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10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Albert Hofmann.md
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@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ Hofmann isolated [[psilocybin]], the primary psychoactive component of the Psilo
CIA operative James Moore, a 29-year-old chemist working under cover as a natural-products researcher, was central to the Agency's effort to obtain psilocybin. In March 1953, Moore signed an initial CIA contract worth $8,000 per year, later expanded to $16,000 annually when he became an assistant professor at the [[University of Delaware]] in Newark in 1955. His cover funding flowed through the [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research]], a CIA conduit, categorized as MKULTRA Subproject 58. In his role, Moore maintained "the fiction that the botanical specimens he collects are for his own use since his field interest is natural-product chemistry."[^3]
Moore's most significant operation in the psilocybin chain came through [[R. Gordon Wasson]], vice president of [[J.P. Morgan]] and an amateur mycologist who had published a landmark account of a 1955 mushroom ceremony in [[Huautla de Jimenez]], [[Mexico]], in [[Life (magazine)|Life magazine]] in 1957. The Geschickter Fund provided Wasson with a $2,000 grant for his 1956 follow-up expedition (designated MKULTRA Subproject 58), which Wasson accepted not knowing it was an intelligence operation. Moore accompanied Wasson on the 1956 expedition, collected samples from the ceremony led by shaman [[Maria Sabina]], but reportedly had a poor reaction to the mushrooms. When Hofmann isolated psilocybin from the samples that [[Roger Heim]] had grown in Paris and sent to Sandoz in 1958, Moore billed the CIA $1,147.60 for mushrooms and used the Sandoz synthesis to pursue the Agency's operational research agenda.[^3]
Moore's most significant operation in the psilocybin chain came through [[R. Gordon Wasson]], vice president of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J.P. Morgan]] and an amateur mycologist who had published a landmark account of a 1955 mushroom ceremony in [[Huautla de Jimenez]], [[Mexico]], in [[Life (magazine)|Life magazine]] in 1957. The Geschickter Fund provided Wasson with a $2,000 grant for his 1956 follow-up expedition (designated MKULTRA Subproject 58), which Wasson accepted not knowing it was an intelligence operation. Moore accompanied Wasson on the 1956 expedition, collected samples from the ceremony led by shaman [[Maria Sabina]], but reportedly had a poor reaction to the mushrooms. When Hofmann isolated psilocybin from the samples that [[Roger Heim]] had grown in Paris and sent to Sandoz in 1958, Moore billed the CIA $1,147.60 for mushrooms and used the Sandoz synthesis to pursue the Agency's operational research agenda.[^3]
### LSD: My Problem Child

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10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Alger Hiss.md Normal file
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---
aliases:
- Alger Hiss
category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags:
- Person
- StateDepartment
- CarnegieEndowment
- WhittakerChambers
- HouseCommitteeOnUnAmericanActivities
- NyeCommittee
- AgriculturalAdjustmentAdministration
- Yalta
- UnitedNationsFounding
- Venona
- PerjuryTrial
- CoramNobis
- SovietEspionage
- NoelField
- JohnFosterDulles
summary: "Alger Hiss, State Department official and Carnegie Endowment president, convicted of perjury in 1950 after Whittaker Chambers named him a Communist, who denied Soviet espionage until his death in 1996."
born: 1904-11-11
died: 1996
location: "Baltimore, Maryland"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]]"
start: 1929
end: 1930
role: "secretary to the Associate Justice of the Supreme Court"
fn: 2
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]]"
start: 1933-05
end: 1934
role: "assistant general counsel on the legal staff of Jerome Frank"
fn: 2
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Nye Committee]]"
start: 1934
end: 1935
role: "counsel, titled legal assistant; the hearings list him as investigator"
fn: 6
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Department of State]]"
start: 1936-09
end: 1947-01-15
role: "Trade Agreements work, then special assistant and deputy director of the Office of Special Political Affairs"
fn: 12
- type: head_of
with: "[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]"
start: 1947-02-01
end: 1949-05
role: "president; elected December 1946; leave of absence from December 13, 1948"
fn: 22
- type: director_of
with: "[[World Peace Foundation]]"
role: "trustee, fiscal year ended December 31, 1947"
fn: 34
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Yalta Conference]]"
start: 1945-02-04
end: 1945-02-11
role: "member of the Stettinius delegation; penciled notes of plenary and Foreign Ministers' meetings"
fn: 16
- type: participant_in
with: "[[United Nations Conference on International Organization]]"
start: 1945-04
end: 1945-06
role: "Secretary-General of the conference"
fn: 20
- type: investigated
with: "[[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]"
start: 1948-08-03
role: "testified August 5, 1948 in the hearings on Communist espionage in the government"
reverse: true
fn: 3
- type: investigated
with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]"
start: 1947
role: "agents questioned him about Whittaker Chambers; Hiss file, New York field file 65-14920"
reverse: true
fn: 42
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
start: 1948-12-15
end: 1950-01-25
role: "perjury indictment after grand jury testimony; convicted on both counts at the second trial"
reverse: true
fn: 40
- type: represented
with: "[[Debevoise & Plimpton]]"
start: 1975
end: 1982
role: "defense files; Freedom of Information Act suit and coram nobis petition"
reverse: true
fn: 48
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Priscilla Hiss]]"
role: "wife; named in the 1948 hearings and at the trials"
fn: 52
---
Alger Hiss (1904 to 1996) was a lawyer who worked for the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]], the [[Nye Committee]] and the [[Department of State]] before he became president of the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] in 1947. In August 1948 [[Whittaker Chambers]] named him before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]] as one of a group of Communists in Washington in the 1930s. Hiss denied the accusation under oath. He was indicted for perjury after testifying before a federal grand jury in December 1948, the first trial ended in a jury disagreement, and at a second trial he was convicted and sentenced on January 25, 1950.
### Education and early career
Hiss told the House committee that he was born in [[Baltimore]] on November 11, 1904, and that he was educated in the public schools of Baltimore and at a preparatory school in Massachusetts before entering [[Johns Hopkins University]], from which he took an A.B. in 1926.[^1] He then entered [[Harvard Law School]] and graduated in 1929.[^1] He said that his first federal employment was as secretary to one of the Associate Justices of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], and he named the justice as [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]][^2] He practiced law in Boston and New York for about three years. In May 1933 he came to [[Washington, D.C.]] at the request of officials of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, where [[Jerome Frank]] was general counsel, and took a post as assistant general counsel.[^2] He named [[Lee Pressman]] and [[Nathan Witt]] as members of the same legal staff, and said he knew [[Henry Collins]] from boyhood.[^3]
A press report on the reorganization of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, reprinted in the House record, said that Hiss, one of Frank's assistants, was "recently assigned to assist Senator Nye's committee in its munitions investigation."[^4]
### Nye Committee
In early 1934, by his own recollection, the Department of Agriculture lent Hiss to the Senate Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry, chaired by Senator [[Gerald Nye]]. Asked about his position, he said: "I was counsel. The technical title was legal assistant."[^5] The committee's preliminary report of 1935 lists "Alger Hiss, Legal Assistant" among its staff, with [[Stephen Raushenbush]] as secretary.[^6] The printed hearings record the senators present and add "Also present: Alger Hiss, investigator."[^7]
The transcripts show Hiss examining witnesses on corporate ownership and war profits. On September 10, 1934 the chairman told the room that "Mr. Hiss, one of the committee's staff, will proceed with the examination" of John S. Allard, president of the Curtiss-Wright Export Corporation. Hiss took the Curtiss-Wright witnesses through the company's stock holdings, interlocking directors and the position of the Sperry Corporation, and offered a chart (Exhibit No. 268) of the interest of the [[General Motors]] Corporation in airplane manufacturing companies. He stated that the [[DuPont Company|du Pont Company]], through a wholly owned subsidiary, held a 28 percent interest in General Motors; that General Motors held 48 percent of the General Aviation Corporation; and that General Aviation and General Motors together owned 52 percent of North American Aviation.[^7] Hiss continued the examination of Allard and Clarence W. Webster through September 12, and on September 17 and 18 he questioned Francis H. Love, Donald L. Brown and Charles W. Deeds.[^7]
In December 1934 the committee turned to the du Pont interests. On December 12 Hiss questioned Lieutenant Colonel C. T. Harris of the Army Ordnance Department about wartime contracts, entered a War Department statement of cantonment and facilities construction (a grand total of $1,271,000,000), and examined an Interstate Commerce Commission accountant, John H. Rudd, on the 1916 and 1917 incomes and taxes of certain corporations, matching the coded entries in a Senate document of 1918 to company names. He then questioned Harris on the Old Hickory powder plant contract, in which the du Pont Engineering Company acted as agent of the government.[^8] The transcript records Hiss as questioner in the sessions of December 12 to 21, 1934 whose headings include the testimony of [[Pierre S. du Pont]], [[Irénée du Pont]] and Lammot du Pont, C. K. Davis, Edwin Pugsley and Sol A. Rosenblatt.[^9]
The 1982 district court opinion summarizes Chambers's testimony at both trials: he was introduced to Hiss in June or July 1934 by [[J. Peters]] and [[Harold Ware]], and at first Hiss, "who was then counsel to the Nye Committee, furnished Chambers with copies of confidential State Department documents."[^10] Hiss testified that a free-lance writer calling himself George Crosley came to his Senate office during the munitions investigation.[^11]
### State Department, 1936 to 1947
After the munitions committee Hiss was employed in the office of the [[Solicitor General of the United States]]. He said he went to the Department of State when [[Francis B. Sayre]], the Assistant Secretary in charge of the Trade Agreements Act, asked him to supervise the constitutional arguments on that act. He testified: "I entered the Department of State, I think it was, in September, 1936. I resigned in January, 1947, to accept the appointment to my present position in private life to which I had been elected the preceding December."[^12] The [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] volume for the Yalta conference identifies him as special assistant to the director of the [[Office of Special Political Affairs]] from May to October 1944 and as deputy director thereafter.[^13]
At the second trial the prosecutor asked Hiss whether he had recommended [[Noel Field]] to Sayre when Sayre went out to the [[Philippines]] as High Commissioner. Hiss answered: "Along with one or two others, yes." He named four others he had recommended to Sayre (Golden Bell, Woodbury Willoughby, Henry Hart and Claude Buss).[^14] Hiss testified that he had known Field through [[Laurence Duggan]].[^14]
### Yalta and the San Francisco conference
A telegram from Secretary of State [[Edward Stettinius]] to Ambassador [[W. Averell Harriman]] in [[Moscow]], dated January 15, 1945, lists the members of the American party for the [[Yalta Conference]]. It includes "Alger Hiss, for Dumbarton Oaks matters."[^15] The Foreign Relations volume states that "The collection contains the original penciled notes taken by Hiss at a number of meetings at Yalta," and it prints those notes in facsimile.[^16] For one plenary meeting the editors state that the notes "appear to have been taken by Hiss only during the discussion of the question of voting in the United Nations."[^16] The table of contents lists Hiss notes for the Foreign Ministers' meetings and plenary sessions of February 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.[^16]
The agreed record dated February 2, 1945 states that Hiss was asked to explain briefly the purpose of the proposed European High Commission. "Mr. Hiss said that the essential purpose was to secure unity of approach between the three Big powers to the manifold difficulties that must arise in liberated territories in Europe." The record adds that the proposed High Commission "would be a temporary body functioning until the World Organisation was set up."[^17]
The notes for the February 6 plenary session at [[Livadia Palace]] are a separate document. It is headed "Dictated at San Francisco, June 3, 1945," and the editors state that it was dictated on the basis of longhand notes made during the meeting.[^18] Its account of the session includes the statement: "The President said that he felt strongly that people are going to insist on getting something that will insure peace, not for all time, but say for fifty years."[^18] Several undated memoranda of the Hiss Collection carry the editors' attributions to him. Of a draft report to the Foreign Ministers by the subcommittee on arrangements for the United Nations conference, the editors state that [[H. Freeman Matthews]] wrote on August 13, 1954 that it was written by Hiss. Of a memorandum of arguments against inclusion of any of the Soviet republics among the initial members of the organization, they state that the author was presumably Hiss. The editors also note that penciled changes in Hiss's handwriting on the draft invitation to the United Nations conference were incorporated in the text Stettinius presented on February 9, 1945, and that Hiss was a member of the subcommittee that drafted the report.[^19] Of the Foreign Ministers' meeting of February 11 the editors write that "Hiss was certainly there" with Stettinius, [[Anthony Eden]] and [[Vyacheslav Molotov]].[^19]
