-fraud architecture was built and the PayPal Mafia cohort was formed. After the eBay sale, Sacks founded Yammer, the enterprise social network that applied consumer-social-networking patterns to corporate communications. Microsoft acquired Yammer in 2012.[^1] Sacks joined PayPal in November 1999. The company's registration statement of September 2001 describes him as executive vice president of product since May 2000.[^4] Sacks became chief operating officer of PayPal in February 2002.[^5] He served in that role through the 2002 eBay acquisition, managing the company's operations alongside [[Peter Thiel|Thiel]] (chief executive) and [[Max Levchin|Levchin]] (chief technology officer). The COO role placed Sacks in operational control of the company's day-to-day execution during the period when the anti-fraud architecture was built and the PayPal Mafia cohort was formed. After the eBay sale, Sacks founded Yammer, the enterprise social network that applied consumer-social-networking patterns to corporate communications. Microsoft acquired Yammer in 2012.[^2]
Sacks subsequently founded [[Craft Ventures|Craft Ventures]], a venture capital firm whose portfolio overlaps with the PayPal Mafia and Thiel-network commercial ecosystem. Sacks also produced the film *Thank You for Smoking* (2005), an adaptation of the [[Christopher Buckley|Christopher Buckley]] satirical novel about tobacco-industry lobbying.[^1] Sacks subsequently founded [[Craft Ventures|Craft Ventures]], a venture capital firm whose portfolio overlaps with the PayPal Mafia and Thiel-network commercial ecosystem. Sacks also produced the film *Thank You for Smoking* (2005), an adaptation of the [[Christopher Buckley|Christopher Buckley]] satirical novel about tobacco-industry lobbying.[^2]
### The All-In Podcast and the Trump AI/Crypto Role ### The All-In Podcast and the Trump AI/Crypto Role
The All-In Podcast, cohosted by Sacks with [[Chamath Palihapitiya|Chamath Palihapitiya]], [[Jason Calacanis|Jason Calacanis]], and [[David Friedberg|David Friedberg]], became a media channel for the PayPal Mafia cohort's political positions during the 2022-2025 period. The podcast's audience overlaps with the [[Dialog]] invitation list and the [[Founders Fund|Founders Fund]] portfolio community. Sacks used the platform to advance the positions on AI regulation, cryptocurrency policy, and defense procurement that he subsequently entered the government to implement.[^2] The All-In Podcast, cohosted by Sacks with [[Chamath Palihapitiya|Chamath Palihapitiya]], [[Jason Calacanis|Jason Calacanis]], and [[David Friedberg|David Friedberg]], became a media channel for the PayPal Mafia cohort's political positions during the 2022-2025 period. The podcast's audience overlaps with the [[Dialog]] invitation list and the [[Founders Fund|Founders Fund]] portfolio community. Sacks used the platform to advance the positions on AI regulation, cryptocurrency policy, and defense procurement that he subsequently entered the government to implement.[^3]
In the second Trump administration, Sacks received the Special Advisor on Artificial Intelligence and Cryptocurrency appointment. The role covers federal AI policy, cryptocurrency regulation, and the broader technology-policy agenda. Sacks's appointment placed a PayPal Mafia principal in the executive branch with authority over the technology sectors that the Thiel-network commercial infrastructure operates in.[^2] In the second Trump administration, Sacks received the Special Advisor on Artificial Intelligence and Cryptocurrency appointment. The role covers federal AI policy, cryptocurrency regulation, and the broader technology-policy agenda. Sacks's appointment placed a PayPal Mafia principal in the executive branch with authority over the technology sectors that the Thiel-network commercial infrastructure operates in.[^3]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: For Sacks's PayPal COO role and the post-PayPal ventures, see the PayPal Mafia page and the contemporaneous Silicon Valley press. [^1]: Microsoft Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2013, Item 1 (acquisition of Yammer, Inc. "for $1.1 billion in cash"). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/789019/000119312513310206/d527745d10k.htm
[^2]: For the All-In Podcast and the Trump AI/crypto czar role, see the contemporaneous press coverage of the second Trump administration appointments. [^2]: For Sacks's PayPal COO role and the post-PayPal ventures, see the PayPal Mafia page and the contemporaneous Silicon Valley press.
[^3]: PayPal, Inc. Form S-1 registration statement, filed September 28, 2001, "Management," biography of David O. Sacks. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205701533855/a2059025zs-1.htm [^3]: For the All-In Podcast and the Trump AI/crypto czar role, see the contemporaneous press coverage of the second Trump administration appointments.
[^4]: PayPal, Inc. Form 10-K405 for fiscal 2001, filed March 13, 2002, "Management": "David O. Sacks has served as our Chief Operating Officer since February 2002." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205702009834/a2073071z10-k405.htm [^4]: PayPal, Inc. Form S-1 registration statement, filed September 28, 2001, "Management," biography of David O. Sacks. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205701533855/a2059025zs-1.htm
[^5]: PayPal, Inc. Form 10-K405 for fiscal 2001, filed March 13, 2002, "Management": "David O. Sacks has served as our Chief Operating Officer since February 2002." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205702009834/a2073071z10-k405.htm

9
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Donald Rumsfeld.md
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@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ relations:
role: "inquiry into the treatment of detainees in u.s. custody; conclusions 13 and 19" role: "inquiry into the treatment of detainees in u.s. custody; conclusions 13 and 19"
fn: 36 fn: 36
created: 2026-10-01 created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-14 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Donald Henry Rumsfeld was born on July 9, 1932, in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]].[^1] He was a member of the [[United States House of Representatives]] from 1963 to 1969, an assistant to [[Richard Nixon]], ambassador to [[NATO]], [[White House]] chief of staff and Secretary of Defense under [[Gerald R. Ford]], chief executive of [[G.D. Searle & Co.]] from 1977 to 1985 and of [[General Instrument Corporation]] from 1990 to 1993, and chairman of [[Gilead Sciences]] until January 2001.[^1] He served a second time as Secretary of Defense from 2001 to 2006 under [[George W. Bush]], and died on June 29, 2021, at 88; his family's statement said he "was surrounded by family in his beloved Taos, [[New Mexico]]."[^2] Donald Henry Rumsfeld was born on July 9, 1932, in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]].[^1] He was a member of the [[United States House of Representatives]] from 1963 to 1969, an assistant to [[Richard Nixon]], ambassador to [[NATO]], [[White House]] chief of staff and Secretary of Defense under [[Gerald R. Ford]], chief executive of [[G.D. Searle & Co.]] from 1977 to 1985 and of [[General Instrument Corporation]] from 1990 to 1993, and chairman of [[Gilead Sciences]] until January 2001.[^1] He served a second time as Secretary of Defense from 2001 to 2006 under [[George W. Bush]], and died on June 29, 2021, at 88; his family's statement said he "was surrounded by family in his beloved Taos, [[New Mexico]]."[^2]
@ -278,11 +278,11 @@ On September 10, 2001, at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld said: "According to some estima
On December 2, 2002, Rumsfeld signed a one-page recommendation from the Defense Department general counsel, [[William J. Haynes II]], to approve all but three of 18 interrogation techniques requested by [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo]], adding by hand: "I stand for 8-10 hours a day. Why is standing limited to 4 hours?" Haynes's memorandum said he had discussed the matter with Wolfowitz, Under Secretary [[Douglas Feith]] and General [[Richard Myers]]. After Navy General Counsel [[Alberto Mora]] told Haynes he would sign a memorandum of legal concerns, Rumsfeld rescinded the authority on January 15, 2003; on August 13, 2003, he approved an interrogation plan for the detainee [[Mohamedou Ould Slahi]].[^36] The Senate Armed Services Committee concluded that Haynes's review "was grossly deficient" (conclusion 12), that Rumsfeld's authorization "was a direct cause of detainee abuse" at Guantanamo and "influenced and contributed to the use of abusive techniques" in [[Afghanistan]] and Iraq (conclusion 13), and that the techniques used at [[Abu Ghraib]] "appeared in Iraq only after they had been approved for use in Afghanistan and at GTMO" (conclusion 19).[^36] The Associated Press reported that Rumsfeld twice offered his resignation to Bush in 2004 after the Abu Ghraib disclosures; he left office in December 2006 and was replaced by [[Robert Gates]].[^2] On December 2, 2002, Rumsfeld signed a one-page recommendation from the Defense Department general counsel, [[William J. Haynes II]], to approve all but three of 18 interrogation techniques requested by [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo]], adding by hand: "I stand for 8-10 hours a day. Why is standing limited to 4 hours?" Haynes's memorandum said he had discussed the matter with Wolfowitz, Under Secretary [[Douglas Feith]] and General [[Richard Myers]]. After Navy General Counsel [[Alberto Mora]] told Haynes he would sign a memorandum of legal concerns, Rumsfeld rescinded the authority on January 15, 2003; on August 13, 2003, he approved an interrogation plan for the detainee [[Mohamedou Ould Slahi]].[^36] The Senate Armed Services Committee concluded that Haynes's review "was grossly deficient" (conclusion 12), that Rumsfeld's authorization "was a direct cause of detainee abuse" at Guantanamo and "influenced and contributed to the use of abusive techniques" in [[Afghanistan]] and Iraq (conclusion 13), and that the techniques used at [[Abu Ghraib]] "appeared in Iraq only after they had been approved for use in Afghanistan and at GTMO" (conclusion 19).[^36] The Associated Press reported that Rumsfeld twice offered his resignation to Bush in 2004 after the Abu Ghraib disclosures; he left office in December 2006 and was replaced by [[Robert Gates]].[^2]
On June 29, 2006, in [[Hamdan v. Rumsfeld]], the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] held that the military commission convened to try the Guantanamo detainee Hamdan, a Yemeni national, "lacks the power to proceed because its structure and procedures violate both the UCMJ and the four Geneva Conventions signed in 1949."[^37] On June 29, 2006, in [[Hamdan v. Rumsfeld]], the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] held that the military commission convened to try the Guantanamo detainee Hamdan, a Yemeni national, "lacks power to proceed because its structure and procedures violate both the UCMJ and the Geneva Conventions."[^37][^38]
### Rumsfeld Foundation ### Rumsfeld Foundation
After 2008 Rumsfeld headed the Rumsfeld Foundation.[^2] The foundation, a Washington private foundation (EIN 26-0580915) with an [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] ruling date of August 2007, reported assets of $9,727,763 at the end of 2011, $11,418,376 at the end of 2012 and $1,515,771 at the end of 2023.[^38] His 2001 Senate form lists him as president of a DHR Foundation of Chicago from December 1985, annotated "Possibly without investment control."[^4] After 2008 Rumsfeld headed the Rumsfeld Foundation.[^2] The foundation, a Washington private foundation (EIN 26-0580915) with an [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] ruling date of August 2007, reported assets of $9,727,763 at the end of 2011, $11,418,376 at the end of 2012 and $1,515,771 at the end of 2023.[^39] His 2001 Senate form lists him as president of a DHR Foundation of Chicago from December 1985, annotated "Possibly without investment control."[^4]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -323,4 +323,5 @@ After 2008 Rumsfeld headed the Rumsfeld Foundation.[^2] The foundation, a Washin
[^35]: Department of Defense, notes from Donald Rumsfeld, [Iraq war planning], November 27, 2001, annotated, pp. 1-3, National Security Archive EBB No. 326, Document 8, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB326/doc08.pdf [^35]: Department of Defense, notes from Donald Rumsfeld, [Iraq war planning], November 27, 2001, annotated, pp. 1-3, National Security Archive EBB No. 326, Document 8, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB326/doc08.pdf
[^36]: U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services, "Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody," Executive Summary and Conclusions, released December 11, 2008, pp. xix-xxi (Haynes memorandum, December 2, 2002 note, Mora, January 15, 2003 rescission, Slahi plan) and pp. xxviii-xxix (conclusions 12, 13 and 19), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/torturingdemocracy/documents/20081211.pdf [^36]: U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services, "Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody," Executive Summary and Conclusions, released December 11, 2008, pp. xix-xxi (Haynes memorandum, December 2, 2002 note, Mora, January 15, 2003 rescission, Slahi plan) and pp. xxviii-xxix (conclusions 12, 13 and 19), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/torturingdemocracy/documents/20081211.pdf
[^37]: Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006), No. 05-184, decided June 29, 2006, syllabus, https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-184.ZS.html [^37]: Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006), No. 05-184, decided June 29, 2006, syllabus, https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-184.ZS.html
[^38]: ProPublica, Nonprofit Explorer, Rumsfeld Foundation, EIN 26-0580915, organization API record and Form 990-PF data for tax years 2011, 2012 and 2023, https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/260580915.json [^38]: *Hamdan v. Rumsfeld*, 548 U.S. 557 (2006), decided June 29, 2006, text as published (static.case.law copy). https://static.case.law/us/548/cases/0557-01.json
[^39]: ProPublica, Nonprofit Explorer, Rumsfeld Foundation, EIN 26-0580915, organization API record and Form 990-PF data for tax years 2011, 2012 and 2023, https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/260580915.json

8
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Edward Snowden.md
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@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ tags:
summary: "Edward Snowden (born 1983) was an NSA contractor who disclosed classified mass surveillance programs including PRISM, XKeyscore, and bulk telephone metadata collection to journalists in June 2013, fled to Russia where he received asylum, and was charged under the Espionage Act." summary: "Edward Snowden (born 1983) was an NSA contractor who disclosed classified mass surveillance programs including PRISM, XKeyscore, and bulk telephone metadata collection to journalists in June 2013, fled to Russia where he received asylum, and was charged under the Espionage Act."
born: 1983-06-21 born: 1983-06-21
location: "Elizabeth City, North Carolina" location: "Elizabeth City, North Carolina"
updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Edward Joseph Snowden was born June 21, 1983, in Elizabeth City, [[North Carolina]], and grew up in the Washington D.C. area. He joined the CIA in 2006 and later worked as a contractor for the National Security Agency through Dell Inc. and then Booz Allen Hamilton. In May 2013 he traveled to [[Hong Kong]] with a cache of classified NSA documents. Beginning June 5, 2013, he authorized the publication of a series of disclosures through journalists Glenn Greenwald, Laura Poitras, and Barton Gellman of the Washington Post that revealed the existence and scope of NSA's mass surveillance programs operating under the authority of the USA PATRIOT Act and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act.[^1] Edward Joseph Snowden was born June 21, 1983, in Elizabeth City, [[North Carolina]], and grew up in the Washington D.C. area. He joined the CIA in 2006 and later worked as a contractor for the National Security Agency through Dell Inc. and then Booz Allen Hamilton. In May 2013 he traveled to [[Hong Kong]] with a cache of classified NSA documents. Beginning June 5, 2013, he authorized the publication of a series of disclosures through journalists Glenn Greenwald, Laura Poitras, and Barton Gellman of the Washington Post that revealed the existence and scope of NSA's mass surveillance programs operating under the authority of the USA PATRIOT Act and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act.[^1]
@ -21,7 +22,7 @@ Edward Joseph Snowden was born June 21, 1983, in Elizabeth City, [[North Carolin
The Snowden disclosures revealed several major NSA programs: The Snowden disclosures revealed several major NSA programs:
PRISM was a program under Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act Amendments Act through which NSA directly accessed servers of major American internet companies - including Microsoft, Yahoo, Google, Facebook, PalTalk, YouTube, Skype, AOL, and Apple - to collect communications content. The companies were compelled to provide access under court orders from the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]] (FISC). The disclosures triggered significant legal challenges and the companies' denials or minimizations of their participation, along with subsequent government clarifications about the court-compelled nature of the program.[^1] PRISM was a program under Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act Amendments Act through which NSA directly accessed servers of major American internet companies - including Microsoft, Yahoo, Google, Facebook, PalTalk, YouTube, Skype, AOL, and Apple - to collect communications content. The companies were compelled to provide access under court orders from the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]] (FISC). The disclosures triggered significant legal challenges and the companies' denials or minimizations of their participation, along with subsequent government clarifications about the court-compelled nature of the program.[^1] The Guardian's July 11, 2013 reporting on documents supplied by Snowden described NSA access to Outlook.com and SkyDrive data through cooperation with the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], and quoted the company's statement that it provides customer data "only in response to government demands."[^2]
XKeyscore was a global internet traffic analysis system that allowed NSA analysts to search communications content and metadata collected from surveillance equipment positioned at internet exchange points, ISPs, and foreign partner collection facilities. Internal NSA documents described it as the agency's widest-reaching collection system.[^1] XKeyscore was a global internet traffic analysis system that allowed NSA analysts to search communications content and metadata collected from surveillance equipment positioned at internet exchange points, ISPs, and foreign partner collection facilities. Internal NSA documents described it as the agency's widest-reaching collection system.[^1]
@ -41,11 +42,12 @@ After meeting with journalists in Hong Kong in June 2013, Snowden attempted to t
### Policy Consequences ### Policy Consequences
The Snowden disclosures triggered significant legislative and judicial responses. The USA FREEDOM Act (2015) modified Section 215 to prohibit bulk telephone metadata collection and required the government to seek specific court orders for targeted collection from telecommunications companies. Federal courts found aspects of NSA's bulk metadata collection program unlawful. The NSA's programs were subjected to review by a presidential review group and the Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, both of which recommended reforms.[^2] The Snowden disclosures triggered significant legislative and judicial responses. The USA FREEDOM Act (2015) modified Section 215 to prohibit bulk telephone metadata collection and required the government to seek specific court orders for targeted collection from telecommunications companies. Federal courts found aspects of NSA's bulk metadata collection program unlawful. The NSA's programs were subjected to review by a presidential review group and the Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, both of which recommended reforms.[^3]
Internationally, the disclosures damaged U.S. relationships with allied governments and populations who learned that NSA had collected communications of their leaders. German Chancellor Angela Merkel's personal mobile phone was disclosed to have been a monitored NSA target, producing a significant bilateral diplomatic crisis. Several countries began routing internet traffic away from U.S.-based infrastructure in response.[^1] Internationally, the disclosures damaged U.S. relationships with allied governments and populations who learned that NSA had collected communications of their leaders. German Chancellor Angela Merkel's personal mobile phone was disclosed to have been a monitored NSA target, producing a significant bilateral diplomatic crisis. Several countries began routing internet traffic away from U.S.-based infrastructure in response.[^1]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Greenwald, Glenn. *No Place to Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S. Surveillance State*. Metropolitan Books, 2014. Snowden, Edward. *Permanent Record*. Metropolitan Books, 2019. [^1]: Greenwald, Glenn. *No Place to Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S. Surveillance State*. Metropolitan Books, 2014. Snowden, Edward. *Permanent Record*. Metropolitan Books, 2019.
[^2]: Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board. *Report on the Telephone Records Program Conducted under Section 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act and on the Operations of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court*. January 23, 2014. Presidential Review Group on Intelligence and Communications Technologies. *Liberty and Security in a Changing World*. December 12, 2013. [^2]: Greenwald, Glenn, Ewen MacAskill, Laura Poitras, Spencer Ackerman and Dominic Rushe, "Microsoft handed the NSA access to encrypted messages," *The Guardian,* July 11, 2013. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/11/microsoft-nsa-collaboration-user-data
[^3]: Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board. *Report on the Telephone Records Program Conducted under Section 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act and on the Operations of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court*. January 23, 2014. Presidential Review Group on Intelligence and Communications Technologies. *Liberty and Security in a Changing World*. December 12, 2013.

2
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Eugene Propper.md
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@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ relations:
fn: 12 fn: 12
--- ---
Eugene M. Propper was the assistant [[United States Attorney]] in Washington assigned in September 1976 to the murder of [[Orlando Letelier]] and [[Ronni Moffitt]]. His deputy was [[E. Lawrence Barcella]], and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agents were [[Carter Cornick|C. Carter Cornick]] in Washington and [[Robert Scherrer]], the bureau's representative in [[Buenos Aires]].[^1] Eugene M. Propper was the assistant [[U.S. Attorney's office|United States Attorney]] in Washington assigned in September 1976 to the murder of [[Orlando Letelier]] and [[Ronni Moffitt]]. His deputy was [[E. Lawrence Barcella]], and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agents were [[Carter Cornick|C. Carter Cornick]] in Washington and [[Robert Scherrer]], the bureau's representative in [[Buenos Aires]].[^1]
### The Investigation ### The Investigation

6
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Francis Gary Powers.md
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@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ relations:
start: 1956-05 start: 1956-05
fn: 3 fn: 3
- type: employed_by - type: employed_by
with: "[[Lockheed]]" with: "[[Lockheed Aircraft Company]]"
role: "U-2 test pilot" role: "U-2 test pilot"
end: 1969-09 end: 1969-09
fn: 20 fn: 20
@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ relations:
role: "father" role: "father"
fn: 17 fn: 17
created: 2026-10-01 created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-01 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Francis Gary Powers was an American pilot whose [[U-2 Spy Plane]] was shot down over the [[Soviet Union]] on May 1, 1960, leading to a major international incident. [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that Powers and his colleagues continued intermittently to overfly the [[Middle East]], and were steadily back at work in the area in 1958, when the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s photo interpreters began seeing significant activity at an Israeli Air Force practice bombing range south of [[Beersheba]], which turned out to be the early signs of the [[Dimona]] nuclear reactor.[^1] Francis Gary Powers was an American pilot whose [[U-2 Spy Plane]] was shot down over the [[Soviet Union]] on May 1, 1960, leading to a major international incident. [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that Powers and his colleagues continued intermittently to overfly the [[Middle East]], and were steadily back at work in the area in 1958, when the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s photo interpreters began seeing significant activity at an Israeli Air Force practice bombing range south of [[Beersheba]], which turned out to be the early signs of the [[Dimona]] nuclear reactor.[^1]
@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ A memorandum for the record by the CIA's Legislative Counsel [[John S. Warner]]
After the return the CIA reconvened the Damage Assessment Team that had met for two months in the summer of 1960. In 1960 the team had concluded that Powers' knowledge was extensive and that he had probably revealed most of it. After two weeks of debriefing in February 1962 it found the damage much less than estimated.[^11] Dulles, who had left the directorship in November 1961, told Powers "We are proud of what you have done." The new Director, [[John McCone]], appointed a Board of Inquiry.[^11] After the return the CIA reconvened the Damage Assessment Team that had met for two months in the summer of 1960. In 1960 the team had concluded that Powers' knowledge was extensive and that he had probably revealed most of it. After two weeks of debriefing in February 1962 it found the damage much less than estimated.[^11] Dulles, who had left the directorship in November 1961, told Powers "We are proud of what you have done." The new Director, [[John McCone]], appointed a Board of Inquiry.[^11]
The General Counsel, [[Lawrence Houston]], proposed the terms in a February 1962 memorandum to the Director. He wrote that the [[Department of Justice]] favored a retired federal judge as chairman, that the first choice was [[E. Barrett Prettyman]] and the second [[Harold R. Medina]], that he recommended Lieutenant General [[Harold R. Bull]] (retired) and [[John A. Bross]] as members, that no Air Force officer should sit in view of the efforts to disassociate the Air Force from the U-2 project, and that he himself would be counsel to the Board. The question put to the Board was whether Powers acted in accordance with the terms of his employment, his instructions and briefings, and his obligations as an American citizen from the start of the mission until his release.[^14] In the Board's hearing of February 22, Houston examined witnesses and entered as Exhibit 17 a cable of February 21 from [[Kelly Johnson]] of [[Lockheed]], who had spoken with Powers about the flight.[^15] The General Counsel, [[Lawrence Houston]], proposed the terms in a February 1962 memorandum to the Director. He wrote that the [[Department of Justice]] favored a retired federal judge as chairman, that the first choice was [[E. Barrett Prettyman]] and the second [[Harold R. Medina]], that he recommended Lieutenant General [[Harold R. Bull]] (retired) and [[John A. Bross]] as members, that no Air Force officer should sit in view of the efforts to disassociate the Air Force from the U-2 project, and that he himself would be counsel to the Board. The question put to the Board was whether Powers acted in accordance with the terms of his employment, his instructions and briefings, and his obligations as an American citizen from the start of the mission until his release.[^14] In the Board's hearing of February 22, Houston examined witnesses and entered as Exhibit 17 a cable of February 21 from [[Kelly Johnson]] of [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]], who had spoken with Powers about the flight.[^15]
The Board reported on February 27, 1962, that Powers had acted in accordance with his instructions and obligations and recommended that he receive his back pay. The findings rested on the testimony of debriefing experts, a review of his background by doctors, psychiatrists, former Air Force colleagues and his commander at Adana, his own testimony, a polygraph examination he had volunteered to undergo, and analysis by Kelly Johnson of photographs of the wreckage. McCone remained skeptical and had the Air Force convene its own panel, which supported Johnson. He then relied on a report of the [[National Security Agency]] suggesting that Powers had descended to a lower altitude and turned back toward Sverdlovsk before being hit, and ordered the Board to reconvene on March 1. It adhered to its findings.[^11] On March 7, 1962, the [[NSA]] Deputy Director, [[Louis W. Tordella]], told Houston that he wished to place on the record that, contrary to Bross's statement in the transcript, it had not taken questioning and cross-examination to bring out the evidence contradicting the account, and that Bross's description of the NSA briefing as "very vehemently and very positively" presented was not accepted; Houston recorded the points to be filed with the transcript.[^16] [[David A. Foy]], reviewing a 2019 book by Powers' son in Studies in Intelligence, wrote that the Board authorized $52,500 in back pay.[^17] The Board reported on February 27, 1962, that Powers had acted in accordance with his instructions and obligations and recommended that he receive his back pay. The findings rested on the testimony of debriefing experts, a review of his background by doctors, psychiatrists, former Air Force colleagues and his commander at Adana, his own testimony, a polygraph examination he had volunteered to undergo, and analysis by Kelly Johnson of photographs of the wreckage. McCone remained skeptical and had the Air Force convene its own panel, which supported Johnson. He then relied on a report of the [[National Security Agency]] suggesting that Powers had descended to a lower altitude and turned back toward Sverdlovsk before being hit, and ordered the Board to reconvene on March 1. It adhered to its findings.[^11] On March 7, 1962, the [[NSA]] Deputy Director, [[Louis W. Tordella]], told Houston that he wished to place on the record that, contrary to Bross's statement in the transcript, it had not taken questioning and cross-examination to bring out the evidence contradicting the account, and that Bross's description of the NSA briefing as "very vehemently and very positively" presented was not accepted; Houston recorded the points to be filed with the transcript.[^16] [[David A. Foy]], reviewing a 2019 book by Powers' son in Studies in Intelligence, wrote that the Board authorized $52,500 in back pay.[^17]