At San Francisco Hiss held the post of Secretary-General of the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization]]. On June 20, 1945 the president of Commission III opened the fifth meeting by stating: "The Secretary-General, Mr. Hiss, has asked me to make the following announcement."[^20] The conference drafted the charter of the [[United Nations]]. [[John Foster Dulles]], a member of the American delegation to the conference, testified in 1949 that he first met Hiss in the early part of 1945, probably about March, during briefings in Washington before the delegation left, and that he saw him with fair frequency at San Francisco, where Hiss was on the international secretariat and not on the American delegation.[^21]
### Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
Hiss testified in 1948 that the board of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace elected him president in December 1946 and that he assumed office on February 1, 1947.[^22] John Foster Dulles was chairman of the board of trustees. Asked by Representative [[F. Edward Hebert]] whether Dulles was the first to approach him, Hiss answered: "He first approached me." He described Dulles as "the chairman of my board of trustees." When Hebert asked whether Dulles had urged him to take the post, Hiss answered that Dulles had, "And other members of the board of trustees."[^22]
Dulles gave a different account at the second trial, where he testified in rebuttal for the government. He said he had been a trustee for about five years, and that he was "not elected chairman until the same meeting at which Mr. Hiss was elected president."[^21] Shown Hiss's testimony that Dulles had first raised the Carnegie presidency on the ship to London for the first meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Dulles answered that he possibly asked Hiss whether he expected to stay in government service. He added: "I am quite clear in my own mind that I did not mention the Carnegie Endowment to Mr. Hiss at that time," and put his first mention of it at about April 1946, after he had spoken to other trustees. The selection committee consisted of [[John W. Davis]], [[Arthur Ballantine]] and [[Elliott Wadsworth]]. Dulles testified that he gave the committee a list of names that included Hiss, that he arranged a luncheon in New York in the spring of 1946 at which Hiss met two of the three committee members, that he did not investigate Hiss's record, and that it was "through me that the committee obtained its primary information about his availability." He said he had probably spoken to [[Dean Acheson]] about Hiss, and asked about Hiss's reputation before the election, said that it "was very high, as far as I knew it."[^21]
Davis, a defense character witness at the same trial, testified that his committee investigated "the nature of his past services, his interest in international affairs ... and his general reputation," that it recommended Hiss, and that Dulles "was not a member of that committee. He was chairman of the Endowment and, of course, thoroughly advised of whatever the committee was doing." He testified that he had heard "that Mr. Dulles and Mr. Hiss had some conversation" about reports of Communist association, "purely hearsay on my part," and that no adverse reports reached him before August 1948.[^23] [[James T. Shotwell]], a trustee and a defense witness, testified that he had made inquiries at the State Department and was told that Hiss "was regarded as one of the ablest men in the Department."[^24]
### The Kohlberg letters and the Dulles conversations
Hiss testified before the House committee on August 25, 1948 that "shortly after I had been elected but before I had assumed office I had a conversation with Mr. John Foster Dulles in which he said that he had heard reports that people had called me a Communist."[^25] He said he assumed that Dulles "was satisfied that there was nothing to the reports, as I was myself." Representative [[Richard Nixon]] questioned him in the same hearings about his conversations with Secretary of State [[James F. Byrnes]] in 1946 about the charges, and Representative [[Karl Mundt]] asked whether he had told the Carnegie directors of them. In his answer Hiss said that before accepting the Carnegie post he had "checked with" Byrnes "specifically as to whether he thought the issue had been laid to rest."[^26]
At the second trial Hiss gave a fuller account. He testified that in December 1946, a week or ten days after his election was announced, Dulles telephoned from New York and asked "What shall I say in answer to a letter from some man who claims you are a Communist?"; that he replied that the subject had been "laid to rest"; and that Dulles later named the writer as Mr. Kohlberg, "the publisher of Plain Talk."[^27] Dulles contradicted him. He testified that the letter, dated December 31 and received on January 2 (Hiss took office on February 1, 1947), "led me to call up Mr. Kohlberg," who came to see him that afternoon, and that he did not discuss the contents with Hiss until some days later. He denied discussing the matter with Byrnes, said he did not recall naming Kohlberg to Hiss and that he never wrote to Kohlberg in answer to the first letter, and testified that he had received three letters from Kohlberg in all, in January, February and April or May.[^27] The writer appears in the transcript as "Mr. Kohlburg" and is described as the publisher of the magazine [[Plain Talk]]; he was [[Alfred Kohlberg]].[^27]
Hiss and Dulles gave separate accounts of March 1948 as well. Dulles testified that in March 1948 he told Hiss of a communication he had recently received, that Hiss mentioned he had just been before a grand jury, and that Hiss said he had been questioned about a number of people, knew only Pressman among them, and had met some left-leaning people in the Department of Agriculture only casually. Asked on cross-examination whether he had told Dulles that after law school he was "thrown into association with people who were Communists," Hiss answered: "Not in that form; definitely not."[^27]
### The resignation offer and the board's action
Hiss testified that on August 3, 1948, the day Chambers testified, he telephoned Dulles before doing anything else, and told him that he would have "enough on my shoulders" for the next weeks and asked Dulles to decide, as chairman, whether his continuing as president became an embarrassment, adding that "at that moment he had my resignation."[^28] Dulles testified that he recalled no discussion of resignation until a meeting he called at the Hotel Roosevelt shortly before he went abroad in the latter part of August. He told Hiss then, he said, that the Chambers testimony "was very disturbing to the trustees," that some had communicated with him, and that he was "confident that the trustees would not take any initiative in asking for his resignation." Hiss, in Dulles's account, said he would probably resign in September, but not while the hearings continued. Hiss testified that Dulles told him that two or perhaps three trustees thought the publicity embarrassing and that it was their feeling that he should resign, and that his counsel afterward spoke to John W. Davis, who became acting chairman while Dulles was abroad.[^27][^28]
Dulles remained abroad on United Nations business from late August 1948 until December 24, 1948.[^21] Shotwell testified that Davis presided at the trustees' dinner of December 12, 1948, and that [[William C. Bullitt]], a trustee, asked Hiss at the dinner whether he had testified to the House committee that he had checked with Justice Byrnes about coming to the Endowment. Hiss withdrew; each trustee was called on separately, and Davis summed up.[^24] *The Charlotte News* reported on December 13, 1948 that Hiss submitted his resignation and that the trustees tabled it and granted him a three-month leave of absence.[^29] Shotwell testified that the leave was with full pay, that the executive committee voted on February 17, 1949 to extend it to the annual meeting of May 5, 1949, that at Hiss's request he communicated Hiss's decision informally to the executive committee before a letter to the May 5 meeting, and that he himself served as acting president from early September 1948.[^24] Dulles, cross-examined, confirmed that he was a member of the executive committee that voted the extension.[^21] Shotwell also said he had collected some 360 letters about Hiss and had talked to many people.[^24] Hiss testified in December 1949 that he had asked the board not to put his name up at the election of the preceding May.[^28]
The Bureau's Hiss file summarizes the press reports of the period. It records that [[Drew Pearson]], in his column in the [[Washington Post]] of September 15, 1948, reported that Senator [[Styles Bridges]] told Governor [[Thomas E. Dewey]] that the directors of the Foundation had been "lukewarm about Hiss" and were brought into the appointment by Dulles, and that Dulles might have difficulty in being confirmed by the Senate. The same summary records an item from the Washington Evening Star of August 5, 1948 headed "Hiss Declares Dulles Helped Him to Get Carnegie Peace Post," and the statement of an informant that Dulles had been advised of Hiss's background and had discounted the report.[^30] A Bureau memorandum of September 28, 1949 records a lead to learn what happened at the Endowment after Chambers's accusation, and notes that Shotwell and Ballantine had suggested examining the stenographic minutes of the board's meetings.[^31]
Joseph E. Johnson was elected president of the Carnegie Endowment on May 11, 1950; the nominating committee, as the Endowment described it to the House foundations committee, was headed by Dulles.[^32] In a 1951 Bureau interview about Johnson, Shotwell remarked that "the Foundation, and particularly Dulles, is quite sensitive regarding the Alger Hiss" matter.[^32] The House select committee on tax-exempt foundations (the Cox Committee) stated in its report that Hiss's "nomination and election came about through the efforts of men of proven loyalty and broad experience in public affairs" and that "during his term as president of the Carnegie Endowment, Hiss took no official action to further the Communist cause."[^33]
The 1948 directory of foundations lists Hiss as a trustee of the [[World Peace Foundation]] for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1947. The same entry gives [[Harvey H. Bundy]] as president of that board.[^34] At the second trial the government introduced Hiss's letter on Carnegie Endowment letterhead, signed "Alger Hiss, President," sent to Duggan, whose agency was the [[Institute of International Education]]. Hiss testified that Field had written to Duggan to ask whether the Endowment had any work he could do, that the request came to Hiss through Duggan, and that he asked [[Freda Kirchwey]], whom he met at a dinner party, whether she would be interested in articles from Field.[^35]
### Chambers's accusation and the 1948 hearings
Chambers testified before the committee in early August 1948. He said that he had approached Hiss in an effort to persuade him to leave the [[Communist Party USA]]. "I went to the Hiss home one evening at what I considered considerable risk to myself and found Mrs. Hiss at home," Chambers said, and he added that Hiss "absolutely refused to break."[^36] Chambers also named Hiss among the Communists in a Washington group, saying: "One of them clearly was Alger Hiss," in the context of members of the group who were going "places in the Government."[^37] According to the 1982 district court opinion, Chambers had spoken guardedly from 1939 to 1946 to various officials, among them Assistant Secretary of State [[Adolf Berle|Adolf A. Berle]], and had stated in those conversations that Hiss was a Communist.[^10]
Hiss appeared on August 5, 1948 and read a statement denying the charges. He said: "the statements made about me by Mr. Chambers are complete fabrications." He said that he had first heard of Chambers in 1947, when two agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation asked him whether he knew Chambers and other people, and that "So far as I know, I have never laid eyes on him, and I should like to have the opportunity to do so."[^3] He later told the committee that a man named George Crosley, a free-lance writer whom he met while working for the Nye committee, had sublet his apartment and stayed in his house.[^11]
In the later exchanges Chambers was asked to identify Hiss as the man he had known. He answered "Positive identification."[^38] Hiss rose and walked toward Chambers. He then said that he would invite Chambers to make the same statements outside the committee room, without the protection of privilege, and added: "I challenge you to do it, and I hope you will do it damned quickly."[^38]
Nixon questioned both men. During the exchange over Chambers's account of his dental work, Nixon interrupted: "Since some repartee goes on between these two people, I think Mr. Chambers should be sworn." Nixon then asked Hiss whether he would have to have the dentist tell "just what he did to the teeth before you could tell anything about this man." Hiss answered: "I would like a few more questions asked."[^39]
### Pumpkin papers and the grand jury
On December 15, 1948 Hiss testified before a federal grand jury in the Southern District of New York. He stated that he had never, nor had his wife in his presence, turned over any documents of the State Department, or copies of them, to Chambers or any other unauthorized person, and that he did not see Chambers after January 1, 1937.[^40] The grand jury indicted him on perjury counts based on those two statements.[^40]
The committee had subpoenaed Chambers for documents. The appellate opinion records that "In response to a subpoena duces tecum served upon him by the Committee above mentioned at his farm in Maryland that same evening, Mr. Chambers produced from a pumpkin, in which he had recently hidden them, two rolls of developed micro-film, which had been made of other confidential documents from the State Department, and three rolls of undeveloped micro-film."[^40] The opinion adds that some of the papers so produced were of a nature that, for security reasons, they could not safely be made public, and that the proper officials of the government took charge of them.[^40]
Hiss had brought suit against Chambers in the United States District Court in Maryland for defamation. In the pretrial deposition there Chambers produced on November 17, 1948 four handwritten notes and sixty-five typewritten pages, which became known as the Baltimore documents. The 1982 district court opinion states that Hiss later conceded the notes were in his hand and that most of the typed pages were typed on the Woodstock typewriter belonging to Priscilla Hiss.[^41]