61
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Galo Plaza.md
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@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ born: 1906-02-17
died: 1987-01-28 died: 1987-01-28
location: "Quito, Ecuador" location: "Quito, Ecuador"
created: 2026-06-05 created: 2026-06-05
updated: 2026-06-05 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Galo Lincoln Plaza Lasso de la Vega (February 17, 1906 - January 28, 1987) served as president of [[Ecuador]] from 1948 to 1952 and as secretary-general of the [[Organization of American States]] from 1968 to 1975, and was one of [[Nelson Rockefeller]]'s most consistent Latin American allies from the [[Act of Chapultepec|Chapultepec conference]] of 1945 onward. At Chapultepec and at the San Francisco founding conference of the [[United Nations]], Plaza served as Rockefeller's parliamentary agent among the Latin American delegations, shuttling instructions and delivering votes. As Ecuador's president he accepted [[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] operations in his country, co-authored a study of [[United Fruit Company]] operations with a Rockefeller-linked analyst, and promoted a banana export strategy shaped by U.S. developmental priorities; as OAS secretary-general he provided institutional continuity for the regional architecture Rockefeller had built. He was the son of [[Leónidas Plaza Gutiérrez]], who had served as Ecuador's president in 1901-1905 and again in 1912-1916, making them one of few father-son pairs to lead the country. Galo Lincoln Plaza Lasso de la Vega (February 17, 1906 - January 28, 1987) served as president of [[Ecuador]] from 1948 to 1952 and as secretary-general of the [[Organization of American States]] from 1968 to 1975, and was one of [[Nelson Rockefeller]]'s most consistent Latin American allies from the [[Act of Chapultepec|Chapultepec conference]] of 1945 onward. At Chapultepec and at the San Francisco founding conference of the [[United Nations]], Plaza served as Rockefeller's parliamentary agent among the Latin American delegations, shuttling instructions and delivering votes. As Ecuador's president he accepted [[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] operations in his country, co-authored a study of [[United Fruit Company]] operations with a Rockefeller-linked analyst, and promoted a banana export strategy shaped by U.S. developmental priorities; as OAS secretary-general he provided institutional continuity for the regional architecture Rockefeller had built. He was the son of [[Leónidas Plaza Gutiérrez]], who had served as Ecuador's president in 1901-1905 and again in 1912-1916, making them one of few father-son pairs to lead the country.
@ -25,73 +25,76 @@ Plaza was born on February 17, 1906, in New York City, at the Marlton House, dur
### Education and Early Career ### Education and Early Career
Plaza studied agriculture at the [[University of Maryland]], economics at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], and diplomacy at the [[Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service]] at [[Georgetown University]]. He returned to Ecuador and managed the family property, [[Hacienda Zuleta]] in [[Imbabura Province]], importing Holstein cattle and introducing systematic seed selection and mechanized tractors to Ecuadorian highland agriculture. Plaza studied agriculture at the [[University of Maryland]], economics at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], and diplomacy at the [[Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service]] at [[Georgetown University]].[^1] He returned to Ecuador and managed the family property, [[Hacienda Zuleta]] in [[Imbabura Province]], importing Holstein cattle and introducing systematic seed selection and mechanized tractors to Ecuadorian highland agriculture.
He entered politics in 1937, elected as a councilman of [[Quito]], then as mayor in 1938. In December 1938 he was appointed Minister of National Defense, a post he held through 1939. In 1929 he had served as attaché at the Ecuadorian legation in Washington. In July 1944, President [[José María Velasco Ibarra]] appointed him ambassador to the United States, a posting that placed him in Washington precisely as the major inter-American and international conferences of 1945 were being organized.[^1] He entered politics in 1937, elected as a councilman of [[Quito]], then as mayor in 1938. In December 1938 he was appointed Minister of National Defense, a post he held through 1939. In 1929 he had served as attaché at the Ecuadorian legation in Washington. In July 1944, President [[José María Velasco Ibarra]] appointed him ambassador to the United States, a posting that placed him in Washington precisely as the major inter-American and international conferences of 1945 were being organized.[^2]
### Chapultepec and Early Rockefeller Alliance ### Chapultepec and Early Rockefeller Alliance
Plaza first emerged as a key actor in Rockefeller's inter-American network at the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace, held at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City from February 21 to March 8, 1945. Rockefeller, then serving as FDR's [[Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs]], assembled a small group of Latin American leaders who acted in concert with the U.S. delegation. Plaza, representing Ecuador as ambassador, was among the most cooperative, shuttling back and forth to Rockefeller for instructions to pass on to other Latin American delegations. Rockefeller's management of the conference through these allies was, in the formulation of researchers Colby and Dennett, "shamelessly blatant, but it got results."[^2] Plaza first emerged as a key actor in Rockefeller's inter-American network at the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace, held at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City from February 21 to March 8, 1945. Rockefeller, then serving as FDR's [[Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs]], assembled a small group of Latin American leaders who acted in concert with the U.S. delegation. Plaza, representing Ecuador as ambassador, was among the most cooperative, shuttling back and forth to Rockefeller for instructions to pass on to other Latin American delegations. Rockefeller's management of the conference through these allies was, in the formulation of researchers Colby and Dennett, "shamelessly blatant, but it got results."[^3]
Plaza's connection to Rockefeller deepened through the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization]] in San Francisco later that year, where he again served as part of Rockefeller's parliamentary apparatus for managing the Latin American bloc's votes. Both postings were made while Plaza served as Ecuador's ambassador to Washington (1944-1946).[^1] Plaza's connection to Rockefeller deepened through the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization]] in San Francisco later that year, where he again served as part of Rockefeller's parliamentary apparatus for managing the Latin American bloc's votes. Both postings were made while Plaza served as Ecuador's ambassador to Washington (1944-1946).[^2]
Later, Plaza himself suggested that Rockefeller be asked to lead a Latin American mission, reflecting the mutual confidence the two men had built during these formative conferences. A photograph documenting a subsequent Pan American Society dinner showing Plaza alongside Rockefeller during the Truman years is preserved in the Harry S. Truman Library.[^3] Later, Plaza himself suggested that Rockefeller be asked to lead a Latin American mission, reflecting the mutual confidence the two men had built during these formative conferences. A photograph documenting a subsequent Pan American Society dinner showing Plaza alongside Rockefeller during the Truman years is preserved in the Harry S. Truman Library.[^4]
### Presidency of Ecuador (1948-1952) ### Presidency of Ecuador (1948-1952)
Plaza was elected president and inaugurated on August 31, 1948. U.S. Ambassador John F. Simmons, reporting to the State Department in Despatch No. 710 of September 3, 1948, analyzed Plaza's inaugural address as signaling a meaningful reorientation of Ecuadorian foreign policy toward closer alignment with the United States, noting that the United States was "the only foreign country mentioned expressly by name" in Plaza's speech.[^4] Plaza was elected president and inaugurated on August 31, 1948. U.S. Ambassador John F. Simmons, reporting to the State Department in Despatch No. 710 of September 3, 1948, analyzed Plaza's inaugural address as signaling a meaningful reorientation of Ecuadorian foreign policy toward closer alignment with the United States, noting that the United States was "the only foreign country mentioned expressly by name" in Plaza's speech.[^5]
Plaza served his full four-year term, completing it in 1952, the first Ecuadorian president in twenty-eight years to do so. Velasco Ibarra's subsequent administration, Simmons's successor noted, "turned viciously on President Galo Plaza, completely disregarding that the latter had guaranteed free elections and pacifically turned over the power."[^5] Plaza served his full four-year term, completing it in 1952, the first Ecuadorian president in twenty-eight years to do so. Velasco Ibarra's subsequent administration, Simmons's successor noted, "turned viciously on President Galo Plaza, completely disregarding that the latter had guaranteed free elections and pacifically turned over the power."[^6]
On the [[Rio Protocol of 1942]], Plaza's record was more complicated than a simple acceptance. His predecessor had formally ratified the protocol in February 1942, ceding approximately 200,000 square kilometers of disputed [[Amazonian]] territory to [[Peru]]. As president, Plaza initially proceeded with demarcation but in 1949 halted Ecuadorian participation in the boundary work. In 1951 he publicly announced that Ecuador would not accept any border that did not guarantee the country an outlet to the [[Marañón River]], effectively staking out a revisionist position on the protocol while stopping short of formal repudiation. The ceded territories were believed to contain oil reserves. On the [[Rio Protocol of 1942]], Plaza's record was more complicated than a simple acceptance. His predecessor had formally ratified the protocol in February 1942, ceding approximately 200,000 square kilometers of disputed [[Amazonian]] territory to [[Peru]]. As president, Plaza initially proceeded with demarcation but in 1949 halted Ecuadorian participation in the boundary work. In 1951 he publicly announced that Ecuador would not accept any border that did not guarantee the country an outlet to the [[Marañón River]], effectively staking out a revisionist position on the protocol while stopping short of formal repudiation. The ceded territories were believed to contain oil reserves.
The banana boom dominated Plaza's economic legacy. When he took office in 1948, Ecuador was exporting approximately 3.8 million banana clusters annually; by 1952, exports had reached 16.7 million clusters, a 421 percent increase, driven in part by diseases devastating Central American plantations and redirecting United States market demand to Ecuador. Plaza promoted this expansion actively, with [[IBEC]] (International Basic Economy Corporation), a [[Rockefeller Brothers]] venture, advising on development programs. The [[Standard Fruit and Steamship Company]], whose stock [[Chase Manhattan Bank]] transferred, expanded its Ecuadorian operations as a result.[^2] The banana boom dominated Plaza's economic legacy. When he took office in 1948, Ecuador was exporting approximately 3.8 million banana clusters annually; by 1952, exports had reached 16.7 million clusters, a 421 percent increase, driven in part by diseases devastating Central American plantations and redirecting United States market demand to Ecuador. Plaza promoted this expansion actively, with [[IBEC]] (International Basic Economy Corporation), a [[Rockefeller Brothers]] venture, advising on development programs. The [[Standard Fruit and Steamship Company]], whose stock [[Chase Manhattan Bank]] transferred, expanded its Ecuadorian operations as a result.[^3]
Plaza's connection to the banana industry extended beyond his presidency. In 1958, alongside [[National Planning Association]] researcher [[Stacy May]], he co-authored "The United Fruit Company in [[Latin America]]," a study published by the National Planning Association that drew on access to United Fruit's internal records. May had run the Statistics Division of the U.S. War Production Board during World War II. The book covered United Fruit's operations in Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Ecuador, and Colombia, and was regarded as relatively factual rather than promotional in character.[^6] Plaza's connection to the banana industry extended beyond his presidency. In 1958, alongside [[National Planning Association]] researcher [[Stacy May]], he co-authored "The United Fruit Company in [[Latin America]]," a study published by the National Planning Association that drew on access to United Fruit's internal records. May had run the Statistics Division of the U.S. War Production Board during World War II. The book covered United Fruit's operations in Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Ecuador, and Colombia, and was regarded as relatively factual rather than promotional in character.[^7]
### Summer Institute of Linguistics ### Summer Institute of Linguistics
SIL missionaries first arrived in Ecuador in 1952, with the formal invitation of the Ecuadorian government attributed to Plaza. One SIL account states that SIL entered Ecuador "in response to the expressed invitation of then President Galo Plaza to study, record and work on translation of materials into indigenous languages." SIL maintained a formal reporting relationship with Ecuador's Ministry of Education through 1982, when its agreement was terminated. The Summer Institute of Linguistics had been actively promoted in Latin America by [[William Cameron Townsend]], and both Plaza and the Colombian leader [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]] (who became the OAS's first secretary-general) helped Townsend establish SIL's South American operations.[^7] SIL missionaries first arrived in Ecuador in 1952, with the formal invitation of the Ecuadorian government attributed to Plaza. One SIL account states that SIL entered Ecuador "in response to the expressed invitation of then President Galo Plaza to study, record and work on translation of materials into indigenous languages." SIL maintained a formal reporting relationship with Ecuador's Ministry of Education through 1982, when its agreement was terminated. The Summer Institute of Linguistics had been actively promoted in Latin America by [[William Cameron Townsend]], and both Plaza and the Colombian leader [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]] (who became the OAS's first secretary-general) helped Townsend establish SIL's South American operations.[^8]
### Interlude: International Mediation (1958-1966) ### Interlude: International Mediation (1958-1966)
Between his presidency and his OAS tenure, Plaza built a substantial record as a multilateral mediator. In 1958 he presided over meetings of the Special Committee of the [[Economic Commission for Latin America]] (CEPAL) that laid the foundations for the Latin American common market. In the same year, he headed a United Nations observer mission sent to Lebanon. Between his presidency and his OAS tenure, Plaza built a substantial record as a multilateral mediator. In 1958 he presided over meetings of the Special Committee of the [[Economic Commission for Latin America]] (CEPAL) that laid the foundations for the Latin American common market. In the same year, he headed a United Nations observer mission sent to Lebanon.
In late 1958, as the [[Batista]] regime in Cuba was collapsing, Plaza was approached through ex-President [[Roberto Arias]] of Panama to participate in an offer of good offices to the Cuban people, potentially joining a panel of two or three Latin American ex-presidents to seek a peaceful transition. The State Department had prompted this initiative; a December 23, 1958 State Department communication records that the United States was "in touch with ex-President Galo Plaza of Ecuador to see whether the latter would be interested in joining" the mediation panel.[^8] In late 1958, as the [[Batista]] regime in Cuba was collapsing, Plaza was approached through ex-President [[Roberto Arias]] of Panama to participate in an offer of good offices to the Cuban people, potentially joining a panel of two or three Latin American ex-presidents to seek a peaceful transition. The State Department had prompted this initiative; a December 23, 1958 State Department communication records that the United States was "in touch with ex-President Galo Plaza of Ecuador to see whether the latter would be interested in joining" the mediation panel.[^9]
In 1960 Plaza presided over the United Nations committee charged with managing the evacuation of Belgian military forces from the Congo during the independence crisis. In 1960 Plaza presided over the United Nations committee charged with managing the evacuation of Belgian military forces from the Congo during the independence crisis.
From September 16, 1964 through the end of 1965, Plaza served as the personal representative of the UN Secretary-General and as mediator in Cyprus under [[UNFICYP]]. He submitted a formal mediation report on March 26, 1965, which proposed resolving the Cyprus dispute primarily as a Cypriot internal matter rather than a Greco-Turkish bilateral affair. Greek Cypriot representative [[Glafcos Clerides]] described the report as "bold and welcome"; the Turkish side rejected it. The episode became known in UN peacekeeping literature as the "Plaza moment."[^9] From September 16, 1964 through the end of 1965, Plaza served as the personal representative of the UN Secretary-General and as mediator in Cyprus under [[UNFICYP]]. He submitted a formal mediation report on March 26, 1965, which proposed resolving the Cyprus dispute primarily as a Cypriot internal matter rather than a Greco-Turkish bilateral affair. Greek Cypriot representative [[Glafcos Clerides]] described the report as "bold and welcome"; the Turkish side rejected it. The episode became known in UN peacekeeping literature as the "Plaza moment."[^10]
### At the OAS (1968-1975) ### At the OAS (1968-1975)
Plaza was elected secretary-general of the OAS on February 13, 1968, and took office on May 18, 1968. He served two terms before stepping down in 1975. His tenure at the OAS coincided with accelerating fragmentation of Cold War-era inter-American consensus, including growing pressure from member states to lift collective sanctions against Cuba that had been imposed in 1964. The OAS ultimately passed a "Freedom of Action Resolution" in July 1975, allowing member states to resume relations with Havana, effectively nullifying earlier OAS resolutions on Cuba. Plaza presided over the organization during the period when this change was being debated and ultimately enacted. Plaza was elected secretary-general of the OAS on February 13, 1968, and took office on May 18, 1968. He served two terms before stepping down in 1975. His tenure at the OAS coincided with accelerating fragmentation of Cold War-era inter-American consensus, including growing pressure from member states to lift collective sanctions against Cuba that had been imposed in 1964. The OAS ultimately passed a "Freedom of Action Resolution" in July 1975, allowing member states to resume relations with Havana, effectively nullifying earlier OAS resolutions on Cuba. Plaza presided over the organization during the period when this change was being debated and ultimately enacted.
Alberto Lleras Camargo had served as the OAS's first secretary-general; Plaza succeeded [[José A. Mora]] of Uruguay as the third person to hold the position. Both Plaza and Lleras Camargo had helped William Cameron Townsend establish SIL operations in South America.[^7] Alberto Lleras Camargo had served as the OAS's first secretary-general; Plaza succeeded [[José A. Mora]] of Uruguay as the third person to hold the position. Both Plaza and Lleras Camargo had helped William Cameron Townsend establish SIL operations in South America.[^8]
The State Department's Foreign Relations volumes for 1969-1976 (FRUS 1969-76) and the persons index for FRUS 1977-80, Vol. XV document Plaza's continued engagement with U.S. officials during and after his OAS tenure, identifying him in the index as having also served as President of Ecuador's Supreme Electoral Tribunal.[^10] The State Department's Foreign Relations volumes for 1969-1976 (FRUS 1969-76) and the persons index for FRUS 1977-80, Vol. XV document Plaza's continued engagement with U.S. officials during and after his OAS tenure, identifying him in the index as having also served as President of Ecuador's Supreme Electoral Tribunal.[^11]
### Rockefeller Foundation Trusteeship ### Rockefeller Foundation Trusteeship
Plaza served as a trustee of the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] and remained in Rockefeller's personal diplomatic orbit through the 1960s. His willingness to act as Washington's parliamentary agent in Latin American venues, first at Chapultepec, then through his OAS tenure, placed him at the operational center of the inter-American system Rockefeller had designed.[^11] Plaza served as a trustee of the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] and remained in Rockefeller's personal diplomatic orbit through the 1960s. His willingness to act as Washington's parliamentary agent in Latin American venues, first at Chapultepec, then through his OAS tenure, placed him at the operational center of the inter-American system Rockefeller had designed.[^12]
### Inter-American Dialogue ### Inter-American Dialogue
In 1982, Plaza co-founded the [[Inter-American Dialogue]] think tank with U.S. diplomat [[Sol M. Linowitz]], former U.S. ambassador to the OAS. Linowitz had conceived the idea of assembling citizens from across the hemisphere to set a new regional agenda and proposed it to Plaza as a natural co-chair given his history at the OAS. The Dialogue held its first meeting in 1982 under the auspices of the [[Aspen Institute]], with Plaza serving as the organization's first Latin American co-chair. The Dialogue positioned itself as an independent hemispheric policy forum distinct from official OAS channels.[^12] In 1982, Plaza co-founded the [[Inter-American Dialogue]] think tank with U.S. diplomat [[Sol M. Linowitz]], former U.S. ambassador to the OAS. Linowitz had conceived the idea of assembling citizens from across the hemisphere to set a new regional agenda and proposed it to Plaza as a natural co-chair given his history at the OAS. The Dialogue held its first meeting in 1982 under the auspices of the [[Aspen Institute]], with Plaza serving as the organization's first Latin American co-chair. The Dialogue positioned itself as an independent hemispheric policy forum distinct from official OAS channels.[^13]
### Death ### Death
Galo Plaza died of a heart attack on January 28, 1987, at a hospital in Quito. He was 80 years old. He was survived by his wife Rosario Pallares, whom he had married in 1933, and six children. The family's Hacienda Zuleta in Imbabura Province continued as a working agricultural estate; in 1995 the family established the Galo Plaza Lasso Foundation, a non-governmental organization focused on cultural preservation and community development in the Angochagua region. Galo Plaza died of a heart attack on January 28, 1987, at a hospital in Quito. He was 80 years old. He was survived by his wife Rosario Pallares, whom he had married in 1933, and six children. The family's Hacienda Zuleta in Imbabura Province continued as a working agricultural estate; in 1995 the family established the Galo Plaza Lasso Foundation, a non-governmental organization focused on cultural preservation and community development in the Angochagua region.
[^1]: Encyclopedia.com, "Galo Plaza Lasso," citing George I. Blanksten, *Ecuador: Constitutions and Caudillos* (1951). Plaza's role at Chapultepec and San Francisco is confirmed in multiple biographical sources: he attended both as Ecuador's ambassador to Washington (1944-1946). ### Footnotes
[^2]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995. Ch. 12, 27.
[^3]: Harry S. Truman Library, Photograph Record 66-8157: "The President of Ecuador, Galo Plaza and Nelson Rockefeller at a Pan American Society Dinner." [^1]: Obituary of Galo Plaza Lasso, *The New York Times*, January 29, 1987 (accessed at findagrave.com/memorial/199014200). The obituary states that he was sent to the University of California, "then to the University of Maryland, where he received a degree in agronomy, and to the Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in Washington, where he got a degree in Diplomacy."
[^4]: FRUS 1948, Vol. IX (The Western Hemisphere), Document 433: Despatch No. 710 from Ambassador John F. Simmons to the Department of State, September 3, 1948. Available at history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1948v09/d433. [^2]: Encyclopedia.com, "Galo Plaza Lasso," citing George I. Blanksten, *Ecuador: Constitutions and Caudillos* (1951). Plaza's role at Chapultepec and San Francisco is confirmed in multiple biographical sources: he attended both as Ecuador's ambassador to Washington (1944-1946).
[^5]: FRUS 1952-54, Vol. IV, Document 231: Miller memorandum comparing political transitions in Ecuador, Chile, and Brazil, 1952-1953. [^3]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995. Ch. 12, 27.
[^6]: Stacy May and Galo Plaza, *The United Fruit Company in Latin America*. Washington: National Planning Association, 1958. [^4]: Harry S. Truman Library, Photograph Record 66-8157: "The President of Ecuador, Galo Plaza and Nelson Rockefeller at a Pan American Society Dinner."
[^7]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12. SIL's own account of its Ecuador entry appears in SIL activity reports; the Middlebury College summary of "The Summer Institute of Linguistics and Indigenous Movements" (2018) confirms the 1952-1953 entry under Plaza's invitation. [^5]: FRUS 1948, Vol. IX (The Western Hemisphere), Document 433: Despatch No. 710 from Ambassador John F. Simmons to the Department of State, September 3, 1948. Available at history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1948v09/d433.
[^8]: FRUS 1958-60, Vol. VI (Cuba), Document 189: State Department communication, approximately December 23, 1958, regarding ex-President Arias of Panama and ex-President Plaza of Ecuador in contact about good offices for Cuba. Available at history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v06/d189. [^6]: FRUS 1952-54, Vol. IV, Document 231: Miller memorandum comparing political transitions in Ecuador, Chile, and Brazil, 1952-1953.
[^9]: Cambridge University Journal of Global History article: "Reputation on the (green) line: revisiting the 'Plaza moment' in United Nations peacekeeping practice, 1964-1966." Plaza's appointment as UN mediator for Cyprus dated to September 16, 1964; his report submitted March 26, 1965. [^7]: Stacy May and Galo Plaza, *The United Fruit Company in Latin America*. Washington: National Planning Association, 1958.
[^10]: FRUS 1977-80, Vol. XV (Central America), persons index entry for Plaza Lasso, Galo. [^8]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12. SIL's own account of its Ecuador entry appears in SIL activity reports; the Middlebury College summary of "The Summer Institute of Linguistics and Indigenous Movements" (2018) confirms the 1952-1953 entry under Plaza's invitation.
[^11]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12, 19. [^9]: FRUS 1958-60, Vol. VI (Cuba), Document 189: State Department communication, approximately December 23, 1958, regarding ex-President Arias of Panama and ex-President Plaza of Ecuador in contact about good offices for Cuba. Available at history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v06/d189.
[^12]: Inter-American Dialogue, founding history. Sol M. Linowitz, former U.S. ambassador to the OAS, co-chaired with Plaza. First meeting held 1982 under Aspen Institute auspices. [^10]: Cambridge University Journal of Global History article: "Reputation on the (green) line: revisiting the 'Plaza moment' in United Nations peacekeeping practice, 1964-1966." Plaza's appointment as UN mediator for Cyprus dated to September 16, 1964; his report submitted March 26, 1965.
[^11]: FRUS 1977-80, Vol. XV (Central America), persons index entry for Plaza Lasso, Galo.
[^12]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12, 19.
[^13]: Inter-American Dialogue, founding history. Sol M. Linowitz, former U.S. ambassador to the OAS, co-chaired with Plaza. First meeting held 1982 under Aspen Institute auspices.

3
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Gerald G. Oplinger.md
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@ -18,9 +18,12 @@ Gerald G. Oplinger was an aide to [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]] for global issues. He
In a memorandum of January 23, 1980 to Owen, Oplinger wrote that he had told the State Department to put the press release and congressional consultations on hold, and that the [[Department of Energy]], the [[Department of Defense]] and technical people within the intelligence community had "sufficient doubts about the Press panel report to make it very dangerous to proceed without another look." He wrote that [[John Deutch]] and Dan Murphy felt strongly that unless the questions were given "a further airing, there will be continued internal dissent and an appearance that policy people (including the White House) did a whitewash for political reasons."[^4] In a memorandum of January 23, 1980 to Owen, Oplinger wrote that he had told the State Department to put the press release and congressional consultations on hold, and that the [[Department of Energy]], the [[Department of Defense]] and technical people within the intelligence community had "sufficient doubts about the Press panel report to make it very dangerous to proceed without another look." He wrote that [[John Deutch]] and Dan Murphy felt strongly that unless the questions were given "a further airing, there will be continued internal dissent and an appearance that policy people (including the White House) did a whitewash for political reasons."[^4]
The "Press panel" that the memorandum criticizes was the review that the presidential science adviser, [[Frank Press]], had convened under [[Jack P. Ruina|Jack Ruina]]. The National Security Archive's briefing book on the Vela incident identifies it in those terms and describes the memorandum as Oplinger's report that the intelligence community was dissatisfied with the review's treatment of the Vela signals and of an ionospheric disturbance.[^5] The memorandum records the intelligence community's view on the Arecibo ionospheric signals in the words "DoE and DoD say no."[^5] The Press panel is the Vela review and is not the psychic research panel.
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Richelson, Jeffrey T., ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006, narrative. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/index.htm [^1]: Richelson, Jeffrey T., ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006, narrative. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/index.htm
[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20. [^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20.
[^3]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XVI, Southern Africa, Document 361. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v16/d361 [^3]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XVI, Southern Africa, Document 361. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v16/d361
[^4]: Oplinger, Jerry, memorandum to Henry Owen, "South Atlantic Event," January 23, 1980, Secret. Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, NLC-28-32-4-16-5; Document 33 in Burr, William, and Avner Cohen, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 570, December 6, 2016. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979-raised-questions-about-nuclear-test [^4]: Oplinger, Jerry, memorandum to Henry Owen, "South Atlantic Event," January 23, 1980, Secret. Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, NLC-28-32-4-16-5; Document 33 in Burr, William, and Avner Cohen, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 570, December 6, 2016. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979-raised-questions-about-nuclear-test
[^5]: William Burr and Avner Cohen, "The Vela Incident," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 570, narrative and document 33 (Jerry Oplinger to Henry Owen, "South Atlantic Event," January 23, 1980, Secret, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, NLC-28-32-4-16-5).

69
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Jonathan Pollard.md
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@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ aliases:
- Jonathan J. Pollard - Jonathan J. Pollard
- Pollard - Pollard
created: 2026-10-12 created: 2026-10-12
updated: 2026-10-12 updated: 2026-10-15
born: 1954-08-07 born: 1954-08-07
location: "Galveston, Texas" location: "Galveston, Texas"
summary: "Jonathan Jay Pollard was a Navy civilian intelligence analyst who spied for Israel from 1984 to 1985, was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1987, and was paroled in 2015." summary: "Jonathan Jay Pollard was a Navy civilian intelligence analyst who spied for Israel from 1984 to 1985, was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1987, and was paroled in 2015."
@ -164,33 +164,35 @@ Ben-Menashe's claim that Robert McFarlane had been recruited by Rafael Eitan and
The opinion describes Ben-Menashe as "a self-professed former Israeli spy and a major source for conspiracy theorists," and records that the Esquire article quoted intelligence officials and journalists calling him a "fake" and a "con man."[^62] The same opinion notes that "[i]n Pollard's case there were persistent allegations about another, unnamed American who secretly worked for the Israelis."[^63] The opinion describes Ben-Menashe as "a self-professed former Israeli spy and a major source for conspiracy theorists," and records that the Esquire article quoted intelligence officials and journalists calling him a "fake" and a "con man."[^62] The same opinion notes that "[i]n Pollard's case there were persistent allegations about another, unnamed American who secretly worked for the Israelis."[^63]
In *McFarlane v. Sheridan Square Press*, decided August 16, 1996, the same court affirmed summary judgment for the publisher of Ben-Menashe's 1992 book *Profits of War* on the ground that McFarlane could not show actual malice. The opinion summarizes the book's allegation that McFarlane played an important role in the October Surprise negotiations and was an Israeli spy, and states that "the entire October Surprise story was thoroughly discredited" in the joint report of the House task force that investigated the allegations, H.R. Rep. No. 102-1102 (1993).[^64]
### Israeli Inquiries ### Israeli Inquiries
After Pollard's arrest, the top Israeli leadership denied having any knowledge of his activities. Pollard himself argued that his Israeli handlers told him that "Israel's dependence upon a 'special source'" had been mentioned at Israeli cabinet meetings. He also stated that he was routinely provided with lists of intelligence items wanted, coordinated and prioritized by the heads of all the various military intelligence services. Much of the material he supplied, such as satellite photographs and communication intercepts, was clearly not being transferred through official channels.[^64] After Pollard's arrest, the top Israeli leadership denied having any knowledge of his activities. Pollard himself argued that his Israeli handlers told him that "Israel's dependence upon a 'special source'" had been mentioned at Israeli cabinet meetings. He also stated that he was routinely provided with lists of intelligence items wanted, coordinated and prioritized by the heads of all the various military intelligence services. Much of the material he supplied, such as satellite photographs and communication intercepts, was clearly not being transferred through official channels.[^65]
The [[Los Angeles Times]] reported on November 29, 1985 that Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]], Defense Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]] and Foreign Minister Shamir had been meeting daily to review the internal investigation, and that the essential elements of the case were believed to be clear to the three.[^65] In late February 1987 the Israeli embassy spokesman [[Yossi Gal]] said that Shamir had reiterated on a recent visit to Washington "that this was a rogue operation that was not authorized and against the will of the government."[^66] In a report from Jerusalem published March 11, 1987, [[Thomas L. Friedman]] quoted Shamir: "The State of Israel has no connection with Pollard or his family."[^67] The [[Los Angeles Times]] reported on November 29, 1985 that Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]], Defense Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]] and Foreign Minister Shamir had been meeting daily to review the internal investigation, and that the essential elements of the case were believed to be clear to the three.[^66] In late February 1987 the Israeli embassy spokesman [[Yossi Gal]] said that Shamir had reiterated on a recent visit to Washington "that this was a rogue operation that was not authorized and against the will of the government."[^67] In a report from Jerusalem published March 11, 1987, [[Thomas L. Friedman]] quoted Shamir: "The State of Israel has no connection with Pollard or his family."[^68]
The Knesset's intelligence subcommittee, chaired by [[Abba Eban]], and a two-member cabinet panel chaired by Tel Aviv lawyer [[Yehoshua Rotenstreich]] reported on May 26, 1987. The Post reported that neither panel found evidence that the leadership knew of the operation, but that both found the senior political leadership responsible for failing to uncover and end it. The seven-member subcommittee singled out Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin and his predecessor [[Moshe Arens]], and said that Shimon Peres, Shamir and Rabin shared responsibility for the government's failure to live up to commitments made to the United States after Pollard's arrest. The Post reported that, contrary to government statements at the time, the subcommittee's report said the affair was "not a rogue operation" but one conducted by Israeli officials using official resources.[^68] The subcommittee accused Eitan of "a gross excess of authority" and said Sella "excessively involved himself on his own initiative." It indicated that Sella may have lied in his testimony about the extent of his role, and it criticized the Army Chief of Staff, [[Moshe Levy]], and [[Amos Lapidot]] for allowing Sella leave to take part in what they surmised was a sensitive espionage mission.[^69] The Rotenstreich panel contended that the "ruling troika" of Peres, Shamir and Rabin "did not take care to clarify facts sufficiently before transferring them to the U.S. authorities." The Post reported that the troika had reportedly pressed Rotenstreich to hand in his report after learning that Eban's was to be released, in the hope that his findings would be milder.[^70] Shamir told reporters that the government had no intention of resigning and that "the mountain was really a molehill and the earth did not move."[^71] The Knesset's intelligence subcommittee, chaired by [[Abba Eban]], and a two-member cabinet panel chaired by Tel Aviv lawyer [[Yehoshua Rotenstreich]] reported on May 26, 1987. The Post reported that neither panel found evidence that the leadership knew of the operation, but that both found the senior political leadership responsible for failing to uncover and end it. The seven-member subcommittee singled out Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin and his predecessor [[Moshe Arens]], and said that Shimon Peres, Shamir and Rabin shared responsibility for the government's failure to live up to commitments made to the United States after Pollard's arrest. The Post reported that, contrary to government statements at the time, the subcommittee's report said the affair was "not a rogue operation" but one conducted by Israeli officials using official resources.[^69] The subcommittee accused Eitan of "a gross excess of authority" and said Sella "excessively involved himself on his own initiative." It indicated that Sella may have lied in his testimony about the extent of his role, and it criticized the Army Chief of Staff, [[Moshe Levy]], and [[Amos Lapidot]] for allowing Sella leave to take part in what they surmised was a sensitive espionage mission.[^70] The Rotenstreich panel contended that the "ruling troika" of Peres, Shamir and Rabin "did not take care to clarify facts sufficiently before transferring them to the U.S. authorities." The Post reported that the troika had reportedly pressed Rotenstreich to hand in his report after learning that Eban's was to be released, in the hope that his findings would be milder.[^71] Shamir told reporters that the government had no intention of resigning and that "the mountain was really a molehill and the earth did not move."[^72]
The Israeli Cabinet adopted the Rotenstreich findings, which held the entire government collectively responsible for failure to know that a secret spy unit in the Defense Ministry had hired Pollard.[^72] Rabin and Peres attacked the subcommittee as politically tainted. The subcommittee's report accused Rabin of failing "to follow up or increase supervision as he should have done" during the fourteen months when Pollard was active, and the Post reported that it criticized the promotions of Sella and Eitan, who became chairman of the country's largest state-owned company.[^70] The Israeli Cabinet adopted the Rotenstreich findings, which held the entire government collectively responsible for failure to know that a secret spy unit in the Defense Ministry had hired Pollard.[^73] Rabin and Peres attacked the subcommittee as politically tainted. The subcommittee's report accused Rabin of failing "to follow up or increase supervision as he should have done" during the fourteen months when Pollard was active, and the Post reported that it criticized the promotions of Sella and Eitan, who became chairman of the country's largest state-owned company.[^71]
The Post reported that Sella had been indicted by a federal grand jury in Washington in March 1987 for his role in the affair.[^73] Hersh wrote that after American protests Sella was instead named head of the Israel Defense Forces staff college, and that he later retired from the air force.[^74] The Post reported that Sella's promotion to command one of Israel's largest air bases had set off a storm of controversy in the United States, and that he eventually resigned from the new post, citing his concern for U.S.-Israeli relations.[^75] The Post reported that Sella had been indicted by a federal grand jury in Washington in March 1987 for his role in the affair.[^74] Hersh wrote that after American protests Sella was instead named head of the Israel Defense Forces staff college, and that he later retired from the air force.[^75] The Post reported that Sella's promotion to command one of Israel's largest air bases had set off a storm of controversy in the United States, and that he eventually resigned from the new post, citing his concern for U.S.-Israeli relations.[^76]
The Israeli officials most tarnished by the affair were Eitan and Sella. Eitan did not suffer financially. He was subsequently named to a high administrative position with the Israel Chemicals Company, an appointment authorized by Ariel Sharon.[^76] Hersh wrote that Sella was promoted to brigadier general after his return from the United States and assigned as commander of [[Tel Nof]], the site of Israel's nuclear-ready air force squadron.[^77] The Christian Science Monitor reported that the committees criticized the government for appointing Sella commander of Tel Nof Air Force Base after his involvement in the affair became known.[^78] The Israeli officials most tarnished by the affair were Eitan and Sella. Eitan did not suffer financially. He was subsequently named to a high administrative position with the Israel Chemicals Company, an appointment authorized by Ariel Sharon.[^77] Hersh wrote that Sella was promoted to brigadier general after his return from the United States and assigned as commander of [[Tel Nof]], the site of Israel's nuclear-ready air force squadron.[^78] The Christian Science Monitor reported that the committees criticized the government for appointing Sella commander of Tel Nof Air Force Base after his involvement in the affair became known.[^79]
### Aftermath and Sella's Account ### Aftermath and Sella's Account
Pollard refused to cooperate with the U.S. Attorney's Office in Washington for six months before finally giving up Sella's name as part of a plea bargain. It is not known whether prosecutors realized at the time that Sella's mission was linked to nuclear intelligence. Hersh wrote that Sella was indicted in absentia in March 1987 and declared a fugitive from justice in June 1990, and that the Israeli government refused U.S. demands for his extradition.[^79] Pollard refused to cooperate with the U.S. Attorney's Office in Washington for six months before finally giving up Sella's name as part of a plea bargain. It is not known whether prosecutors realized at the time that Sella's mission was linked to nuclear intelligence. Hersh wrote that Sella was indicted in absentia in March 1987 and declared a fugitive from justice in June 1990, and that the Israeli government refused U.S. demands for his extradition.[^80]
Sella has given friends and colleagues an account of his involvement that is more credible, but still far short of the whole story. He claimed he was recruited to try to control Pollard, who was drowning the Israeli intelligence bureaucracy in documents. Sella, who had almost completed his Ph.D. in computer science at [[New York University]], believed his technical training would be an asset in evaluating and perhaps winnowing down Pollard's materials. He knew that Pollard had been recruited long before 1984, but was eager for the assignment, believing it would advance his career. He checked with his superior, Major General Lapidot, who assured him that Pollard was not a rogue and that clearance for his new assignment had been obtained from the defense minister, Yitzhak Rabin. Once involved, Sella complained that Pollard "was running crazy" and "was giving him things he didn't want and didn't need."[^80] Sella has given friends and colleagues an account of his involvement that is more credible, but still far short of the whole story. He claimed he was recruited to try to control Pollard, who was drowning the Israeli intelligence bureaucracy in documents. Sella, who had almost completed his Ph.D. in computer science at [[New York University]], believed his technical training would be an asset in evaluating and perhaps winnowing down Pollard's materials. He knew that Pollard had been recruited long before 1984, but was eager for the assignment, believing it would advance his career. He checked with his superior, Major General Lapidot, who assured him that Pollard was not a rogue and that clearance for his new assignment had been obtained from the defense minister, Yitzhak Rabin. Once involved, Sella complained that Pollard "was running crazy" and "was giving him things he didn't want and didn't need."[^81]
[[Leonard Garment]], hired by Israel to represent Sella, attempted to resolve the affair. He was pressured by a six-man Israeli delegation, including [[Chaim Joseph Zadok]], [[Meir Rosenne]], [[Elyakim Rubinstein]], [[Ram Caspi]], [[Avraham Shalom]], and [[Hanan Bar-on]], to file a factual proffer that downplayed Sella's involvement. Garment eventually withdrew from the case, stating he was unsure whether his client was Sella or the Israeli government. With his withdrawal, the Israeli government ended its attempt to protect Sella, effectively ending Sella's career.[^81] [[Leonard Garment]], hired by Israel to represent Sella, attempted to resolve the affair. He was pressured by a six-man Israeli delegation, including [[Chaim Joseph Zadok]], [[Meir Rosenne]], [[Elyakim Rubinstein]], [[Ram Caspi]], [[Avraham Shalom]], and [[Hanan Bar-on]], to file a factual proffer that downplayed Sella's involvement. Garment eventually withdrew from the case, stating he was unsure whether his client was Sella or the Israeli government. With his withdrawal, the Israeli government ended its attempt to protect Sella, effectively ending Sella's career.[^82]
### Parole and Departure ### Parole and Departure
Pollard was released from prison on November 20, 2015 and placed on parole. His conditions included a curfew, an electronic monitor that tracked his location, limits on the jobs he could take, and a prohibition on leaving the United States.[^56][^82] On November 20, 2020 the Justice Department announced that he had completed his parole. The Parole Commission said there was "no evidence to conclude that he is likely to violate the law." His lawyers, Eliot Lauer and Jacques Semmelman, said that he was "now a free man in all respects."[^83] Pollard was released from prison on November 20, 2015 and placed on parole. His conditions included a curfew, an electronic monitor that tracked his location, limits on the jobs he could take, and a prohibition on leaving the United States.[^56][^83] On November 20, 2020 the Justice Department announced that he had completed his parole. The Parole Commission said there was "no evidence to conclude that he is likely to violate the law." His lawyers, Eliot Lauer and Jacques Semmelman, said that he was "now a free man in all respects."[^84]
On December 30, 2020 Pollard and his wife Esther arrived at Ben Gurion International Airport on a private plane provided by the casino owner [[Sheldon Adelson]]. Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] greeted them and presented them with Israeli identity cards. Pollard said, "We are ecstatic to be home at last after 35 years."[^84] On December 30, 2020 Pollard and his wife Esther arrived at Ben Gurion International Airport on a private plane provided by the casino owner [[Sheldon Adelson]]. Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] greeted them and presented them with Israeli identity cards. Pollard said, "We are ecstatic to be home at last after 35 years."[^85]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -257,24 +259,25 @@ On December 30, 2020 Pollard and his wife Esther arrived at Ben Gurion Internati
[^61]: *McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine*, 74 F.3d 1296 (D.C. Cir. 1996), No. 94-7137, decided January 30, 1996. https://static.case.law/f3d/74/cases/1296-01.json Affirmance of the judgment for Esquire and the dismissal of the claim against Unger. [^61]: *McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine*, 74 F.3d 1296 (D.C. Cir. 1996), No. 94-7137, decided January 30, 1996. https://static.case.law/f3d/74/cases/1296-01.json Affirmance of the judgment for Esquire and the dismissal of the claim against Unger.
[^62]: *McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine*, 74 F.3d 1296 (D.C. Cir. 1996), No. 94-7137, decided January 30, 1996. https://static.case.law/f3d/74/cases/1296-01.json Description of Ben-Menashe and of the Esquire article's treatment of his credibility. [^62]: *McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine*, 74 F.3d 1296 (D.C. Cir. 1996), No. 94-7137, decided January 30, 1996. https://static.case.law/f3d/74/cases/1296-01.json Description of Ben-Menashe and of the Esquire article's treatment of his credibility.
[^63]: *McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine*, 74 F.3d 1296 (D.C. Cir. 1996), No. 94-7137, decided January 30, 1996. https://static.case.law/f3d/74/cases/1296-01.json The opinion's note on persistent allegations about an unnamed second American. [^63]: *McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine*, 74 F.3d 1296 (D.C. Cir. 1996), No. 94-7137, decided January 30, 1996. https://static.case.law/f3d/74/cases/1296-01.json The opinion's note on persistent allegations about an unnamed second American.
[^64]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Pollard's account of what his handlers told him about cabinet discussion and intelligence priorities. [^64]: *McFarlane v. Sheridan Square Press, Inc.*, 91 F.3d 1501 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 16, 1996), Williams, Ginsburg and Rogers, JJ. https://static.case.law/f3d/91/cases/1501-01.json
[^65]: "Pollard" report, *Los Angeles Times*, November 29, 1985. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000504890020-7 [^65]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Pollard's account of what his handlers told him about cabinet discussion and intelligence priorities.
[^66]: *The Washington Post*, February 28, 1987. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000403620005-5 [^66]: "Pollard" report, *Los Angeles Times*, November 29, 1985. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000504890020-7
[^67]: Thomas L. Friedman, "Shamir Says Pollard's Fate Is No Concern of Israel," *The New York Times*, March 11, 1987. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000302120009-8 [^67]: *The Washington Post*, February 28, 1987. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000403620005-5
[^68]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The two reports of May 26, 1987; the subcommittee's statement that the affair was not a rogue operation. [^68]: Thomas L. Friedman, "Shamir Says Pollard's Fate Is No Concern of Israel," *The New York Times*, March 11, 1987. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000302120009-8
[^69]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The subcommittee's findings on Eitan and Sella, and its criticism of Levy and Lapidot. [^69]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The two reports of May 26, 1987; the subcommittee's statement that the affair was not a rogue operation.
[^70]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The Rotenstreich report's statement on the troika; the pressure to file it; Rabin and Peres's response to the subcommittee; criticism of Rabin's supervision and of the Sella and Eitan promotions. [^70]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The subcommittee's findings on Eitan and Sella, and its criticism of Levy and Lapidot.
[^71]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Shamir's remark to reporters. [^71]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The Rotenstreich report's statement on the troika; the pressure to file it; Rabin and Peres's response to the subcommittee; criticism of Rabin's supervision and of the Sella and Eitan promotions.
[^72]: "Israel hopes that book is now closed on Pollard spy case," *Christian Science Monitor*, May 28, 1987. https://www.csmonitor.com/1987/0528/omary.html Cabinet adoption of the Rotenstreich findings and the collective-responsibility finding. [^72]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Shamir's remark to reporters.
[^73]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Indictment of Sella by a federal grand jury in Washington in March 1987. [^73]: "Israel hopes that book is now closed on Pollard spy case," *Christian Science Monitor*, May 28, 1987. https://www.csmonitor.com/1987/0528/omary.html Cabinet adoption of the Rotenstreich findings and the collective-responsibility finding.
[^74]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's assignment to the staff college after American protests, and his later retirement. [^74]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Indictment of Sella by a federal grand jury in Washington in March 1987.
[^75]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Sella's promotion and his resignation from the Tel Nof post. [^75]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's assignment to the staff college after American protests, and his later retirement.
[^76]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Eitan's post at the Israel Chemicals Company and the Sharon authorization. [^76]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Sella's promotion and his resignation from the Tel Nof post.
[^77]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's promotion to brigadier general and his assignment to Tel Nof. [^77]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Eitan's post at the Israel Chemicals Company and the Sharon authorization.
[^78]: "Israel hopes that book is now closed on Pollard spy case," *Christian Science Monitor*, May 28, 1987. https://www.csmonitor.com/1987/0528/omary.html Committees' criticism of Sella's appointment to command Tel Nof Air Force Base. [^78]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's promotion to brigadier general and his assignment to Tel Nof.
[^79]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's fugitive status in June 1990 and the Israeli refusal of extradition. [^79]: "Israel hopes that book is now closed on Pollard spy case," *Christian Science Monitor*, May 28, 1987. https://www.csmonitor.com/1987/0528/omary.html Committees' criticism of Sella's appointment to command Tel Nof Air Force Base.
[^80]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's account of his role as Hersh relates it, and Pollard's conduct once Sella was involved. [^80]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's fugitive status in June 1990 and the Israeli refusal of extradition.
[^81]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Garment's engagement, the Israeli delegation, and his withdrawal. [^81]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's account of his role as Hersh relates it, and Pollard's conduct once Sella was involved.
[^82]: National Security Archive, "Jonathan Pollard: Revisiting a Still Sensitive Case," Electronic Briefing Book (Richelson, December 14, 2012; reposted November 24, 2020). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2012-12-14/jonathan-pollard-spy-case-cias-1987-damage-assessment-declassified Parole conditions, including the travel restriction, as stated in the November 24, 2020 posting. [^82]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Garment's engagement, the Israeli delegation, and his withdrawal.
[^83]: Matthew S. Schwartz, "Jonathan Pollard, Who Sold Cold War Secrets To Israel, Completes Parole," NPR, carried by *Georgia Public Broadcasting*, November 21, 2020. https://www.gpb.org/news/2020/11/21/jonathan-pollard-who-sold-cold-war-secrets-israel-completes-parole Parole Commission statement and the lawyers' statement. [^83]: National Security Archive, "Jonathan Pollard: Revisiting a Still Sensitive Case," Electronic Briefing Book (Richelson, December 14, 2012; reposted November 24, 2020). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2012-12-14/jonathan-pollard-spy-case-cias-1987-damage-assessment-declassified Parole conditions, including the travel restriction, as stated in the November 24, 2020 posting.
[^84]: Associated Press, "Reports convicted US spy Pollard arrives in Israel," December 30, 2020. https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/world/2020/12/30/reports-convicted-us-spy-pollard-arrives-in-israel/ Arrival on December 30, 2020, the reception and Israeli identity cards. [^84]: Matthew S. Schwartz, "Jonathan Pollard, Who Sold Cold War Secrets To Israel, Completes Parole," NPR, carried by *Georgia Public Broadcasting*, November 21, 2020. https://www.gpb.org/news/2020/11/21/jonathan-pollard-who-sold-cold-war-secrets-israel-completes-parole Parole Commission statement and the lawyers' statement.
[^85]: Associated Press, "Reports convicted US spy Pollard arrives in Israel," December 30, 2020. https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/world/2020/12/30/reports-convicted-us-spy-pollard-arrives-in-israel/ Arrival on December 30, 2020, the reception and Israeli identity cards.

2
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Karl Nell.md
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@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ Nell was a keynote speaker at the first [[Sol Foundation]] symposium, held Novem
### Statements and later appearances ### Statements and later appearances
At a May 21, 2024 SALT iConnections session in [[New York]], Nell and [[Alex Klokus]] appeared under the title "'Zero Doubt' Non-Human Intelligence on Earth."[^3] The same catalogue lists a March 9, 2025 question-and-answer session after the [[South by Southwest]] premiere of the film "The Age of Disclosure," with the producer [[Dan Farah]], [[Jim Semivan]], [[Tim Gallaudet]], [[Hal Puthoff]] and Nolan, and a 2025 appearance at the [[Archives of the Impossible]] conference.[^3] At a May 21, 2024 SALT iConnections session in [[New York City|New York]], Nell and [[Alex Klokus]] appeared under the title "'Zero Doubt' Non-Human Intelligence on Earth."[^3] The same catalogue lists a March 9, 2025 question-and-answer session after the [[South by Southwest]] premiere of the film "The Age of Disclosure," with the producer [[Dan Farah]], [[Jim Semivan]], [[Tim Gallaudet]], [[Hal Puthoff]] and Nolan, and a 2025 appearance at the [[Archives of the Impossible]] conference.[^3]
Nell does not appear among the signatories of the November 12, 2024 letter urging the review-board provisions of the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Disclosure Act]].[^8] His Sol paper of May 2025 argues for enactment of the Act's review-board and eminent-domain provisions "or by executive order."[^2] Nell does not appear among the signatories of the November 12, 2024 letter urging the review-board provisions of the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Disclosure Act]].[^8] His Sol paper of May 2025 argues for enactment of the Act's review-board and eminent-domain provisions "or by executive order."[^2]

2
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Kurt Riezler.md
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@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09 updated: 2026-10-09
--- ---
Kurt Riezler (February 11, 1882 to September 5, 1955) was a German diplomat, political adviser and philosopher of history. He served as secretary and adviser to Chancellor [[Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg]] during the First World War, headed the Russian section of the German legation in [[Stockholm]] in 1917, acted as head of the German mission in [[Moscow]] after the murder of Count [[Wilhelm von Mirbach-Harff]] in 1918, and after emigrating in 1938 taught at the [[New School for Social Research]] in [[New York]].[^1][^2] Kurt Riezler (February 11, 1882 to September 5, 1955) was a German diplomat, political adviser and philosopher of history. He served as secretary and adviser to Chancellor [[Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg]] during the First World War, headed the Russian section of the German legation in [[Stockholm]] in 1917, acted as head of the German mission in [[Moscow]] after the murder of Count [[Wilhelm von Mirbach-Harff]] in 1918, and after emigrating in 1938 taught at the [[New School for Social Research]] in [[New York City|New York]].[^1][^2]
### Adviser to the Chancellor ### Adviser to the Chancellor

45
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Larry Summers.md
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@ -53,38 +53,44 @@ relations:
with: "[[Elisa New]]" with: "[[Elisa New]]"
role: "husband" role: "husband"
fn: 1 fn: 1
- type: appointed
with: "[[Barack Obama]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the National Economic Council"
end: 2010
fn: 4
- type: member_of - type: member_of
with: "[[Minerva Project]]" with: "[[Minerva Project]]"
role: "chairman, advisory board" role: "chairman, advisory board"
start: 2012-04-04 start: 2012-04-04
fn: 5 fn: 6
created: 2026-09-25 created: 2026-09-25
updated: 2026-10-09 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Lawrence H. Summers (born November 30, 1954, in [[New Haven]], [[Connecticut]]) is an American economist who served as [[United States Department of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] under [[Bill Clinton]] from 1999 to 2001 and as president of [[Harvard University]] from 2001 to 2006.[^1] In 2003, during his presidency, Harvard established the [[Program for Evolutionary Dynamics]] with a 6.5 million dollar gift from [[Jeffrey Epstein]], the largest Epstein gift Harvard received.[^2] Emails released by the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]] in November 2025 showed Summers seeking Epstein's advice on his pursuit of a woman who regarded him as a mentor, in messages running until the day before Epstein's July 2019 arrest. Within three weeks Summers had resigned from the board of [[OpenAI]], taken leave from his Harvard center, and been banned for life by the [[American Economic Association]].[^1][^3] Lawrence H. Summers (born November 30, 1954, in [[New Haven]], [[Connecticut]]) is an American economist who served as [[United States Department of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] under [[Bill Clinton]] from 1999 to 2001 and as president of [[Harvard University]] from 2001 to 2006.[^1] In 2003, during his presidency, Harvard established the [[Program for Evolutionary Dynamics]] with a 6.5 million dollar gift from [[Jeffrey Epstein]], the largest Epstein gift Harvard received.[^2] Emails released by the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]] in November 2025 showed Summers seeking Epstein's advice on his pursuit of a woman who regarded him as a mentor, in messages running until the day before Epstein's July 2019 arrest. Within three weeks Summers had resigned from the board of [[OpenAI]], taken leave from his Harvard center, and been banned for life by the [[American Economic Association]].[^1][^3]
### Treasury and Harvard ### Treasury and Harvard
Summers was Treasury secretary for the last two years of the Clinton administration and became Harvard's president in 2001, serving five years.[^1] He remained on the faculty afterward with the rank of University Professor, Harvard's highest, and directed the [[Mossavar-Rahmani Center for Business and Government]] at the [[Harvard Kennedy School]].[^3] Summers was Treasury secretary for the last two years of the Clinton administration and became Harvard's president in 2001, serving five years.[^1] He remained on the faculty afterward with the rank of University Professor, Harvard's highest, and directed the [[Mossavar-Rahmani Center for Business and Government]] at the [[Harvard Kennedy School]].[^3] Summers directed the [[National Economic Council]] in the first [[Barack Obama]] administration and announced in September 2010 that he would leave at the end of that year and return to his professorship at Harvard.[^4]
### The Program for Evolutionary Dynamics ### The Program for Evolutionary Dynamics
Harvard had courted Epstein as a donor from 1992 and received his first gift in 1998. Between 1998 and 2006 he made 22 gifts totaling 8,443,000 dollars, most between 10,000 and 200,000 dollars, with one exception: 6.5 million dollars in 2003 for the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics, led by the mathematical biologist [[Martin Nowak]], whom Harvard recruited from the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in Princeton, where Epstein had already funded his work.[^2] The program's original website stated: "The Program for Evolutionary Dynamics was established in 2003 by Harvard University President Lawrence H. Summers following an imaginative proposal by Jeffrey Epstein and [[Benedict Gross]]."[^2] The gift paid for a separate research facility in a leased building in [[Harvard Square]].[^2] Harvard had courted Epstein as a donor from 1992 and received his first gift in 1998. Between 1998 and 2006 he made 22 gifts totaling 8,443,000 dollars, most between 10,000 and 200,000 dollars, with one exception: 6.5 million dollars in 2003 for the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics, led by the mathematical biologist [[Martin Nowak]], whom Harvard recruited from the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in Princeton, where Epstein had already funded his work.[^2] The program's original website stated: "The Program for Evolutionary Dynamics was established in 2003 by Harvard University President Lawrence H. Summers following an imaginative proposal by Jeffrey Epstein and [[Benedict Gross]]."[^2] The gift paid for a separate research facility in a leased building in [[Harvard Square]].[^2]
Press reports at the time described the gift as part of a 30 million dollar pledge; Harvard's 2020 review "found no Harvard record of such a pledge."[^2] Epstein's own foundation website was still claiming in 2020 that he had established the program "with a $35 million gift."[^2] Harvard stopped accepting Epstein's gifts under Summers's successor, [[Drew Faust]], no later than November 2008.[^2] The review found that Epstein kept a keycard, a passcode, and an office at the program's building into 2018, visiting more than forty times after his 2008 conviction.[^2] Epstein used the suite for dinner parties organized by Nowak's assistants, among them the celebration of Summers's sixtieth birthday.[^4] Press reports at the time described the gift as part of a 30 million dollar pledge; Harvard's 2020 review "found no Harvard record of such a pledge."[^2] Epstein's own foundation website was still claiming in 2020 that he had established the program "with a $35 million gift."[^2] Harvard stopped accepting Epstein's gifts under Summers's successor, [[Drew Faust]], no later than November 2008.[^2] The review found that Epstein kept a keycard, a passcode, and an office at the program's building into 2018, visiting more than forty times after his 2008 conviction.[^2] Epstein used the suite for dinner parties organized by Nowak's assistants, among them the celebration of Summers's sixtieth birthday.[^5]
### Minerva advisory board ### Minerva advisory board
On April 4, 2012 the [[Minerva Project]], a for-profit education company founded by [[Ben Nelson]], announced that Summers had joined as "Chairman of Advisory Board" in the same release that announced a $25 million seed investment from [[Benchmark Capital]]. Summers is quoted: "I was excited by Ben Nelson's bold vision for Minerva" and "am proud to be a part of it."[^5] The company's release of January 14, 2013, which announced [[Bob Kerrey]] as executive chairman of The Minerva Institute for Research and Scholarship, describes Summers as "Former Harvard University President" who "serves as chairman of Minerva's Advisory Board," and its release of March 12, 2013 naming [[Stephen Kosslyn|Stephen M. Kosslyn]] Founding Dean quotes Summers as "chairman of the Minerva Project Advisory Board."[^6][^7] An undated company overview in the Epstein files gives the same description and lists the other members as [[Patrick Harker]], Bob Kerrey and [[Lee Shulman]].[^8] On July 26, 2013 the educator [[Roger Schank]] wrote to Epstein under the subject "minerva project" that "now I see your buddy summers on it."[^9] On April 4, 2012 the [[Minerva Project]], a for-profit education company founded by [[Ben Nelson]], announced that Summers had joined as "Chairman of Advisory Board" in the same release that announced a $25 million seed investment from [[Benchmark Capital]]. Summers is quoted: "I was excited by Ben Nelson's bold vision for Minerva" and "am proud to be a part of it."[^6] The company's release of January 14, 2013, which announced [[Bob Kerrey]] as executive chairman of The Minerva Institute for Research and Scholarship, describes Summers as "Former Harvard University President" who "serves as chairman of Minerva's Advisory Board," and its release of March 12, 2013 naming [[Stephen Kosslyn|Stephen M. Kosslyn]] Founding Dean quotes Summers as "chairman of the Minerva Project Advisory Board."[^7][^8] An undated company overview in the Epstein files gives the same description and lists the other members as [[Patrick Harker]], Bob Kerrey and [[Lee Shulman]].[^9] On July 26, 2013 the educator [[Roger Schank]] wrote to Epstein under the subject "minerva project" that "now I see your buddy summers on it."[^10]
### The 2014 Philanthropy Contact ### The 2014 Philanthropy Contact
Epstein's calendars show Summers meeting him more than a dozen times between 2013 and 2016, in the years after Harvard had stopped accepting Epstein's money; a Summers spokesperson said in 2023 that he "deeply regrets being in contact with Epstein."[^10] The *[[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]]*'s 2023 reporting on Epstein's calendars recorded that in April 2014 Summers sought Epstein's advice on small-scale philanthropy, to help raise one million dollars for an online poetry project developed by his wife, the Harvard literature professor [[Elisa New]].[^10] New later emailed Epstein herself, including a 2015 message thanking him for arranging financial support for the poetry project she directs.[^1] On November 17, 2014, six years after Harvard stopped taking his gifts, Epstein wrote to Summers: "harvard ok with donation?"[^11] Epstein's calendars show Summers meeting him more than a dozen times between 2013 and 2016, in the years after Harvard had stopped accepting Epstein's money; a Summers spokesperson said in 2023 that he "deeply regrets being in contact with Epstein."[^11] The *[[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]]*'s 2023 reporting on Epstein's calendars recorded that in April 2014 Summers sought Epstein's advice on small-scale philanthropy, to help raise one million dollars for an online poetry project developed by his wife, the Harvard literature professor [[Elisa New]].[^11] New later emailed Epstein herself, including a 2015 message thanking him for arranging financial support for the poetry project she directs.[^1] On November 17, 2014, six years after Harvard stopped taking his gifts, Epstein wrote to Summers: "harvard ok with donation?"[^12]
### The Churkin Meeting ### The Churkin Meeting
On January 13, 2016, Epstein arranged by iMessage a meeting for the next day with [[Vitaly Churkin]], Russia's ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. After Churkin proposed Thursday, Epstein wrote "2?", then "Larry summers will be here as well," and then "Or 12 if you prefer privacy." Churkin replied, "2OK." On January 14 Epstein wrote to Churkin, "Running 15 minutes late."[^12] Eleven days earlier Epstein had offered Churkin a meal with [[Ehud Barak]], who was "in town this week."[^12] On January 13, 2016, Epstein arranged by iMessage a meeting for the next day with [[Vitaly Churkin]], Russia's ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. After Churkin proposed Thursday, Epstein wrote "2?", then "Larry summers will be here as well," and then "Or 12 if you prefer privacy." Churkin replied, "2OK." On January 14 Epstein wrote to Churkin, "Running 15 minutes late."[^13] Eleven days earlier Epstein had offered Churkin a meal with [[Ehud Barak]], who was "in town this week."[^13]
### The 2018 and 2019 Emails ### The 2018 and 2019 Emails
@ -92,22 +98,23 @@ The House Oversight Committee released more than 20,000 documents from Epstein's
### Resignations and the Lifetime Ban ### Resignations and the Lifetime Ban
On November 17, 2025, Summers announced that he would step back from public commitments: "I am deeply ashamed of my actions and recognize the pain they have caused. I take full responsibility for my misguided decision to continue communicating with Mr. Epstein."[^13] He then left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab and his fellowship at the [[Center for American Progress]], and the [[New York Times]] declined to renew his contributor contract.[^1][^13] On November 19 he resigned from the OpenAI board, where he had sat since November 2023, when he was added after the brief ouster of [[Sam Altman]]. The board said it respected his decision and appreciated "the perspective he brought to the Board."[^3][^13] The same day he took leave from the Mossavar-Rahmani Center; a Harvard Kennedy School spokesman, Steven Goldberg, said co-teachers would finish his courses and that "he is not scheduled to teach next semester." Harvard said it was "conducting a review of information concerning individuals at Harvard included in the newly released Jeffrey Epstein documents to evaluate what actions may be warranted."[^3] On November 17, 2025, Summers announced that he would step back from public commitments: "I am deeply ashamed of my actions and recognize the pain they have caused. I take full responsibility for my misguided decision to continue communicating with Mr. Epstein."[^14] He then left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab and his fellowship at the [[Center for American Progress]], and the [[New York Times]] declined to renew his contributor contract.[^1][^14] On November 19 he resigned from the OpenAI board, where he had sat since November 2023, when he was added after the brief ouster of [[Sam Altman]]. The board said it respected his decision and appreciated "the perspective he brought to the Board."[^3][^14] The same day he took leave from the Mossavar-Rahmani Center; a Harvard Kennedy School spokesman, Steven Goldberg, said co-teachers would finish his courses and that "he is not scheduled to teach next semester." Harvard said it was "conducting a review of information concerning individuals at Harvard included in the newly released Jeffrey Epstein documents to evaluate what actions may be warranted."[^3]
On December 2, 2025, the American Economic Association accepted Summers's resignation and barred him for life from "attending, speaking at, or otherwise participating" in its events, calling his conduct "fundamentally inconsistent with its standards of professional integrity and with the trust placed in mentors within the economics profession." Summers declined to comment on the ban; the previous week he had called his association with Epstein a "major error in judgement."[^1] In February 2026, after further [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] releases, Summers resigned from Harvard.[^4] No legal proceeding has named him. On December 2, 2025, the American Economic Association accepted Summers's resignation and barred him for life from "attending, speaking at, or otherwise participating" in its events, calling his conduct "fundamentally inconsistent with its standards of professional integrity and with the trust placed in mentors within the economics profession." Summers declined to comment on the ban; the previous week he had called his association with Epstein a "major error in judgement."[^1] In February 2026, after further [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] releases, Summers resigned from Harvard.[^5] No legal proceeding has named him.
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association." Associated Press via *Fortune,* December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association [^1]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association." Associated Press via *Fortune,* December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
[^2]: Lopez, Diane E., Ara B. Gershengorn, and Martin F. Murphy. *Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University.* Harvard University Office of the General Counsel, May 2020, pp. 3-5, 13, 20-22. https://ogc.harvard.edu/report-concerning-Epstein [^2]: Lopez, Diane E., Ara B. Gershengorn, and Martin F. Murphy. *Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University.* Harvard University Office of the General Counsel, May 2020, pp. 3-5, 13, 20-22. https://ogc.harvard.edu/report-concerning-Epstein
[^3]: "Summers Resigns From OpenAI Board Amid Backlash Over Epstein Emails." *The Harvard Crimson,* November 19, 2025. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2025/11/19/summers-resigns-open-ai/ [^3]: "Summers Resigns From OpenAI Board Amid Backlash Over Epstein Emails." *The Harvard Crimson,* November 19, 2025. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2025/11/19/summers-resigns-open-ai/
[^4]: Fernandes, Deirdre, and Tricia L. Nadolny. "Introductions to women. Free flights. Business deals. Jeffrey Epstein's ties to Harvard run deeper than previously known." *The Boston Globe,* February 25, 2026. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2026/02/25/metro/jeffrey-epstein-harvard-spotlight-report/ [^4]: PBS NewsHour, "Obama economic team turning over as Larry Summers departs," September 21, 2010. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/obama-economic-team-turning-over-as-larry-summers-departs
[^5]: Minerva Project, "The Minerva Project Redefines Elite Higher Education for Students Worldwide; Secures $25 Million from Benchmark Capital," April 4, 2012. https://s3.minervaproject.com/press-releases/Minerva-Project-Redefines-Higher-Education-Secures-25-Million.pdf [^5]: Fernandes, Deirdre, and Tricia L. Nadolny. "Introductions to women. Free flights. Business deals. Jeffrey Epstein's ties to Harvard run deeper than previously known." *The Boston Globe,* February 25, 2026. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2026/02/25/metro/jeffrey-epstein-harvard-spotlight-report/
[^6]: PR Newswire, "Minerva Project Launches The Minerva Institute for Research and Scholarship; Appoints Former Senator of Nebraska Bob Kerrey as Executive Chairman of the Institute," January 14, 2013. https://prnewswire.com/news-releases/minerva-project-launches-the-minerva-institute-for-research-and-scholarship-appoints-former-senator-of-nebraska-bob-kerrey-as-executive-chairman-of-the-institute-186768111.html [^6]: Minerva Project, "The Minerva Project Redefines Elite Higher Education for Students Worldwide; Secures $25 Million from Benchmark Capital," April 4, 2012. https://s3.minervaproject.com/press-releases/Minerva-Project-Redefines-Higher-Education-Secures-25-Million.pdf
[^7]: Minerva Project, "Minerva Project Names Dr. Stephen M. Kosslyn as Founding Dean," March 12, 2013. https://s3.minervaproject.com/press-releases/Minerva_Project_Annouces_Stephen_M._Kosslyn.pdf [^7]: PR Newswire, "Minerva Project Launches The Minerva Institute for Research and Scholarship; Appoints Former Senator of Nebraska Bob Kerrey as Executive Chairman of the Institute," January 14, 2013. https://prnewswire.com/news-releases/minerva-project-launches-the-minerva-institute-for-research-and-scholarship-appoints-former-senator-of-nebraska-bob-kerrey-as-executive-chairman-of-the-institute-186768111.html
[^8]: The Minerva Project, "An Overview," undated, EFTA01144731, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01144731.pdf [^8]: Minerva Project, "Minerva Project Names Dr. Stephen M. Kosslyn as Founding Dean," March 12, 2013. https://s3.minervaproject.com/press-releases/Minerva_Project_Annouces_Stephen_M._Kosslyn.pdf
[^9]: Jeffrey Epstein and Roger Schank, "Re: minerva project," July 26, 2013, EFTA00966277, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00966277.pdf [^9]: The Minerva Project, "An Overview," undated, EFTA01144731, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01144731.pdf
[^10]: Bohannon, Molly. "New Documents Reveal How Frequently Larry Summers, Woody Allen And More Met With Jeffrey Epstein." *Forbes,* May 3, 2023, summarizing the *Wall Street Journal*'s "Jeffrey Epstein's Private Calendar" series. https://www.forbes.com/sites/mollybohannon/2023/05/03/new-documents-reveal-how-frequently-larry-summers-woody-allen-and-more-met-with-jeffrey-epstein/ [^10]: Jeffrey Epstein and Roger Schank, "Re: minerva project," July 26, 2013, EFTA00966277, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00966277.pdf
[^11]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02594668, DataSet 11, email from Jeffrey Epstein to Larry Summers, November 17, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02594668.pdf [^11]: Bohannon, Molly. "New Documents Reveal How Frequently Larry Summers, Woody Allen And More Met With Jeffrey Epstein." *Forbes,* May 3, 2023, summarizing the *Wall Street Journal*'s "Jeffrey Epstein's Private Calendar" series. https://www.forbes.com/sites/mollybohannon/2023/05/03/new-documents-reveal-how-frequently-larry-summers-woody-allen-and-more-met-with-jeffrey-epstein/
[^12]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01619434, DataSet 10, iMessage log between Jeffrey Epstein and Vitaly Churkin, November 16, 2015 to February 23, 2016 (entries of January 2, 13 and 14, 2016). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01619434.pdf [^12]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02594668, DataSet 11, email from Jeffrey Epstein to Larry Summers, November 17, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02594668.pdf
[^13]: *CBS News,* November 2025, on Summers's resignation from the OpenAI board. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/larry-summers-resigns-openai-board-jeffrey-epstein-emails/ [^13]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01619434, DataSet 10, iMessage log between Jeffrey Epstein and Vitaly Churkin, November 16, 2015 to February 23, 2016 (entries of January 2, 13 and 14, 2016). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01619434.pdf
[^14]: *CBS News,* November 2025, on Summers's resignation from the OpenAI board. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/larry-summers-resigns-openai-board-jeffrey-epstein-emails/

240
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Laurance Rockefeller.md
View file