The Bureau's New York office recorded the day of the indictment. A memorandum by Assistant Special Agent in Charge A. H. Belmont dated December 15, 1948 states that the FBI Laboratory had told the office that the pumpkin documents (items Q74 through Q131) "were compared with" the Baltimore documents and "it was ascertained that different machines were used," and that the Laboratory had reported that it could not determine from the paper, writing or typing the age of the Baltimore documents. The same memorandum records a conference that day of the government attorneys on what indictments the grand jury, whose term was ending, could return; the recommendation to indict Hiss for perjury, which [[Alexander Campbell]] of the Department of Justice put by telephone to [[Peyton Ford]]; the consideration and rejection of an indictment of Priscilla Hiss for want of evidence; a presentment proposed by Campbell that would have criticized the House committee, to which United States Attorney [[John F. X. McGohey]], [[Thomas F. Donegan]] and the other attorneys were "outspokenly opposed"; and the Department's intention to call a new grand jury "in an effort to find additional evidence which will bring the substantive espionage case within the statute of limitations."[^42] The [[Washington Times]] reported in 1992 that Hiss "was never charged with spying because the statute of limitations for that crime had elapsed."[^43]
### The typewriter
The case on the documents turned in part on a typewriter. The appellate opinion says that "Tending to substantiate Mr. Chambers' testimony was the concession that all the copied documents produced by him were, save one, copied on the Hiss Woodstock typewriter." The opinion records the testimony of Hiss and his wife that the typewriter "had been given to one of their servants and taken away from their home before the dates of any of the documents of which Mr. Chambers produced copies." The court held that the jury could find the typewriter was in the Hiss home when the copies were made, and that this evidence corroborated Chambers. The opinion acknowledges that the copies could have been typed later from the originals or from microfilmed copies.[^44]
The Bureau's file records the effort to trace the machine. In a memorandum of May 18, 1949 Belmont recorded a call from the special agent in charge in Philadelphia, who noted that a report of the Chicago office of December 23, 1948 reflected that a Woodstock bearing serial number 230,099 "would have been produced in 1929, whereas the Woodstock typewriter sold in Philadelphia to the MARTIN & FANSLER CORP. was sold in 1927," and that the laboratory had identified that earlier machine as the one used to type the Chambers documents. Belmont advised that the number 230,099 appeared on the receipt given by Hiss's attorney to the person from whom he bought the Woodstock, "which may be the Woodstock typewriter in question," and recommended a complete history of the machine from manufacture, adding that the Chicago office could not assume "that this serial number was accurate."[^45] The December 15, 1948 memorandum had already asked the laboratory for typing specimens identified with the machine as in the possession of the Hisses after September 9, 1936, which Belmont called very important.[^42]
Hiss's 1978 petition raised the serial number. In the 1982 opinion Judge Owen wrote that the Bureau's reports on the question were "highly contradictory and far from conclusive," quoting Judge Goddard's 1952 opinion denying a new trial: "The defense reasoning that No. 230,099 was manufactured after the Hiss machine is not sustained by any proof."[^46]
### The trials
The appellate opinion summarizes the two trials in these words: "He was duly tried by jury twice, the jury at the first trial having failed to agree upon a verdict. At the second trial he was convicted on both counts."[^40] The 1982 district court opinion gives the dates: the first trial ran from May 31 to July 7, 1949, and the second began on November 17, 1949 and ended with a conviction on both counts on January 25, 1950.[^47] The finding aid for the defense files of [[Debevoise & Plimpton]], which represented Hiss and his wife, [[Priscilla Hiss]], records the same two trials.[^48] Hiss was sentenced on January 25, 1950. The footnote to the [[Harry S. Truman Library]]'s press conference transcript of January 27, 1950 records that he was sentenced to five years in a federal penitentiary for perjury.[^49] The Washington Times reported that he served 44 months of the sentence.[^43]
The government's witnesses at the second trial included Chambers and his wife, [[Henry Julian Wadleigh]], [[Felix Inslerman]], [[Philip C. Jessup]] and [[Hede Massing]]. The defense called Hiss, Priscilla Hiss, Hiss's brother [[Donald Hiss]], Sayre, and witnesses including Davis, [[Gerard Swope Jr.]], Shotwell and [[Charles E. Wyzanski Jr.]]; Dulles testified for the government in rebuttal.[^50]
On January 25, 1950, the day of sentencing, Dean Acheson, then secretary of state, spoke about Hiss. Acheson told reporters at his press conference that day, according to the [[New York Times]] as the Truman Library footnote records: "I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss."[^49]
### Noel Field and Hede Massing
Massing, a witness for the government at the second trial, testified that she met Hiss in the late summer or early fall of 1935 at the Washington home of Noel Field, then in the State Department, whom she described as working in what she believed was the Western European Division. She testified that she was working in "a Russian apparatus" and that she said to Hiss, "I understand that you are trying to get Noel Field away from my organization into yours," that he replied, "So you are this famous girl that is trying to get Noel Field away from me," and that he said, as she remembered it, "Well, we will see who is going to win." She testified that either he or she then said that "Whoever is going to win we are working for the same boss."[^51] She testified that she never saw Hiss again, that an arrangement was made at an FBI office so that he could look at her, and that at a second meeting about a year before the trial, attended by one of his lawyers and an FBI agent, he was friendly and said he did not remember her.[^51]
Priscilla Hiss testified that she first heard of Hede Massing when she appeared at the grand jury, had never met her, and that she and her husband had been to the home of Noel Field and his wife "a few times."[^52] Hiss testified that he had known Field through Duggan, had seen him once or twice after his returns to the United States in the late 1940s, and had recommended him to Sayre.[^14][^35] Asked whether he knew that Field had been dismissed by the Unitarian Service Committee for using its funds for Communist purposes, Hiss answered, "Quite the contrary," and said that a Boston Unitarian official had told him of a difference of opinion over relief policy.[^53] The defense called Henrikas Rabinavicius, who testified that at a gathering at the home of the journalist [[Eugene Lyons]], Massing, asked how she had met Hiss, described a young State Department man she called "Mr. X" and quoted Hiss as saying "You can't have that man"; Massing's account at trial was of a meeting at Field's home.[^54]
The Bureau's file summary records that Massing told agents Duggan was one of the State Department employees she had tried to recruit for Soviet espionage, and that Duggan, a close associate of Hiss according to her, "fell or jumped" out of a New York City office room on December 20, 1948.[^30] A September 1949 Bureau memorandum records an informant's story that after the loyalty program began, State Department employees who left were placed by Duggan at the Institute of International Education, which received funds from the Carnegie Endowment, and that Hiss had pressed Duggan to take them; the Bureau considered whether the Institute's files might bear on a retrial.[^31]
Hungarian records bear on Field. Ethan Klingsberg, the only foreign researcher permitted to read Field's dossier of about 2,500 pages in the Hungarian Interior Ministry archive, wrote in [[The Nation]] on November 8, 1993 that its references to Hiss amount to about four pages.[^55] The Hungarian historian [[Maria Schmidt]] presented findings from the Hungarian secret-police files on Field at a seminar of the Institute for the Humanities of [[New York University]] on October 11, 1993. [[Sam Tanenhaus]] relied on her unpublished work in an op-ed in the New York Times on October 15, 1993 and in an article in [[Commentary]], and Klingsberg wrote that both pieces claimed the files contain "unimpeachable" evidence that will "seal the case against Alger Hiss."[^55] In the statements and prison autobiographies the Hungarian police took from Field he said that Hiss tried to recruit him about 1935 and that Field had replied that he was too late, that Hiss later supported his State Department career and tried to get him a Philippines post in 1940, and that they met briefly in 1939 and agreed on a signal if either's cover was blown. Klingsberg wrote that those statements were made under coercion, citing Field's March 1954 letter to the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party describing beatings and starvation, a 1991 Hungarian memoir by [[Vladimir Farkas]] that says Field was tortured, and the confirmation by the archive's director that political prisoners were routinely abused. Klingsberg wrote that Field's letters of 1948 and 1954 were supportive of Hiss and that in one of 1954 Field called Massing's testimony about him "nothing but a lie."[^55]
### Appeals and petitions
Hiss's conviction was affirmed by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] on December 7, 1950 in an opinion by Circuit Judge Chase, with Judges Swan and Hand on the panel. The opinion holds that the sentences on the two counts were concurrent and that a conviction on either count, if without error, "would alone sustain the judgment and require its affirmance." The reported citation is [[United States v. Hiss]], 185 F.2d 822 (2d Cir. 1950).[^44] The Supreme Court denied certiorari on March 12, 1951.[^56] In 1952 Hiss moved for a new trial on the ground, among others, that the Woodstock was not the Hiss machine; [[Judge Goddard]] denied the motion, the Second Circuit affirmed on his opinion, and certiorari was denied in 1953.[^46]
The defense files at Debevoise & Plimpton record that a 1975 suit under the Freedom of Information Act, brought by Hiss with [[William Ruben]], produced FBI documents. Those documents formed the basis of a petition for a writ of error coram nobis, filed in 1978, which argued that the FBI documents had been withheld from the defense. The finding aid states that the petition was rejected in 1982. Its abstract dates the petition to 1979, while its historical note dates it to 1978.[^48]
The petition was decided on July 15, 1982 in [[In re Hiss]], 542 F. Supp. 973 (S.D.N.Y. 1982), No. 78 Civ. 3433, by District Judge Richard Owen. Hiss moved on about 150 of the documents he had obtained, asserting (1) improper contacts between the prosecution and an investigator for the defense, (2) suppression of three statements by Chambers, (3) suppression of information about the Woodstock typewriter, (4) the knowing use of perjured testimony by two government witnesses, and (5) improper argument by the prosecutor in summation. The court wrote that the claims "raise no real question whatsoever, let alone a reasonable doubt, as to Hiss's guilt," that "The trial was a fair one by any standard," and that "nothing presented in these papers, extensive though they are, places that verdict under any cloud." It dismissed the petition without a hearing: "Accordingly, Hiss's petition for a writ of error coram nobis is dismissed."[^57] The opinion also recorded that Hiss served three years of the five-year sentence.[^57]
### Venona cable 1822
The [[National Security Agency]] released a set of decrypted Soviet intelligence messages under the Venona program. The cable numbered 1822 was sent from the Soviet residency in Washington to Moscow on March 30, 1945. It names an agent called ALES, who had worked with the "Neighbors" (a Soviet military intelligence organization) since 1935, had led for some years a small group of probationers made up mostly of his relatives, and whose group worked on obtaining military information only. The cable says that the group was recently awarded Soviet decorations, and that after the Yalta Conference, when ALES had gone on to Moscow, a senior Soviet official, whom ALES understood to be Vyshinsky, got in touch with him.[^58]
The NSA release annotates the name ALES with the words "Probably Alger HISS."[^58] Ehrman's 2007 review in the CIA journal [[Studies in Intelligence]] reports that a historian at the [[United States Air Force]], [[Eduard Mark]], published findings in 2003 in Intelligence and National Security: that he found eight members of the Yalta delegation who had traveled to Moscow immediately afterward and that, in his judgment, only Hiss met the other criteria, so that "ALES was very probably Hiss."[^59]
The identification has been contested. In 2000 [[John Lowenthal]], one of Hiss's lawyers, published "Venona and Alger Hiss" in Intelligence and National Security 15 (Autumn 2000), arguing that ALES was not Hiss. Ehrman reports that Lowenthal pointed out that Hiss had been accused of espionage only to 1938, of acting alone except for his wife and Chambers, and of passing State Department and not military documents; that he cited Venona cable 1579 of September 28, 1943, from the Soviet military intelligence office in New York, which mentions a State Department official named Hiss, and concluded that it "would seem to be a first-time reference to someone unknown to the GRU and not a spy"; and that he suggested a correct translation of cable 1822 would concern the presence of Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister [[Andrei Vyshinsky]] at Yalta. Ehrman reports that Lowenthal also wrote that when Hiss appealed in 1950 the "FBI had an urgent need...for new evidence."[^59] Ehrman wrote that Mark answered that Soviet cables sometimes used true names mistakenly, and that in 2005 the NSA released the original Russian text of the cable, which Ehrman states showed the English translation to be correct.[^59]