@ -28,276 +28,284 @@ relations:
- type: relative_of - type: relative_of
with: "[[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]]" with: "[[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]]"
role: "son" role: "son"
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: relative_of - type: relative_of
with: "[[Nelson Rockefeller]]" with: "[[Nelson Rockefeller]]"
role: "brother" role: "brother"
fn: 2 fn: 4
- type: relative_of - type: relative_of
with: "[[David Rockefeller]]" with: "[[David Rockefeller]]"
role: "brother" role: "brother"
fn: 2 fn: 4
- type: spouse_of - type: spouse_of
with: "[[Mary French Rockefeller]]" with: "[[Mary French Rockefeller]]"
start: 1934-08-15 start: 1934-08-15
role: "husband" role: "husband"
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: member_of - type: member_of
with: "[[United States Navy]]" with: "[[United States Navy]]"
start: 1942 start: 1942
end: 1945 end: 1945
role: "lieutenant commander, Bureau of Aeronautics" role: "lieutenant commander, Bureau of Aeronautics"
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: owned - type: owned
with: "[[Eastern Air Lines]]" with: "[[Eastern Air Lines]]"
start: 1938 start: 1938
role: "chief stockholder, according to W. David Lewis" role: "chief stockholder, according to W. David Lewis"
fn: 3 fn: 5
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[Itek]]" with: "[[Itek]]"
role: "60,000 dollars according to Peter O. Crisp" role: "60,000 dollars according to Peter O. Crisp"
fn: 4 fn: 6
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[Venrock]]" with: "[[Venrock]]"
start: 1969 start: 1969
role: "family venture capital group through which his investments were made from August 1969" role: "family venture capital group through which his investments were made from August 1969"
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]]" with: "[[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]]"
start: 1958 start: 1958
end: 1980 end: 1980
role: "president, then chairman" role: "president, then chairman"
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[Special Studies Project]]" with: "[[Special Studies Project]]"
start: 1958-05-26 start: 1958-05-26
role: "chairman of the planning committee" role: "chairman of the planning committee"
fn: 8 fn: 10
- type: participant_in - type: participant_in
with: "[[Special Studies Project]]" with: "[[Special Studies Project]]"
role: "member of Panel II, International Security: The Military Aspect" role: "member of Panel II, International Security: The Military Aspect"
fn: 8 fn: 10
- type: appointed - type: appointed
with: "[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]" with: "[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]"
reverse: true reverse: true
start: 1958 start: 1958
role: "chairman of the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission" role: "chairman of the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission"
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: represented - type: represented
with: "[[Henry L. Diamond]]" with: "[[Henry L. Diamond]]"
reverse: true reverse: true
start: 1993-03-29 start: 1993-03-29
role: "Washington attorney and long-time associate" role: "Washington attorney and long-time associate"
fn: 23 fn: 25
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission]]" with: "[[Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission]]"
start: 1958 start: 1958
role: "chairman" role: "chairman"
fn: 11 fn: 13
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[Jackson Hole Preserve]]" with: "[[Jackson Hole Preserve]]"
role: "president" role: "president"
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: founded - type: founded
with: "[[American Conservation Association]]" with: "[[American Conservation Association]]"
start: 1958 start: 1958
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: head_of - type: head_of
with: "[[Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center]]" with: "[[Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center]]"
start: 1960 start: 1960
end: 1982 end: 1982
role: "chairman" role: "chairman"
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: director_of - type: director_of
with: "[[Alfred P. Sloan Foundation]]" with: "[[Alfred P. Sloan Foundation]]"
start: 1960 start: 1960
end: 1982 end: 1982
role: "trustee" role: "trustee"
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: director_of - type: director_of
with: "[[New York Zoological Society]]" with: "[[New York Zoological Society]]"
start: 1935 start: 1935
end: 1986 end: 1986
role: "trustee" role: "trustee"
fn: 1 fn: 3
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[Virgin Islands National Park]]" with: "[[Virgin Islands National Park]]"
start: 1956 start: 1956
role: "donated more than 5,000 acres" role: "donated more than 5,000 acres"
fn: 12 fn: 14
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab]]" with: "[[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab]]"
role: "donor" role: "donor"
fn: 14 fn: 16
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[Program for Extraordinary Experience Research]]" with: "[[Program for Extraordinary Experience Research]]"
start: 1993 start: 1993
role: "funder, according to the John E. Mack Institute" role: "funder, according to the John E. Mack Institute"
fn: 15 fn: 17
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[Center for Psychology and Social Change]]" with: "[[Center for Psychology and Social Change]]"
start: 1995-05 start: 1995-05
role: "reported annual grant of $250,000, per the London Times and the Valley News (May 1995); no source named" role: "reported annual grant of $250,000, per the London Times and the Valley News (May 1995); no source named"
fn: 16 fn: 18
- type: director_of
with: "[[Princeton University]]"
start: 1967
end: 1980
role: "charter trustee"
fn: 1
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[Human Potential Foundation]]" with: "[[Human Potential Foundation]]"
role: "partial funder, in the belief of John H. Gibbons" role: "partial funder, in the belief of John H. Gibbons"
fn: 18 fn: 20
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[Society for Scientific Exploration]]" with: "[[Society for Scientific Exploration]]"
start: 1997 start: 1997
role: "funds for the Pocantico UFO workshop, through the LSR Fund" role: "funds for the Pocantico UFO workshop, through the LSR Fund"
fn: 55 fn: 57
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[UFO Research Coalition]]" with: "[[UFO Research Coalition]]"
start: 1995 start: 1995
role: "financed the December 1995 Briefing Document" role: "financed the December 1995 Briefing Document"
fn: 48 fn: 50
created: 2026-10-01 created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-02 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Laurance S. Rockefeller (May 26, 1910, in [[New York City]], to July 11, 2004, at his home on [[Fifth Avenue]]) was the fourth of the six children of [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] and [[Abby Aldrich Rockefeller]]. He attended the [[Lincoln School]] of [[Teachers College, Columbia University|Teachers College]], [[Columbia University]], entered [[Princeton University]] in 1928, took a degree in philosophy in 1932 and studied for two years at [[Harvard Law School]]. He married [[Mary French Rockefeller|Mary French]] on August 15, 1934, at [[Woodstock, Vermont]], began work in the family office at [[Rockefeller Center]] in 1935, and served from 1942 to 1945 in the [[United States Navy]]'s [[Bureau of Aeronautics]], rising to lieutenant commander.[^1] His brothers were [[John D. Rockefeller III]], [[Nelson Rockefeller]], [[Winthrop Rockefeller]] and [[David Rockefeller]].[^2] Laurance S. Rockefeller (May 26, 1910, in [[New York City]], to July 11, 2004, at his home on [[Fifth Avenue]]) was the fourth of the six children of [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] and [[Abby Aldrich Rockefeller]]. He attended the [[Lincoln School]] of [[Teachers College, Columbia University|Teachers College]], [[Columbia University]], entered [[Princeton University]] in 1928, took a degree in philosophy in 1932 and studied for two years at [[Harvard Law School]]. He was chairman of the pictorial board of the *Princetonian* and a charter trustee of Princeton from 1967 to 1980; his gifts included the University Center for Human Values and the Department of Molecular Biology, and he invested in McDonnell Aircraft Corporation.[^1] In December 1952 [[Clarence Dillon]] and Rockefeller purchased the diaries of [[James Forrestal]] from the *New York Herald Tribune* and donated them to Princeton.[^2] He married [[Mary French Rockefeller|Mary French]] on August 15, 1934, at [[Woodstock, Vermont]], began work in the family office at [[Rockefeller Center]] in 1935, and served from 1942 to 1945 in the [[United States Navy]]'s [[Bureau of Aeronautics]], rising to lieutenant commander.[^3] His brothers were [[John D. Rockefeller III]], [[Nelson Rockefeller]], [[Winthrop Rockefeller]] and [[David Rockefeller]].[^4]
### Eastern Air Lines ### Eastern Air Lines
The historian [[W. David Lewis]] wrote that in 1938 [[Eddie Rickenbacker]], seeking financing to take over [[Eastern Air Lines]], "secured enough backing ... from a syndicate including Laurance S. Rockefeller, who became the chief stockholder in a new corporate entity known as Eastern Air Lines," and that Rickenbacker became chief executive in April 1938.[^3] In Lewis's account Eastern's directors moved Rickenbacker up to chairman in 1953 and named [[Malcolm A. MacIntyre]] president and chief executive, and Rickenbacker interfered with MacIntyre's management. Lewis wrote that Rockefeller "decided that the only way out of its problems was a merger with one of the country's two largest carriers, [[American Airlines]]." The industry, led by [[Delta Air Lines]], opposed the merger, and it became clear that [[Robert F. Kennedy]], as attorney general, would veto it on antitrust grounds even if the [[Civil Aeronautics Board]] did not; the plan was scuttled.[^3] Rockefeller had hoped the merger would let him replace Rickenbacker and MacIntyre with the chief executive of American, [[C. R. Smith]]. When it failed he appointed a search committee, which chose [[Floyd D. Hall]] of [[Trans World Airlines]]; MacIntyre was fired, and Rickenbacker was summoned to a meeting and asked to retire. Rickenbacker took the news badly and agreed only after a second meeting, which Rockefeller attended, and he left his office at Rockefeller Center and did not return.[^3] The historian [[W. David Lewis]] wrote that in 1938 [[Eddie Rickenbacker]], seeking financing to take over [[Eastern Air Lines]], "secured enough backing ... from a syndicate including Laurance S. Rockefeller, who became the chief stockholder in a new corporate entity known as Eastern Air Lines," and that Rickenbacker became chief executive in April 1938.[^5] In Lewis's account Eastern's directors moved Rickenbacker up to chairman in 1953 and named [[Malcolm A. MacIntyre]] president and chief executive, and Rickenbacker interfered with MacIntyre's management. Lewis wrote that Rockefeller "decided that the only way out of its problems was a merger with one of the country's two largest carriers, [[American Airlines]]." The industry, led by [[Delta Air Lines]], opposed the merger, and it became clear that [[Robert F. Kennedy]], as attorney general, would veto it on antitrust grounds even if the [[Civil Aeronautics Board]] did not; the plan was scuttled.[^5] Rockefeller had hoped the merger would let him replace Rickenbacker and MacIntyre with the chief executive of American, [[C. R. Smith]]. When it failed he appointed a search committee, which chose [[Floyd D. Hall]] of [[Trans World Airlines]]; MacIntyre was fired, and Rickenbacker was summoned to a meeting and asked to retire. Rickenbacker took the news badly and agreed only after a second meeting, which Rockefeller attended, and he left his office at Rockefeller Center and did not return.[^5]
The Civil Aeronautics Board regulated routes and mail pay throughout this period. In a transcontinental route case decided in 1961 the Board gave Delta and [[National Airlines]] access to [[San Diego]], [[Los Angeles]] and [[San Francisco]] and denied Eastern's application; Rickenbacker had attacked President [[John F. Kennedy]] in a speech while the case was pending.[^3] The Civil Aeronautics Board regulated routes and mail pay throughout this period. In a transcontinental route case decided in 1961 the Board gave Delta and [[National Airlines]] access to [[San Diego]], [[Los Angeles]] and [[San Francisco]] and denied Eastern's application; Rickenbacker had attacked President [[John F. Kennedy]] in a speech while the case was pending.[^5]
### Venture Investments ### Venture Investments
[[Peter O. Crisp]] joined Rockefeller's staff in 1960 and sat on the board of [[Apple Computer]] for sixteen years; in an oral history recorded on October 21, 2008 he described the origin of the family's venture investing. After the war, Crisp said, Rockefeller hired "these three guys" to look for small technology companies: [[Randy Marston]], "who had worked for the [[Chase Manhattan Bank|Chase Bank]] for many years"; [[Harper Woodward]], "General Arnold's assistant in [[World War II]] in the [[Pentagon]] for procurement matters"; and [[Teddy Walkowicz]], "a lieutenant colonel in the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]]" and "an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] guy"; he named a fourth man, [[Jay Richardson Dilworth]], as "kind of the senior advisor to the [[Rockefeller family]]." Crisp said he screened proposals "for Marston, Woodward and Walkowicz," the "big shots" who then joined the boards.[^4] Among the investments Crisp listed since 1946 were [[New York Airways]], Eastern Air Lines, the [[Glenn L. Martin Company]], [[Reaction Motors]] (later bought by [[Thiokol]]), the [[Marquardt Aircraft Company]] (ramjet engines for missiles), [[Island Packers]] ("a tuna factory in the Pacific"), [[Flight Refueling]], the [[Piasecki Helicopter Company]] (merged with [[Vertol]] and later acquired by [[Boeing]]) and [[Aircraft Radio Corporation|Aircraft Radio]] (bought by [[Cessna]]); he also named [[Itek]] and [[Scantlin Electronics]], maker of the Quotron.[^4] Crisp said the staff passed on [[Haloid Company|Haloid]], which became [[Xerox]], after a former staff member's memorandum found no future in its copier technology, on which Marston wrote "I concur."[^4] From August 1969 Rockefeller's investments were channeled through [[Venrock]], which Crisp said was formed in 1969 and given its name because "we didn't want to be confused with philanthropy."[^1][^4] [[Peter O. Crisp]] joined Rockefeller's staff in 1960 and sat on the board of [[Apple Computer]] for sixteen years; in an oral history recorded on October 21, 2008 he described the origin of the family's venture investing. After the war, Crisp said, Rockefeller hired "these three guys" to look for small technology companies: [[Randy Marston]], "who had worked for the [[Chase Manhattan Bank|Chase Bank]] for many years"; [[Harper Woodward]], "General Arnold's assistant in [[World War II]] in the [[Pentagon]] for procurement matters"; and [[Teddy Walkowicz]], "a lieutenant colonel in the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]]" and "an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] guy"; he named a fourth man, [[Jay Richardson Dilworth]], as "kind of the senior advisor to the [[Rockefeller family]]." Crisp said he screened proposals "for Marston, Woodward and Walkowicz," the "big shots" who then joined the boards.[^6] Among the investments Crisp listed since 1946 were [[New York Airways]], Eastern Air Lines, the [[Glenn L. Martin Company]], [[Reaction Motors]] (later bought by [[Thiokol]]), the [[Marquardt Aircraft Company]] (ramjet engines for missiles), [[Island Packers]] ("a tuna factory in the Pacific"), [[Flight Refueling]], the [[Piasecki Helicopter Company]] (merged with [[Vertol]] and later acquired by [[Boeing]]) and [[Aircraft Radio Corporation|Aircraft Radio]] (bought by [[Cessna]]); he also named [[Itek]] and [[Scantlin Electronics]], maker of the Quotron.[^6] Crisp said the staff passed on [[Haloid Company|Haloid]], which became [[Xerox]], after a former staff member's memorandum found no future in its copier technology, on which Marston wrote "I concur."[^6] From August 1969 Rockefeller's investments were channeled through [[Venrock]], which Crisp said was formed in 1969 and given its name because "we didn't want to be confused with philanthropy."[^3][^6]
The record on Itek carries three dates. The [[Boston Globe]] obituary of [[Richard Leghorn|Dick Leghorn]] states that he cofounded Itek in 1957, and quotes him that the company was known as "the mystery company. It was very hush-hush."[^5] The [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s history of the [[CORONA]] satellite program, by [[Kenneth E. Greer]], published in a classified supplement to [[Studies in Intelligence]] in spring 1973, states that in late March and April 1958 "interest shifted to a competitive design submitted by Itek Corporation, a spin-off of Boston University," that the project proposal completed on April 9, 1958 was rewritten twice, "retaining the Itek configuration," and that the final proposal was forwarded on April 16, 1958 to the President's staff secretary and approved, "although not in writing"; Itek "was made responsible for the design and development of the camera subsystem, Fairchild producing the camera under subcontract to Itek."[^6] Crisp, who joined the staff in 1960, dated Leghorn's approach to Rockefeller to "around 1960": Leghorn said Eastman Kodak's cameras were heavy and inefficient, and Rockefeller told him to show he could leave [[Eastman Kodak]] without being sued, and put up 60,000 dollars in 1960 together with [[William A. Burden and Company]] and "the [[Walker Brothers]], Elisha and Bayard Walker, who had an investment company called the [[Long Island Company]]." Crisp said Itek was later bought by [[Litton Industries]] and that the product "which made them famous" was "the camera which was in the U-2 plane that was flown by [[Francis Gary Powers]]."[^4] The record on Itek carries three dates. The [[Boston Globe]] obituary of [[Richard Leghorn|Dick Leghorn]] states that he cofounded Itek in 1957, and quotes him that the company was known as "the mystery company. It was very hush-hush."[^7] The [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s history of the [[CORONA]] satellite program, by [[Kenneth E. Greer]], published in a classified supplement to [[Studies in Intelligence]] in spring 1973, states that in late March and April 1958 "interest shifted to a competitive design submitted by Itek Corporation, a spin-off of Boston University," that the project proposal completed on April 9, 1958 was rewritten twice, "retaining the Itek configuration," and that the final proposal was forwarded on April 16, 1958 to the President's staff secretary and approved, "although not in writing"; Itek "was made responsible for the design and development of the camera subsystem, Fairchild producing the camera under subcontract to Itek."[^8] Crisp, who joined the staff in 1960, dated Leghorn's approach to Rockefeller to "around 1960": Leghorn said Eastman Kodak's cameras were heavy and inefficient, and Rockefeller told him to show he could leave [[Eastman Kodak]] without being sued, and put up 60,000 dollars in 1960 together with [[William A. Burden and Company]] and "the [[Walker Brothers]], Elisha and Bayard Walker, who had an investment company called the [[Long Island Company]]." Crisp said Itek was later bought by [[Litton Industries]] and that the product "which made them famous" was "the camera which was in the U-2 plane that was flown by [[Francis Gary Powers]]."[^6]
On Apple, Crisp said that [[Mike Markkula]], who had advised the founders, called Venrock when Markkula's 110,000-dollar loan guarantee ran out, and [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Steve Wozniak]] came to New York. Venrock bought 10 percent of the company for 300,000 dollars, valuing it at 3 million dollars, and put in 200,000 dollars more about eight months later; at the initial public offering the 500,000 dollars was worth 110 million dollars. When Apple prepared to go public the company wanted the managing partner on the board, and Crisp took the seat of his partner [[Hank Smith]], who "made a lot of money in [[Intel]] and in Apple."[^4] On Apple, Crisp said that [[Mike Markkula]], who had advised the founders, called Venrock when Markkula's 110,000-dollar loan guarantee ran out, and [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Steve Wozniak]] came to New York. Venrock bought 10 percent of the company for 300,000 dollars, valuing it at 3 million dollars, and put in 200,000 dollars more about eight months later; at the initial public offering the 500,000 dollars was worth 110 million dollars. When Apple prepared to go public the company wanted the managing partner on the board, and Crisp took the seat of his partner [[Hank Smith]], who "made a lot of money in [[Intel]] and in Apple."[^6]
### Special Studies Project ### Special Studies Project
The [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]]'s [[Special Studies Project]] began in 1956 under its president, Nelson Rockefeller, who chaired it for two years; when Nelson became governor of New York in 1958 Laurance became chairman.[^7] The published planning committee lists "Laurance S. Rockefeller, (Chairman since May 26, 1958)" and "Nelson A. Rockefeller, (Chairman, resigned May 26, 1958)," with [[Dana S. Creel]], [[Nancy Hanks]], [[Emmet John Hughes]], [[Francis A. Jamieson]], [[Henry A. Kissinger]], [[John E. Lockwood]] and [[Oscar M. Ruebhausen]].[^8] The [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]]'s [[Special Studies Project]] began in 1956 under its president, Nelson Rockefeller, who chaired it for two years; when Nelson became governor of New York in 1958 Laurance became chairman.[^9] The published planning committee lists "Laurance S. Rockefeller, (Chairman since May 26, 1958)" and "Nelson A. Rockefeller, (Chairman, resigned May 26, 1958)," with [[Dana S. Creel]], [[Nancy Hanks]], [[Emmet John Hughes]], [[Francis A. Jamieson]], [[Henry A. Kissinger]], [[John E. Lockwood]] and [[Oscar M. Ruebhausen]].[^10]
Panel II, "International Security: The Military Aspect," first published on January 6, 1958, had been meeting since November 1956 and was the first panel to report.[^8] Its members, as listed in the 1961 volume, were [[Frank Altschul]], General [[Frederick L. Anderson]], [[Karl R. Bendetsen]], [[Detlev W. Bronk]], [[Gordon E. Dean]], [[James B. Fisk]], [[Bradley Gaylord]], [[Roswell L. Gilpatric]], [[Townsend W. Hoopes]] of [[J. H. Whitney and Company]], [[Ellis A. Johnson]] of the [[Operations Research Office]], Colonel [[George A. Lincoln]], [[Henry R. Luce]], General [[James McCormack Jr.]] (chairman until October 1957), [[Frank C. Nash]], "Laurance S. Rockefeller, president, [[Rockefeller Brothers, Inc.]]," [[Arthur Smithies]], [[Edward Teller]], "T. F. Walkowicz, aeronautical engineer," [[Carroll L. Wilson]], and [[John F. Floberg]] until his appointment to the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] in June 1957.[^8] The panel reports were published as *[[Prospect for America]]* by [[Doubleday]] in 1961 and sold over 400,000 copies, and participants later served in the Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon and Ford administrations.[^7] Panel II, "International Security: The Military Aspect," first published on January 6, 1958, had been meeting since November 1956 and was the first panel to report.[^10] Its members, as listed in the 1961 volume, were [[Frank Altschul]], General [[Frederick L. Anderson]], [[Karl R. Bendetsen]], [[Detlev W. Bronk]], [[Gordon E. Dean]], [[James B. Fisk]], [[Bradley Gaylord]], [[Roswell L. Gilpatric]], [[Townsend W. Hoopes]] of [[J. H. Whitney and Company]], [[Ellis A. Johnson]] of the [[Operations Research Office]], Colonel [[George A. Lincoln]], [[Henry R. Luce]], General [[James McCormack Jr.]] (chairman until October 1957), [[Frank C. Nash]], "Laurance S. Rockefeller, president, [[Rockefeller Brothers, Inc.]]," [[Arthur Smithies]], [[Edward Teller]], "T. F. Walkowicz, aeronautical engineer," [[Carroll L. Wilson]], and [[John F. Floberg]] until his appointment to the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] in June 1957.[^10] The panel reports were published as *[[Prospect for America]]* by [[Doubleday]] in 1961 and sold over 400,000 copies, and participants later served in the Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon and Ford administrations.[^9]
The Central Intelligence Agency's files hold correspondence on two of the releases. [[Allen Dulles]], [[Director of Central Intelligence]], wrote to Rockefeller on September 16, 1960: "I have found this study, like the other reports in your special studies project, most interesting." The study was *[[The Power of the Democratic Idea]]*, and a copy of it in the agency's files carries a notice that it was sent "in advance of the RELEASE DATE, Wednesday, September 7, 1960" and was to be treated as confidential until then.[^9] On February 20, 1961 Rockefeller wrote to Dulles on Rockefeller Brothers Fund stationery that lists him as president, enclosing an advance copy of *Prospect for America*, which was to be published on March 17; his letter states that the Trustees of the Fund organized the project "in the belief that there was real merit in a group of citizens making an effort to look at America as it is." Dulles replied on March 1, 1961 that the book would be "a welcome and valuable addition to my private library."[^10] The Central Intelligence Agency's files hold correspondence on two of the releases. [[Allen Dulles]], [[Director of Central Intelligence]], wrote to Rockefeller on September 16, 1960: "I have found this study, like the other reports in your special studies project, most interesting." The study was *[[The Power of the Democratic Idea]]*, and a copy of it in the agency's files carries a notice that it was sent "in advance of the RELEASE DATE, Wednesday, September 7, 1960" and was to be treated as confidential until then.[^11] On February 20, 1961 Rockefeller wrote to Dulles on Rockefeller Brothers Fund stationery that lists him as president, enclosing an advance copy of *Prospect for America*, which was to be published on March 17; his letter states that the Trustees of the Fund organized the project "in the belief that there was real merit in a group of citizens making an effort to look at America as it is." Dulles replied on March 1, 1961 that the book would be "a welcome and valuable addition to my private library."[^12]
### Conservation Commissions, Jackson Hole and the Virgin Islands ### Conservation Commissions, Jackson Hole and the Virgin Islands
In 1958 President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] appointed Rockefeller chairman of the [[Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission]].[^1] He later served as a special emissary for President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] on the creation of [[Redwood National Park]] and chaired President [[Richard Nixon]]'s Citizens' Advisory Committee on Environmental Quality. He was president, then chairman, of the Fund from 1958 to 1980, chairman of [[Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center|Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]] from 1960 to 1982, a trustee of the [[Alfred P. Sloan Foundation]] from 1960 to 1982, and a trustee of the [[New York Zoological Society]] from 1935 to 1986. In 1958 he established the [[American Conservation Association]], Inc., a philanthropy to function as a conservation service agency, assisting other agencies and initiating projects of its own.[^1] The commission's members were Senators [[Clinton P. Anderson]], [[Henry C. Dworshak]], [[Henry M. Jackson]] and [[Jack Miller]]; Representatives [[John P. Saylor]], [[Gracie Pfost]], [[Ralph J. Rivers]] and [[John H. Kyl]]; and presidential commissioners [[Samuel T. Dana]], [[Marian S. Dryfoos]], [[Bernard L. Orell]], [[Joseph W. Penfold]], [[M. Frederick Smith]] and [[Chester S. Wilson]]. The report was presented to President Kennedy and Congress on the Wednesday before the [[United States Department of the Interior|Interior Department]]'s release of February 1, 1962, and Secretary of the Interior [[Stewart Udall]] gave priority to the creation of a [[Bureau of Outdoor Recreation]].[^11] In 1958 President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] appointed Rockefeller chairman of the [[Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission]].[^3] He later served as a special emissary for President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] on the creation of [[Redwood National Park]] and chaired President [[Richard Nixon]]'s Citizens' Advisory Committee on Environmental Quality. He was president, then chairman, of the Fund from 1958 to 1980, chairman of [[Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center|Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]] from 1960 to 1982, a trustee of the [[Alfred P. Sloan Foundation]] from 1960 to 1982, and a trustee of the [[New York Zoological Society]] from 1935 to 1986. In 1958 he established the [[American Conservation Association]], Inc., a philanthropy to function as a conservation service agency, assisting other agencies and initiating projects of its own.[^3] The commission's members were Senators [[Clinton P. Anderson]], [[Henry C. Dworshak]], [[Henry M. Jackson]] and [[Jack Miller]]; Representatives [[John P. Saylor]], [[Gracie Pfost]], [[Ralph J. Rivers]] and [[John H. Kyl]]; and presidential commissioners [[Samuel T. Dana]], [[Marian S. Dryfoos]], [[Bernard L. Orell]], [[Joseph W. Penfold]], [[M. Frederick Smith]] and [[Chester S. Wilson]]. The report was presented to President Kennedy and Congress on the Wednesday before the [[United States Department of the Interior|Interior Department]]'s release of February 1, 1962, and Secretary of the Interior [[Stewart Udall]] gave priority to the creation of a [[Bureau of Outdoor Recreation]].[^13]
As president of [[Jackson Hole Preserve]], Inc., Rockefeller made the 1949 gift of [[Jackson Hole]] land to the federal government on his father's behalf.[^1] [[Virgin Islands National Park]] "was created through a donation of more than 5,000 acres of land in 1956 ... from Laurance Rockefeller"; in the mid-1950s he established the [[Caneel Bay]] Resort on [[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. John]], which operated until [[Hurricane Irma]] and [[Hurricane Maria]] closed it in 2017; and in 1983 Jackson Hole Preserve, Inc., "an organization established by Laurance Rockefeller," donated the roughly 150 acres of the resort to the Park Service, subject to a retained use estate allowing its operator to use the property as a resort until September 30, 2023.[^12] The corporation, with an [[Internal Revenue Service]] ruling date of 1942, still files returns from Woodstock, Vermont, and reported assets of 5,327,031 dollars for 2023.[^13] As president of [[Jackson Hole Preserve]], Inc., Rockefeller made the 1949 gift of [[Jackson Hole]] land to the federal government on his father's behalf.[^3] [[Virgin Islands National Park]] "was created through a donation of more than 5,000 acres of land in 1956 ... from Laurance Rockefeller"; in the mid-1950s he established the [[Caneel Bay]] Resort on [[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. John]], which operated until [[Hurricane Irma]] and [[Hurricane Maria]] closed it in 2017; and in 1983 Jackson Hole Preserve, Inc., "an organization established by Laurance Rockefeller," donated the roughly 150 acres of the resort to the Park Service, subject to a retained use estate allowing its operator to use the property as a resort until September 30, 2023.[^14] The corporation, with an [[Internal Revenue Service]] ruling date of 1942, still files returns from Woodstock, Vermont, and reported assets of 5,327,031 dollars for 2023.[^15]
### Consciousness Research ### Consciousness Research
The [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab|Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research]] laboratory, established in 1979 by [[Robert Jahn]], announced its closure on February 10, 2007, stating that its research "was funded by gifts from Princeton alumni [[James S. McDonnell]], patriarch of the [[McDonnell Douglas]] Aerospace empire, Laurance Rockefeller, [[Donald C. Webster]], and by numerous other philanthropic benefactors."[^14] According to the [[John E. Mack Institute]], in 1993 the [[Center for Psychology and Social Change]] formed the [[Program for Extraordinary Experience Research]] "with funding from Laurence Rockefeller" to study reported "alien encounters"; the program's own page states that as of 2002 it was no longer an active research project.[^15] Two newspaper reports of May 1995 state a figure for his support of Mack's Center itself. [[Ben MacIntyre]] of the London *[[The Times|Times]]* wrote, in a story on [[Harvard University|Harvard]]'s review of Mack, that the Center "is supported by an annual grant of $250,000 from Laurance S. Rockefeller." The [[Valley News]] of May 20, 1995 wrote that Mack's work had "received generous subsidies" from Rockefeller, "patriarch of Woodstock, who reportedly donates a quarter million dollars a year" to the Center, and that a spokesman for Rockefeller said his policy was not to comment publicly on Mack's projects. Neither article names a source for the figure.[^16][^17] The [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab|Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research]] laboratory, established in 1979 by [[Robert Jahn]], announced its closure on February 10, 2007, stating that its research "was funded by gifts from Princeton alumni [[James S. McDonnell]], patriarch of the [[McDonnell Douglas]] Aerospace empire, Laurance Rockefeller, [[Donald C. Webster]], and by numerous other philanthropic benefactors."[^16] According to the [[John E. Mack Institute]], in 1993 the [[Center for Psychology and Social Change]] formed the [[Program for Extraordinary Experience Research]] "with funding from Laurence Rockefeller" to study reported "alien encounters"; the program's own page states that as of 2002 it was no longer an active research project.[^17] Two newspaper reports of May 1995 state a figure for his support of Mack's Center itself. [[Ben MacIntyre]] of the London *[[The Times|Times]]* wrote, in a story on [[Harvard University|Harvard]]'s review of Mack, that the Center "is supported by an annual grant of $250,000 from Laurance S. Rockefeller." The [[Valley News]] of May 20, 1995 wrote that Mack's work had "received generous subsidies" from Rockefeller, "patriarch of Woodstock, who reportedly donates a quarter million dollars a year" to the Center, and that a spokesman for Rockefeller said his policy was not to comment publicly on Mack's projects. Neither article names a source for the figure.[^18][^19]
[[C. B. Scott Jones]] wrote to the presidential science adviser, [[John H. Gibbons]], on the letterhead of the [[Human Potential Foundation]] of [[Falls Church, Virginia]].[^18] A handwritten note of February 24, 1994 on one of those letters, initialed by Gibbons, concerns Jones's association with Senator [[Claiborne Pell]] and reads: "Scott Jones used to be associated with Senator Pell. He was formerly a Navy pilot. The Human Potential Foundation is funded in part, I believe, by L.R."[^18] In the same office's memorandum for the President of August 4, 1995, Gibbons wrote that Rockefeller's interests "are related to those of Senator Pell."[^19] The writer [[Grant Cameron]], in a paper on the documents below, wrote that Pell founded the foundation and Jones was its president, that [[Common Cause Magazine]] had reported Rockefeller put more than 700,000 dollars through it from 1991 to 1994, and that [[Richard Farley]], who worked for the foundation for about three years, gave the same figure and "claimed" that Rockefeller's interest was in "alternative religious and psychiatric/psychological paradigms, including so-called 'UFOs' and 'abductions,' having 'Global Mind Change' potentials."[^20] [[C. B. Scott Jones]] wrote to the presidential science adviser, [[John H. Gibbons]], on the letterhead of the [[Human Potential Foundation]] of [[Falls Church, Virginia]].[^20] A handwritten note of February 24, 1994 on one of those letters, initialed by Gibbons, concerns Jones's association with Senator [[Claiborne Pell]] and reads: "Scott Jones used to be associated with Senator Pell. He was formerly a Navy pilot. The Human Potential Foundation is funded in part, I believe, by L.R."[^20] In the same office's memorandum for the President of August 4, 1995, Gibbons wrote that Rockefeller's interests "are related to those of Senator Pell."[^21] The writer [[Grant Cameron]], in a paper on the documents below, wrote that Pell founded the foundation and Jones was its president, that [[Common Cause Magazine]] had reported Rockefeller put more than 700,000 dollars through it from 1991 to 1994, and that [[Richard Farley]], who worked for the foundation for about three years, gave the same figure and "claimed" that Rockefeller's interest was in "alternative religious and psychiatric/psychological paradigms, including so-called 'UFOs' and 'abductions,' having 'Global Mind Change' potentials."[^22]
The finding aid to the C. B. Scott Jones papers at the [[University of Colorado Boulder]] states that the Human Potential Foundation's primary donor in its first two and a half years was Laurance Rockefeller, "whose support was conditional with a program designed to get the [[United States]] government to acknowledge the existence of alien life," and lists correspondence between Jones and Rockefeller in the collection.[^21] The Center's newsletter *CenterPiece* of September 1993 announced the PEER research on UFO abductions as "Funded by a grant from the Human Potential Foundation."[^22] The finding aid to the C. B. Scott Jones papers at the [[University of Colorado Boulder]] states that the Human Potential Foundation's primary donor in its first two and a half years was Laurance Rockefeller, "whose support was conditional with a program designed to get the [[United States]] government to acknowledge the existence of alien life," and lists correspondence between Jones and Rockefeller in the collection.[^23] The Center's newsletter *CenterPiece* of September 1993 announced the PEER research on UFO abductions as "Funded by a grant from the Human Potential Foundation."[^24]
### Approach to the Science Adviser, 1993 ### Approach to the Science Adviser, 1993
The [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]], where Gibbons was Assistant to the President for Science and Technology, released 991 pages of correspondence on UFOs and extraterrestrial intelligence to Cameron in January 2001, according to Cameron.[^20] The earliest is a memorandum of March 29, 1993 from [[Henry L. Diamond]] to Gibbons (attention [[Mike Kowalok]]), concerning an approach by Rockefeller to President [[Bill Clinton]] and asking for a meeting with Rockefeller on April 12 or 13. It describes Rockefeller as "a leading U.S. conservationist, businessman, and philanthropist" who, "with other leading citizens, is planning to make an approach to President Clinton" on "the potential availability of government information about unidentified flying objects and extraterrestrial life," and gives the basic message as "a belief in many quarters that the government has long held classified information regarding UFOs which has not been released and that the failure to do so has brought about unnecessary suspicion and distrust." It states that Rockefeller would be accompanied by Jones, "President of the Human Potential Foundation," and by Diamond, "a [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] attorney and long-time associate of Mr. Rockefeller, known to Dr. Gibbons." A handwritten note adds "+ Scott Jones."[^23] The [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]], where Gibbons was Assistant to the President for Science and Technology, released 991 pages of correspondence on UFOs and extraterrestrial intelligence to Cameron in January 2001, according to Cameron.[^22] The earliest is a memorandum of March 29, 1993 from [[Henry L. Diamond]] to Gibbons (attention [[Mike Kowalok]]), concerning an approach by Rockefeller to President [[Bill Clinton]] and asking for a meeting with Rockefeller on April 12 or 13. It describes Rockefeller as "a leading U.S. conservationist, businessman, and philanthropist" who, "with other leading citizens, is planning to make an approach to President Clinton" on "the potential availability of government information about unidentified flying objects and extraterrestrial life," and gives the basic message as "a belief in many quarters that the government has long held classified information regarding UFOs which has not been released and that the failure to do so has brought about unnecessary suspicion and distrust." It states that Rockefeller would be accompanied by Jones, "President of the Human Potential Foundation," and by Diamond, "a [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] attorney and long-time associate of Mr. Rockefeller, known to Dr. Gibbons." A handwritten note adds "+ Scott Jones."[^25]
On April 21, 1993, on stationery of 30 Rockefeller Plaza, Room 5600, Rockefeller thanked Gibbons for seeing him "so early Wednesday morning." He wrote that Gibbons had said that in three months as science adviser he had "not learned that the United States Government has a body of knowledge on UFOs or ETI that is being withheld from the public," and had made it clear that "initially our most fruitful avenue of approach, most likely, will be within the [[Department of Defense]]." Rockefeller would report on the meeting to [[Melvin Laird]] and hoped to follow up with Secretary of Defense [[Les Aspin]]; he planned a letter to President Clinton urging "a reassessment of government policy regarding UFO and ETI information" and a small group, convened with Jones's help, to discuss UFOs "in an informal, non-public way."[^24] On May 26, 1993 Gibbons, signing as Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, thanked Jones for "the materials," noted that the books "came from the Foundation's library," and sent "best wishes and regards to Lawrence."[^25] On April 21, 1993, on stationery of 30 Rockefeller Plaza, Room 5600, Rockefeller thanked Gibbons for seeing him "so early Wednesday morning." He wrote that Gibbons had said that in three months as science adviser he had "not learned that the United States Government has a body of knowledge on UFOs or ETI that is being withheld from the public," and had made it clear that "initially our most fruitful avenue of approach, most likely, will be within the [[Department of Defense]]." Rockefeller would report on the meeting to [[Melvin Laird]] and hoped to follow up with Secretary of Defense [[Les Aspin]]; he planned a letter to President Clinton urging "a reassessment of government policy regarding UFO and ETI information" and a small group, convened with Jones's help, to discuss UFOs "in an informal, non-public way."[^26] On May 26, 1993 Gibbons, signing as Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, thanked Jones for "the materials," noted that the books "came from the Foundation's library," and sent "best wishes and regards to Lawrence."[^27]
On May 7, 1993 he wrote to the evangelist [[Billy Graham]], proposing that Graham co-sign a letter to Clinton asking for a review of the classification of UFO information, and stated that "we are working closely with Mel Laird, former Secretary of Defense, and a great good friend of the present Secretary, Les Aspin," and had met Gibbons. The other co-signers under consideration were [[Maurice Strong]], the former [[United Nations]] secretary general [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], possibly former President [[Jimmy Carter]], and Senators Pell and [[Ted Stevens]]. Graham replied on May 20, 1993 that he thought Rockefeller was "exactly right, that since they are reviewing the whole classification process, many documents will probably become available that have not previously," and declined, writing that he had "made it a policy not to co-sign such letters" and kept his contacts with presidents "on a purely personal, one-on-one, private basis."[^26] On May 7, 1993 he wrote to the evangelist [[Billy Graham]], proposing that Graham co-sign a letter to Clinton asking for a review of the classification of UFO information, and stated that "we are working closely with Mel Laird, former Secretary of Defense, and a great good friend of the present Secretary, Les Aspin," and had met Gibbons. The other co-signers under consideration were [[Maurice Strong]], the former [[United Nations]] secretary general [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], possibly former President [[Jimmy Carter]], and Senators Pell and [[Ted Stevens]]. Graham replied on May 20, 1993 that he thought Rockefeller was "exactly right, that since they are reviewing the whole classification process, many documents will probably become available that have not previously," and declined, writing that he had "made it a policy not to co-sign such letters" and kept his contacts with presidents "on a purely personal, one-on-one, private basis."[^28]
On August 4, 1993 Rockefeller invited Gibbons or a representative to an informal roundtable he was hosting from September 13 to 15 at the [[JY Ranch]], in the [[Grand Teton National Park]] near [[Jackson, Wyoming]]. The letter gives the purpose as assessing "the extent of information which may or may not be in the hands of the federal government" and developing "productive ways to encourage the Administration to include information of UFO and ETI phenomena in its current review of previously classified information." The six presenters were [[Steven Greer]], [[Linda Moulton Howe]], [[Bruce Maccabee]], [[R. Leo Sprinkle]], [[Jill Tarter]] of the [[NASA]] Ames Research Center and [[Keith Thompson]]; [[John Mack]], [[Peter Sturrock]], "a representative of the Science Advisor to the President" and "several of my associates" were also invited. The four themes included "strategies for influencing government policy in the direction of openness," "assessment of alleged psychological, economic and other barriers to a government policy of openness on the subject," and "spiritual and other dimensional aspects of UFO and ETI phenomena." The roundtable "will not be publicized but, of course will not be secret" and would be off the record.[^27] The [[Paradigm Research Group]] reproduces a photograph that it captions as the September 14 to 15, 1993 meeting at the JY Ranch and labels, left to right, Diamond, Greer, Maccabee, [[George Lamb]], [[Robert Bigelow]], Howe, Sprinkle, Thompson, Mack, Rockefeller, Jones, [[Johnie Jones]] and [[Robert Teets]], with [[Marie Galbraith|Marie "Bootsie" Galbraith]] and Farley behind the camera.[^28] On November 12, 1993 Diamond, on the letterhead of [[Beveridge and Diamond]], wrote to a Gibbons staff member that he had seen Gibbons at the [[Environmental Law Institute]] dinner on October 20 and that Rockefeller wished to see him again between December 10 and 23.[^29] On August 4, 1993 Rockefeller invited Gibbons or a representative to an informal roundtable he was hosting from September 13 to 15 at the [[JY Ranch]], in the [[Grand Teton National Park]] near [[Jackson, Wyoming]]. The letter gives the purpose as assessing "the extent of information which may or may not be in the hands of the federal government" and developing "productive ways to encourage the Administration to include information of UFO and ETI phenomena in its current review of previously classified information." The six presenters were [[Steven Greer]], [[Linda Moulton Howe]], [[Bruce Maccabee]], [[R. Leo Sprinkle]], [[Jill Tarter]] of the [[NASA]] Ames Research Center and [[Keith Thompson]]; [[John Mack]], [[Peter Sturrock]], "a representative of the Science Advisor to the President" and "several of my associates" were also invited. The four themes included "strategies for influencing government policy in the direction of openness," "assessment of alleged psychological, economic and other barriers to a government policy of openness on the subject," and "spiritual and other dimensional aspects of UFO and ETI phenomena." The roundtable "will not be publicized but, of course will not be secret" and would be off the record.[^29] The [[Paradigm Research Group]] reproduces a photograph that it captions as the September 14 to 15, 1993 meeting at the JY Ranch and labels, left to right, Diamond, Greer, Maccabee, [[George Lamb]], [[Robert Bigelow]], Howe, Sprinkle, Thompson, Mack, Rockefeller, Jones, [[Johnie Jones]] and [[Robert Teets]], with [[Marie Galbraith|Marie "Bootsie" Galbraith]] and Farley behind the camera.[^30] On November 12, 1993 Diamond, on the letterhead of [[Beveridge and Diamond]], wrote to a Gibbons staff member that he had seen Gibbons at the [[Environmental Law Institute]] dinner on October 20 and that Rockefeller wished to see him again between December 10 and 23.[^31]
### Roswell, 1994 ### Roswell, 1994
After a meeting on February 4, 1994, Rockefeller wrote to Gibbons on February 14 that "your approach of starting by addressing a specific incident is an important and reasonable way to begin the process of declassification," that the July 1947 [[Roswell Incident]] "would be a logical and challenging place to start," and that if the effort succeeded it "will become an important prototype for the release of all UFO related information." He proposed amnesty "on an individual basis" for those with knowledge, and, "in the light of your proposed initiative," said "we shall defer writing to the President."[^30] In a letter of the same date to [[Anne Bartley]], who had arranged his Washington meetings, he wrote that Gibbons's suggestion to treat the 1947 event as a test case "was a very good one."[^31] On May 24, 1994 Secretary of the Air Force [[Sheila Widnall]] sent Gibbons a cover memorandum, "As you and I discussed earlier, we are researching Air Force material on UFOs in general, and Roswell in particular," with an interim report to her of May 20 from the office designated SAF/AAZ. The report stated that "in early Feb 94, upon learning of the projected GAO audit," the Air Force had stood up elements of its Declassification Review Team to begin preliminary research, and that the offices tasked had "reported no records were located to indicate anything unusual happened at Roswell in July 1947." Widnall wrote: "My policy is that we are declassifying everything even remotely related, and anything our people think still needs to be classified will have to be justified to me." A handwritten note on the cover, initialed "JG," reads: "Skip - for your scanning. After you and I have a chance to discuss, I'll be ready to communicate w/ L.R. + his niece."[^32] After a meeting on February 4, 1994, Rockefeller wrote to Gibbons on February 14 that "your approach of starting by addressing a specific incident is an important and reasonable way to begin the process of declassification," that the July 1947 [[Roswell Incident]] "would be a logical and challenging place to start," and that if the effort succeeded it "will become an important prototype for the release of all UFO related information." He proposed amnesty "on an individual basis" for those with knowledge, and, "in the light of your proposed initiative," said "we shall defer writing to the President."[^32] In a letter of the same date to [[Anne Bartley]], who had arranged his Washington meetings, he wrote that Gibbons's suggestion to treat the 1947 event as a test case "was a very good one."[^33] On May 24, 1994 Secretary of the Air Force [[Sheila Widnall]] sent Gibbons a cover memorandum, "As you and I discussed earlier, we are researching Air Force material on UFOs in general, and Roswell in particular," with an interim report to her of May 20 from the office designated SAF/AAZ. The report stated that "in early Feb 94, upon learning of the projected GAO audit," the Air Force had stood up elements of its Declassification Review Team to begin preliminary research, and that the offices tasked had "reported no records were located to indicate anything unusual happened at Roswell in July 1947." Widnall wrote: "My policy is that we are declassifying everything even remotely related, and anything our people think still needs to be classified will have to be justified to me." A handwritten note on the cover, initialed "JG," reads: "Skip - for your scanning. After you and I have a chance to discuss, I'll be ready to communicate w/ L.R. + his niece."[^34]
Jones wrote to Gibbons on February 17 enclosing a chronology compiled by the [[Fund for UFO Research]] and press clippings on the inquiry by Representative [[Steven Schiff]], and reporting that a Pentagon spokesman had told a [[Government Accountability Office|General Accounting Office]] investigator "Go shit in your hat." He had spent time after the February 4 meeting with [[Edward J. Reese]] of the Modern Military Branch of the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] on where Roswell documentation might be located. The letter's second page reads: "Whatever Roswell turns out to be, it is only the opening round. ... My mention of mind-control technology at the February 4 meeting was quite deliberate. Please be careful about this. There are reasons to believe that some government group has interwoven research about this technology with alleged UFO phenomena. If that [is] correct, you can expect to run into early resistance when inquiring about UFOs, not because of the UFO subject, but because that has been used to cloak research and applications of mind-control activity."[^18] Jones wrote to Gibbons on February 17 enclosing a chronology compiled by the [[Fund for UFO Research]] and press clippings on the inquiry by Representative [[Steven Schiff]], and reporting that a Pentagon spokesman had told a [[Government Accountability Office|General Accounting Office]] investigator "Go shit in your hat." He had spent time after the February 4 meeting with [[Edward J. Reese]] of the Modern Military Branch of the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] on where Roswell documentation might be located. The letter's second page reads: "Whatever Roswell turns out to be, it is only the opening round. ... My mention of mind-control technology at the February 4 meeting was quite deliberate. Please be careful about this. There are reasons to believe that some government group has interwoven research about this technology with alleged UFO phenomena. If that [is] correct, you can expect to run into early resistance when inquiring about UFOs, not because of the UFO subject, but because that has been used to cloak research and applications of mind-control activity."[^20]
Rockefeller's letter of April 26, 1994 reports that his group had gone to [[Cornell University]] earlier that month to meet [[Carl Sagan]], who "expressed considerable skepticism" but strongly supported release of government information, and that Representative Schiff had asked for a General Accounting Office inquiry and "the publication of John Mack's book has brought renewed attention to the abduction phenomenon."[^33] Rockefeller's letter of April 26, 1994 reports that his group had gone to [[Cornell University]] earlier that month to meet [[Carl Sagan]], who "expressed considerable skepticism" but strongly supported release of government information, and that Representative Schiff had asked for a General Accounting Office inquiry and "the publication of John Mack's book has brought renewed attention to the abduction phenomenon."[^35]
On June 1, 1994 Rockefeller wrote that "it was Mel Laird who suggested that you should be the logical point of contact and coordination with the federal government," asked whether there were developments in the survey of information among federal agencies on Roswell that Gibbons had suggested, attached a letter from Laird, and mentioned "preliminary talks with those who might be interested in bringing about a United Nations Conference on extraterrestrial intelligence."[^34] Laird's letter, dated May 9, 1994 and replying to one from Rockefeller of April 25, stated that "you are proceeding properly by going through the President's Science Advisor," and that "any review will certainly disappoint some individuals who have built up some rather extreme antidotal and uncollaborated accounts."[^34] On July 27, 1994 Anne Bartley wrote to Gibbons about "follow-up on our meeting with Laurance S. Rockefeller and his associates," recalling that Gibbons had suggested "an informal inquiry into the availability of information within federal agencies about the 1947 Roswell, [[New Mexico]], event," asking about "prospects for a relaxation of the classification system," and stating that Rockefeller "has begun to wonder whether a U.N. Conference would be useful."[^35] On June 1, 1994 Rockefeller wrote that "it was Mel Laird who suggested that you should be the logical point of contact and coordination with the federal government," asked whether there were developments in the survey of information among federal agencies on Roswell that Gibbons had suggested, attached a letter from Laird, and mentioned "preliminary talks with those who might be interested in bringing about a United Nations Conference on extraterrestrial intelligence."[^36] Laird's letter, dated May 9, 1994 and replying to one from Rockefeller of April 25, stated that "you are proceeding properly by going through the President's Science Advisor," and that "any review will certainly disappoint some individuals who have built up some rather extreme antidotal and uncollaborated accounts."[^36] On July 27, 1994 Anne Bartley wrote to Gibbons about "follow-up on our meeting with Laurance S. Rockefeller and his associates," recalling that Gibbons had suggested "an informal inquiry into the availability of information within federal agencies about the 1947 Roswell, [[New Mexico]], event," asking about "prospects for a relaxation of the classification system," and stating that Rockefeller "has begun to wonder whether a U.N. Conference would be useful."[^37]
On August 11, 1994 Jones wrote to Gibbons that [[Edgar Mitchell]], founder of the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]], on whose board Pell sat, would be glad to meet Gibbons "in the area that Laurance, you and I have been discussing," and that Gibbons "may want to talk to [[R. James Woolsey|James Woolsey]] about what you are doing." The next lines say that Woolsey "has a document search project under way" and "has not discovered anything of significance," and Jones adds: "If I had the responsibility to run a super safe black program on this subject, I would take it completely out of the government's" bureaucracy "and run it from the private sector, probably somewhere within" the aerospace community "or perhaps [[General Motors]]."[^36] On September 5, 1994 Rockefeller thanked Gibbons for a note that he had received a report from the Air Force; after the Air Force released the results of its Roswell investigation (in July 1994 in the General Accounting Office's account, and publicly available in September in Gibbons's)[^19][^37] he wrote on December 9 thanking Gibbons for "your initiative in stimulating the recent Air Force Review of the Roswell incident," adding that "we are continuing our citizens' reconnaissance of the extraterrestrial intelligence phenomenon."[^38] On February 9, 1995 Jones wrote that "there is some shadowy evidence that the administration is in the process of modifying the government's policy concerning secrecy and denial about UFO phenomena," that "Laurance mentioned that he was also considering a public relations approach" and that "he can afford a rather aggressive and expensive effort implementing that strategy, e.g., full page ads in major newspapers," and that after Rockefeller's last meeting with Gibbons "we are not going to get feedback from our attempts to get the [[White House]] to open the books on this subject."[^39] On April 11, 1995 Rockefeller wrote that he had reviewed the draft executive order revising national classification policy and that "my concern with government information involving extraterrestrial intelligence was stimulated by the widespread public belief that the government was withholding information about UFO incidents."[^40] On August 11, 1994 Jones wrote to Gibbons that [[Edgar Mitchell]], founder of the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]], on whose board Pell sat, would be glad to meet Gibbons "in the area that Laurance, you and I have been discussing," and that Gibbons "may want to talk to [[R. James Woolsey|James Woolsey]] about what you are doing." The next lines say that Woolsey "has a document search project under way" and "has not discovered anything of significance," and Jones adds: "If I had the responsibility to run a super safe black program on this subject, I would take it completely out of the government's" bureaucracy "and run it from the private sector, probably somewhere within" the aerospace community "or perhaps [[General Motors]]."[^38] On September 5, 1994 Rockefeller thanked Gibbons for a note that he had received a report from the Air Force; after the Air Force released the results of its Roswell investigation (in July 1994 in the General Accounting Office's account, and publicly available in September in Gibbons's)[^21][^39] he wrote on December 9 thanking Gibbons for "your initiative in stimulating the recent Air Force Review of the Roswell incident," adding that "we are continuing our citizens' reconnaissance of the extraterrestrial intelligence phenomenon."[^40] On February 9, 1995 Jones wrote that "there is some shadowy evidence that the administration is in the process of modifying the government's policy concerning secrecy and denial about UFO phenomena," that "Laurance mentioned that he was also considering a public relations approach" and that "he can afford a rather aggressive and expensive effort implementing that strategy, e.g., full page ads in major newspapers," and that after Rockefeller's last meeting with Gibbons "we are not going to get feedback from our attempts to get the [[White House]] to open the books on this subject."[^41] On April 11, 1995 Rockefeller wrote that he had reviewed the draft executive order revising national classification policy and that "my concern with government information involving extraterrestrial intelligence was stimulated by the widespread public belief that the government was withholding information about UFO incidents."[^42]
On December 2, 1994 Jones sent Gibbons critiques of the Air Force Roswell report and told him that the Foundation's conference would invite President and Mrs. Clinton; on December 13, 1994 he sent Gibbons the manuscript of [[Whitley Strieber]]'s *Breakthrough* with a copy to Rockefeller. The White House declined for Mrs. Clinton on December 15, 1994 ([[Patti Solis]], scheduling director for the First Lady) and for the President on December 21, 1994 ([[William M. Webster IV]], director of scheduling and advance).[^41] The Clinton Library's collection 2008-1575-F holds the invitations and brochures; none are scanned.[^42] On December 2, 1994 Jones sent Gibbons critiques of the Air Force Roswell report and told him that the Foundation's conference would invite President and Mrs. Clinton; on December 13, 1994 he sent Gibbons the manuscript of [[Whitley Strieber]]'s *Breakthrough* with a copy to Rockefeller. The White House declined for Mrs. Clinton on December 15, 1994 ([[Patti Solis]], scheduling director for the First Lady) and for the President on December 21, 1994 ([[William M. Webster IV]], director of scheduling and advance).[^43] The Clinton Library's collection 2008-1575-F holds the invitations and brochures; none are scanned.[^44]
The General Accounting Office wrote to Gibbons on April 12, 1995, at Schiff's request, that it was determining what records existed on Roswell. Gibbons replied on April 26 to the GAO's director of federal management issues that the Office of Science and Technology Policy had "no direct knowledge of what occurred at Roswell and no records, except for the information I received from the Air Force."[^37] An internal OSTP message of June 9, 1995 reports a call from the GAO about its eight-page report, which would state that the agency had asked OSTP and other agencies whether they held records and that "DOE and OSTP had no records"; a handwritten reply of June 12, signed "Sue B.," reads "Tanya, OK w/ JHG."[^43] The General Accounting Office wrote to Gibbons on April 12, 1995, at Schiff's request, that it was determining what records existed on Roswell. Gibbons replied on April 26 to the GAO's director of federal management issues that the Office of Science and Technology Policy had "no direct knowledge of what occurred at Roswell and no records, except for the information I received from the Air Force."[^39] An internal OSTP message of June 9, 1995 reports a call from the GAO about its eight-page report, which would state that the agency had asked OSTP and other agencies whether they held records and that "DOE and OSTP had no records"; a handwritten reply of June 12, signed "Sue B.," reads "Tanya, OK w/ JHG."[^45]
### The Draft Letter to the President, 1995 and 1996 ### The Draft Letter to the President, 1995 and 1996
On August 4, 1995 Gibbons sent President Clinton a memorandum headed "Inquiry from Laurance Rockefeller." It begins: "You will probably see Mr. Rockefeller on your vacation in the Tetons. He will want to talk with you about his interest in extrasensory perception, paranormal phenomena, and UFO's. His interests are related to those of Senator Pell." Gibbons wrote that "Les Aspin and Mel Laird referred Laurance to me," that Rockefeller had sought "the Administration's help in 'declassifying the information'," that "I persuaded Rockefeller to not bother you with this issue but instead to let me talk with defense officials," that Secretary of the Air Force Widnall had "arranged for a full revisiting by the Air Force of pertinent records, guaranteed 'amnesty' to anyone who felt constrained to talk," and that "the bottom line is that all evidence points to a failed U.S. Air Force balloon experiment, and no evidence of a 'flying saucer' or cover-up conspiracy. (However, the UFO 'community' persists in believing that the Air Force report is flawed.)" A "second rubric" was "human potential" research: "Senator Pell and others have supported the funding of research in social science to focus more on these phenomena." Gibbons closed: "I've made no secret about my conviction that we must not be too diverted from more earthly imperatives."[^19] On August 4, 1995 Gibbons sent President Clinton a memorandum headed "Inquiry from Laurance Rockefeller." It begins: "You will probably see Mr. Rockefeller on your vacation in the Tetons. He will want to talk with you about his interest in extrasensory perception, paranormal phenomena, and UFO's. His interests are related to those of Senator Pell." Gibbons wrote that "Les Aspin and Mel Laird referred Laurance to me," that Rockefeller had sought "the Administration's help in 'declassifying the information'," that "I persuaded Rockefeller to not bother you with this issue but instead to let me talk with defense officials," that Secretary of the Air Force Widnall had "arranged for a full revisiting by the Air Force of pertinent records, guaranteed 'amnesty' to anyone who felt constrained to talk," and that "the bottom line is that all evidence points to a failed U.S. Air Force balloon experiment, and no evidence of a 'flying saucer' or cover-up conspiracy. (However, the UFO 'community' persists in believing that the Air Force report is flawed.)" A "second rubric" was "human potential" research: "Senator Pell and others have supported the funding of research in social science to focus more on these phenomena." Gibbons closed: "I've made no secret about my conviction that we must not be too diverted from more earthly imperatives."[^21]
The Clintons began a vacation in Jackson Hole on August 15, 1995, with Senator [[Jay Rockefeller]] and his wife, Sharon, as hosts at a Rockefeller family estate.[^44] The [[William J. Clinton Presidential Library]] holds photographs, in a set processed for a [[Freedom of Information Act]] request, of a visit by President Clinton and [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary Rodham Clinton]] to Laurance Rockefeller's JY Ranch on August 21, 1995.[^44] On August 17 Jones, writing on Human Potential Foundation letterhead to Representative Schiff, described a conference, "When Cosmic Cultures Meet," held in Washington over the Memorial Day weekend: "The conference was part of a process to make it politically safe for Congress to get involved in a subject that from all available evidence has been the secret purview of the executive department for nearly fifty years."[^45] The Clintons began a vacation in Jackson Hole on August 15, 1995, with Senator [[Jay Rockefeller]] and his wife, Sharon, as hosts at a Rockefeller family estate.[^46] The [[William J. Clinton Presidential Library]] holds photographs, in a set processed for a [[Freedom of Information Act]] request, of a visit by President Clinton and [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary Rodham Clinton]] to Laurance Rockefeller's JY Ranch on August 21, 1995.[^46] On August 17 Jones, writing on Human Potential Foundation letterhead to Representative Schiff, described a conference, "When Cosmic Cultures Meet," held in Washington over the Memorial Day weekend: "The conference was part of a process to make it politically safe for Congress to get involved in a subject that from all available evidence has been the secret purview of the executive department for nearly fifty years."[^47]
On August 17, 1995 the Human Potential Foundation mailed every member of Congress a packet; letters to the House and Senate leadership stated that "the Human Potential Foundation has been supported by Mr. Laurance S. Rockefeller and others." Jones's letter to Gibbons of August 23, 1995 stated that Rockefeller "was a guest at the President's birthday party a few days ago in Jackson Hole" and enclosed a draft full-page newspaper advertisement.[^46] On August 17, 1995 the Human Potential Foundation mailed every member of Congress a packet; letters to the House and Senate leadership stated that "the Human Potential Foundation has been supported by Mr. Laurance S. Rockefeller and others." Jones's letter to Gibbons of August 23, 1995 stated that Rockefeller "was a guest at the President's birthday party a few days ago in Jackson Hole" and enclosed a draft full-page newspaper advertisement.[^48]
On August 23, 1995 Rockefeller's office faxed Gibbons five pages plus a cover sheet: a draft letter to President Clinton, headed "Lifting Secrecy on Information About Extraterrestrial Intelligence as Part of the Current Classification Review," and the 1993 exchange with Graham. The draft states that Rockefeller has "been interested in the enhancement of spirituality and holistic healing as well as the development of a new paradigm of consciousness," and asks the President to direct that information on extraterrestrial intelligence and UFOs "be given priority in the current classification review," to appoint a coordinator for government information about those subjects, to bring together information "from all federal agencies involved, such as the Department of Defense, the Air Force, NASA and the CIA" ("Your Science Advisor, Jack Gibbons, might be the right person for this role"), and to make known that anyone with information "will be granted amnesty from relevant oaths or other government constraints."[^26] On November 1, 1995 Diamond, writing from 30 Rockefeller Plaza, Room 5600, sent Gibbons "a draft letter to the President which Laurance has been discussing with Mrs. Clinton and her staff" and a draft report on the "best evidence" about UFOs; a letter of November 8 identified [[Don Berliner]] as its principal author.[^47] On August 23, 1995 Rockefeller's office faxed Gibbons five pages plus a cover sheet: a draft letter to President Clinton, headed "Lifting Secrecy on Information About Extraterrestrial Intelligence as Part of the Current Classification Review," and the 1993 exchange with Graham. The draft states that Rockefeller has "been interested in the enhancement of spirituality and holistic healing as well as the development of a new paradigm of consciousness," and asks the President to direct that information on extraterrestrial intelligence and UFOs "be given priority in the current classification review," to appoint a coordinator for government information about those subjects, to bring together information "from all federal agencies involved, such as the Department of Defense, the Air Force, NASA and the CIA" ("Your Science Advisor, Jack Gibbons, might be the right person for this role"), and to make known that anyone with information "will be granted amnesty from relevant oaths or other government constraints."[^28] On November 1, 1995 Diamond, writing from 30 Rockefeller Plaza, Room 5600, sent Gibbons "a draft letter to the President which Laurance has been discussing with Mrs. Clinton and her staff" and a draft report on the "best evidence" about UFOs; a letter of November 8 identified [[Don Berliner]] as its principal author.[^49]
The *Unidentified Flying Objects Briefing Document: The Best Available Evidence* (December 1995), by Don Berliner with Marie Galbraith and [[Antonio Huneeus]], presented by the [[Center for UFO Studies]], the Fund for UFO Research and the [[Mutual UFO Network]] with copyright held by the [[UFO Research Coalition]], thanks "Laurance S. Rockefeller, for his vision and support, financial and otherwise," and George Lamb "for serving so effectively as liaison for Mr. Rockefeller," and thanks [[Sandra Wright]] for making her [[BSW Foundation]] "available as the umbrella under which all the work could be done."[^48] The *Unidentified Flying Objects Briefing Document: The Best Available Evidence* (December 1995), by Don Berliner with Marie Galbraith and [[Antonio Huneeus]], presented by the [[Center for UFO Studies]], the Fund for UFO Research and the [[Mutual UFO Network]] with copyright held by the [[UFO Research Coalition]], thanks "Laurance S. Rockefeller, for his vision and support, financial and otherwise," and George Lamb "for serving so effectively as liaison for Mr. Rockefeller," and thanks [[Sandra Wright]] for making her [[BSW Foundation]] "available as the umbrella under which all the work could be done."[^50]
On February 5, 1996 Rockefeller told Gibbons that the "Best Evidence Report (the report written by Don Berliner and coordinated by Marie Galbraith which we have referred to as the 'Bootsie report')" was an "unusual combined effort of the three major UFO organizations." He wrote that Gibbons's "willingness to approach the Air Force, the Central Intelligence Agency and NASA on this project is extremely important," and that the group would put forward names for a pilot project on an expanded amnesty program. The draft letter to the President, he wrote, "might receive attention in a second term. You indicated that you will keep the First Lady's Office informed, and we shall as well."[^49] On February 27, 1996 Widnall wrote to Gibbons, after "our recent dinner conversation," enclosing "the full Roswell Report to pass on to Lawrence Rockefeller" and noting that a second volume was in preparation; on February 29 Rockefeller sent Gibbons the "Best Available Evidence" report, writing "I sponsored this report" and, "while I do not necessarily agree with every finding and conclusion," that "the evidence presented indicates that this subject merits serious scientific study," with a new draft of the letter to the President.[^50] In a letter of August 8, 1996 to [[Julia Marton-Lefevre]] of the [[International Council of Scientific Unions]], written on the suggestion of Maurice Strong, he wrote of his interest in "expanding man's spiritual and intellectual potential" and proposed a small international group on extraterrestrial intelligence and UFOs.[^31] On October 17, 1996 he proposed an international conference. "At the suggestion of Maurice Strong," he had contacted Julia Marton Lefevre, executive director of what the letter calls the International Scientific Union, and he forwarded a letter from Carl Sagan, writing that he was "puzzled by Carl's enthusiastic support of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence by radio telescope while he maintains a high degree of skepticism about other means of inquiry."[^51] Sagan replied on November 6, 1996 that "no amount of anecdotal evidence, unsubstantiated by physical evidence, is worth a single substantive bit of physical evidence"; the letters are in the Sagan papers at the [[Library of Congress]] and were reported by [[Robert Sheaffer]].[^52] In a letter of January 2, 1997 to Gibbons, Maccabee wrote that in April 1993, "at the request of Dr. [[Ronald Pandolfi]] of the CIA," he had faxed Gibbons an information paper on UFOs.[^53] On June 20, 1997 the Secretary of the Air Force sent Gibbons the second volume of *The Roswell Report: Case Closed*, to be released on the following Tuesday.[^54] On February 5, 1996 Rockefeller told Gibbons that the "Best Evidence Report (the report written by Don Berliner and coordinated by Marie Galbraith which we have referred to as the 'Bootsie report')" was an "unusual combined effort of the three major UFO organizations." He wrote that Gibbons's "willingness to approach the Air Force, the Central Intelligence Agency and NASA on this project is extremely important," and that the group would put forward names for a pilot project on an expanded amnesty program. The draft letter to the President, he wrote, "might receive attention in a second term. You indicated that you will keep the First Lady's Office informed, and we shall as well."[^51] On February 27, 1996 Widnall wrote to Gibbons, after "our recent dinner conversation," enclosing "the full Roswell Report to pass on to Lawrence Rockefeller" and noting that a second volume was in preparation; on February 29 Rockefeller sent Gibbons the "Best Available Evidence" report, writing "I sponsored this report" and, "while I do not necessarily agree with every finding and conclusion," that "the evidence presented indicates that this subject merits serious scientific study," with a new draft of the letter to the President.[^52] In a letter of August 8, 1996 to [[Julia Marton-Lefevre]] of the [[International Council of Scientific Unions]], written on the suggestion of Maurice Strong, he wrote of his interest in "expanding man's spiritual and intellectual potential" and proposed a small international group on extraterrestrial intelligence and UFOs.[^33] On October 17, 1996 he proposed an international conference. "At the suggestion of Maurice Strong," he had contacted Julia Marton Lefevre, executive director of what the letter calls the International Scientific Union, and he forwarded a letter from Carl Sagan, writing that he was "puzzled by Carl's enthusiastic support of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence by radio telescope while he maintains a high degree of skepticism about other means of inquiry."[^53] Sagan replied on November 6, 1996 that "no amount of anecdotal evidence, unsubstantiated by physical evidence, is worth a single substantive bit of physical evidence"; the letters are in the Sagan papers at the [[Library of Congress]] and were reported by [[Robert Sheaffer]].[^54] In a letter of January 2, 1997 to Gibbons, Maccabee wrote that in April 1993, "at the request of Dr. [[Ronald Pandolfi]] of the CIA," he had faxed Gibbons an information paper on UFOs.[^55] On June 20, 1997 the Secretary of the Air Force sent Gibbons the second volume of *The Roswell Report: Case Closed*, to be released on the following Tuesday.[^56]
### Pocantico Workshop, 1997 ### Pocantico Workshop, 1997
In December 1996, in Sturrock's words in the introduction to the published proceedings, "Mr. Laurance S. Rockefeller, Chairman of the [[LSR Fund]], invited me to review with him the status of our understanding of the problem posed by UFO reports." Rockefeller, Diamond and Sturrock conceived a workshop; Sturrock submitted a proposal to the LSR Fund in February 1997 with administrative support from the [[Society for Scientific Exploration]], and "the necessary funds were transferred from the Fund to the Society." The workshop met at the [[Pocantico Conference Center]] at [[Tarrytown, New York]], from September 29 to October 4, 1997, and Sturrock thanked Rockefeller "for his interest in and support of this project" and Diamond and [[Charles Tolbert]] for administrative support.[^55] A report of June 1998 by the panel was, in *PEER Perspectives* of Winter 1998/99, described as "funded by the Laurance S. Rockefeller Fund."[^56] In December 1996, in Sturrock's words in the introduction to the published proceedings, "Mr. Laurance S. Rockefeller, Chairman of the [[LSR Fund]], invited me to review with him the status of our understanding of the problem posed by UFO reports." Rockefeller, Diamond and Sturrock conceived a workshop; Sturrock submitted a proposal to the LSR Fund in February 1997 with administrative support from the [[Society for Scientific Exploration]], and "the necessary funds were transferred from the Fund to the Society." The workshop met at the [[Pocantico Conference Center]] at [[Tarrytown, New York]], from September 29 to October 4, 1997, and Sturrock thanked Rockefeller "for his interest in and support of this project" and Diamond and [[Charles Tolbert]] for administrative support.[^57] A report of June 1998 by the panel was, in *PEER Perspectives* of Winter 1998/99, described as "funded by the Laurance S. Rockefeller Fund."[^58]
### Rockefeller Funds ### Rockefeller Funds
The Laurance S. Rockefeller Fund of New York, which received its Internal Revenue Service ruling in June 2006, reported assets of 35,533,812 dollars for 2023. The Fund for UFO Research of [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax, Virginia]], to which the letters of 1994 and 1996 refer, has been tax-exempt since April 1982.[^13] The Laurance S. Rockefeller Fund of New York, which received its Internal Revenue Service ruling in June 2006, reported assets of 35,533,812 dollars for 2023. The Fund for UFO Research of [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax, Virginia]], to which the letters of 1994 and 1996 refer, has been tax-exempt since April 1982.[^15]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "Laurance S. Rockefeller," biography, https://rockarch.org/resources/about-the-rockefellers/laurance-s-rockefeller/ (birth, death, education, marriage, Navy service, family office, Venrock from August 1969, Jackson Hole Preserve, American Conservation Association, Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, Fund presidency and chairmanship 1958 to 1980, Sloan-Kettering, Sloan Foundation, Zoological Society). [^1]: "Laurance S. Rockefeller '32," memorial, *Princeton Alumni Weekly*. https://paw.princeton.edu/memorial/laurance-s-rockefeller-32
[^2]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1874-1960," biography (children of John D. Rockefeller Jr. and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller), https://rockarch.org/resources/about-the-rockefellers/john-d-rockefeller-jr/. [^2]: Princeton University Library, Mudd Manuscript Library, finding aid for the James V. Forrestal Papers (MC051): the diaries "were purchased from the New York Herald Tribune and donated to Princeton University by Clarence Dillon and Laurance S. Rockefeller in December 1952." https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC051
[^3]: W. David Lewis, "A Man Born Out of Season: Eddie Rickenbacker, Eastern Airlines, and the Civil Aeronautics Board," *Business and Economic History* 25, no. 1 (Fall 1996), pp. 157-163, https://thebhc.org/sites/default/files/beh/BEHprint/v025n1/p0154-p0164.pdf. [^3]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "Laurance S. Rockefeller," biography, https://rockarch.org/resources/about-the-rockefellers/laurance-s-rockefeller/ (birth, death, education, marriage, Navy service, family office, Venrock from August 1969, Jackson Hole Preserve, American Conservation Association, Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, Fund presidency and chairmanship 1958 to 1980, Sloan-Kettering, Sloan Foundation, Zoological Society).
[^4]: Peter O. Crisp, "Venture Capital Greats: A Conversation with Peter O. Crisp," interviewed by Carole Kolker, October 21, 2008, National Venture Capital Association Venture Capital Oral History Project, pp. 8, 24-28, 38 and 45-47, https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/roho/ucb/text/vcg-crisp.pdf. [^4]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1874-1960," biography (children of John D. Rockefeller Jr. and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller), https://rockarch.org/resources/about-the-rockefellers/john-d-rockefeller-jr/.
[^5]: "Richard Leghorn, 98, pioneer of Cold War aerial espionage photography," *Boston Globe*, February 5, 2018, https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2018/02/05/richard-leghorn-pioneer-cold-war-aerial-espionage-photography/C6PlYAATiFZNKx2P1La8JJ/story.html. [^5]: W. David Lewis, "A Man Born Out of Season: Eddie Rickenbacker, Eastern Airlines, and the Civil Aeronautics Board," *Business and Economic History* 25, no. 1 (Fall 1996), pp. 157-163, https://thebhc.org/sites/default/files/beh/BEHprint/v025n1/p0154-p0164.pdf.
[^6]: Kenneth E. Greer, "Corona," *Studies in Intelligence*, Supplement, 17 (Spring 1973), pp. 1-37, reproduced in Kevin C. Ruffner, ed., *CORONA: America's First Satellite Program* (Washington: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1995), https://www.cia.gov/static/Corona-Between-the-Sun-and-the-Earth.pdf. [^6]: Peter O. Crisp, "Venture Capital Greats: A Conversation with Peter O. Crisp," interviewed by Carole Kolker, October 21, 2008, National Venture Capital Association Venture Capital Oral History Project, pp. 8, 24-28, 38 and 45-47, https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/roho/ucb/text/vcg-crisp.pdf.
[^7]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, "In Depth: The Special Studies Project," Wayback Machine capture of October 5, 2021, https://web.archive.org/web/20211005203914/https://www.rbf.org/about/our-history/timeline/special-studies-project/in-depth. [^7]: "Richard Leghorn, 98, pioneer of Cold War aerial espionage photography," *Boston Globe*, February 5, 2018, https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2018/02/05/richard-leghorn-pioneer-cold-war-aerial-espionage-photography/C6PlYAATiFZNKx2P1La8JJ/story.html.
[^8]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961), list of the Special Studies Project planning committee and introduction by Panel II, https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america-the-rockefeller-panel-reports-rockefeller-brothers-fund-1961. [^8]: Kenneth E. Greer, "Corona," *Studies in Intelligence*, Supplement, 17 (Spring 1973), pp. 1-37, reproduced in Kevin C. Ruffner, ed., *CORONA: America's First Satellite Program* (Washington: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1995), https://www.cia.gov/static/Corona-Between-the-Sun-and-the-Earth.pdf.
[^9]: Allen W. Dulles to Laurance S. Rockefeller, September 16, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R003700050029-8, and the advance copy of Special Studies Project report VI, *The Power of the Democratic Idea*, with release notice, CIA-RDP80B01676R003700050028-9, CIA Reading Room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003700050029-8 and https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003700050028-9. [^9]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, "In Depth: The Special Studies Project," Wayback Machine capture of October 5, 2021, https://web.archive.org/web/20211005203914/https://www.rbf.org/about/our-history/timeline/special-studies-project/in-depth.
[^10]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to Allen W. Dulles, February 20, 1961, and Dulles to Rockefeller, March 1, 1961, CIA-RDP80B01676R003500230010-0, CIA Reading Room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500230010-0. [^10]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961), list of the Special Studies Project planning committee and introduction by Panel II, https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america-the-rockefeller-panel-reports-rockefeller-brothers-fund-1961.
[^11]: U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of the Secretary, news release, "Secretary Udall Pledges Support of ORRRC Proposals," February 1, 1962, https://www.fws.gov/sites/default/files/documents/historic-news-releases/1962/19620201B.PDF. [^11]: Allen W. Dulles to Laurance S. Rockefeller, September 16, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R003700050029-8, and the advance copy of Special Studies Project report VI, *The Power of the Democratic Idea*, with release notice, CIA-RDP80B01676R003700050028-9, CIA Reading Room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003700050029-8 and https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003700050028-9.
[^12]: National Park Service, *Caneel Bay Area Redevelopment and Management Environmental Assessment*, Virgin Islands National Park (January 2023), chapter 1, https://npshistory.com/publications/viis/caneel-bay-redev-mgt-ea-2023.pdf. [^12]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to Allen W. Dulles, February 20, 1961, and Dulles to Rockefeller, March 1, 1961, CIA-RDP80B01676R003500230010-0, CIA Reading Room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500230010-0.
[^13]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer API, organization records for Jackson Hole Preserve Inc (EIN 13-1813818), Laurance S Rockefeller Fund (EIN 20-4192256) and Fund For UFO Research (EIN 52-1164176), https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/131813818.json, https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/204192256.json and https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/521164176.json. [^13]: U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of the Secretary, news release, "Secretary Udall Pledges Support of ORRRC Proposals," February 1, 1962, https://www.fws.gov/sites/default/files/documents/historic-news-releases/1962/19620201B.PDF.
[^14]: Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research, press release, "Princeton's PEAR Laboratory to Close," February 10, 2007, http://pearlab.icrl.org/press-statement.html. [^14]: National Park Service, *Caneel Bay Area Redevelopment and Management Environmental Assessment*, Virgin Islands National Park (January 2023), chapter 1, https://npshistory.com/publications/viis/caneel-bay-redev-mgt-ea-2023.pdf.
[^15]: John E. Mack Institute, "History," https://johnemackinstitute.org/history/, and "Program for Extraordinary Experience Research (PEER)," http://johnemackinstitute.org/2003/01/program-for-extraordinary-experience-research-peer/. [^15]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer API, organization records for Jackson Hole Preserve Inc (EIN 13-1813818), Laurance S Rockefeller Fund (EIN 20-4192256) and Fund For UFO Research (EIN 52-1164176), https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/131813818.json, https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/204192256.json and https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/521164176.json.
[^16]: Ben MacIntyre, "Harvard professor's stories of close encounters, other-world sex, embarrass university," *The San Francisco Examiner* (London *Times* credit), May 5, 1995, p. 16, https://www.newspapers.com/image/461595501/. [^16]: Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research, press release, "Princeton's PEAR Laboratory to Close," February 10, 2007, http://pearlab.icrl.org/press-statement.html (archived copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2007/http://pearlab.icrl.org/press-statement.html).
[^17]: "Harvard's Mack: The Subject Is Aliens," *Valley News* (West Lebanon, N.H.), May 20, 1995, p. 23, https://www.newspapers.com/image/833962083/. [^17]: John E. Mack Institute, "History," https://johnemackinstitute.org/history/, and "Program for Extraordinary Experience Research (PEER)," http://johnemackinstitute.org/2003/01/program-for-extraordinary-experience-research-peer/.
[^18]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to John H. Gibbons, February 17, 1994, with Gibbons's handwritten note dated 2/24/94, Office of Science and Technology Policy file, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-17-94.htm. [^18]: Ben MacIntyre, "Harvard professor's stories of close encounters, other-world sex, embarrass university," *The San Francisco Examiner* (London *Times* credit), May 5, 1995, p. 16, https://www.newspapers.com/image/461595501/.
[^19]: John H. Gibbons, memorandum for the President, "Inquiry from Laurance Rockefeller," August 4, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-95.htm. [^19]: "Harvard's Mack: The Subject Is Aliens," *Valley News* (West Lebanon, N.H.), May 20, 1995, p. 23, https://www.newspapers.com/image/833962083/.
[^20]: Grant Cameron, "Extraterrestrial Politics in the Clinton White House (1993-2001) and the Laurance Rockefeller Initiative," introduction and notes iii and xiii, http://www.x-ppac.org/OSTP.html. The index of the scanned documents is at http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller_Initiative_Documents.htm. [^20]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to John H. Gibbons, February 17, 1994, with Gibbons's handwritten note dated 2/24/94, Office of Science and Technology Policy file, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-17-94.htm.
[^21]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346. [^21]: John H. Gibbons, memorandum for the President, "Inquiry from Laurance Rockefeller," August 4, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-95.htm.
[^22]: Center for Psychology and Social Change, *CenterPiece*, September 1993, p. 2, "Center Welcomes PEER Research on UFO Abductions," https://johnemackinstitute.org/CenterPiece_1993_0900.pdf. [^22]: Grant Cameron, "Extraterrestrial Politics in the Clinton White House (1993-2001) and the Laurance Rockefeller Initiative," introduction and notes iii and xiii, http://www.x-ppac.org/OSTP.html. The index of the scanned documents is at http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller_Initiative_Documents.htm.
[^23]: Henry L. Diamond, memorandum to John H. Gibbons, attention Mike Kowalok, "Request for Meeting with Dr. Gibbons for Laurance S. Rockefeller, April 12 or 13, 1993," March 29, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-3-29-93.htm. [^23]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346.
[^24]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 21, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-21-93.htm. [^24]: Center for Psychology and Social Change, *CenterPiece*, September 1993, p. 2, "Center Welcomes PEER Research on UFO Abductions," https://johnemackinstitute.org/CenterPiece_1993_0900.pdf.
[^25]: John H. Gibbons, Director, Office of Science and Technology Policy, to C. B. Scott Jones, May 26, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-5-26-93.htm. [^25]: Henry L. Diamond, memorandum to John H. Gibbons, attention Mike Kowalok, "Request for Meeting with Dr. Gibbons for Laurance S. Rockefeller, April 12 or 13, 1993," March 29, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-3-29-93.htm.
[^26]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to Billy Graham, May 7, 1993, and Graham to Rockefeller, May 20, 1993, attached to Rockefeller's fax to Gibbons of August 23, 1995, with the undated draft letter to President Clinton, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95.htm. [^26]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 21, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-21-93.htm.
[^27]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, August 4, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-93.htm. [^27]: John H. Gibbons, Director, Office of Science and Technology Policy, to C. B. Scott Jones, May 26, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-5-26-93.htm.
[^28]: Paradigm Research Group, "September 14-15, 1993 Meeting at Rockefeller's JY Ranch in Wyoming," photograph and caption, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/9-14-93_Meeting.htm. [^28]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to Billy Graham, May 7, 1993, and Graham to Rockefeller, May 20, 1993, attached to Rockefeller's fax to Gibbons of August 23, 1995, with the undated draft letter to President Clinton, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95.htm.
[^29]: Henry L. Diamond, Beveridge and Diamond, P.C., memorandum to Sue Bachtel, November 12, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-12-93.htm. [^29]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, August 4, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-93.htm.
[^30]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 14, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-14-94.htm. [^30]: Paradigm Research Group, "September 14-15, 1993 Meeting at Rockefeller's JY Ranch in Wyoming," photograph and caption, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/9-14-93_Meeting.htm.
[^31]: Rockefeller to Julia Marton-Lefevre, August 8, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-10-17-96.htm; Rockefeller to Anne Bartley, February 14, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-14-94-2.htm. [^31]: Henry L. Diamond, Beveridge and Diamond, P.C., memorandum to Sue Bachtel, November 12, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-12-93.htm.
[^32]: Sheila E. Widnall, Secretary of the Air Force, memorandum for John H. Gibbons, "UFO Research," May 24, 1994, with Gibbons's handwritten note, and the enclosed memorandum for the Secretary of the Air Force from SAF/AAZ, "Status Report on Search Efforts Regarding 'the Roswell Incident,'" May 20, 1994, p. 1, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-5-24-94.htm (the memorandum of May 24 is listed among the enclosures to Gibbons's letter to the General Accounting Office of April 26, 1995). [^32]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 14, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-14-94.htm.
[^33]: Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 26, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/2-26-94%20LR%20Letter%20to%20JG/Letter.jpg (indexed as RID-2-26-94.htm). [^33]: Rockefeller to Julia Marton-Lefevre, August 8, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-10-17-96.htm; Rockefeller to Anne Bartley, February 14, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-14-94-2.htm.
[^34]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, June 1, 1994, with the attached letter from Melvin R. Laird to Rockefeller, May 9, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-1-94.htm. [^34]: Sheila E. Widnall, Secretary of the Air Force, memorandum for John H. Gibbons, "UFO Research," May 24, 1994, with Gibbons's handwritten note, and the enclosed memorandum for the Secretary of the Air Force from SAF/AAZ, "Status Report on Search Efforts Regarding 'the Roswell Incident,'" May 20, 1994, p. 1, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-5-24-94.htm (the memorandum of May 24 is listed among the enclosures to Gibbons's letter to the General Accounting Office of April 26, 1995).
[^35]: Anne Bartley, memorandum for Jack Gibbons, "Laurance S. Rockefeller Interest in Extraterrestrial Intelligence," July 27, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-7-27-94.htm. [^35]: Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 26, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/2-26-94%20LR%20Letter%20to%20JG/Letter.jpg (indexed as RID-2-26-94.htm).
[^36]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to John H. Gibbons, August 11, 1994, pp. 1-2, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-11-94.htm. [^36]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, June 1, 1994, with the attached letter from Melvin R. Laird to Rockefeller, May 9, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-1-94.htm.
[^37]: U.S. General Accounting Office, General Government Division, to John H. Gibbons, April 12, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-12-95.htm; John H. Gibbons to William Hunt, Director, Federal Management Issues, U.S. General Accounting Office, April 26, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-26-95.htm. [^37]: Anne Bartley, memorandum for Jack Gibbons, "Laurance S. Rockefeller Interest in Extraterrestrial Intelligence," July 27, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-7-27-94.htm.
[^38]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, September 5, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-9-5-94.htm, and December 9, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-12-9-94.htm. [^38]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to John H. Gibbons, August 11, 1994, pp. 1-2, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-11-94.htm.
[^39]: C. B. Scott Jones to John H. Gibbons, February 9, 1995, pp. 1-2, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-9-95.htm. [^39]: U.S. General Accounting Office, General Government Division, to John H. Gibbons, April 12, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-12-95.htm; John H. Gibbons to William Hunt, Director, Federal Management Issues, U.S. General Accounting Office, April 26, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-26-95.htm.
[^40]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 11, 1995 (the scan is filed under 4-11-94 and the letter is dated April 11, 1995), http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-11-94.htm. [^40]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, September 5, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-9-5-94.htm, and December 9, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-12-9-94.htm.
[^41]: C. B. Scott Jones to Gibbons, December 2 and 13, 1994; Patti Solis to Jones, December 15, 1994; William M. Webster IV to Jones, December 21, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-12-2-94.htm, RID-12-13-94.htm, RID-12-15-94.htm, RID-12-21-94.htm. [^41]: C. B. Scott Jones to John H. Gibbons, February 9, 1995, pp. 1-2, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-9-95.htm.
[^42]: William J. Clinton Presidential Library, "When Cosmic Cultures Meet - Collection Finding Aid," FOIA 2008-1575-F, https://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/items/show/36409. [^42]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 11, 1995 (the scan is filed under 4-11-94 and the letter is dated April 11, 1995), http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-11-94.htm.
[^43]: Tanya M. Felder, OSTP electronic message to Susanne Bachtel, Barbara A. Ferguson and Holly L. Gwin, "GAO Report on UFOs," June 9, 1995, with handwritten reply of June 12, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-9-95.htm. [^43]: C. B. Scott Jones to Gibbons, December 2 and 13, 1994; Patti Solis to Jones, December 15, 1994; William M. Webster IV to Jones, December 21, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-12-2-94.htm, RID-12-13-94.htm, RID-12-15-94.htm, RID-12-21-94.htm.
[^44]: "Clintons to Vacation in Wyoming Mountains," *Spokesman-Review*, August 15, 1995, https://www.spokesman.com/stories/1995/aug/15/clintons-to-vacation-in-wyoming-mountains/; William J. Clinton Presidential Library, "White House Photos - Laurance Rockefeller - Philanthropist," finding aid 2006-0546-F (contact sheet book 312, frame P31195, August 21, 1995), https://www.clintonlibrary.gov/research/archives/finding-aids/white-house-photos-laurance-rockefeller-philanthropist. [^44]: William J. Clinton Presidential Library, "When Cosmic Cultures Meet - Collection Finding Aid," FOIA 2008-1575-F, https://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/items/show/36409.
[^45]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to Representative Steven Schiff, August 17, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-17-95.htm. [^45]: Tanya M. Felder, OSTP electronic message to Susanne Bachtel, Barbara A. Ferguson and Holly L. Gwin, "GAO Report on UFOs," June 9, 1995, with handwritten reply of June 12, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-9-95.htm.
[^46]: Jones to Gibbons, August 23, 1995, with attached Jones letters to Newt Gingrich (August 17, 1995) and to members of the House (May 16, 1995), http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95-2.htm. [^46]: "Clintons to Vacation in Wyoming Mountains," *Spokesman-Review*, August 15, 1995, https://www.spokesman.com/stories/1995/aug/15/clintons-to-vacation-in-wyoming-mountains/; William J. Clinton Presidential Library, "White House Photos - Laurance Rockefeller - Philanthropist," finding aid 2006-0546-F (contact sheet book 312, frame P31195, August 21, 1995), https://www.clintonlibrary.gov/research/archives/finding-aids/white-house-photos-laurance-rockefeller-philanthropist.
[^47]: Henry L. Diamond to John H. Gibbons, November 1, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-1-95.htm, and November 8, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-8-95.htm. [^47]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to Representative Steven Schiff, August 17, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-17-95.htm.
[^48]: Don Berliner et al., *Unidentified Flying Objects Briefing Document: The Best Available Evidence* (UFO Research Coalition, December 1995), acknowledgments, https://archive.org/details/rockefeller-briefing-document. [^48]: Jones to Gibbons, August 23, 1995, with attached Jones letters to Newt Gingrich (August 17, 1995) and to members of the House (May 16, 1995), http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95-2.htm.
[^49]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 5, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-5-96.htm. [^49]: Henry L. Diamond to John H. Gibbons, November 1, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-1-95.htm, and November 8, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-8-95.htm.
[^50]: Sheila E. Widnall, Secretary of the Air Force, to John H. Gibbons, February 27, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-27-96.htm; Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 29, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-29-96.htm. [^50]: Don Berliner et al., *Unidentified Flying Objects Briefing Document: The Best Available Evidence* (UFO Research Coalition, December 1995), acknowledgments, https://archive.org/details/rockefeller-briefing-document.
[^51]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, October 17, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-10-17-96.htm. [^51]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 5, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-5-96.htm.
[^52]: Robert Sheaffer, "Carl Sagan, Laurance Rockefeller, and UFOs," *Skeptical Inquirer* 38, no. 5 (September/October 2014), pp. 19-20, https://skepticalinquirer.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/2014/09/p19.pdf. [^52]: Sheila E. Widnall, Secretary of the Air Force, to John H. Gibbons, February 27, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-27-96.htm; Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 29, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-29-96.htm.
[^53]: Bruce Maccabee to John H. Gibbons, January 2, 1997, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-1-2-97.htm. [^53]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, October 17, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-10-17-96.htm.
[^54]: Secretary of the Air Force to John H. Gibbons, June 20, 1997, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-20-97.htm. [^54]: Robert Sheaffer, "Carl Sagan, Laurance Rockefeller, and UFOs," *Skeptical Inquirer* 38, no. 5 (September/October 2014), pp. 19-20, https://skepticalinquirer.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/2014/09/p19.pdf.
[^55]: Peter A. Sturrock et al., "Physical Evidence Related to UFO Reports: The Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the Pocantico Conference Center, Tarrytown, New York, September 29 - October 4, 1997," *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 12, no. 2 (1998), pp. 179-229, introduction as reproduced at http://www.ufoevidence.org/documents/doc535.htm. [^55]: Bruce Maccabee to John H. Gibbons, January 2, 1997, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-1-2-97.htm.
[^56]: *PEER Perspectives* no. 2 (Winter 1998/99), p. 1, https://johnemackinstitute.org/PEER_Perspectives_2.pdf. [^56]: Secretary of the Air Force to John H. Gibbons, June 20, 1997, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-20-97.htm.
[^57]: Peter A. Sturrock et al., "Physical Evidence Related to UFO Reports: The Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the Pocantico Conference Center, Tarrytown, New York, September 29 - October 4, 1997," *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 12, no. 2 (1998), pp. 179-229, introduction as reproduced at http://www.ufoevidence.org/documents/doc535.htm.
[^58]: *PEER Perspectives* no. 2 (Winter 1998/99), p. 1, https://johnemackinstitute.org/PEER_Perspectives_2.pdf.

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10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Lee Harvey Oswald.md
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@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ Lee Harvey Oswald (October 18, 1939 - November 24, 1963) was the man arrested fo
### Background and Soviet Defection ### Background and Soviet Defection
Oswald was born in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] and raised in Texas and [[New York]]. He enlisted in the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] in 1956 and was assigned to Marine Air Control Squadron 1 (MACS-1) at Atsugi Air Base in [[Japan]] - a facility of particular intelligence significance. Atsugi's MACS-1 unit included height-finding radars (the MPS-16 radar among them), and Atsugi simultaneously hosted CIA Detachment C of the [[U-2]] reconnaissance program, which conducted overflights of the [[Soviet Union]] whose existence was concealed from Soviet authorities until Gary Powers was shot down in May 1960. A Japanese-American technical intelligence unit, JTAG, was also co-located at the base. As a radar operator, Oswald had access to data from high-altitude U-2 operations - information CIA counterintelligence chief [[James Angleton]] later assessed as potentially significant given Oswald's subsequent defection. Oswald was born in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] and raised in Texas and [[New York City|New York]]. He enlisted in the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] in 1956 and was assigned to Marine Air Control Squadron 1 (MACS-1) at Atsugi Air Base in [[Japan]] - a facility of particular intelligence significance. Atsugi's MACS-1 unit included height-finding radars (the MPS-16 radar among them), and Atsugi simultaneously hosted CIA Detachment C of the [[U-2]] reconnaissance program, which conducted overflights of the [[Soviet Union]] whose existence was concealed from Soviet authorities until Gary Powers was shot down in May 1960. A Japanese-American technical intelligence unit, JTAG, was also co-located at the base. As a radar operator, Oswald had access to data from high-altitude U-2 operations - information CIA counterintelligence chief [[James Angleton]] later assessed as potentially significant given Oswald's subsequent defection.
Oswald received a hardship discharge in September 1959. Within two weeks, he traveled to the Soviet Union and, in October 1959, walked into the U.S. Embassy in Moscow to renounce his American citizenship. Soviet authorities initially denied him permanent residency but eventually allowed him to remain, settling him in [[Minsk]], where he worked in a factory under [[KGB]] surveillance. He married Marina Prusakova, a Soviet citizen, in April 1961. Soviet defectors were routinely debriefed by the KGB; given Oswald's Atsugi assignment, the extent of any debriefing and what he disclosed has never been established. Oswald received a hardship discharge in September 1959. Within two weeks, he traveled to the Soviet Union and, in October 1959, walked into the U.S. Embassy in Moscow to renounce his American citizenship. Soviet authorities initially denied him permanent residency but eventually allowed him to remain, settling him in [[Minsk]], where he worked in a factory under [[KGB]] surveillance. He married Marina Prusakova, a Soviet citizen, in April 1961. Soviet defectors were routinely debriefed by the KGB; given Oswald's Atsugi assignment, the extent of any debriefing and what he disclosed has never been established.