In April 2007 the historians [[Kai Bird]] and [[Svetlana Chervonnaya]] proposed Henry Wilder Foote, an assistant to Stettinius, as ALES, at a conference at New York University titled "Alger Hiss and History." Ehrman states that they relied on notes taken by [[Aleksandr Vassiliev]] in the KGB archives on a cable of March 5, 1945, which Vassiliev's notes record as stating that ALES had been at Yalta but had since left for Mexico City and had not yet returned to Washington. Ehrman reports that Hiss and Foote had both accompanied Stettinius to Mexico City on February 20, 1945 for the Inter-American Conference on the Problems of War and Peace, that Stettinius then sent Hiss back to Washington to prepare the San Francisco conference, and that on March 3, 1945 Hiss appeared on a State Department radio broadcast over NBC, which the Washington Star and the New York Times reported on March 4. Bird and Chervonnaya concluded, as Ehrman summarizes them, that because the Soviet resident knew Hiss was in Washington, ALES was someone else. Ehrman rejected that argument. Hiss's stepson, [[Timothy Hobson]], spoke at the same conference and denied key elements of Chambers's testimony.[^59]
### Volkogonov and the Russian archives
In late 1992, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Lowenthal asked the Soviet general and historian [[Dmitri Volkogonov]], then a military adviser to Russian President Boris Yeltsin, to search the Russian archives for information about Hiss.[^60] Volkogonov's letter to Lowenthal, dated October 14, 1992, reads, in the text Victor Navasky of The Nation later quoted: "On the basis of a very careful analysis of all the information available, I can inform you that Alger Hiss was never an agent of the intelligence services of the Soviet Union ... Not a single document, and a great amount of materials has been studied, substantiates the allegation that Mr. A. Hiss collaborated with the intelligence services of the Soviet Union."[^61] The Washington Post of October 31, 1992 printed another sentence of the letter: "Mr. A. Hiss had never and nowhere been recruited as an agent of the intelligence service of the U.S.S.R." It reported that Volkogonov added that there was no evidence Hiss was a Communist Party member.[^62] Hiss said he was "overjoyed, pleased as punch." [[Allen Weinstein]], the author of Perjury, said: "We don't know what he's (Volkogonov) seen, we don't know what he hasn't seen."[^62]
On December 17, 1992 the New York Times printed an article by [[Serge Schmemann]] titled "Russian General Retreats on Hiss." According to the quotation of it by Mark Kramer of Harvard, Volkogonov told Schmemann: "I was not properly understood. The Ministry of Defense also has an intelligence service, which is totally different, and many documents have been destroyed. I looked only through what the K.G.B. had. All I said was that I saw no evidence." Kramer quotes him as saying that his motive had been "primarily humanitarian" and that "His attorney, Lowenthal, pushed me hard to say things of which I was not fully convinced."[^61] Kramer wrote that Volkogonov published an article in the Russian newspaper Nezavisimaya gazeta on November 24, 1992 retracting the written statement, and that in January 1993 he told Kramer that he had "not seen anything from the GRU archive."[^61]
Navasky replied that Lowenthal had reinterviewed Volkogonov in Washington, on a date Kramer gives as November 11, 1992, on video, and quoted the transcript: Lowenthal asked whether he had examined the GRU files, and Volkogonov answered, "Yes, we also asked to examine the military intelligence files and there, too, no traces of Alger Hiss have been found," adding "naturally I can't say that I've seen all existing documents." In the transcript Volkogonov also said: "naturally I can not give a one hundred percent guarantee that something wasn't destroyed, but as far as I know ... these documents were not touched." Navasky wrote that Major General Julius Kobyakov, who did some of the research for Volkogonov, said publicly that he would "take a bite of my hat" if the GRU files, once opened, showed that Hiss was a spy, and that in messages to the H-DIPLO list beginning October 16, 2003 Kobyakov wrote that he had corresponded with the GRU and received "the relevant answer."[^61] Ehrman's 2004 review of G. Edward White's book on Hiss states that Volkogonov wrote a second letter "a few weeks later" stating that his search had not been thorough, and that the Venona releases of 1995 ended any chance that Hiss could be exonerated.[^60]
### The Bundy contribution and the Hiss defense
The Bureau's Hiss file includes a 1953 memorandum on Harvey H. Bundy that began with a December 1952 letter to Senator McCarthy from a reader in Clanton, Alabama. The letter enclosed a newspaper clipping that said Bundy had a post at the Carnegie Endowment "with Alger Hiss' background."[^63] In July 1953 [[Joseph McCarthy]] wrote to [[Allen Dulles]], director of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], about a $400 contribution to the defense of Hiss by Bundy's son [[William P. Bundy]], a CIA employee and Acheson's son-in-law; McCarthy's letter of July 27, 1953 said the confirmation of the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency."[^64]
### Michael Whitney Straight
[[Michael Whitney Straight]] appears in the Hiss record through Allen Weinstein's book [[Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]], which asserted that Straight tried to recruit Hiss. Straight wrote to [[The New York Review of Books]] in December 1997 that in the June 1938 dispatch of Akhmerov, the Soviet contact "Jung," published by Weinstein, Akhmerov noted only that Straight "mentioned" Hiss as "a very progressive man." Weinstein replied that the book's line should read that Straight, code-named "Nigel," "identified and described Hiss to Itzhak Akhmerov."[^65]
### Footnotes
[^1]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government*, House Committee on Un-American Activities, 80th Congress, 2d session, 1948, testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 643-644, https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit (text: https://archive.org/download/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_djvu.txt)
[^2]: Same hearings, testimony of Alger Hiss, p. 644 (Holmes, Agricultural Adjustment Administration, May 1933; Jerome Frank).
[^3]: Same hearings, testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 643-644 (statement of August 5, 1948; Pressman, Witt, Collins; "complete fabrications"; "never laid eyes on him").
[^4]: Same hearings, p. 641, press report on the Agricultural Adjustment Administration reorganization reprinted in the record.
[^5]: Same hearings, testimony of Alger Hiss, p. 645 ("I was counsel. The technical title was legal assistant.").
[^6]: *Munitions Industry: Preliminary Report of the Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry*, United States Senate, 1935, staff listing, https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr00unit
[^7]: *Munitions Industry: Hearings before the Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry*, Senate, 73d Congress, Part 4, hearings of September 10 to 18, 1934 (Curtiss-Wright Export Corporation; testimony of John S. Allard, Henry G. Hotchkiss and Clarence W. Webster; Hiss's examination and Exhibit No. 268), pp. 692-694, https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr46unit
[^8]: Same hearings, Part 13, hearing of December 12, 1934 (Lieutenant Colonel C. T. Harris; John H. Rudd; Old Hickory contract), pp. 2929-2932, https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1114unit
[^9]: Same hearings, Parts 13 to 14 (December 12 and 14, 1934) and Part 15 and following (December 17 to 21, 1934), https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1114unit and https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1519unit
[^10]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973 (S.D.N.Y. July 15, 1982), "The History" and "The Trials" (Chambers's contacts with Berle, Raymond Murphy and FBI agents; Chambers's testimony on introduction to Hiss in 1934), https://static.case.law/f-supp/542/cases/0973-01.json
[^11]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage* (1948), testimony of Alger Hiss (the man "named George Crosley. I met him when I was working for the Nye committee. He was a writer."), https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit
[^12]: Same hearings, testimony of Alger Hiss, p. 645 (State Department from September 1936; Francis B. Sayre; resignation January 1947).
[^13]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945*, list of persons ("Hiss, Alger, Special Assistant to the Director, Office of Special Political Affairs, Department of State, May-October 1944; Deputy Director ..."), https://raw.githubusercontent.com/HistoryAtState/frus/master/volumes/frus1945Malta.xml
[^14]: *United States of America, Appellee, against Alger Hiss, Appellant: Transcript of Record*, Second Circuit, vol. IV (second trial), testimony of Alger Hiss on cross-examination, trial transcript p. 2873, and redirect, pp. 3159-3161 (Sayre recommendations), https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam04hiss
[^15]: *FRUS, Malta and Yalta*, telegram from the Secretary of State to Ambassador Harriman, Washington, January 15, 1945.
[^16]: *FRUS, Malta and Yalta*, editorial note on the Hiss Collection (the collection "contains the original penciled notes taken by Hiss at a number of meetings at Yalta"), and notes to the plenary meeting of February 6, 1945, and table of contents (Hiss notes, pp. 660, 704, 718, 741, 771, 802, 850, 871).
[^17]: *FRUS, Malta and Yalta*, agreed record of the Foreign Ministers' meeting, February 2, 1945 (European High Commission), https://raw.githubusercontent.com/HistoryAtState/frus/master/volumes/frus1945Malta.xml
[^18]: *FRUS, Malta and Yalta*, "Excerpts From Handwritten Notes of Plenary Session of February 6, 1945," dictated at San Francisco, June 3, 1945, memorandum by the Director of the Office of Special Political Affairs (Hiss), unsigned, author presumed to be Hiss.
[^19]: *FRUS, Malta and Yalta*, Hiss Collection: draft report to the Foreign Ministers by the Subcommittee on Arrangements for the United Nations Conference (editorial note citing Matthews's note of August 13, 1954, 640.0029/8-1354); memorandum of arguments against inclusion of the Soviet republics; draft invitation to the United Nations conference with penciled modifications in Hiss's handwriting; editorial note on the Foreign Ministers' meeting of February 11, 1945.
[^20]: *Documents of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, 1945*, Volume XI, Commission III, Security Council, fifth meeting, June 20, 1945, https://archive.org/details/documentsoftheun008818mbp
[^21]: Transcript of Record, second trial, testimony of John Foster Dulles (rebuttal for the government), cross-examination, trial transcript pp. 4483-4493, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss
[^22]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage* (1948), testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 645-646 (Carnegie election, office from February 1, 1947; Dulles as chairman of the board of trustees; "He first approached me."; Dulles urging, "And other members of the board of trustees.").
[^23]: Transcript of Record, vol. III (second trial), testimony of John W. Davis for the defendant, direct and cross-examination, trial transcript pp. 1926-1932, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam03hiss
[^24]: Transcript of Record, vol. V (second trial), testimony of James T. Shotwell for the defendant, direct, trial transcript pp. 4100-4114, including defendant's exhibits 6x1 to 6xN (actions of the trustees of December 13, 1948, the executive committee of February 17, 1949 and the board of May 5, 1949), https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss
[^25]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage* (1948), testimony of Alger Hiss, August 25, 1948, p. 1133, https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit
[^26]: Same hearings, testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 1130-1135, including the exchange with Representative Mundt at p. 1134 and Hiss's account of checking with Byrnes on "whether he thought the issue had been laid to rest."
[^27]: Transcript of Record, vol. V (second trial), testimony of John Foster Dulles, direct examination, trial transcript pp. 4474-4483, quoting Hiss's direct testimony at pp. 2649, 2652, 2688, 2692 and 2911 (vol. III-IV), https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss
[^28]: Transcript of Record, vol. IV (second trial), testimony of Alger Hiss on cross-examination, trial transcript pp. 2919-2925, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam04hiss
[^29]: *The Charlotte News*, December 13, 1948, news summary on the Carnegie Endowment trustees' action (digitized with editor's summary at https://wjcash.org/WJCash16/Charlotte.News.Articles/12-13-48.htm).
[^30]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Alger Hiss file, cross-reference summaries (Drew Pearson column of September 15, 1948; Washington Evening Star of August 5, 1948; Duggan; Massing), FOIA release at https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-xrefs-4
[^31]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, New York field office memoranda of September 22 and 28, 1949 (Assistant U.S. Attorney Murphy's informant; Carnegie Endowment leads), Alger Hiss file, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-NYC-36
[^32]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, answers to the questionnaire of the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations (Cox Committee), 1952, answer on the nominating committee for the president (election of Joseph E. Johnson on May 11, 1950), Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 ; Federal Bureau of Investigation, Joseph Esrey Johnson file (loyalty inquiry, 1951), FOIA release 1368175-0, https://archive.org/details/JosephEsreyJohnson
[^33]: Report of the Select Committee to Investigate Foundations and Other Comparable Organizations, as filed in the Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46
[^34]: *American Foundations and Their Fields*, vol. 6 (1948), World Peace Foundation entry, trustees for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1947, p. 121, https://archive.org/details/americanfoundati0000wilm
[^35]: Transcript of Record, vol. IV (second trial), testimony of Alger Hiss on redirect and recross, Government's Exhibit 60 (letter on the Carnegie Endowment letterhead, "Alger Hiss, President"), trial transcript pp. 3157-3163 and 3211-3212, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam04hiss
[^36]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage* (1948), testimony of Whittaker Chambers, p. 572, https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit
[^37]: Same hearings, testimony of Whittaker Chambers, p. 576.
[^38]: Same hearings, p. 988 (Chambers's identification; Hiss's invitation to repeat the charges outside the committee room).