4
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Michael Whitney Straight.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
--- ---
created: 2026-10-09 created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09 updated: 2026-10-15
title: Michael Whitney Straight title: Michael Whitney Straight
aliases: aliases:
- Michael Whitney Straight - Michael Whitney Straight
@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ Straight told the FBI that he entered Cambridge in the fall of 1934 and was domi
Straight told the FBI that after Cornford's death became known, Blunt invited him to his rooms and suggested that Straight make a comparable sacrifice. Blunt asked him to give up Communist work in England and turn to the international field, and said the [[Communist International]] wanted a man at Morgan and Company to supply economic reports. Straight protested that he was not cut out to be a banker; about three weeks later Blunt told him that his protests had been rejected, and he sailed for the United States, where he wrote a further letter of protest to Blunt from the ship. Before he left, Blunt tore a small ink drawing of Straight's sweetheart in half and kept one piece. Straight could not recall whether an oral parole was also arranged. He told the FBI that he believed Burgess was the person directing Blunt, although Blunt declined to say so.[^6] Straight told the FBI that after Cornford's death became known, Blunt invited him to his rooms and suggested that Straight make a comparable sacrifice. Blunt asked him to give up Communist work in England and turn to the international field, and said the [[Communist International]] wanted a man at Morgan and Company to supply economic reports. Straight protested that he was not cut out to be a banker; about three weeks later Blunt told him that his protests had been rejected, and he sailed for the United States, where he wrote a further letter of protest to Blunt from the ship. Before he left, Blunt tore a small ink drawing of Straight's sweetheart in half and kept one piece. Straight could not recall whether an oral parole was also arranged. He told the FBI that he believed Burgess was the person directing Blunt, although Blunt declined to say so.[^6]
In a 1981 telephone interview with [[United Press International]], Straight placed Blunt's approach in February 1937 and said: "Blunt tried to recruit me as a Soviet agent and have me return to United States and join the J.P. Morgan company." He added: "I flatly refused. I said I didn't want any part."[^7] [[The [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] Post]] reported the same month that Blunt had tried to recruit him at Cambridge in 1937, and quoted him that "they" had decided to accelerate their timetable "because of the death of my closest friend."[^8] [[The Washington Star]] reported on March 28, 1981 that the approach came less than two weeks after Cornford's death and that Blunt wanted him to "infiltrate" Wall Street.[^9] In a January 1983 radio interview he described the instruction in nearly the same terms: "What they wanted me to do was not to go into government, but to go to Wall Street, go back to my father's old firm, J.P. Morgan & Company."[^10] In a 1981 telephone interview with [[United Press International]], Straight placed Blunt's approach in February 1937 and said: "Blunt tried to recruit me as a Soviet agent and have me return to United States and join the J.P. Morgan company." He added: "I flatly refused. I said I didn't want any part."[^7] [[Washington Post|The Washington Post]] reported the same month that Blunt had tried to recruit him at Cambridge in 1937, and quoted him that "they" had decided to accelerate their timetable "because of the death of my closest friend."[^8] [[The Washington Star]] reported on March 28, 1981 that the approach came less than two weeks after Cornford's death and that Blunt wanted him to "infiltrate" Wall Street.[^9] In a January 1983 radio interview he described the instruction in nearly the same terms: "What they wanted me to do was not to go into government, but to go to Wall Street, go back to my father's old firm, J.P. Morgan & Company."[^10]
### Contact with Michael Green ### Contact with Michael Green

6
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Rene Schneider.md
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@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ summary: "Commander of the Chilean army who held that the military must respect
died: 1970-10-25 died: 1970-10-25
location: "Santiago, Chile" location: "Santiago, Chile"
created: 2026-09-21 created: 2026-09-21
updated: 2026-10-14 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
General René Schneider was commander in chief of the Chilean army from 1969. In an interview with [[El Mercurio]] on May 8, 1970, he stated that the army would respect the constitutional process and the outcome of that year's presidential election, a position that became known as the [[Schneider Doctrine]]. He was shot in [[Santiago]] on the morning of October 22, 1970, two days before the [[National Congress of Chile|Chilean Congress]] was to confirm [[Salvador Allende]], and died on October 25.[^1] General René Schneider was commander in chief of the Chilean army from 1969. In an interview with [[El Mercurio]] on May 8, 1970, he stated that the army would respect the constitutional process and the outcome of that year's presidential election, a position that became known as the [[Schneider Doctrine]]. He was shot in [[Santiago]] on the morning of October 22, 1970, two days before the [[National Congress of Chile|Chilean Congress]] was to confirm [[Salvador Allende]], and died on October 25.[^1]
@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ Congress ratified Allende on October 24 by 153 votes to 37.[^5]
### Schneider v. Kissinger ### Schneider v. Kissinger
René and Raúl Schneider and other members of the family sued Kissinger and the [[United States]] in the federal court in Washington on November 12, 2002. The complaint alleged that on September 15, 1970, Nixon ordered that the CIA "play a direct role in organizing a military coup d'etat in [[Chile]]," said he was "not concerned" about the risks, authorized ten million dollars, and required a plan within 48 hours. The district court dismissed the case in 2004, and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|court of appeals]] affirmed in 2005, holding that the decision to support a coup in a foreign country was a political question that courts could not review.[^6] René and Raúl Schneider and other members of the family sued [[Henry Kissinger|Kissinger]], the [[United States]] and [[Richard Helms]] in the federal court in Washington on September 10, 2001, and filed an amended complaint against Kissinger and the United States on November 11, 2002, according to the opinion of the court of appeals; the National Security Archive catalogues the complaint under November 12, 2002. The complaint alleged that on September 15, 1970, Nixon ordered that the CIA "play a direct role in organizing a military coup d'etat in [[Chile]]," said he was "not concerned" about the risks, authorized ten million dollars, and required a plan within 48 hours. The district court dismissed the case on March 30, 2004, and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|court of appeals]] affirmed on June 28, 2005, holding that the decision to support a coup in a foreign country was a political question that courts could not review.[^6]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -54,6 +54,6 @@ René and Raúl Schneider and other members of the family sued Kissinger and the
[^3]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973,* staff report, 1975. [^3]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973,* staff report, 1975.
[^4]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House*. Summit Books, 1983, pp. 275, 289-290. [^4]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House*. Summit Books, 1983, pp. 275, 289-290.
[^5]: Kornbluh, Peter. *The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability*. New Press, 2003, p. 29. [^5]: Kornbluh, Peter. *The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability*. New Press, 2003, p. 29.
[^6]: Schneider v. Kissinger, 310 F. Supp. 2d 251 (D.D.C. 2004), affirmed, 412 F.3d 190 (D.C. Cir. 2005); complaint, November 12, 2002, National Security Archive document 23606. [^6]: Schneider v. Kissinger, 310 F. Supp. 2d 251 (D.D.C. 2004), affirmed, 412 F.3d 190 (D.C. Cir. June 28, 2005), https://cite.case.law/f3d/412/190/ ; complaint, November 12, 2002, National Security Archive document 23606.
[^7]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969-1973, document 162, Briefing Notes Prepared in the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 23, 1970, "Track II." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d162 [^7]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969-1973, document 162, Briefing Notes Prepared in the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 23, 1970, "Track II." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d162
[^8]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 168, Briefing Notes Prepared in the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 28, 1970, "Recent Developments: Track II." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d168 [^8]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 168, Briefing Notes Prepared in the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 28, 1970, "Recent Developments: Track II." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d168

4
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Richard Secord.md
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@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ aliases:
- Dick Secord - Dick Secord
- General Secord - General Secord
created: 2026-05-17 created: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-10-14 updated: 2026-10-15
category: "Military" category: "Military"
tags: tags:
- Person - Person
@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ In his 1987 testimony he said he served in [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] and in Laos o
### Naval War College and the Pentagon ### Naval War College and the Pentagon
From 1971 to 1972 Secord attended a one-year George Washington University graduate program at the [[Naval War College]] in Newport, Rhode Island, one of 16 Air Force officers in a class of 203.[^1] His 1972 master's thesis, "Unconventional warfare/covert operations as an instrument of U.S. foreign policy," was directed by the CIA adviser to the head of the college. In the first pages of its 55 pages he wrote that the CIA should be given "the authority" to run such operations and that the Pentagon should be "removed from the chain of command."[^1] From 1971 to 1972 Secord attended a one-year [[George Washington University]] graduate program at the [[Naval War College]] in Newport, Rhode Island, one of 16 Air Force officers in a class of 203.[^1] His 1972 master's thesis, "Unconventional warfare/covert operations as an instrument of U.S. foreign policy," was directed by the CIA adviser to the head of the college. In the first pages of its 55 pages he wrote that the CIA should be given "the authority" to run such operations and that the Pentagon should be "removed from the chain of command."[^1]
Promoted to colonel in 1972, he became the Pentagon desk officer for Southeast Asia, and in 1973 he became aide to the director of the Defense Security Assistance Agency, which manages foreign military sales and assistance.[^1] The joint congressional report states that when Secord returned from Laos and was stationed at the Pentagon, Clines introduced him to a number of Clines's CIA associates, including [[Rafael Quintero]], and to [[Edwin Wilson]].[^9] [[Newsweek]] reported that Secord received his first general's star at the age of 43.[^6] Promoted to colonel in 1972, he became the Pentagon desk officer for Southeast Asia, and in 1973 he became aide to the director of the Defense Security Assistance Agency, which manages foreign military sales and assistance.[^1] The joint congressional report states that when Secord returned from Laos and was stationed at the Pentagon, Clines introduced him to a number of Clines's CIA associates, including [[Rafael Quintero]], and to [[Edwin Wilson]].[^9] [[Newsweek]] reported that Secord received his first general's star at the age of 43.[^6]

2
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Robert Booth Nichols.md
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@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ In a telephone interview with the FBI on January 11, 1994, Nichols said that whe
### The Bayou Fee ### The Bayou Fee
In the spring of 2004 Nichols offered [[Samuel Israel III]], manager of the Bayou hedge funds, access to what British investigators later described as programs with "all of the hallmarks of fraudulent prime bank note programs." After more than 150 million dollars of Bayou money passed through a London account of the "Humanitarian Coalition Aid Foundation" and back in April 2004, Nichols and Israel signed a "Financial and Security Consultancy Agreement" on July 11, 2004, and on July 19 Israel wired ten million dollars to accounts in Germany, Liechtenstein, Singapore and the [[United Kingdom]] in the name of or controlled by Nichols, about eight million of which ended in a London account in the names of Nichols and his wife, Ellen. The Bayou funds' liquidating entity sued the couple in 2008 to recover the fee as a fraudulent transfer; they answered that he had received it "for value, in good faith and without knowledge of the alleged voidability of the transfer." Nichols was deposed on video at the [[U.S. Attorney's office]] in Manhattan on December 16, 2008, and the case was closed on April 28, 2010.[^1][^13] At the time his address was in Honolulu.[^1] In the spring of 2004 Nichols offered [[Samuel Israel III]], manager of the Bayou hedge funds, access to what British investigators later described as programs with "all of the hallmarks of fraudulent prime bank note programs." After more than 150 million dollars of Bayou money passed through a London account of the "Humanitarian Coalition Aid Foundation" and back in April 2004, Nichols and Israel signed a "Financial and Security Consultancy Agreement" on July 11, 2004, and on July 19 Israel wired ten million dollars to accounts in Germany, Liechtenstein, Singapore and the [[United Kingdom]] in the name of or controlled by Nichols, about eight million of which ended in a London account in the names of Nichols and his wife, Ellen. The Bayou funds' liquidating entity sued the couple in 2008 to recover the fee as a fraudulent transfer; they answered that he had received it "for value, in good faith and without knowledge of the alleged voidability of the transfer." Nichols was deposed on video at the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|U.S. Attorney's office]] in Manhattan on December 16, 2008, and the case was closed on April 28, 2010.[^1][^13] At the time his address was in Honolulu.[^1]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes

31
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Spencer Oliver.md
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@ -5,16 +5,41 @@ tags:
- IranContra - IranContra
- Israel - Israel
summary: "Chief counsel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee who in 1992 sought leniency for the arms dealer Dirk Stoffberg, and whom Ari Ben-Menashe described as calling the Iran-Contra hearings a cover-up." summary: "Chief counsel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee who in 1992 sought leniency for the arms dealer Dirk Stoffberg, and whom Ari Ben-Menashe described as calling the Iran-Contra hearings a cover-up."
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Democratic National Committee]]"
start: 1966
end: 1976
role: "senior positions; Executive Director of the State Chairmens Association in 1972"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[United States House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs]]"
end: 1993
role: "chief counsel"
fn: 4
- type: head_of
with: "[[OSCE Parliamentary Assembly]]"
start: 1992
end: 2015
role: "Secretary General"
fn: 4
--- ---
[[Spencer Oliver]] was the chief counsel for the [[United States House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs|House Foreign Affairs Committee]]. He was involved in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] hearings. In 1991, he discussed the events of 1987 with [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], admitting that the Democrats knew the witnesses were lying and that the hearings were a cover-up to avoid impeaching the president.[^1] [[Spencer Oliver]] was the chief counsel for the [[United States House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs|House Foreign Affairs Committee]]. He was involved in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] hearings. In 1991, he discussed the events of 1987 with [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], admitting that the Democrats knew the witnesses were lying and that the hearings were a cover-up to avoid impeaching the president.[^1]
### The 1972 telephone tap
The Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities names R. Spencer Oliver Jr. as the Democratic National Committee official, the son of Robert Oliver, the Mullen and Company lobbyist for Hughes Tool, whose telephone [[James McCord]] bugged in the first Watergate entry of May 27, 1972.[^2] A 1976 memorandum by [[Bruce Solie]], chief of the Central Intelligence Agency's Security Analysis Group, identifies the "Spencer Oliver" named in a Freedom of Information request from McCord as, according to a 1972 newspaper article, the Executive Director of the State Chairmens Association of the Democratic National Committee, in whose office telephone "an alleged listening device was found."[^3] The Wilson Center's biography of Oliver lists senior positions at the Democratic National Committee from 1966 to 1976, followed by service as Chief of Staff of the Helsinki Commission (1976 to 1985) and as chief counsel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee until 1993; the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly's biography lists him as its Secretary General from 1992 to 2015.[^4]
### Stoffberg letter (1992) ### Stoffberg letter (1992)
On January 10, 1992, Oliver, chief counsel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, wrote to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York requesting leniency for [[Dirk Stoffberg]], a convicted arms dealer, on the ground that Stoffberg had provided the committee with information about the 1980 hostage events. Judge [[Jack Weinstein]] cited the request in an amended sentencing memorandum and reduced the sentence.[^2] On February 4, 1992, Representative McEwen of Ohio announced that he would offer a privileged resolution on the letter before the House debated House Resolution 258, which created the October Surprise task force.[^2] A reprinted newspaper account quotes Representative Henry Hyde: "By what authority did Spencer Oliver intervene in this case, and why wasn't the minority notified?"[^3] On January 10, 1992, Oliver, chief counsel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, wrote to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York requesting leniency for [[Dirk Stoffberg]], a convicted arms dealer, on the ground that Stoffberg had provided the committee with information about the 1980 hostage events. Judge [[Jack Weinstein]] cited the request in an amended sentencing memorandum and reduced the sentence.[^5] On February 4, 1992, Representative McEwen of Ohio announced that he would offer a privileged resolution on the letter before the House debated House Resolution 258, which created the October Surprise task force.[^5] A reprinted newspaper account quotes Representative Henry Hyde: "By what authority did Spencer Oliver intervene in this case, and why wasn't the minority notified?"[^6]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network*. Sheridan Square Press, 1992 (TrineDay reprint, 2015). [^1]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network*. Sheridan Square Press, 1992 (TrineDay reprint, 2015).
[^2]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Congressional Record*, February 4, 1992, pp. H253 and following (announcement by Representative McEwen; reprinted letter of January 10, 1992; amended memorandum and order of the Eastern District of New York). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_cr/h920204-october.htm [^2]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company", pp. 1122-1123 (Robert Oliver and R. Spencer Oliver Jr.); the first entry of May 27, 1972 and the placement of the telephone devices, Part I. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
[^3]: Reprinted article quoted in the same Congressional Record volume (Stoffberg defense account), above. [^3]: Solie, Bruce L., Chief, Security Analysis Group, memorandum for the file, "McCord, James Walter, Jr.," June 23, 1976, JFK record 104-10123-10362.
[^4]: Wilson Center, "Spencer Oliver," expert biography. https://wilsoncenter.org/person/spencer-oliver ; OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, "R. Spencer Oliver," former Secretary General. https://www.oscepa.org/en/about-osce-pa/international-secretariat/former-secretary-general/former-secretary-general
[^5]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Congressional Record*, February 4, 1992, pp. H253 and following (announcement by Representative McEwen; reprinted letter of January 10, 1992; amended memorandum and order of the Eastern District of New York). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_cr/h920204-october.htm
[^6]: Reprinted article quoted in the same Congressional Record volume (Stoffberg defense account), above.

18
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Toby Ord.md
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@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ summary: "Toby Ord is an Australian moral philosopher at Oxford who cofounded Gi
born: 1979 born: 1979
location: "Oxford, England" location: "Oxford, England"
created: 2026-06-19 created: 2026-06-19
updated: 2026-06-19 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Toby Ord (born July 1979) is an Australian moral philosopher at the [[University of Oxford]] who cofounded the [[Effective Altruism]] movement and became one of the leading academic theorists of existential risk. He founded [[Giving What We Can]], the pledge society that anchored the movement's early growth, was a senior research fellow at the [[Future of Humanity Institute]], and wrote *The Precipice*, a 2020 book arguing that humanity faces a roughly one-in-six chance of an existential catastrophe within the next hundred years.[^1][^2] Toby Ord (born July 1979) is an Australian moral philosopher at the [[University of Oxford]] who cofounded the [[Effective Altruism]] movement and became one of the leading academic theorists of existential risk. He founded [[Giving What We Can]], the pledge society that anchored the movement's early growth, was a senior research fellow at the [[Future of Humanity Institute]], and wrote *The Precipice*, a 2020 book arguing that humanity faces a roughly one-in-six chance of an existential catastrophe within the next hundred years.[^1][^2]
@ -23,17 +23,17 @@ Toby Ord (born July 1979) is an Australian moral philosopher at the [[University
Ord was born in [[Melbourne]] and studied computer science before switching to philosophy at the [[University of Melbourne]], then moved to Oxford for graduate work. There he calculated that he could earn roughly 1.5 million pounds over his career and give away about a million of it while keeping a graduate student's standard of living, and he pledged to donate everything above a fixed personal income. In 2009 he and the philosopher [[William MacAskill]] founded Giving What We Can, an international society whose members pledge at least ten percent of their income to the most cost-effective charities; its members have collectively pledged well over a billion dollars. The pledge model, paired with the charity-evaluation work of [[GiveWell]] and [[Holden Karnofsky]], formed the practical core of effective altruism.[^3][^4] Ord was born in [[Melbourne]] and studied computer science before switching to philosophy at the [[University of Melbourne]], then moved to Oxford for graduate work. There he calculated that he could earn roughly 1.5 million pounds over his career and give away about a million of it while keeping a graduate student's standard of living, and he pledged to donate everything above a fixed personal income. In 2009 he and the philosopher [[William MacAskill]] founded Giving What We Can, an international society whose members pledge at least ten percent of their income to the most cost-effective charities; its members have collectively pledged well over a billion dollars. The pledge model, paired with the charity-evaluation work of [[GiveWell]] and [[Holden Karnofsky]], formed the practical core of effective altruism.[^3][^4]
Ord launched Giving What We Can in November 2009 alongside his wife, the physician Bernadette Young, with whom he committed to capping his own annual spending and donating the rest. He set his personal living allowance at about 18,000 pounds a year, giving away everything earned above it toward a lifetime target of one million pounds, with the bulk going to the SCI Foundation and Deworm the World (both deworming programs), the [[Against Malaria Foundation]], and the poverty-research lab J-PAL. The society grew from a handful of Oxford members to more than 9,000, and by March 2022 the pledges of its members totaled more than 2.5 billion dollars in expected lifetime giving.[^3][^7] Ord launched Giving What We Can in November 2009 alongside his wife, the physician Bernadette Young, with whom he committed to capping his own annual spending and donating the rest. He set his personal living allowance at about 18,000 pounds a year, giving away everything earned above it toward a lifetime target of one million pounds, with the bulk going to the SCI Foundation and Deworm the World (both deworming programs), the [[Against Malaria Foundation]], and the poverty-research lab J-PAL. The society grew from a handful of Oxford members to more than 9,000, and by March 2022 the pledges of its members totaled more than 2.5 billion dollars in expected lifetime giving.[^3][^5]
### Future of Humanity Institute and Existential Risk ### Future of Humanity Institute and Existential Risk
Ord was a senior research fellow at the Future of Humanity Institute, the Oxford center founded by [[Nick Bostrom]] in 2005 that became the academic headquarters of [[Longtermism|longtermism]]. His research moved from the ethics of global poverty toward existential risk, the danger of events that would permanently destroy humanity's long-term potential, the same focus that animated Bostrom's work and the AI-safety concerns of the [[Rationalist Community]]. Ord has advised the [[World Health Organization]], the [[World Bank]], the [[World Economic Forum]], the U.S. National Intelligence Council, and the UK Prime Minister's Office.[^1][^2] Ord was a senior research fellow at the Future of Humanity Institute, the Oxford center founded by [[Nick Bostrom]] in 2005 that became the academic headquarters of [[Longtermism|longtermism]]. His research moved from the ethics of global poverty toward existential risk, the danger of events that would permanently destroy humanity's long-term potential, the same focus that animated Bostrom's work and the AI-safety concerns of the [[Rationalist Community]]. Ord has advised the [[World Health Organization]], the [[World Bank]], the [[World Economic Forum]], the U.S. National Intelligence Council, and the UK Prime Minister's Office.[^1][^2]
The Future of Humanity Institute closed on April 16, 2024 after nineteen years, with Oxford's Faculty of Philosophy declining to renew the remaining staff contracts following a 2020 freeze on its hiring and fundraising; Bostrom called it "death by bureaucracy." The shutdown followed a period of reputational damage, including the 2023 resurfacing of a 1996 email in which Bostrom had used a racial slur, for which he apologized and which prompted an Oxford inquiry. Ord had by then moved to the Oxford Martin School's AI Governance Initiative, continuing the existential-risk work the institute had housed.[^8][^9] The Future of Humanity Institute closed on April 16, 2024 after nineteen years, with Oxford's Faculty of Philosophy declining to renew the remaining staff contracts following a 2020 freeze on its hiring and fundraising; Bostrom called it "death by bureaucracy." The shutdown followed a period of reputational damage, including the 2023 resurfacing of a 1996 email in which Bostrom had used a racial slur, for which he apologized and which prompted an Oxford inquiry. Ord had by then moved to the Oxford Martin School's AI Governance Initiative, continuing the existential-risk work the institute had housed.[^6][^7]
### The Precipice ### The Precipice
*The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity*, published in 2020, surveyed the catastrophes that could end the human story, natural and anthropogenic, and assigned probabilities to each. Ord judged engineered pandemics and unaligned artificial intelligence the gravest near-term threats and estimated the combined chance of an existential catastrophe this century at about one in six. The book argued that reducing such risks should rank among the highest global priorities, the central claim of the longtermist program that MacAskill later developed in *What We Owe the Future* and that the [[FTX Future Fund]] of [[Sam Bankman-Fried]] funded before its 2022 collapse.[^5][^6] *The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity*, published in 2020, surveyed the catastrophes that could end the human story, natural and anthropogenic, and assigned probabilities to each. Ord judged engineered pandemics and unaligned artificial intelligence the gravest near-term threats and estimated the combined chance of an existential catastrophe this century at about one in six. The book argued that reducing such risks should rank among the highest global priorities, the central claim of the longtermist program that MacAskill later developed in *What We Owe the Future* and that the [[FTX Future Fund]] of [[Sam Bankman-Fried]] funded before its 2022 collapse.[^8][^9]
Ord's Table 6.1 gave per-century estimates that placed unaligned artificial intelligence at roughly one in ten, engineered pandemics at one in thirty, nuclear war and climate change at one in a thousand each, and all natural risks combined (asteroids, supervolcanoes, naturally arising pandemics) at only about one in ten thousand. He stressed that the anthropogenic figures were order-of-magnitude judgments that could "easily be a factor of 3 higher or lower," and that the era of human-made existential risk had begun only with the atomic bomb in 1945, which he called the start of the "Precipice." His framing of AI as the single largest source of extinction risk became a load-bearing premise for the AI-safety funding that flowed from [[Open Philanthropy]] and the FTX Future Fund into the labs and research centers.[^2][^10] Ord's Table 6.1 gave per-century estimates that placed unaligned artificial intelligence at roughly one in ten, engineered pandemics at one in thirty, nuclear war and climate change at one in a thousand each, and all natural risks combined (asteroids, supervolcanoes, naturally arising pandemics) at only about one in ten thousand. He stressed that the anthropogenic figures were order-of-magnitude judgments that could "easily be a factor of 3 higher or lower," and that the era of human-made existential risk had begun only with the atomic bomb in 1945, which he called the start of the "Precipice." His framing of AI as the single largest source of extinction risk became a load-bearing premise for the AI-safety funding that flowed from [[Open Philanthropy]] and the FTX Future Fund into the labs and research centers.[^2][^10]
@ -43,9 +43,9 @@ Ord's Table 6.1 gave per-century estimates that placed unaligned artificial inte
[^2]: Ord, Toby. *The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity.* Bloomsbury, 2020. [^2]: Ord, Toby. *The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity.* Bloomsbury, 2020.
[^3]: "Toby Ord: Why I'm giving £1m to charity," *BBC News,* 2010, on the career-earnings calculation and the pledge. https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-11950843 [^3]: "Toby Ord: Why I'm giving £1m to charity," *BBC News,* 2010, on the career-earnings calculation and the pledge. https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-11950843
[^4]: "Our history," Giving What We Can, on the 2009 founding with William MacAskill and the cumulative pledge total. https://www.givingwhatwecan.org/about-us/history [^4]: "Our history," Giving What We Can, on the 2009 founding with William MacAskill and the cumulative pledge total. https://www.givingwhatwecan.org/about-us/history
[^5]: "The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity," Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews, on the one-in-six estimate and the book's argument. https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-precipice-existential-risk-and-the-future-of-humanity/ [^5]: "Toby Ord: Why I'm giving £1m to charity," *BBC News,* 2010, on the 18,000-pound living allowance and the named charities; "Oxford-based charity receives more than $2.5 billion in pledges," University of Oxford, March 1, 2022. https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2022-03-01-oxford-based-charity-receives-more-25-billion-pledges-community-effective-givers
[^6]: "Existential risk and the future of humanity (Toby Ord)," EA Forum, on the book's risk taxonomy and probability estimates. https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/BAfEgTaK5BsperQEc/existential-risk-and-the-future-of-humanity-toby-ord [^6]: "Oxford shuts down Elon Musk-funded Future of Humanity Institute," *The Oxford Student,* April 20, 2024, Internet Archive capture dated April 28, 2024, on the April 16, 2024 closure; Bostrom's "death by bureaucracy" statement appears there as an emailed statement to *The Guardian.* https://web.archive.org/web/20240428172104/https://www.oxfordstudent.com/2024/04/20/oxford-shuts-down-elon-musk-funded-future-of-humanity-institute/
[^7]: "Toby Ord: Why I'm giving £1m to charity," *BBC News,* 2010, on the 18,000-pound living allowance and the named charities; "Oxford-based charity receives more than $2.5 billion in pledges," University of Oxford, March 1, 2022. https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2022-03-01-oxford-based-charity-receives-more-25-billion-pledges-community-effective-givers [^7]: "Looking Back at the Future of Humanity Institute," *Asterisk,* on the 2020 hiring freeze, the contract non-renewals, and the institute's nineteen-year run. https://asteriskmag.com/issues/08/looking-back-at-the-future-of-humanity-institute
[^8]: "Oxford shuts down institute run by Elon Musk-backed philosopher," *The Guardian,* April 20, 2024, on the April 16, 2024 closure and "death by bureaucracy." https://www.oxfordstudent.com/2024/04/20/oxford-shuts-down-elon-musk-funded-future-of-humanity-institute/ [^8]: "The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity," Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews, on the one-in-six estimate and the book's argument. https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-precipice-existential-risk-and-the-future-of-humanity/
[^9]: "Looking Back at the Future of Humanity Institute," *Asterisk,* on the 2020 hiring freeze, the contract non-renewals, and the institute's nineteen-year run. https://asteriskmag.com/issues/08/looking-back-at-the-future-of-humanity-institute [^9]: "Existential risk and the future of humanity (Toby Ord)," EA Forum, on the book's risk taxonomy and probability estimates. https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/BAfEgTaK5BsperQEc/existential-risk-and-the-future-of-humanity-toby-ord
[^10]: "Some thoughts on Toby Ord's existential risk estimates," EA Forum, reproducing Table 6.1 with the one-in-ten AI figure and the order-of-magnitude caveat. https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/Z5KZ2cui8WDjyF6gJ/some-thoughts-on-toby-ord-s-existential-risk-estimates [^10]: "Some thoughts on Toby Ord's existential risk estimates," EA Forum, reproducing Table 6.1 with the one-in-ten AI figure and the order-of-magnitude caveat. https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/Z5KZ2cui8WDjyF6gJ/some-thoughts-on-toby-ord-s-existential-risk-estimates

2
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Yitzhak Shamir.md
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@ -110,7 +110,7 @@ Shamir became prime minister on October 10, 1983.[^2] A December 1983 Central In
### Foreign minister, 1980 to 1983 ### Foreign minister, 1980 to 1983
Shamir was foreign minister from March 10, 1980.[^2] On October 4, 1982 [[George P. Shultz]], then secretary of state, told the Soviet foreign minister [[Andrei Gromyko]] in [[New York]] that he had put the question of Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon to Shamir. Shamir had said that once the Syrians were out, Israel would leave all of Lebanon and "not occupy any part of it."[^20] Shamir was foreign minister from March 10, 1980.[^2] On October 4, 1982 [[George P. Shultz]], then secretary of state, told the Soviet foreign minister [[Andrei Gromyko]] in [[New York City|New York]] that he had put the question of Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon to Shamir. Shamir had said that once the Syrians were out, Israel would leave all of Lebanon and "not occupy any part of it."[^20]
In February 1981 Prime Minister Menachem Begin sent Shamir to Washington to see [[Alexander Haig]], the secretary of state, because Begin was unhappy with the American position set out in a February 4 cable. According to Haig, Shamir was told that the [[United States]] could not prohibit Israeli sales of non-American items to Iran but opposed any arms deal with Iran and prohibited sales of American-origin arms. The [[Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force]] (1993) records that "Foreign Minister Shamir apparently heard Haig's message differently," and that he told Begin the United States objected to the sale of American-origin equipment.[^21] An affidavit by [[William Northrop]] asserted that Haig had authorized Israel to ship American weapons to Iran. The Task Force's review of the cable traffic and the participants' notes found that "no green light was ever given for the shipment of American-made weapons between Israel and Iran."[^21] In February 1981 Prime Minister Menachem Begin sent Shamir to Washington to see [[Alexander Haig]], the secretary of state, because Begin was unhappy with the American position set out in a February 4 cable. According to Haig, Shamir was told that the [[United States]] could not prohibit Israeli sales of non-American items to Iran but opposed any arms deal with Iran and prohibited sales of American-origin arms. The [[Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force]] (1993) records that "Foreign Minister Shamir apparently heard Haig's message differently," and that he told Begin the United States objected to the sale of American-origin equipment.[^21] An affidavit by [[William Northrop]] asserted that Haig had authorized Israel to ship American weapons to Iran. The Task Force's review of the cable traffic and the participants' notes found that "no green light was ever given for the shipment of American-made weapons between Israel and Iran."[^21]

4
10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Hassan Yassin.md
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@ -12,12 +12,12 @@ summary: "Son of King Abdulaziz's adviser Youssef Yassin, cousin of Adnan Khasho
died: 2026-05-17 died: 2026-05-17
location: "Mecca, Saudi Arabia" location: "Mecca, Saudi Arabia"
created: 2026-09-22 created: 2026-09-22
updated: 2026-09-22 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Hassan Yassin (Mecca, to May 17, 2026) was the son of Sheikh Youssef Yassin, political adviser to King Abdulaziz, the founder of [[Saudi Arabia]], and grew up, in the words of his obituary, "immersed in the details and inner workings of Saudi politics from an early age." Educated in Mecca and Taif and at Victoria College in Alexandria, he studied in the United States in the 1950s and worked under the oil ministers Abdullah Tariki and [[Ahmed Zaki Yamani]] from 1959 to 1967. From 1972 to 1981 he headed the Saudi Information Office in [[Washington, D.C.]], the kingdom's public diplomacy post in the capital during the oil embargo, the Yamani years and the first arms sales fights in Congress; he then served with the Arab League's observer delegation at the United Nations from 1981 to 1983, later advised a Saudi ambassador in Washington, and wrote a column for Arab News. Saudi officials mourning him called him "a national memory and a cultural treasure trove that accompanied our kings."[^1] Hassan Yassin (Mecca, to May 17, 2026) was the son of Sheikh Youssef Yassin, political adviser to King Abdulaziz, the founder of [[Saudi Arabia]], and grew up, in the words of his obituary, "immersed in the details and inner workings of Saudi politics from an early age." Educated in Mecca and Taif and at Victoria College in Alexandria, he studied in the United States in the 1950s and worked under the oil ministers Abdullah Tariki and [[Ahmed Zaki Yamani]] from 1959 to 1967. From 1972 to 1981 he headed the Saudi Information Office in [[Washington, D.C.]], the kingdom's public diplomacy post in the capital during the oil embargo, the Yamani years and the first arms sales fights in Congress; he then served with the Arab League's observer delegation at the United Nations from 1981 to 1983, later advised a Saudi ambassador in Washington, and wrote a column for Arab News. Saudi officials mourning him called him "a national memory and a cultural treasure trove that accompanied our kings."[^1]
He was a cousin of the arms dealer [[Adnan Khashoggi]] and was described, in the account of the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] affair by Beaty and Gwynne, as a close business associate of [[Kamal Adham]], the head of Saudi intelligence and the bank's front man. No documented transaction connects him to [[Earl Brian]]'s [[Hadron]] or [[United Press International]] ventures; he does not appear in the [[House Committee on the Judiciary|House Judiciary Committee]]'s report, the Bua report or [[Ari Ben-Menashe]]'s book.[^2] He was a cousin of the arms dealer [[Adnan Khashoggi]] and was described, in the account of the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] affair by Beaty and Gwynne, as a close business associate of [[Kamal Adham]], the head of Saudi intelligence and the bank's front man.[^2]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes

4
10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Jacques Vallee.md
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@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ summary: "Jacques Vallée is a French-born computer scientist and ufologist whos
born: 1939-09-24 born: 1939-09-24
location: "Pontoise, France" location: "Pontoise, France"
created: 2025-08-05 created: 2025-08-05
updated: 2026-10-12 updated: 2026-10-15
relations: relations:
- type: employed_by - type: employed_by
with: "[[Paris Observatory]]" with: "[[Paris Observatory]]"
@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ The report tested DACOS on 30 transcripts from a single 1987 experiment. "Overal
### The Secret Onion and the Wilson interview ### The Secret Onion and the Wilson interview
Vallée's journal entry of October 2, 2003, written in Austin, Texas, records that Puthoff met him at the airport and told him the thread began in the late 1980s with "a supposedly top-secret UFO study group for Army Intelligence started by John Alexander," which Vallée had heard of through Col. [[Ron Blackburn]] of [[Lockheed Corporation]] and which was nicknamed "the Secret Onion." Vallée places its advanced-physics meetings between May and August 1985 at the offices of the [[BDM Corporation]].[^23] The same entries describe a transcript of an April 1997 interview of Admiral [[Thomas R. Wilson]], then of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], by [[Eric Davis]] at EG&G in Las Vegas, in which, as Vallée summarizes it, Wilson searched the records of special access programs, found three programs related to UFOs and was referred to a fourth group. Vallée quotes the answer as "We're a reverse engineering program."[^23] Vallée's journal entry of October 2, 2003, written in Austin, Texas, records that Puthoff met him at the airport and told him the thread began in the late 1980s with "a supposedly top-secret UFO study group for Army Intelligence started by John Alexander," which Vallée had heard of through Col. [[Ron Blackburn]] of [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed Corporation]] and which was nicknamed "the Secret Onion." Vallée places its advanced-physics meetings between May and August 1985 at the offices of the [[BDM Corporation]].[^23] The same entries describe a transcript of an April 1997 interview of Admiral [[Thomas R. Wilson]], then of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], by [[Eric Davis]] at EG&G in Las Vegas, in which, as Vallée summarizes it, Wilson searched the records of special access programs, found three programs related to UFOs and was referred to a fourth group. Vallée quotes the answer as "We're a reverse engineering program."[^23]
### The 1978 United Nations initiative ### The 1978 United Nations initiative

24
10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Mark Zuckerberg.md
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@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ summary: "Mark Zuckerberg is the cofounder and chief executive of Facebook, now
born: 1984-05-14 born: 1984-05-14
location: "Palo Alto, California" location: "Palo Alto, California"
created: 2026-06-19 created: 2026-06-19
updated: 2026-06-19 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
Mark Zuckerberg (born May 14, 1984) is the cofounder and chief executive of [[Facebook]], renamed [[Meta Platforms|Meta]] in 2021, the social-media company he started at [[Harvard University]] in 2004 with [[Dustin Moskovitz]], [[Eduardo Saverin]], [[Chris Hughes]], and [[Andrew McCollum]]. [[Peter Thiel]] was the company's first outside investor and a member of its board for seventeen years, and Zuckerberg's network and trajectory intersect the [[Thiel Influence Network]] at several points, from the founding investment to the Trump-era political realignment.[^1][^2] Mark Zuckerberg (born May 14, 1984) is the cofounder and chief executive of [[Facebook]], renamed [[Meta Platforms|Meta]] in 2021, the social-media company he started at [[Harvard University]] in 2004 with [[Dustin Moskovitz]], [[Eduardo Saverin]], [[Chris Hughes]], and [[Andrew McCollum]]. [[Peter Thiel]] was the company's first outside investor and a member of its board for seventeen years, and Zuckerberg's network and trajectory intersect the [[Thiel Influence Network]] at several points, from the founding investment to the Trump-era political realignment.[^1][^2]
@ -20,17 +20,17 @@ Mark Zuckerberg (born May 14, 1984) is the cofounder and chief executive of [[Fa
Thiel made the first outside investment in Facebook in 2004, five hundred thousand dollars structured as a convertible note for about 10.2 percent of the company, valuing it near 4.9 million dollars, and joined its board in 2005. He sold large blocks at and after the May 2012 initial public offering, taking roughly 640 million dollars at the IPO and several hundred million more after the lockup expired in August 2012, and remained a director until February 2022, when he declined reelection to focus on funding pro-[[Donald Trump|Trump]] political candidates ahead of the midterms.[^1][^3] Thiel made the first outside investment in Facebook in 2004, five hundred thousand dollars structured as a convertible note for about 10.2 percent of the company, valuing it near 4.9 million dollars, and joined its board in 2005. He sold large blocks at and after the May 2012 initial public offering, taking roughly 640 million dollars at the IPO and several hundred million more after the lockup expired in August 2012, and remained a director until February 2022, when he declined reelection to focus on funding pro-[[Donald Trump|Trump]] political candidates ahead of the midterms.[^1][^3]
Thiel acted as an intermediary between Zuckerberg and the political right. He attended a previously undisclosed dinner with Zuckerberg and Trump in the Blue Room of the [[White House]] on October 22, 2019, organized on short notice and reported by NBC News a month later, during the week Zuckerberg testified to Congress on Facebook's Libra cryptocurrency project. Senator Elizabeth Warren called the meeting "corruption, plain and simple."[^6] Thiel acted as an intermediary between Zuckerberg and the political right. He attended a previously undisclosed dinner with Zuckerberg and Trump in the Blue Room of the [[White House]] on October 22, 2019, organized on short notice and reported by NBC News a month later, during the week Zuckerberg testified to Congress on Facebook's Libra cryptocurrency project. Senator Elizabeth Warren called the meeting "corruption, plain and simple."[^4]
### The Epstein Dinner ### The Epstein Dinner
An August 2015 dinner in Palo Alto, hosted by [[Reid Hoffman]] and reported by Vanity Fair in 2019, placed Zuckerberg at the same table as Thiel, [[Elon Musk]], and [[Joi Ito]] of the [[MIT Media Lab]], who brokered access to [[Jeffrey Epstein]]'s money and circle. Epstein emailed the financier Thomas Pritzker on August 20, 2015, "i had dinner with zuckerburg, mu=k, thiel hoffman, wild," and emailed himself a photograph from the gathering, both of which surfaced in the document releases under the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]] in late 2025 and early 2026. Releasers stressed that being named in the files is not evidence of wrongdoing.[^4][^7] A dinner at the restaurant Baume in Palo Alto on Sunday, August 2, 2015, hosted by [[Reid Hoffman]] and reported by Vanity Fair in 2019, placed Zuckerberg at the same table as Thiel, [[Elon Musk]], and [[Joi Ito]] of the [[MIT Media Lab]], who brokered access to [[Jeffrey Epstein]]'s money and circle. Epstein emailed the financier Thomas Pritzker on August 20, 2015, "i had dinner with zuckerburg, mu=k, thiel hoffman, wild," and emailed himself a photograph from the gathering, both of which surfaced in the document releases under the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]] in late 2025 and early 2026. Releasers stressed that being named in the files is not evidence of wrongdoing.[^5][^6]
Meta has disputed any closer connection, with a spokesman stating in 2019 that Zuckerberg "met Epstein in passing one time at a dinner" and "did not communicate with Epstein again." Hoffman apologized in September 2019 for participating in fundraising where Epstein was present, saying he had helped "repair his reputation and perpetuate injustice," while Musk has said he refused invitations to Epstein's island, a claim that reporters noted sits awkwardly against released 2012 to 2013 emails between Musk and Epstein. Ito resigned from the MIT Media Lab, the MIT Corporation, and other boards in September 2019 after Ronan Farrow reported in The New Yorker that the lab had concealed millions of dollars in Epstein-linked donations, referring to him internally as "Voldemort."[^8][^9] Meta has disputed any closer connection, with a spokesman stating in 2019 that Zuckerberg "met Epstein in passing one time at a dinner" and "did not communicate with Epstein again." Hoffman apologized in September 2019 for participating in fundraising where Epstein was present, saying he had helped "repair his reputation and perpetuate injustice," while Musk has said he refused invitations to Epstein's island, a claim that reporters noted sits awkwardly against released 2012 to 2013 emails between Musk and Epstein. Ito resigned from the MIT Media Lab, the MIT Corporation, and other boards in September 2019 after Ronan Farrow reported in The New Yorker that the lab had concealed millions of dollars in Epstein-linked donations, referring to him internally as "Voldemort."[^7][^8]
### The 2025 Realignment ### The 2025 Realignment
After Trump's 2024 election, Zuckerberg moved Meta toward the tech-right. The company donated one million dollars to Trump's inauguration fund, having given nothing to the 2017 or 2021 inaugurations. On January 2, 2025 Meta replaced its policy chief Nick Clegg with Joel Kaplan, a former deputy chief of staff to George W. Bush, and on January 6 it added the Ultimate Fighting Championship head Dana White to its board. On January 7 it announced it was ending its third-party fact-checking program in the United States for a "community notes" model and moving its content-moderation operations from California to Texas, and on January 10 it ended its diversity, equity, and inclusion programs.[^5][^10] After Trump's 2024 election, Zuckerberg moved Meta toward the tech-right. The company donated one million dollars to Trump's inauguration fund, having given nothing to the 2017 or 2021 inaugurations. On January 2, 2025 Meta replaced its policy chief Nick Clegg with Joel Kaplan, a former deputy chief of staff to George W. Bush, and on January 6 it added the Ultimate Fighting Championship head Dana White to its board. On January 7 it announced it was ending its third-party fact-checking program in the United States for a "community notes" model and moving its content-moderation operations from California to Texas, and on January 10 it ended its diversity, equity, and inclusion programs.[^9][^10]
In a January 2025 appearance on Joe Rogan's podcast Zuckerberg said corporate culture had tried to "get away from" "masculine energy," which he called "good," and that companies should "celebrate the aggression a bit more," signaling an alignment with the cultural politics promoted by the Thiel network and figures such as [[Mike Solana]] and [[Marc Andreessen]].[^11] In a January 2025 appearance on Joe Rogan's podcast Zuckerberg said corporate culture had tried to "get away from" "masculine energy," which he called "good," and that companies should "celebrate the aggression a bit more," signaling an alignment with the cultural politics promoted by the Thiel network and figures such as [[Mike Solana]] and [[Marc Andreessen]].[^11]
@ -39,11 +39,11 @@ In a January 2025 appearance on Joe Rogan's podcast Zuckerberg said corporate cu
[^1]: "Peter Thiel to step down from board of Facebook parent Meta," *CNBC,* February 7, 2022, on the first investment, the 2005-2022 board tenure, and the Trump focus. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/07/peter-thiel-to-step-down-from-facebook-board.html [^1]: "Peter Thiel to step down from board of Facebook parent Meta," *CNBC,* February 7, 2022, on the first investment, the 2005-2022 board tenure, and the Trump focus. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/07/peter-thiel-to-step-down-from-facebook-board.html
[^2]: "Tech billionaire Peter Thiel resigns from board of Facebook parent," *UPI,* February 7, 2022. https://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2022/02/07/billionaire-Peter-Thiel-resigns-board-Facebook/5311644280042/ [^2]: "Tech billionaire Peter Thiel resigns from board of Facebook parent," *UPI,* February 7, 2022. https://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2022/02/07/billionaire-Peter-Thiel-resigns-board-Facebook/5311644280042/
[^3]: "Peter Thiel to step down from Facebook's board," CNN Business, February 7, 2022, on Thiel as intermediary and the 2019 Trump-Zuckerberg dinner. https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/07/tech/peter-thiel-facebook-board [^3]: "Peter Thiel to step down from Facebook's board," CNN Business, February 7, 2022, on Thiel as intermediary and the 2019 Trump-Zuckerberg dinner. https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/07/tech/peter-thiel-facebook-board
[^4]: Tommy Carstensen Epstein Files index, cross-referencing the EFTA releases (EFTA00344556, EFTA00344564) for the 2015 dinner guest list. https://tommycarstensen.com/epstein/people/peter-thiel.html [^4]: "Trump had a previously undisclosed dinner with Zuckerberg and Thiel," *NBC News,* November 20, 2019, on the October 22, 2019 White House dinner and Warren's response. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/trump-zuckerberg-had-previously-undisclosed-dinner-white-house-n1087986
[^5]: "Meta ends fact-checking program," contemporaneous press coverage of the January 2025 content-moderation and policy changes and the Trump inauguration donation. [^5]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00344556 and EFTA00344564, email thread "CONFIRMED: DINNER: Sunday, 8/2," July 31, 2015, listing the dinner at 6 pm on Sunday, August 2, 2015 at Baume, Palo Alto, with Zuckerberg, Priscilla Chan, Thiel, Hoffman, Boyden, Epstein and Musk among the attendees. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00344556.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00344564.pdf
[^6]: "Trump had a previously undisclosed dinner with Zuckerberg and Thiel," *NBC News,* November 20, 2019, on the October 22, 2019 White House dinner and Warren's response. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/trump-zuckerberg-had-previously-undisclosed-dinner-white-house-n1087986 [^6]: "Epstein emailed about a 2015 dinner with Zuckerberg, Musk and Thiel," *Fortune,* 2026, on the "wild" email to Thomas Pritzker, the self-addressed photo, and the EFTA releases; the dinner first reported by *Vanity Fair,* 2019. https://fortune.com/2026/epstein-email-zuckerberg-musk-thiel-dinner/
[^7]: "Epstein emailed about a 2015 dinner with Zuckerberg, Musk and Thiel," *Fortune,* 2026, on the "wild" email to Thomas Pritzker, the self-addressed photo, and the EFTA releases; the dinner first reported by *Vanity Fair,* 2019. https://fortune.com/2026/epstein-email-zuckerberg-musk-thiel-dinner/ [^7]: "Meta says Zuckerberg met Epstein once," statements by spokesman Ben LaBolt, 2019; and Hoffman's September 12, 2019 apology, *Axios.* https://www.axios.com/2019/09/12/reid-hoffman-jeffrey-epstein-apology
[^8]: "Meta says Zuckerberg met Epstein once," statements by spokesman Ben LaBolt, 2019; and Hoffman's September 12, 2019 apology, *Axios.* https://www.axios.com/2019/09/12/reid-hoffman-jeffrey-epstein-apology [^8]: Farrow, Ronan. "How an Elite University Research Center Concealed Its Relationship with Jeffrey Epstein," *The New Yorker,* September 6, 2019, on the MIT Media Lab donations and Ito's resignation. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/how-an-elite-university-research-center-concealed-its-relationship-with-jeffrey-epstein
[^9]: Farrow, Ronan. "How an Elite University Research Center Concealed Its Relationship with Jeffrey Epstein," *The New Yorker,* September 6, 2019, on the MIT Media Lab donations and Ito's resignation. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/how-an-elite-university-research-center-concealed-its-relationship-with-jeffrey-epstein [^9]: "Meta ends fact-checking program," contemporaneous press coverage of the January 2025 content-moderation and policy changes and the Trump inauguration donation.
[^10]: "Meta names Joel Kaplan as policy chief," *CNBC,* January 2, 2025; "Dana White joins Meta board," Meta Newsroom, January 6, 2025; "Meta ends fact-checking and moves moderation to Texas," *The Texas Tribune,* January 7, 2025; "Meta ends DEI programs," *CNBC,* January 10, 2025. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/01/02/meta-names-joel-kaplan-to-succeed-nick-clegg-as-policy-chief.html [^10]: "Meta names Joel Kaplan as policy chief," *CNBC,* January 2, 2025; "Dana White joins Meta board," Meta Newsroom, January 6, 2025; "Meta ends fact-checking and moves moderation to Texas," *The Texas Tribune,* January 7, 2025; "Meta ends DEI programs," *CNBC,* January 10, 2025. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/01/02/meta-names-joel-kaplan-to-succeed-nick-clegg-as-policy-chief.html ; Meta Platforms, Inc., Form 8-K, Exhibit 99.1, January 6, 2025, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1326801/000132680125000005/jan62025exhibit991.htm ; Joel Kaplan, "More Speech and Fewer Mistakes," Meta newsroom, January 7, 2025, https://about.fb.com/news/2025/01/meta-more-speech-fewer-mistakes/ ; Pavan Acharya, The Texas Tribune, January 7, 2025, https://www.texastribune.org/2025/01/07/texas-meta-content-moderators-fact-checking/
[^11]: "Mark Zuckerberg says companies need more 'masculine energy,'" *Fortune,* January 13, 2025, on the Joe Rogan podcast remarks. https://fortune.com/2025/01/13/mark-zuckerberg-joe-rogan-masculine-energy-meta/ [^11]: "Mark Zuckerberg says companies need more 'masculine energy,'" *Fortune,* January 13, 2025, on the Joe Rogan podcast remarks. https://fortune.com/2025/01/13/mark-zuckerberg-joe-rogan-masculine-energy-meta/