[^39]: Same hearings, pp. 978-979 (Nixon, "Since some repartee goes on between these two people, I think Mr. Chambers should be sworn."; Nixon and Hiss on the dental work).
[^40]: *United States v. Hiss*, 185 F.2d 822 (2d Cir., December 7, 1950), opinion by Chase, Circuit Judge, Swan and Augustus N. Hand, Circuit Judges, text at https://static.case.law/f2d/185/cases/0822-01.json (Harvard Caselaw Access Project static files).
[^41]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973, "The History" (Baltimore libel action; production of the Baltimore documents on November 17, 1948; Hiss's concession as to the handwriting and the Woodstock typewriter).
[^42]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, New York field office, memorandum of A. H. Belmont, December 15, 1948, "Jay David Whittaker Chambers, was., Perjury, Internal Security - R, Espionage - R," file NY 65-14920, Alger Hiss file, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-NYC-2
[^43]: Carleton R. Bryant, "Hiss glad Russian disputes his guilt," *The Washington Times*, October 30, 1992, https://stuff.mit.edu/afs/net.mit.edu/user/tytso/usenet/americast/twt/news/259
[^44]: *United States v. Hiss*, 185 F.2d 822 (2d Cir. 1950), same opinion, discussion of the Woodstock typewriter, the corroboration standard, the concurrent sentences and the affirmance.
[^45]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, New York field office, memorandum of A. H. Belmont, May 18, 1949, on the call of May 17, 1949 from the Philadelphia office on the history of the Woodstock typewriter, file NY 65-14920, Alger Hiss file, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-NYC-28
[^46]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973, section "The Typewriter" (quoting *United States v. Hiss*, 107 F. Supp. 128, 134 (S.D.N.Y. 1952), aff'd, 201 F.2d 372 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 345 U.S. 942 (1953)).
[^47]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973, "The Trials."
[^48]: New York University Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, "Debevoise & Plimpton Records on Alger Hiss," TAM.674, finding aid, https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/tamwag/tam_674 (historical note and abstract).
[^49]: Harry S. Truman Library, "The President's News Conference," January 27, 1950, footnote on the sentence of January 25, 1950 and on the New York Times report of Acheson's remark, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/23/presidents-news-conference
[^50]: Transcript of Record, Second Circuit, vols. II to V, indexes of witnesses for the government and the defense (second trial).
[^51]: Transcript of Record, vol. II (second trial), testimony of Hede Massing for the government, direct examination, trial transcript pp. 1668-1679, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam02hiss
[^52]: Transcript of Record, vol. IV (second trial), testimony of Priscilla Hiss for the defendant, direct, trial transcript pp. 3356-3357, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam04hiss
[^53]: Transcript of Record, vol. IV (second trial), testimony of Alger Hiss on cross-examination, trial transcript pp. 3129-3130.
[^54]: Transcript of Record, vol. V (second trial), testimony of Henrikas Rabinavicius for the defendant, trial transcript pp. 3800-3807, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss
[^55]: Ethan Klingsberg, "Case Closed on Alger Hiss?," *The Nation*, November 8, 1993 (page "Noel Field (Klingsberg)," https://algerhiss.com/?p=875), on Maria Schmidt's findings in the Hungarian Interior Ministry files on Noel Field, Sam Tanenhaus's New York Times op-ed of October 15, 1993 and Commentary article.
[^56]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973, opening paragraphs (affirmance, 185 F.2d 822; cert. denied, 340 U.S. 948 (1951); three years of the five-year sentence served).
[^57]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973 (S.D.N.Y. July 15, 1982), Owen, District Judge, opinion and "Conclusion," https://static.case.law/f-supp/542/cases/0973-01.json
[^58]: National Security Agency, Venona release, decrypt of cable No. 1822 from Washington to Moscow, March 30, 1945, "KGB interviews GRU agent and net controller name ALES," annotation "ALES: Probably Alger HISS," https://archive.org/details/1945_30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent
[^59]: John Ehrman, "The Mystery of ALES: Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case," *Studies in Intelligence* 51, no. 4 (2007), https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/once-again-alger-hiss.pdf (Mark; Lowenthal, "Venona and Alger Hiss," *Intelligence and National Security* 15 (Autumn 2000), as cited at note 4; the 2005 release of the Russian text; Bird and Chervonnaya; Vassiliev's notes; Hobson).
[^60]: John Ehrman, review of G. Edward White, *Alger Hiss's Looking-Glass Wars* (Oxford University Press, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 48, no. 4, https://cia.gov/resources/csi/static/alger-hiss-lookingglass-wars.pdf
[^61]: Mark Kramer and Victor Navasky, "Mark Kramer Vs. Victor Navasky: Hiss & History," exchange of April 17 to 20, 2007, History News Network, https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/37819 (Volkogonov's letter of October 14, 1992; New York Times, December 17, 1992; Nezavisimaya gazeta, November 24, 1992; transcript of the Lowenthal interview of November 11, 1992).
[^62]: "Stalin Biographer Offers Latest Twist in Hiss Case; No Evidence Diplomat," *The Washington Post*, October 31, 1992, https://stuff.mit.edu/afs/net.mit.edu/user/tytso/usenet/americast/wpost/364
[^63]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, memorandum to the Assistant Attorney General, Criminal Division, April 1953, "Harvey Hollister Bundy, Miscellaneous Information Concerning," with the December 27, 1952 letter to Senator Joseph R. McCarthy and the *Union Banner* clipping, in the Alger Hiss file, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-Misc_Field-3.
[^64]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7 ; letter from the Central Intelligence Agency to McCarthy, July 22, 1953, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080014-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080014-6
[^65]: Michael Straight and Allen Weinstein, letters under the heading "Not a Recruiter," *The New York Review of Books*, December 18, 1997, https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1997/12/18/not-a-recruiter/

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10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry A. Kissinger.md
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@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ aliases:
- Heinz Alfred Kissinger
- Kissinger
created: 2026-05-14
updated: 2026-10-14
updated: 2026-10-26
category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags:
- KeyFigure
@ -81,13 +81,13 @@ relations:
with: "[[Kissinger Associates]]"
role: "co-founder with Brent Scowcroft"
start: 1982
fn: 63
fn: 68
- type: member_of
with: "[[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]]"
role: "international advisory board member"
start: 1985
end: 1991-06
fn: 63
fn: 68
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Richard Nixon]]"
role: "Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs"
@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ relations:
role: "consulting contract for Kissinger Associates, July 1986 to June 1988"
start: 1986-07-01
end: 1988-06-30
fn: 65
fn: 70
---
Henry Alfred Kissinger (1923 to 2023) was a German-born American political scientist and diplomat who served as [[United States Secretary of State]] and as National Security Advisor under Presidents [[Richard Nixon]] and [[Gerald R. Ford]]. [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that in the fall of 1967, while a [[Harvard University]] professor and consultant on [[Vietnam]] to the [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]] administration, Kissinger visited [[Tel Aviv]] to teach for a week at the Israeli Defense College, and that at the end of that course he went to [[William N. Dale]]'s office in the embassy and sent an urgent, top-secret message to the [[White House]] warning about [[Dimona]] and concluding that [[Israel]] was making nuclear warheads.[^1]
@ -262,101 +262,182 @@ The East Timor Truth Commission subsequently concluded that U.S. material suppor
The American response to the [[Cyprus]] crisis of July 1974 was handled through Washington Special Actions Group meetings and Nixon's telephone calls with Kissinger. In a conversation on July 17, 1974, Nixon and Kissinger discussed the European position that [[Makarios]] should be brought back to Cyprus and that the United States should press the Greeks to accept it.[^58] A Washington Special Actions Group meeting on July 20, 1974, discussed the evacuation of civilians from Cyprus and the positioning of the amphibious task force south of the island.[^59] In an April 29, 1975, memorandum to President Ford, Kissinger attributed the Greek request for military assistance in large part to the wish to recoup military losses "suffered during last summer's Cyprus crisis."[^60]
### China opening, 1971 to 1973
[[Winston Lord]], of the [[Lord family]] and a member of the National Security Council staff, is named in the FRUS record of the opening to Beijing. On April 17, 1971 Lord sent Kissinger a seven-page memorandum listing the major contacts between the United States and the People's Republic of China through Pakistan, Romania and other channels.[^61] On June 21, 1971 Kissinger, Lord and the Pakistani ambassador Agha Hilaly met at the White House, where Hilaly handed over two notes in the exchange that arranged the trip.[^62] Lord was one of the four Americans who met Premier Chou En-lai in Beijing on July 9, 1971, with Kissinger, John Holdridge and Richard Smyser, and Lord, Holdridge and Smyser prepared the transcripts.[^63] On October 21, 1971 Kissinger said of CIA agents, "Most write long, incomprehensible reports and don't make revolution," and added, "They are mostly from Yale and they don't have the people." Chou asked whether Lord was from Yale, and Kissinger answered, "Does he look like a revolutionary?"[^64] Lord, by then director of planning and coordination at the State Department, prepared the briefing papers for the Beijing trip of November 10 to 14, 1973.[^65]
### Israel and the 1973 War
Kissinger's Israeli contacts during the October 1973 war ran principally through Ambassador [[Simcha Dinitz]]. On October 8, 1973, Kissinger and Dinitz discussed Israeli aircraft losses, including a reference to the SAM-6 missiles, which were "very effective against our planes."[^61] On October 13, 1973, Kissinger told Dinitz, "We are going to do three separate things."[^62]
Kissinger's Israeli contacts during the October 1973 war ran principally through Ambassador [[Simcha Dinitz]]. On October 8, 1973, Kissinger and Dinitz discussed Israeli aircraft losses, including a reference to the SAM-6 missiles, which were "very effective against our planes."[^66] On October 13, 1973, Kissinger told Dinitz, "We are going to do three separate things."[^67]
### Kissinger Associates, Banca Nazionale del Lavoro and Iraq
Kissinger and Brent Scowcroft set up [[Kissinger Associates]] in 1982. Scowcroft served as vice chairman and head of the firm's Washington office until he became head of the National Security Council under President [[George H. W. Bush]] in January 1989.[^63] [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] was the firm's president.[^63]
Kissinger and Brent Scowcroft set up [[Kissinger Associates]] in 1982. Scowcroft served as vice chairman and head of the firm's Washington office until he became head of the National Security Council under President [[George H. W. Bush]] in January 1989.[^68] [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] was the firm's president.[^68]
The House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs and its chairman, [[Henry B. Gonzalez]], pursued the relationship between the firm and the [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]] during the lending of its [[Atlanta]] branch to [[Iraq]]. Gonzalez told the House that Kissinger was a paid member of the bank's advisory board for international policy between 1985 and June 1991, and that he received at least $10,000 for attending each meeting of the board.[^63] Gonzalez said that Kissinger's contract expired in the summer of 1991, more than four months after the date Kissinger had previously reported for his departure from the board.[^63] Gonzalez inserted into the House hearing record the minutes of the advisory board's meeting in [[Madrid]] on May 4 and 5, 1987, which quote Kissinger giving "the victory of Iran over Iraq at 55 percent" and stating that he would change that estimate.[^64]
The House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs and its chairman, [[Henry B. Gonzalez]], pursued the relationship between the firm and the [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]] during the lending of its [[Atlanta]] branch to [[Iraq]]. Gonzalez told the House that Kissinger was a paid member of the bank's advisory board for international policy between 1985 and June 1991, and that he received at least $10,000 for attending each meeting of the board.[^68] Gonzalez said that Kissinger's contract expired in the summer of 1991, more than four months after the date Kissinger had previously reported for his departure from the board.[^68] Gonzalez inserted into the House hearing record the minutes of the advisory board's meeting in [[Madrid]] on May 4 and 5, 1987, which quote Kissinger giving "the victory of Iran over Iraq at 55 percent" and stating that he would change that estimate.[^69]
[[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta branch manager, testified in 1993 that [[Wafai Dajani]] had told him in 1989 that Kissinger was "the architect of foreign policy in the United States." Drogoul also testified that "it became clear to us that the people at Kissinger and Associates were somehow assisting clients of Iraq in further developing business."[^64]
[[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta branch manager, testified in 1993 that [[Wafai Dajani]] had told him in 1989 that Kissinger was "the architect of foreign policy in the United States." Drogoul also testified that "it became clear to us that the people at Kissinger and Associates were somehow assisting clients of Iraq in further developing business."[^69]