2
10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Nicholas Tartaglione.md
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@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ Nicholas Tartaglione is a former police officer of the [[Briarcliff Manor Police
### Police Career and the 2016 Murders ### Police Career and the 2016 Murders
Tartaglione served as a police officer in Briarcliff Manor, a Westchester village about 20 miles north of [[New York City]]. On April 11, 2016 he and accomplices kidnapped Martin Luna, whom he suspected of stealing 250,000 dollars from him; Luna was strangled with a zip tie, and three men who were with him, Urbano Santiago, Miguel Luna and Hector Gutierrez, were forced to kneel in the woods and shot in the back of the head. The four bodies were buried on Tartaglione's property in [[Otisville, New York|Otisville]], [[Orange County, New York|Orange County]]. He was indicted in the [[Southern District of New York]] in December 2016 on a charge of conspiracy to distribute cocaine and four counts of murder in furtherance of a drug crime, and a second superseding indictment added firearm murder, kidnapping conspiracy, kidnapping resulting in death and Travel Act murder counts.[^1][^4][^5] He was held in federal custody from December 2016.[^6] The Bureau of Prisons described him as "a certified death penalty eligible inmate."[^2] Tartaglione served as a police officer in Briarcliff Manor, a Westchester village about 20 miles north of [[New York City]]. On April 11, 2016 he and accomplices kidnapped Martin Luna, whom he suspected of stealing 250,000 dollars from him; Luna was strangled with a zip tie, and three men who were with him, Urbano Santiago, Miguel Luna and Hector Gutierrez, were forced to kneel in the woods and shot in the back of the head. The four bodies were buried on Tartaglione's property in [[Otisville, New York|Otisville]], [[Orange County, New York|Orange County]]. He was indicted in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]] in December 2016 on a charge of conspiracy to distribute cocaine and four counts of murder in furtherance of a drug crime, and a second superseding indictment added firearm murder, kidnapping conspiracy, kidnapping resulting in death and Travel Act murder counts.[^1][^4][^5] He was held in federal custody from December 2016.[^6] The Bureau of Prisons described him as "a certified death penalty eligible inmate."[^2]
During the pretrial proceedings Judge [[Kenneth M. Karas]] appointed separate counsel under Curcio to advise him on a conflict among his lawyers, held a multi-day sealed hearing with the participation of the government's "firewall" counsel, and on May 25, 2021 disqualified one of his retained attorneys, John Weider, for "an actual, unwaivable conflict of interest," while finding that any conflicts of the attorney [[Bruce Barket]] and his firm were waivable. Trial ran from March 13 to April 6, 2023, and the jury convicted him on every count. On June 10, 2024 Karas sentenced him to four consecutive life terms followed by five years of supervised release; U.S. Attorney [[Damian Williams]] said he had "brutally and senselessly murdered Martin Luna over money." His appeal to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Second Circuit]] (No. 24-1852) was pending in May 2026.[^1][^5] During the pretrial proceedings Judge [[Kenneth M. Karas]] appointed separate counsel under Curcio to advise him on a conflict among his lawyers, held a multi-day sealed hearing with the participation of the government's "firewall" counsel, and on May 25, 2021 disqualified one of his retained attorneys, John Weider, for "an actual, unwaivable conflict of interest," while finding that any conflicts of the attorney [[Bruce Barket]] and his firm were waivable. Trial ran from March 13 to April 6, 2023, and the jury convicted him on every count. On June 10, 2024 Karas sentenced him to four consecutive life terms followed by five years of supervised release; U.S. Attorney [[Damian Williams]] said he had "brutally and senselessly murdered Martin Luna over money." His appeal to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Second Circuit]] (No. 24-1852) was pending in May 2026.[^1][^5]

2
10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Peter Videnieks.md
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@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ Bason's conclusions on the conduct of the department included the finding that t
Bason also found that in February 1985, after Brewer had talked to [[Thomas Stanton]], Rugh telephoned Videnieks and said there was "no way" the INSLAW bankruptcy would continue as a Chapter 11 case.[^16] Videnieks' handwritten note of the call, dated 2/20/85, is quoted in the Bua report, which also recorded that Rugh and Videnieks each said the note reflected Rugh's belief that INSLAW would end in chapter 7 liquidation, and that the report found their reading of the note reasonable and consistent with the other evidence.[^17] Bason also found that in February 1985, after Brewer had talked to [[Thomas Stanton]], Rugh telephoned Videnieks and said there was "no way" the INSLAW bankruptcy would continue as a Chapter 11 case.[^16] Videnieks' handwritten note of the call, dated 2/20/85, is quoted in the Bua report, which also recorded that Rugh and Videnieks each said the note reflected Rugh's belief that INSLAW would end in chapter 7 liquidation, and that the report found their reading of the note reasonable and consistent with the other evidence.[^17]
On March 14, 1986, shortly after INSLAW declared bankruptcy, INSLAW's counsel [[Leigh Ratiner]] wrote to Videnieks as the contracting officer that any continued use of the enhanced PROMIS software without INSLAW's consent contravened its property rights as a debtor and violated the automatic stay.[^18] The [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]] reversed the stay-violation judgment on May 7, 1991, writing that the automatic stay "does not reach the Department's use of property in its possession under a claim of right at the time of the bankruptcy filing, even if that use may ultimately prove to violate the bankrupt's rights," and that the bankruptcy court had no jurisdiction to hear the claims asserted under section 362(a). Rehearing was denied on July 12, 1991.[^19] On March 14, 1986, shortly after INSLAW declared bankruptcy, INSLAW's counsel [[Leigh Ratiner]] wrote to Videnieks as the contracting officer that any continued use of the enhanced PROMIS software without INSLAW's consent contravened its property rights as a debtor and violated the automatic stay.[^18] The [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]] reversed the stay-violation judgment on May 7, 1991, writing that the automatic stay "does not reach the Department's use of property in its possession under a claim of right at the time of the bankruptcy filing, even if that use may ultimately prove to violate the bankrupt's rights," and that the bankruptcy court had no jurisdiction to hear the claims asserted under section 362(a). Rehearing was denied on July 12, 1991.[^19] The opinion records that INSLAW filed a claim with "the contracting officer" on October 17, 1985 and that the contracting officer ruled against INSLAW on February 21, 1986; it does not give his name.[^19]
### Customs and the Hadron allegation ### Customs and the Hadron allegation

15
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/INTERNATIONAL/GRU.md
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@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ tags:
summary: "The military intelligence directorate of the Soviet and Russian General Staff, whose officers the United States indicted for the 2016 election hacks and the WhisperGate attack and Britain charged over the Salisbury poisoning." summary: "The military intelligence directorate of the Soviet and Russian General Staff, whose officers the United States indicted for the 2016 election hacks and the WhisperGate attack and Britain charged over the Salisbury poisoning."
location: "Moscow, Russia" location: "Moscow, Russia"
created: 2026-09-24 created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24 updated: 2026-10-15
relations: relations:
- type: informant_for - type: informant_for
with: "[[Robert Hanssen]]" with: "[[Robert Hanssen]]"
@ -51,15 +51,15 @@ In 1979 [[Robert Hanssen]], a special agent of the [[Federal Bureau of Investiga
On July 13, 2018, a grand jury in the District of Columbia returned an indictment presented by the [[Special Counsel]]'s Office charging twelve GRU officers, [[Viktor Netyksho]], [[Boris Antonov]], [[Dmitriy Badin]], [[Ivan Yermakov]], [[Aleksey Lukashev]], [[Sergey Morgachev]], [[Nikolay Kozachek]], [[Pavel Yershov]], [[Artem Malyshev]], [[Aleksandr Osadchuk]], [[Aleksey Potemkin]] and [[Anatoliy Kovalev]], "officials in [[Unit 26165]] and [[Unit 74455]] of the Russian government's Main Intelligence Directorate." Deputy Attorney General [[Rod Rosenstein]] announced the charges.[^1] On July 13, 2018, a grand jury in the District of Columbia returned an indictment presented by the [[Special Counsel]]'s Office charging twelve GRU officers, [[Viktor Netyksho]], [[Boris Antonov]], [[Dmitriy Badin]], [[Ivan Yermakov]], [[Aleksey Lukashev]], [[Sergey Morgachev]], [[Nikolay Kozachek]], [[Pavel Yershov]], [[Artem Malyshev]], [[Aleksandr Osadchuk]], [[Aleksey Potemkin]] and [[Anatoliy Kovalev]], "officials in [[Unit 26165]] and [[Unit 74455]] of the Russian government's Main Intelligence Directorate." Deputy Attorney General [[Rod Rosenstein]] announced the charges.[^1]
According to the indictment, officers of Unit 26165 began in 2016 to spearphish volunteers and employees of the presidential campaign of [[Hillary Clinton]], including its chairman, and through stolen credentials entered the networks of the [[Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee]] and the [[Democratic National Committee]], where they monitored the computers of dozens of employees and implanted hundreds of files of malicious code. Unit 26165 coordinated with Unit 74455 on releasing the stolen material. The officers registered [[DCLeaks|DCLeaks.com]], presented themselves as "American hacktivists," and promoted the site through fictitious [[Facebook]] and [[Twitter]] accounts. After public accusations that the Russian government was behind the intrusions they created the persona [[Guccifer 2.0]]; on the evening of June 15, 2016, between 4:19 and 4:56 PM, they used a Moscow-based server to search for English words and phrases that later appeared in Guccifer 2.0's first blog post, "falsely claiming to be a lone Romanian hacker." Unit 74455 also conspired to hack the computers of state boards of elections, secretaries of state, and companies that supplied election software. The operation was paid for with cryptocurrency, including bitcoin mining, and the same mining operation that paid for the DCLeaks.com registration funded the servers and domains of the spearphishing campaign.[^1] According to the indictment, officers of Unit 26165 began in 2016 to spearphish volunteers and employees of the presidential campaign of [[Hillary Clinton]], including its chairman, and through stolen credentials entered the networks of the [[Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee]] and the [[Democratic National Committee]], where they monitored the computers of dozens of employees and implanted hundreds of files of malicious code. Unit 26165 coordinated with Unit 74455 on releasing the stolen material. The officers registered [[DCLeaks|DCLeaks.com]], presented themselves as "American hacktivists," and promoted the site through fictitious [[Facebook]] and [[Twitter]] accounts. On June 8, 2016 they created a DCLeaks Facebook page using a preexisting social media account under the fictitious name "Alice Donovan," used accounts in the names of fictitious U.S. persons such as "Jason Scott" and "Richard Gingrey" to promote the site, and created the Twitter account @dcleaks_ the same day.[^4] After public accusations that the Russian government was behind the intrusions they created the persona [[Guccifer 2.0]]; on the evening of June 15, 2016, between 4:19 and 4:56 PM, they used a Moscow-based server to search for English words and phrases that later appeared in Guccifer 2.0's first blog post, "falsely claiming to be a lone Romanian hacker." Unit 74455 also conspired to hack the computers of state boards of elections, secretaries of state, and companies that supplied election software. The operation was paid for with cryptocurrency, including bitcoin mining, and the same mining operation that paid for the DCLeaks.com registration funded the servers and domains of the spearphishing campaign.[^1]
The indictment contained eleven counts, including conspiracy against the [[United States]], aggravated identity theft, and a conspiracy to launder the equivalent of more than $95,000. The [[Department of Justice]] stated that there was no allegation that any American was a knowing participant or that the conduct altered the vote count.[^1] The indictment contained eleven counts, including conspiracy against the [[United States]], aggravated identity theft, and a conspiracy to launder the equivalent of more than $95,000. The [[Department of Justice]] stated that there was no allegation that any American was a knowing participant or that the conduct altered the vote count.[^1]
### Salisbury ### Salisbury
In March 2018 [[Sergei Skripal]] and his daughter [[Yulia Skripal|Yulia]] were poisoned in [[Salisbury]] with a military-grade nerve agent of a type developed by Russia, known as [[Novichok]]. Two [[Wiltshire Police]] officers who searched their home were also poisoned. In July 2018 two members of the public in [[Amesbury]] were exposed to the same agent, and one of them, [[Dawn Sturgess]], died. On September 5, 2018, the [[Director of Public Prosecutions]] announced charges against two Russian nationals traveling as [[Alexander Petrov]] and [[Ruslan Boshirov]], and the Prime Minister, [[Theresa May]], announced that the government had concluded that the two men "were members of the Russian Military Intelligence Service, the GRU," and that the operation "was almost certainly approved outside the GRU at a senior level of the Russian state." Britain expelled 23 undeclared Russian intelligence officers, and 28 other countries and [[NATO]] joined in an expulsion of more than 150.[^4] In March 2018 [[Sergei Skripal]] and his daughter [[Yulia Skripal|Yulia]] were poisoned in [[Salisbury]] with a military-grade nerve agent of a type developed by Russia, known as [[Novichok]]. Two [[Wiltshire Police]] officers who searched their home were also poisoned. In July 2018 two members of the public in [[Amesbury]] were exposed to the same agent, and one of them, [[Dawn Sturgess]], died. On September 5, 2018, the [[Director of Public Prosecutions]] announced charges against two Russian nationals traveling as [[Alexander Petrov]] and [[Ruslan Boshirov]], and the Prime Minister, [[Theresa May]], announced that the government had concluded that the two men "were members of the Russian Military Intelligence Service, the GRU," and that the operation "was almost certainly approved outside the GRU at a senior level of the Russian state." Britain expelled 23 undeclared Russian intelligence officers, and 28 other countries and [[NATO]] joined in an expulsion of more than 150.[^5]
On September 21, 2021, the Home Secretary, [[Priti Patel]], told Parliament that the police could now evidence that Petrov and Boshirov were aliases for [[Alexander Mishkin]] and [[Anatoliy Chepiga]], "both members of the GRU," and that the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] had authorized charges against a third man, known as Sergey Fedotov, who had flown from Moscow to [[Heathrow Airport|Heathrow]], stayed at a central London hotel from March 2 to 4, 2018, and met the other two more than once. Fedotov was [[Denis Sergeev]], "also a member of the GRU," and "all 3 individuals previously worked together for the GRU as part of additional operations outside Russia." On the same day the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled that Russia was responsible for the assassination of [[Alexander Litvinenko]].[^4] On September 21, 2021, the Home Secretary, [[Priti Patel]], told Parliament that the police could now evidence that Petrov and Boshirov were aliases for [[Alexander Mishkin]] and [[Anatoliy Chepiga]], "both members of the GRU," and that the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] had authorized charges against a third man, known as Sergey Fedotov, who had flown from Moscow to [[Heathrow Airport|Heathrow]], stayed at a central London hotel from March 2 to 4, 2018, and met the other two more than once. Fedotov was [[Denis Sergeev]], "also a member of the GRU," and "all 3 individuals previously worked together for the GRU as part of additional operations outside Russia." On the same day the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled that Russia was responsible for the assassination of [[Alexander Litvinenko]].[^5]
### Unit 29155 and WhisperGate ### Unit 29155 and WhisperGate
@ -69,12 +69,13 @@ The same officers were charged with probing systems in 26 NATO countries from Au
### The Buma Allegation ### The Buma Allegation
In May 2025 [[Jonathan Buma]], a former FBI counterintelligence special agent of sixteen years, alleged in a documentary broadcast by the German broadcaster [[ZDF]] that the GRU had targeted [[Elon Musk]] for exploitation and offered him direct contact with [[Vladimir Putin]], and that Russian intelligence ran special operations to influence [[Silicon Valley]] executives such as Musk and [[Peter Thiel]], including gathering damaging information that could later be used as blackmail. "Musk's susceptibility to promiscuous women and drug use, particularly ketamine," Buma said, was "seen by Russian intelligence as an opportunity for an agent to exploit." Buma had been arrested in March 2025 and charged with one count of disclosure of confidential information for sharing material with a publishing company, and was free on $100,000 bail.[^5] In May 2025 [[Jonathan Buma]], a former FBI counterintelligence special agent of sixteen years, alleged in a documentary broadcast by the German broadcaster [[ZDF]] that the GRU had targeted [[Elon Musk]] for exploitation and offered him direct contact with [[Vladimir Putin]], and that Russian intelligence ran special operations to influence [[Silicon Valley]] executives such as Musk and [[Peter Thiel]], including gathering damaging information that could later be used as blackmail. "Musk's susceptibility to promiscuous women and drug use, particularly ketamine," Buma said, was "seen by Russian intelligence as an opportunity for an agent to exploit." Buma had been arrested in March 2025 and charged with one count of disclosure of confidential information for sharing material with a publishing company, and was free on $100,000 bail.[^6]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
[^1]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. "Grand Jury Indicts 12 Russian Intelligence Officers for Hacking Offenses Related to the 2016 Election." Press release 18-923, July 13, 2018. Archived at http://web.archive.org/web/20200104195032/https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/grand-jury-indicts-12-russian-intelligence-officers-hacking-offenses-related-2016-election [^1]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. "Grand Jury Indicts 12 Russian Intelligence Officers for Hacking Offenses Related to the 2016 Election." Press release 18-923, July 13, 2018. Archived at http://web.archive.org/web/20200104195032/https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/grand-jury-indicts-12-russian-intelligence-officers-hacking-offenses-related-2016-election
[^2]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. "Five Russian GRU Officers and One Civilian Charged for Conspiring to Hack Ukrainian Government." Press release, September 5, 2024. Archived at http://web.archive.org/web/20250207071434/https://www.justice.gov/archives/opa/pr/five-russian-gru-officers-and-one-civilian-charged-conspiring-hack-ukrainian-government [^2]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. "Five Russian GRU Officers and One Civilian Charged for Conspiring to Hack Ukrainian Government." Press release, September 5, 2024. Archived at http://web.archive.org/web/20250207071434/https://www.justice.gov/archives/opa/pr/five-russian-gru-officers-and-one-civilian-charged-conspiring-hack-ukrainian-government
[^3]: U.S. Department of Justice. *United States v. Robert Philip Hanssen: Affidavit in Support of Criminal Complaint.* United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, February 2001. [^3]: U.S. Department of Justice. *United States v. Robert Philip Hanssen: Affidavit in Support of Criminal Complaint.* United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, February 2001.
[^4]: Patel, Priti, Home Secretary. "The new Salisbury charging decision." Oral statement to Parliament, Home Office, September 21, 2021. https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-new-salisbury-charging-decision [^4]: Indictment, *United States v. Netyksho et al.,* No. 1:18-cr-215-ABJ (D.D.C. July 13, 2018), paragraphs 38 and 39. https://www.justice.gov/file/1080281/download
[^5]: Pehlman, Nick. "Russian Intelligence Used Sex, Drugs to Target Elon Musk: Former FBI Agent." *Kyiv Post,* May 15, 2025. https://www.kyivpost.com/post/52742 [^5]: Patel, Priti, Home Secretary. "The new Salisbury charging decision." Oral statement to Parliament, Home Office, September 21, 2021. https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-new-salisbury-charging-decision
[^6]: Pehlman, Nick. "Russian Intelligence Used Sex, Drugs to Target Elon Musk: Former FBI Agent." *Kyiv Post,* May 15, 2025. https://www.kyivpost.com/post/52742

27
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Army Chemical Corps.md
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@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ relations:
with: "[[New York State Psychiatric Institute]]" with: "[[New York State Psychiatric Institute]]"
reverse: true reverse: true
role: "testing of mescaline derivatives for chemical warfare" role: "testing of mescaline derivatives for chemical warfare"
fn: 11 fn: 12
- type: funded - type: funded
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]" with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
reverse: true reverse: true
@ -40,15 +40,15 @@ relations:
reverse: true reverse: true
role: "CIA retention of Fort Detrick shellfish toxin" role: "CIA retention of Fort Detrick shellfish toxin"
start: 1975 start: 1975
fn: 13 fn: 14
- type: participant_in - type: participant_in
with: "[[MKSEARCH]]" with: "[[MKSEARCH]]"
start: 1967 start: 1967
end: 1973 end: 1973
role: "through Edgewood Arsenal Research Laboratories, three Army programs under the MKCHICKWIT and MKOFTEN labels, including the testing of EA 3167" role: "through Edgewood Arsenal Research Laboratories, three Army programs under the MKCHICKWIT and MKOFTEN labels, including the testing of EA 3167"
fn: 15 fn: 16
created: 2026-09-24 created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-10-03 updated: 2026-10-15
--- ---
The Army Chemical Corps is the branch of the [[U.S. Army]] responsible for chemical, biological and radiological warfare and defense. During [[World War I]] the German use of chemical weapons led General [[John J. Pershing]] to press for a specialized gas unit for the [[American Expeditionary Forces|American Expeditionary Force]]; the War Department created a Gas Service and, according to the Corps' regimental association, renamed it the Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) on June 2, 1918. The [[First Gas Regiment]] fought in the Meuse-Argonne and St. Mihiel campaigns.[^1] The [[National Defense Act of 1920]] made the CWS a permanent branch of the Army.[^1][^2] The regimental association dates its redesignation as the Chemical Corps to 1946.[^1] The Army Chemical Corps is the branch of the [[U.S. Army]] responsible for chemical, biological and radiological warfare and defense. During [[World War I]] the German use of chemical weapons led General [[John J. Pershing]] to press for a specialized gas unit for the [[American Expeditionary Forces|American Expeditionary Force]]; the War Department created a Gas Service and, according to the Corps' regimental association, renamed it the Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) on June 2, 1918. The [[First Gas Regiment]] fought in the Meuse-Argonne and St. Mihiel campaigns.[^1] The [[National Defense Act of 1920]] made the CWS a permanent branch of the Army.[^1][^2] The regimental association dates its redesignation as the Chemical Corps to 1946.[^1]
@ -67,19 +67,19 @@ The allergist [[Harold Abramson]], one of the CIA's principal LSD researchers un
### Harold Blauer ### Harold Blauer
The Chemical Corps held a contract with the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] (NYSPI) to test mescaline derivatives on humans for their suitability as chemical warfare agents. On January 8, 1953, [[Harold Blauer]], a tennis professional admitted for depression, died after an intravenous injection of about 450 milligrams of EA-1298, a derivative the Corps had designated as a candidate agent, administered under [[Paul Hoch]] without his knowledge or consent. The death certificate read "coronary arteriosclerosis; sudden death after intravenous injection of a mescaline derivative." Within 48 hours the Chemical Corps contract officer [[Amedeo Marrazzi]] directed efforts to conceal the Army's involvement, and at a meeting in July 1954 federal counsel, Hoch and Marrazzi discussed anticipated malpractice claims. The Second Circuit found that Hoch "was well aware that the mescaline derivative was a new compound not being administered for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes but as an experiment to study its effect for chemical warfare purposes." [[James Cattell]], who gave the injection, told Army investigators: "We didn't know whether it was dog piss or what it was we were giving him."[^11] The Chemical Corps held a contract with the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] (NYSPI) to test mescaline derivatives on humans for their suitability as chemical warfare agents. On January 8, 1953, [[Harold Blauer]], a tennis professional admitted for depression, died after an intravenous injection of about 450 milligrams of EA-1298, a derivative the Corps had designated as a candidate agent, administered under [[Paul Hoch]] without his knowledge or consent. The death certificate read "coronary arteriosclerosis; sudden death after intravenous injection of a mescaline derivative." Within 48 hours the Chemical Corps contract officer [[Amedeo Marrazzi]] directed efforts to conceal the Army's involvement, and at a meeting in July 1954 federal counsel, Hoch and Marrazzi discussed anticipated malpractice claims. The Second Circuit's opinion in *Barrett v. United States* recites the estate's allegation that Hoch "was well aware that the mescaline derivative was a new compound not being administered for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes but as an experiment to study its effect for chemical warfare purposes."[^11] The same opinion places a conference of federal counsel and medical personnel in early July 1954, at which, according to records relied on by the estate, Dr. Amedeo Marazzi of the Chemical Corps and Hoch expressed apprehension about anticipated malpractice claims, and a meeting in Washington on July 12, 1954 at which Hoch stated that he would not have used the new compound for experimental purposes but for the institute's contract with the Army.[^11] [[James Cattell]], who gave the injection, told Army investigators: "We didn't know whether it was dog piss or what it was we were giving him."[^12]
An initial settlement of 18,000 dollars was paid to Blauer's family, half of it covertly by the federal government. The Army disclosed the circumstances to his daughter, [[Elizabeth Barrett]], in August 1975, and in 1987 a federal judge awarded more than 700,000 dollars to his estate.[^11][^12] Hoch became New York State Commissioner of Mental Hygiene in 1955.[^8] An initial settlement of 18,000 dollars was paid to Blauer's family, half of it covertly by the federal government. The Army disclosed the circumstances to his daughter, [[Elizabeth Barrett]], in August 1975, and in 1987 a federal judge awarded more than 700,000 dollars to his estate.[^12][^13] Hoch became New York State Commissioner of Mental Hygiene in 1955.[^8]
### 1969 and after ### 1969 and after
On November 25, 1969, President [[Richard Nixon]] renounced the offensive biological weapons program, and in February 1970 extended the order to toxins. In 1975 the [[Church Committee]] disclosed that the CIA had kept a cache of [[shellfish toxin]] from Fort Detrick in defiance of the destruction order.[^13] In testimony of September 28, 1994, the [[General Accounting Office]] reported that the Defense Department and other national security agencies had conducted "hundreds of experiments in which hundreds of thousands of people were used as test subjects," involving "radiation, blister and nerve agents, biological agents, and LSD," some "done in secret" and others "without their knowledge or consent or their full knowledge of the risks involved."[^14] On November 25, 1969, President [[Richard Nixon]] renounced the offensive biological weapons program, and in February 1970 extended the order to toxins. In 1975 the [[Church Committee]] disclosed that the CIA had kept a cache of [[shellfish toxin]] from Fort Detrick in defiance of the destruction order.[^14] In testimony of September 28, 1994, the [[General Accounting Office]] reported that the Defense Department and other national security agencies had conducted "hundreds of experiments in which hundreds of thousands of people were used as test subjects," involving "radiation, blister and nerve agents, biological agents, and LSD," some "done in secret" and others "without their knowledge or consent or their full knowledge of the risks involved."[^15]
After the [[Vietnam War]] the Corps was partially demobilized and much of its function moved from [[Fort McClellan]], [[Alabama]], to Aberdeen. When Fort McClellan closed under base realignment, the Corps moved to [[Fort Leonard Wood]], [[Missouri]], where it forms part of the Maneuver Support Center with the Engineer and Military Police corps.[^1] After the [[Vietnam War]] the Corps was partially demobilized and much of its function moved from [[Fort McClellan]], [[Alabama]], to Aberdeen. When Fort McClellan closed under base realignment, the Corps moved to [[Fort Leonard Wood]], [[Missouri]], where it forms part of the Maneuver Support Center with the Engineer and Military Police corps.[^1]
### Edgewood programs in the 1977 Defense Department search ### Edgewood programs in the 1977 Defense Department search
The [[Department of Defense]] General Counsel's memorandum of September 20, 1977 on CIA-sponsored drug experiments lists three Army programs from 1969 to 1973, all through the Edgewood Arsenal Research Laboratories: a drug-identification project of 1967 to 1973 (CIA payments of 12,084 dollars in 1967 and 5,000 dollars in 1969, passed to a California contractor), computer data bases on pharmacological products (about 1968 to 1971) and, from 1971 to 1973, clinical tests of a glycolate-class compound, EA 3167, which Edgewood had already tested on animals and on human volunteers at Holmesburg State Prison in Philadelphia and among military personnel at Edgewood. The CIA transferred 37,000 dollars to Edgewood in 1971 for further work, and two military volunteers were "apparently tested" in June 1973. The search covered the files of Edgewood, [[Dugway Proving Ground]], the Defense Investigative Service as to the Special Operations Division at Fort Detrick, the Army Inspector General and the [[Army Intelligence Agency]]; the memorandum describes the Army and Navy programs under [[MKSEARCH]].[^15] The [[Department of Defense]] General Counsel's memorandum of September 20, 1977 on CIA-sponsored drug experiments lists three Army programs from 1969 to 1973, all through the Edgewood Arsenal Research Laboratories: a drug-identification project of 1967 to 1973 (CIA payments of 12,084 dollars in 1967 and 5,000 dollars in 1969, passed to a California contractor), computer data bases on pharmacological products (about 1968 to 1971) and, from 1971 to 1973, clinical tests of a glycolate-class compound, EA 3167, which Edgewood had already tested on animals and on human volunteers at Holmesburg State Prison in Philadelphia and among military personnel at Edgewood. The CIA transferred 37,000 dollars to Edgewood in 1971 for further work, and two military volunteers were "apparently tested" in June 1973. The search covered the files of Edgewood, [[Dugway Proving Ground]], the Defense Investigative Service as to the Special Operations Division at Fort Detrick, the Army Inspector General and the [[Army Intelligence Agency]]; the memorandum describes the Army and Navy programs under [[MKSEARCH]].[^16]
### Footnotes ### Footnotes
@ -93,8 +93,9 @@ The [[Department of Defense]] General Counsel's memorandum of September 20, 1977
[^8]: Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlain, *Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond*. Grove Press, 1985. Chapters 1 and 2. [^8]: Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlain, *Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond*. Grove Press, 1985. Chapters 1 and 2.
[^9]: U.S. Army Aberdeen Proving Ground, "History," home.army.mil. https://home.army.mil/apg/about/history [^9]: U.S. Army Aberdeen Proving Ground, "History," home.army.mil. https://home.army.mil/apg/about/history
[^10]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapters 4 and 5. [^10]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapters 4 and 5.
[^11]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. 1986); *Barrett v. United States*, 646 F. Supp. 1345 (S.D.N.Y. 1986); John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapter 4. [^11]: *Barrett v. United States,* 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. July 31, 1986). https://static.case.law/f2d/798/cases/0565-01.json
[^12]: *Los Angeles Times*, May 5, 1987; UPI Archives, May 5, 1987. [^12]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. 1986); *Barrett v. United States*, 646 F. Supp. 1345 (S.D.N.Y. 1986); John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapter 4.
[^13]: Horrock, Nicholas M. "Colby Describes C.I.A. Poison Work," *New York Times,* Sept. 17, 1975. https://merylnass.substack.com/p/colby-describes-cia-poison-work-by [^13]: *Los Angeles Times*, May 5, 1987; UPI Archives, May 5, 1987.
[^14]: U.S. General Accounting Office, *Human Experimentation: An Overview on Cold War Era Programs,* testimony, GAO/T-NSIAD-94-266, September 28, 1994, abstract. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GAOREPORTS-T-NSIAD-94-266/html/GAOREPORTS-T-NSIAD-94-266.htm [^14]: Horrock, Nicholas M. "Colby Describes C.I.A. Poison Work," *New York Times,* Sept. 17, 1975. https://merylnass.substack.com/p/colby-describes-cia-poison-work-by
[^15]: General Counsel of the Department of Defense, memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, September 20, 1977, pp. 3 to 5 and Appendix A, release file 02-A-0846, as described on the MKSEARCH page. [^15]: U.S. General Accounting Office, *Human Experimentation: An Overview on Cold War Era Programs,* testimony, GAO/T-NSIAD-94-266, September 28, 1994, abstract. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GAOREPORTS-T-NSIAD-94-266/html/GAOREPORTS-T-NSIAD-94-266.htm
[^16]: General Counsel of the Department of Defense, memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, September 20, 1977, pp. 3 to 5 and Appendix A, release file 02-A-0846, as described on the MKSEARCH page.

4
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Atomic Energy Commission.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
--- ---
created: 2025-03-05 created: 2025-03-05
updated: 2026-10-09 updated: 2026-10-15
title: Atomic Energy Commission title: Atomic Energy Commission
aliases: aliases:
- Atomic Energy Commission - Atomic Energy Commission
@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ The same file of CIA press clippings contains the Washington Star and Washington
### Groom Lake ### Groom Lake
In April 1955 [[Richard Bissell]] and Colonel [[Osmund Ritland]] of the [[Air Force]], with [[Lockheed]]'s [[Kelly Johnson]] and test pilot [[Tony LeVier]], spotted an airstrip at Groom Lake "near the northeast corner of the Atomic Energy Commission's Nevada Proving Ground." The CIA's official history of the U-2 program records that Bissell discovered the strip lay outside the proving ground and that the Agency asked the commission to add the Groom Lake area to its holdings; the partly legible passage refers to "AEC Chairman Adm.," and Lewis Strauss was McCone's predecessor as chairman.[^12] The strip became the site later known as [[Area 51]]. In April 1955 [[Richard Bissell]] and Colonel [[Osmund Ritland]] of the [[Air Force]], with [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]]'s [[Kelly Johnson]] and test pilot [[Tony LeVier]], spotted an airstrip at Groom Lake "near the northeast corner of the Atomic Energy Commission's Nevada Proving Ground." The CIA's official history of the U-2 program records that Bissell discovered the strip lay outside the proving ground and that the Agency asked the commission to add the Groom Lake area to its holdings; the partly legible passage refers to "AEC Chairman Adm.," and Lewis Strauss was McCone's predecessor as chairman.[^12] The strip became the site later known as [[Area 51]].
### The Los Alamos conference on green fireballs ### The Los Alamos conference on green fireballs

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