The report of the Italian Senate's parliamentary commission of inquiry on the Atlanta branch of BNL, approved on April 22, 1992, states that BNL's executive committee decided in June 1986 to begin a consulting relationship with Kissinger Associates, under a two-year contract at $150,000 a year plus expenses that ran from July 1, 1986 to June 30, 1988; that five meetings took place between officers of the bank and of the firm, with Iraq not among the countries examined; and that Scowcroft attended as a representative of the firm and received no personal compensation, only travel and lodging expenses. The commission gave June 30, 1991 as the end of Kissinger's membership of BNL's international advisory committee under his own consulting contract, which provided $50,000 for the address at the dinner preceding the committee's annual meeting, and noted Gonzalez's statement that the membership continued to August 1991. It reported that Alan Stoga of Kissinger Associates took part in a June 1989 meeting in Baghdad between the US-Iraq Business Forum and Iraqi government officials, and listed among the firm's clients [[American Express]], [[Coca-Cola]], [[Anheuser-Busch]], [[H. J. Heinz]], [[Volvo]], [[Arco]], [[Hunt Oil]], Chase Manhattan Bank, [[American International Group]] and [[Freeport-McMoRan]].[^65]
The report of the Italian Senate's parliamentary commission of inquiry on the Atlanta branch of BNL, approved on April 22, 1992, states that BNL's executive committee decided in June 1986 to begin a consulting relationship with Kissinger Associates, under a two-year contract at $150,000 a year plus expenses that ran from July 1, 1986 to June 30, 1988; that five meetings took place between officers of the bank and of the firm, with Iraq not among the countries examined; and that Scowcroft attended as a representative of the firm and received no personal compensation, only travel and lodging expenses. The commission gave June 30, 1991 as the end of Kissinger's membership of BNL's international advisory committee under his own consulting contract, which provided $50,000 for the address at the dinner preceding the committee's annual meeting, and noted Gonzalez's statement that the membership continued to August 1991. It reported that Alan Stoga of Kissinger Associates took part in a June 1989 meeting in Baghdad between the US-Iraq Business Forum and Iraqi government officials, and listed among the firm's clients [[American Express]], [[Coca-Cola]], [[Anheuser-Busch]], [[H. J. Heinz]], [[Volvo]], [[Arco]], [[Hunt Oil]], Chase Manhattan Bank, [[American International Group]] and [[Freeport-McMoRan]].[^70]
Gonzalez also reported that Eagleburger was at a meeting between the bank's managers and Kissinger Associates in New York in 1987 or 1988, and that Kissinger had stated that Eagleburger did not handle the BNL account at the firm.[^63]
Gonzalez also reported that Eagleburger was at a meeting between the bank's managers and Kissinger Associates in New York in 1987 or 1988, and that Kissinger had stated that Eagleburger did not handle the BNL account at the firm.[^68]
The Senate Foreign Relations Committee's December 1992 report on [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] by [[John Kerry]] and [[Hank Brown]] devotes its chapter 20 to Kissinger Associates. It states that from the fall of 1986 through early 1989 BCCI initiated contacts with the firm, which then had five partners (Kissinger, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Alan Stoga and T. Jefferson Cunningham III); that Stoga and a retired Brazilian ambassador working as a Kissinger Associates consultant, Sergio Correa da Costa, explored ways to link BCCI's banks with the firm's services; and that the discussions "ended in early 1989 at Henry Kissinger's personal insistence," after which Kissinger Associates referred BCCI to its director William D. Rogers and the law firm [[Arnold & Porter]]. Letters of November 3, 1986 set da Costa's terms at $40,000 a year plus 10 to 20 percent of fees on transactions he arranged, and da Costa told Kissinger in them that he would also work for BCCI. In the summer of 1987 da Costa wrote to the firm about "that amusing luncheon with the BNL crowd." On September 20, 1987 da Costa invited Kissinger to a dinner at the plantation of the BCCI shareholder [[Ghaith Pharaon]], suggesting Pharaon as a client; the report states that Kissinger declined the invitation.[^66]
The Senate Foreign Relations Committee's December 1992 report on [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] by [[John Kerry]] and [[Hank Brown]] devotes its chapter 20 to Kissinger Associates. It states that from the fall of 1986 through early 1989 BCCI initiated contacts with the firm, which then had five partners (Kissinger, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Alan Stoga and T. Jefferson Cunningham III); that Stoga and a retired Brazilian ambassador working as a Kissinger Associates consultant, Sergio Correa da Costa, explored ways to link BCCI's banks with the firm's services; and that the discussions "ended in early 1989 at Henry Kissinger's personal insistence," after which Kissinger Associates referred BCCI to its director William D. Rogers and the law firm [[Arnold & Porter]]. Letters of November 3, 1986 set da Costa's terms at $40,000 a year plus 10 to 20 percent of fees on transactions he arranged, and da Costa told Kissinger in them that he would also work for BCCI. In the summer of 1987 da Costa wrote to the firm about "that amusing luncheon with the BNL crowd." On September 20, 1987 da Costa invited Kissinger to a dinner at the plantation of the BCCI shareholder [[Ghaith Pharaon]], suggesting Pharaon as a client; the report states that Kissinger declined the invitation.[^71]
In a letter of January 30, 1992 to Kerry, the firm's attorney [[Lloyd Cutler]] wrote that Kissinger Associates "have never represented or provided any services for BCCI, ICIC, or any BCCI shareholder." The committee's electronic text, published by the Federation of American Scientists, adds the comment that the account "is not untrue" but "does fail to characterize the full extent of the contacts"; the Government Printing Office print omits that comment, and both editions record that the firm declined to provide its client list to the subcommittee. The printed chapter says the contacts "extended over a period of 2 years" and adds a paragraph stating that "in each case reviewed by the Subcommittee, Kissinger declined the overtures."[^66] A note by Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists on the copy of the report published by that organization states that Hank Brown, "reportedly acting at the behest of Henry Kissinger," pressed after its release for the deletion of a few passages, particularly in chapter 20, so that the Government Printing Office edition differs slightly from the committee's softcopy.[^66]
In a letter of January 30, 1992 to Kerry, the firm's attorney [[Lloyd Cutler]] wrote that Kissinger Associates "have never represented or provided any services for BCCI, ICIC, or any BCCI shareholder." The committee's electronic text, published by the Federation of American Scientists, adds the comment that the account "is not untrue" but "does fail to characterize the full extent of the contacts"; the Government Printing Office print omits that comment, and both editions record that the firm declined to provide its client list to the subcommittee. The printed chapter says the contacts "extended over a period of 2 years" and adds a paragraph stating that "in each case reviewed by the Subcommittee, Kissinger declined the overtures."[^71] A note by Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists on the copy of the report published by that organization states that Hank Brown, "reportedly acting at the behest of Henry Kissinger," pressed after its release for the deletion of a few passages, particularly in chapter 20, so that the Government Printing Office edition differs slightly from the committee's softcopy.[^71]
### Telephone Transcripts
Beginning in January 1969, Kissinger had his telephone conversations transcribed for his office files, a practice that continued through his tenure as Secretary of State. On October 29, 1976, while still Secretary of State, Kissinger arranged to move the transcripts as personal papers from his State Department office to Nelson Rockefeller's estate in [[Tarrytown, New York]], before arranging a donation to the Library of Congress under terms excluding public access. State Department lawyers advised in 1975 and 1976 that the transcripts were not subject to the Freedom of Information Act as personal property, despite having been created by government secretaries using government resources. William Safire's January 14, 1976, *New York Times* column, "The Dead-Key Scrolls," first brought the issue to public attention. The National Security Archive began corresponding with the Archivist of the United States, [[John W. Carlin]], about recovering the transcripts in January 1999. A complaint written by its pro bono counsel at [[Mayer Brown]] was presented to the Archivist and the Secretary of State on January 25, 2001, and its attorneys wrote again to the State Department, the National Archives and the Department of Justice on April 25, 2001. The government recovered copies of the transcripts to the National Archives and State Department in 2001, and a State Department statement of August 8, 2001 credited the Archive with prompting the recovery. On May 26, 2004 the National Archives released about 20,000 pages of the transcripts, covering Kissinger's service from 1969 to August 1974.[^67] These materials are documented in NSAEBB Briefing Book No. 852.
Beginning in January 1969, Kissinger had his telephone conversations transcribed for his office files, a practice that continued through his tenure as Secretary of State. On October 29, 1976, while still Secretary of State, Kissinger arranged to move the transcripts as personal papers from his State Department office to Nelson Rockefeller's estate in [[Tarrytown, New York]], before arranging a donation to the Library of Congress under terms excluding public access. State Department lawyers advised in 1975 and 1976 that the transcripts were not subject to the Freedom of Information Act as personal property, despite having been created by government secretaries using government resources. William Safire's January 14, 1976, *New York Times* column, "The Dead-Key Scrolls," first brought the issue to public attention. The National Security Archive began corresponding with the Archivist of the United States, [[John W. Carlin]], about recovering the transcripts in January 1999. A complaint written by its pro bono counsel at [[Mayer Brown]] was presented to the Archivist and the Secretary of State on January 25, 2001, and its attorneys wrote again to the State Department, the National Archives and the Department of Justice on April 25, 2001. The government recovered copies of the transcripts to the National Archives and State Department in 2001, and a State Department statement of August 8, 2001 credited the Archive with prompting the recovery. On May 26, 2004 the National Archives released about 20,000 pages of the transcripts, covering Kissinger's service from 1969 to August 1974.[^72] These materials are documented in NSAEBB Briefing Book No. 852.
### Commission Chairmanship, 2002
On November 27, 2002, President [[George W. Bush]] announced his choice of Kissinger to chair the independent commission on the September 11 attacks: "my choice for commission chairman, Dr. Henry Kissinger."[^68]
On November 27, 2002, President [[George W. Bush]] announced his choice of Kissinger to chair the independent commission on the September 11 attacks: "my choice for commission chairman, Dr. Henry Kissinger."[^73]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991, chapter 12.
[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991, chapter 16.
[^3]: Nobel Prize Outreach, "Henry Kissinger: Biographical," Nobelprize.org, https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1973/kissinger/biographical/. Gives the birth at Fuerth on May 27, 1923, arrival in the United States in 1938, naturalization on June 19, 1943, the Harvard degrees of 1950, 1952 and 1954, membership of the Harvard faculty from 1954 until 1971, the Associate Directorship of the Center for International Affairs from 1957 to 1960, direction of the Harvard International Seminar from 1951 to 1971, study directorship for the Council on Foreign Relations from 1955 to 1956, and the founding of Kissinger Associates.
[^4]: Rockefeller Archive Center, Nelson A. Rockefeller personal papers, description of the folder for Henry A. Kissinger's Spring 1980 interview, as quoted in the account of Daniel Bessner of the Quantico II panel.
[^5]: *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports*. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961. Report of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project, which Kissinger directed.
[^6]: National Security Archive, "The Kissinger Telcons," Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Thomas Blanton and William Burr, posted May 26, 2004, telephone conversation of Kissinger and David Rockefeller, March 13, 1972, 11:12 a.m. (Nixon Presidential Materials Project, NSC Files, HAK Office Files, Box 87). https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/.
[^7]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Alfred Kissinger," https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/kissinger-henry-alfred. Identifies him as the 56th Secretary of State, 1973 to 1977, while continuing as Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs.
[^8]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume VI, Vietnam, January 1969 to July 1970, document 39, Memorandum for the Record, Washington, March 15, 1969, "March 16 Rocket Attack on Saigon." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v06/d39.
[^9]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume VI, document 40, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, March 16, 1969, "Breakfast Plan." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v06/d40.
[^10]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume VI, document 41, Editorial Note, quoting Kissinger's remarks after the first raid. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v06/d41.
[^11]: *Halperin v. Kissinger*, 606 F.2d 1192 (D.C. Cir. 1979). Text from the Caselaw Access Project (static.case.law, F.2d volume 606, case 1192). The opinion recounts the April 25, 1969 meeting, the events of May 9 and 10, 1969, the procedures worked out by FBI officials and Colonel Haig, the logs kept in special files where Kissinger and Haig reviewed them, the September 15, 1969 request, the continuation of the tap to February 10, 1971, and the 21 months of the wiretap.
[^12]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans*, Book II, Final Report, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), PDF pages 215-216 (the "seventeen" wiretaps, May 1969 to February 1971, Nixon's "gobs of material" remark, and the finding that no leak was identified), PDF pages 222-223 (the authorization and duration of the taps), and PDF page 244, note 2 (taps requested by Kissinger or Haig). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_II.pdf.
[^13]: Report to the President by the Commission on CIA Activities Within the United States (Rockefeller Commission), June 1975, introduction (the commission "heard 51 witnesses," including Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger) and Chapter 11, "Operation CHAOS" (Helms's covering memorandum of February 18, 1969, delivering the first version of "Restless Youth" to Kissinger). https://archive.org/details/Rockefeller-commission-report-to-the-president-by-the-commission-on-cia-activiti.
[^14]: *Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans*, Book II, S. Rept. 94-755, PDF page 162, on the CIA's student-dissent survey and the letter from Richard Helms to Henry Kissinger, February 18, 1969.
[^15]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger and Chile: The Declassified Record on Regime Change," Electronic Briefing Book No. 437, document 1, Helms-Kissinger telephone conversation, September 12, 1970, 12:00 noon. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB437/.
[^16]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969-1973, document 88, Transcript of a Telephone Conversation Between Secretary of State Rogers and the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), Washington, September 14, 1970, 12:15 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d88.
[^17]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 93, Editorial Note, quoting Helms's notes of the September 15, 1970 meeting and Kissinger's August 12, 1975 testimony before the Church Committee. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d93.
[^18]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger and Chile," EBB No. 437, document 3, handwritten notes of the September 15, 1970 meeting at the White House, with Mitchell and Kissinger listed as present.
[^19]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969-1973, document 94, Memorandum for the Record, Washington, September 16, 1970, "Genesis of Project FUBELT" (William V. Broe, Chief, Western Hemisphere Division). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d94.
[^20]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973*, Staff Report, December 1975, PDF page 37 ("Richard Helms' notes from his September 15, 1970, meeting with President Nixon, the meeting which initiated Track II, contain the indication: 'Make the economy scream.'"). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94chile.pdf.
[^21]: Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973, PDF page 29 (Track II "was initiated by President Nixon on September 15"), and PDF page 14 (the "no doubt" finding and the conflicting testimony).
[^22]: *Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973*, PDF page 57, on the operating restrictions placed on Track II.
[^23]: *Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973*, PDF page 62, chronology entry for President Nixon's instruction to CIA Director Helms.
[^24]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 152, Memorandum of Conversation, Washington, October 15, 1970 (Kissinger, Karamessines and Haig present; Central Intelligence Agency, Job 80-000012A, Chile Task Force Files). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d152.
[^25]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 153, Transcript of a Telephone Conversation Between President Nixon and the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), Washington, October 15, 1970. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d153.
[^26]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 162, Briefing Notes Prepared in the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 23, 1970, "Track II." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d162.
[^27]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 168, Briefing Notes Prepared in the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 28, 1970, "Recent Developments: Track II." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d168.
[^28]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 172, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, November 5, 1970, "NSC Meeting, November 6, Chile." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d172.
[^29]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger and Chile," EBB No. 437, document 7, Kissinger-Nixon telephone conversation, September 16, 1973.
[^30]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger and Chile," EBB No. 437, document 10, Memorandum of Conversation, Santiago, June 8, 1976, noon (Gerald R. Ford Library copy), participants and Kissinger's statement.
[^31]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 238, Memorandum From the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs (Shlaudeman) to Secretary of State Kissinger, Washington, August 3, 1976. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d238.
[^32]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, Documents on South America, 1973-1976, document 241, Telegram 209192 From the Department of State to the Embassies in Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, and Bolivia, Washington, August 23, 1976. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d241.
[^33]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 242, Telegram 8210 From the Embassy in Chile to the Department of State, Santiago, August 24, 1976, "Subject: Operation Condor" (signed Popper). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d242.
[^34]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger Blocked Demarche on International Assassinations to Condor States," Electronic Briefing Book No. 312, edited by Peter Kornbluh, posted April 10, 2010, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB312/index.htm, with document 1 (ARA memorandum of August 30, 1976, "Operation Condor," released in part under FOIA) and document 2 (SECTO 27128, Lusaka, September 16, 1976, Department of State, released 2004 on 25-year review; the cable text is in capitals and is quoted in lowercase). The Siracusa account is the Archive's description of the August 30 memorandum.
[^35]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, Documents on South America, 1973-1976, document 245, Telegram 4526 From the Embassy in Costa Rica to the Department of State, San José, September 20, 1976, "For ARA-Luers from Shlaudeman" (also National Security Archive EBB No. 312, document 3). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d245.
[^36]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 246, Memorandum From Mary Brownell and Dan Mozeleski of the National Security Council Staff to Les Janka, Washington, September 21, 1976. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d246.
[^37]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 249, Memorandum From the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs (Shlaudeman) to Secretary of State Kissinger, Washington, October 8, 1976, "Operation Condor." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d249.
[^38]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 48, Memorandum of Conversation, Santiago, June 10, 1976, 8:10 to 9:15 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d48.
[^39]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 56, Memorandum of Conversation, New York, October 7, 1976, "Secretary's Meeting with Argentine Foreign Minister Guzzetti." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d56.
[^40]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 57, Telegram 6871 From the Embassy in Argentina to the Department of State, Buenos Aires, October 19, 1976, "Foreign Minister Guzzetti Euphoric Over Visit to United States" (signed Hill). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d57.
[^41]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-7, Documents on South Asia, 1969-1972, document 125, Telegram 959 From the Consulate General in Dacca to the Department of State, Dacca, March 28, 1971, "Selective Genocide." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve07/d125.
[^42]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XI, South Asia Crisis, 1971, document 19, Telegram 1138 From the Consulate General in Dacca to the Department of State, Dacca, April 6, 1971, 0730Z. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v11/d19.
[^43]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-7, document 130, Telegram 1249 From the Consulate General in Dacca to the Department of State, Dacca, April 10, 1971, "Specific Areas of Dissent With Current U.S. Policy Toward East Pakistan." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve07/d130.
[^44]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XI, document 36, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, April 28, 1971, "Policy Options Toward Pakistan," with the editorial note on Nixon's handwritten annotation (Library of Congress, Kissinger Papers, Box CL 210). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v11/d36.
[^45]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-4, Documents on Iran and Iraq, 1969-1972, document 200, Memorandum of Conversation, Tehran, May 30, 1972, 5:35 to 6:35 p.m. (participants: the Shah, the President, Kissinger). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d200.
[^46]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-4, document 315, Memorandum From the Chief of the Near East and South Asia Division, CIA (Waller) to the Director of Central Intelligence (Helms), Washington, June 12, 1972. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d315.
[^47]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-4, document 313, Memorandum From Harold Saunders of the National Security Staff to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), Washington, June 7, 1972, "Message from Shah on Kurds." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d313.
[^48]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-4, document 321, Memorandum From the President's Deputy Assistant for National Security Affairs (Haig) to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), Washington, July 28, 1972, "Kurdish Problem," attaching Helms's memorandum of July 18, 1972. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d321.
[^49]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXVII, Iran; Iraq, 1973-1976, document 233, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, September 6, 1973, "Increased Assistance to the Kurds." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v27/d233.
[^50]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXVII, document 246, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, April 11, 1974, "Further Support for the Kurds in Iraq." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v27/d246.
[^51]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXVII, document 254, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, June 24, 1974, "Fiscal Year 1975 Support for the Kurds." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v27/d254.
[^52]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXVII, document 281, Backchannel Message From the President's Deputy Assistant for National Security Affairs (Scowcroft) to the Ambassador to Iran (Helms), Washington, March 16, 1975, 1336Z, WH50453. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v27/d281.
[^53]: *FRUS 1977-1980*, Volume XI, Part 1, Iran: Hostage Crisis, November 1979-September 1980, document 2, Summary of Conclusions of a Special Coordination Committee Meeting, Washington, November 5, 1979. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d2.
[^54]: *FRUS 1977-1980*, Volume XI, Part 1, document 30, Editorial Note (Bani-Sadr announcement of November 14, 1979; John Kifner, "Iran Defends Move To Withdraw Funds," *New York Times*, November 15, 1979). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d30.
[^55]: *FRUS 1977-1980*, Volume XI, Part 1, document 60, Memorandum From Secretary of State Vance to President Carter, Washington, November 26, 1979. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d60.
[^56]: *FRUS 1977-1980*, Volume XI, Part 1, document 144, Memorandum From the White House Chief of Staff (Jordan) to President Carter, Secretary of State Vance, and the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Brzezinski), undated, with Jordan's summary of notes. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d144.
[^57]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-12, Documents on East and Southeast Asia, 1973-1976, document 141, Telegram 14946 From the Embassy in Indonesia to the Department of State, Jakarta, December 6, 1975, 1000Z (the telegram header reads "JAKARTA 14945" and "PRIORITY 1579"), "Ford-Suharto Meeting." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve12/d141. The telegram text is in capitals; quotations are rendered in lowercase.
[^58]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXX, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, 1973-1976, document 93, Transcript of a Telephone Conversation Between President Nixon and Secretary of State Kissinger, Washington, July 17, 1974, 4:30 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v30/d93.
[^59]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXX, document 105, Minutes of Meeting of the Washington Special Actions Group, Washington, July 20, 1974, "Cyprus." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v30/d105.
[^60]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXX, document 46, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Ford, Washington, April 29, 1975. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v30/d46.
[^61]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXV, Arab-Israeli Crisis and War, 1973, document 126, Transcript of Telephone Conversation Between Secretary of State Kissinger and the Israeli Ambassador (Dinitz), Washington, October 8, 1973, 1:14 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v25/d126.
[^62]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXV, document 168, Transcript of Telephone Conversation Between Secretary of State Kissinger and the Israeli Ambassador (Dinitz), Washington, October 13, 1973, 1:03 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v25/d168.
[^63]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm.
[^64]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro*, Serial No. 103-95, hearing of November 9, 1993, testimony of Christopher P. Drogoul, with the Madrid advisory board minutes inserted into the record by Chairman Gonzalez. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit.
[^65]: Senato della Repubblica, X Legislatura, Doc. XXII-bis n. 4, Allegato, Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul caso della filiale di Atlanta della Banca Nazionale del Lavoro e sue connessioni, Relazione conclusiva approvata il 22 aprile 1992, schede di documentazione 30 ("La società Kissinger Associates. Rapporti con la Banca Nazionale del Lavoro") and 31 ("Scowcroft"), pp. 188-189, drawing on BNL document 158 (the consulting contract and renewals) and document 428 (transcript of a CBS interview with Kissinger, March 29, 1992). https://www.senato.it/application/xmanager/projects/leg18/file/DOC%20XXII%20bis%20n.%204%20Allegato.pdf.
[^66]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *The BCCI Affair*, report by Senator John Kerry and Senator Hank Brown, S. Prt. 102-140, December 1992, chapter 20, "BCCI and Kissinger Associates," footnote 1 (Cutler letter) and text; the FAS note appears on the index page of the copy. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/20kiss.htm and https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/index.html.
[^67]: National Security Archive, "The Kissinger Telcons," Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Thomas Blanton and William Burr, posted May 26, 2004, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/. Describes the release on May 26, 2004 of approximately 20,000 declassified pages (10 cubic feet) spanning 1969 to August 1974.
[^68]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "President Names Henry Kissinger Chairman of Commission," November 27, 2002. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/11/20021127-1.html.
[^61]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, China, 1969-1972, Document 20, editorial note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d20
[^62]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 135, editorial note on the June 21, 1971 White House meeting. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d135
[^63]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 139, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, July 9, 1971, and source note on the transcripts. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d139
[^64]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 162, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, October 21, 1971. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d162
[^65]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVIII, China, 1973-1976, Document 55, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, November 10, 1973, and headnote on the briefing papers. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v18/d55
[^66]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXV, Arab-Israeli Crisis and War, 1973, document 126, Transcript of Telephone Conversation Between Secretary of State Kissinger and the Israeli Ambassador (Dinitz), Washington, October 8, 1973, 1:14 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v25/d126.
[^67]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXV, document 168, Transcript of Telephone Conversation Between Secretary of State Kissinger and the Israeli Ambassador (Dinitz), Washington, October 13, 1973, 1:03 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v25/d168.
[^68]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm.
[^69]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro*, Serial No. 103-95, hearing of November 9, 1993, testimony of Christopher P. Drogoul, with the Madrid advisory board minutes inserted into the record by Chairman Gonzalez. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit.
[^70]: Senato della Repubblica, X Legislatura, Doc. XXII-bis n. 4, Allegato, Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul caso della filiale di Atlanta della Banca Nazionale del Lavoro e sue connessioni, Relazione conclusiva approvata il 22 aprile 1992, schede di documentazione 30 ("La società Kissinger Associates. Rapporti con la Banca Nazionale del Lavoro") and 31 ("Scowcroft"), pp. 188-189, drawing on BNL document 158 (the consulting contract and renewals) and document 428 (transcript of a CBS interview with Kissinger, March 29, 1992). https://www.senato.it/application/xmanager/projects/leg18/file/DOC%20XXII%20bis%20n.%204%20Allegato.pdf.
[^71]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *The BCCI Affair*, report by Senator John Kerry and Senator Hank Brown, S. Prt. 102-140, December 1992, chapter 20, "BCCI and Kissinger Associates," footnote 1 (Cutler letter) and text; the FAS note appears on the index page of the copy. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/20kiss.htm and https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/index.html.
[^72]: National Security Archive, "The Kissinger Telcons," Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Thomas Blanton and William Burr, posted May 26, 2004, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/. Describes the release on May 26, 2004 of approximately 20,000 declassified pages (10 cubic feet) spanning 1969 to August 1974.
[^73]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "President Names Henry Kissinger Chairman of Commission," November 27, 2002. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/11/20021127-1.html.

4
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry Luce.md
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@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ He entered Yale in 1916 and served as managing editor of the [[Yale Daily News]]
### Skull and Bones
The Harvard Crimson printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15, 1919, reporting the men elected to the senior societies at Yale in that year's tap day. The Skull and Bones list read: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, Harry P. Davison, Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls.[^3] The name index to [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 study of the society lists the class of 1920 with "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^2]
The Harvard Crimson printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15, 1919, reporting the men elected to the senior societies at Yale in that year's tap day. The Skull and Bones list read: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, [[Henry P. Davison Jr.|Harry P. Davison]], Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls.[^3] The name index to [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 study of the society lists the class of 1920 with "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^2]
Sutton's section on communications states that "There has been a significant penetration into communications," and gives as its first example "Henry Luce of Time-Life is in The Order."[^4] In 1977 [[Ron Rosenbaum]] named Luce among the society's members in an article in [[Esquire]]. Rosenbaum wrote of Bones reunions: "Where else can you hear Archibald MacLeish take on Henry Luce in a soul-versus-capital debate with no holds barred?"[^5]
@ -164,7 +164,7 @@ A review board letter of May 1, 1995 to [[E. Gabriel Perle]], a former general c
### LSD and the Luce magazines
The first Time article on LSD, "Dream Stuff," ran in 1954 and reported on the drug as an adjunct to psychotherapy. In May 1957 Life published R. Gordon Wasson's account of a mushroom ceremony in Mexico in its Great Adventure series, a seventeen-page spread with color photographs. [[Martin A. Lee]] and [[Bruce Shlain]] wrote in their 1985 book [[Acid Dreams]] that Wasson was then a vice president of [[J. P. Morgan and Company]].[^38][^39]
The first Time article on LSD, "Dream Stuff," ran in 1954 and reported on the drug as an adjunct to psychotherapy. In May 1957 Life published R. Gordon Wasson's account of a mushroom ceremony in Mexico in its Great Adventure series, a seventeen-page spread with color photographs. [[Martin A. Lee]] and [[Bruce Shlain]] wrote in their 1985 book [[Acid Dreams]] that Wasson was then a vice president of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan and Company]].[^38][^39]
Lee and Shlain wrote that Luce "turned on a half-dozen times in the late 1950s and early 1960s under the supervision of Dr. Sidney Cohen," a Los Angeles psychiatrist attached to UCLA and the Veterans Hospital, and that Cohen also gave the drug to Clare Boothe Luce. Their notes cite W. A. Swanberg's biography Luce and His Empire (p. 463) and Wilfred Sheed's Clare Boothe Luce (p. 125) for the count.[^38] Jack Shafer wrote in Slate that [[Alan Brinkley]]'s biography of Luce limits the discussion to about three pages and says Henry took the drug once or perhaps twice, against Clare's multiple trips.[^39]

287
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/J. P. Morgan.md Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,287 @@
---
aliases:
- John Pierpont Morgan
- J. Pierpont Morgan
- Pierpont Morgan
category: "Business & Finance"
tags:
- Person
- JPMorganAndCompany
- DrexelMorgan
- MoneyTrust
- PujoCommittee
- UnitedStatesSteel
- NorthernSecurities
- TennesseeCoal
- GoldSyndicate
- HallCarbines
- PierpontFamily
- PeabodyLondon
- PeabodyEducationFund
- MetropolitanMuseum
- SkullAndBones
- HenryPDavison
- FTrubeeDavison
summary: "Senior member of J. P. Morgan & Co. who lent $20,000 on the Hall carbines in 1861, managed the 1895 gold syndicate and told the Pujo subcommittee in 1912 \"the first thing is character.\""
born: 1837-04-17
died: 1913-03-31
location: "New York, New York"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[J. P. Morgan & Co.]]"
start: 1895
role: "senior member of the New York house; confirmed in Pujo testimony of December 18, 1912"
fn: 12
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Anthony J. Drexel]]"
role: "co-appellant with members of the Drexel family as the firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co., New York, in the 1886 Supreme Court record"
fn: 9
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Henry P. Davison]]"
start: 1909
role: "partner in the New York house; Davison testified that he became a member of the firm on January 1, 1909, the family finding aid calls him a senior partner from 1909, and the New York Times obituary of May 7, 1922 says Morgan invited him to become a partner in late 1908"
fn: 65
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Thomas W. Lamont]]"
role: "partner in the firm; confirmed in Pujo testimony of December 19, 1912"
fn: 59
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Charles Steele]]"
role: "partner in the firm; Steele confirmed his partnership before the Pujo subcommittee"
fn: 58
- type: partner_of
with: "[[George W. Perkins]]"
role: "member of the firm at the Hotel Manhattan conference of October 22, 1907, according to Cortelyou's testimony before the Pujo subcommittee"
fn: 60
- type: partner_of
with: "[[J. P. Morgan Jr.]]"
role: "son; named among the partners of the New York house in Pujo testimony of December 18, 1912"
fn: 11
- type: relative_of
with: "[[J. P. Morgan Jr.]]"
role: "father; residuary legatee under the will of January 4, 1913"
fn: 72
- type: subject_of
with: "[[Pujo Committee]]"
start: 1912-12-18
role: "testified before the House subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency on December 18 and 19, 1912"
fn: 12
- type: subject_of
with: "[[Northern Securities Company]]"
role: "named individual defendant in the United States suit decided by the Supreme Court on March 14, 1904"
fn: 49
- type: head_of
with: "[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]"
start: 1904
end: 1913
role: "elected president in 1904 after becoming a trustee in 1889"
fn: 66
- type: member_of
with: "[[Peabody Education Fund]]"
start: 1893
end: 1899
role: "trustee and treasurer, re-elected at the annual meetings from 1893 to 1899"
fn: 43
- type: relative_of
with: "[[John Pierpont]]"
role: "maternal grandfather; his daughter Juliet Pierpont was Morgan's mother"
fn: 4
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Junius Spencer Morgan]]"
role: "father; married Juliet Pierpont on May 2, 1836"
fn: 4
- type: relative_of
with: "[[James Pierpont]]"
role: "descendant of the Yale founder through the Pierpont line"
fn: 3
---
John Pierpont Morgan (April 17, 1837 to March 31, 1913) was the senior member of the New York banking house of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]], a partnership with allied houses in [[London]], [[Paris]] and [[Philadelphia]]. The record places him in the Hall carbine loan of 1861, the gold syndicate of 1895, the syndicate that financed the [[United States Steel Corporation]] in 1901, the [[Northern Securities Company]] suit, the Tennessee Coal and Iron purchase of 1907 and the [[Pujo Committee]] hearings of December 1912. He died at [[Rome]] on March 31, 1913.[^1][^2]
### Pierpont descent
Morgan's mother was [[Juliet Pierpont]], a daughter of Rev. [[John Pierpont]], minister of [[Hollis Street Church]] in [[Boston]] and a poet. The 1928 genealogy printed by the poet's great-grandson, [[James Allen Crosby]], traces the line back to [[James Pierpont]], born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1659, who graduated from [[Harvard University]] in 1681, settled at New Haven in 1685, and is described in the genealogy as "one of the founders of Yale College." James Pierpont's grandson James Pierpont 3d married Elizabeth Collins in 1782, and their son was the poet, born at Litchfield on April 6, 1785.[^3]
The genealogy records that Juliet Pierpont, born July 30, 1816, married [[Junius Spencer Morgan]] on May 2, 1836, and identifies him as "of Hartford, Conn., but later associated with the Banking-house of Peabody & Morgan of London, England." John Pierpont Morgan was born April 17, 1837. He married [[Amelia Sturges]] in 1861, who died in February 1862, and [[Frances Louisa Tracy]] in 1865.[^4]
The genealogy's entry on Morgan calls him "America's leading financier of International fame" and lists his houses as "J. P. Morgan & Co., of New York, Drexel, Morgan & Co. of Philadelphia, Morgan, Grenfeld & Co. of London, Morgan, Harjes & Co. of Paris."[^5]
### London and George Peabody
Junius Spencer Morgan was associated with the London house of [[George Peabody]], the American merchant and banker. A speaker at the memorial meeting of the [[Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York]] on April 3, 1913 said that Junius Morgan became "a partner with, and successor to, George Peabody, and, like him, one of the noblest and grandest merchants and bankers of London."[^6] An 1884 Supreme Court caption names "Junius S. Morgan and Walter H. Burns, copartners as J. S. Morgan & Company" in a case against the United States.[^7]
The same memorial recorded two details of Morgan's early career. One speaker described him as "a clerk in the office, I believe, of Duncan, Sherman & Company." Another gave his "first entrance into the banking house" as 1857.[^8]
### Drexel, Morgan and J. P. Morgan & Company
In 1886 the complainants in a suit over the will of [[Robert Berney]], who died at Paris, were identified in the record as "the firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co., bankers at the City of New York." The appellants in the Supreme Court appeal included "John Pierpont Morgan" and "J. Hood Wright," with [[Anthony J. Drexel]] (printed "Anthony D. Drexel" in the caption) and other members of the Drexel family.[^9] In December 1912 Morgan was asked about the Philadelphia house, [[Drexel & Company]]. He answered: "It is the same house. There is no difference. It is one partnership. It only has a different name, owning to my desire to keep Mr. Drexel's name in Philadelphia."[^10]
Morgan read the names of the partners of the New York house into the record, and he said that the firm was a partner, as a firm, in the London and Paris houses. The names he read were "J. P. Morgan, E. T. Stotesbury, Charles Steele, J. P. Morgan, jr., Henry P. Davison, Arthur E. Newbold, William Pierce Hamilton, William H. Porter, Thomas W. Lamont, Horatio G. Lloyd, and Temple Bowdoin."[^11] Asked whether he was "senior member of the partnership or firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., bankers, of New York City," he answered, "I am, sir."[^12] Davison testified in January 1913 that he was "a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co." since "the 1st of January, 1909."[^13] The New York Times obituary of Davison, dated May 7, 1922, says that Morgan invited him to become a partner in late 1908.[^14]
On the second day of his examination he estimated the deposits of the New York house at "one hundred millions," of which a statement already furnished showed more than $81,000,000 held for seventy-three interstate corporations. Asked whether he or any member of his firm sat as a director in the corporations that deposited with the house, he answered, "With some of them."[^15] On the New Haven railroad, he said the firm had "financial arrangements with them, but nothing formal" before the written agency, and that he thought the firm had been its financial agents.[^16]
### The 1861 Hall carbine transaction
The first report of the House select committee on the contracts of the government, presented by Representative [[Elihu B. Washburne]] as House Report No. 2 of the 37th Congress, second session, devotes a section to "The purchase of the Hall carbines." The committee had been appointed in July 1861 and its members included [[Charles H. Van Wyck]], [[William S. Holman]], [[Reuben E. Fenton]], [[Henry L. Dawes]] and [[William G. Steele]]. The report states the sequence: in June 1861 [[Arthur M. Eastman]] of [[Manchester, New Hampshire]], bought 5,400 Hall's carbines from the Ordnance Bureau at $3.50 each; after a slight alteration costing from 75 cents to $1.25 an arm, Eastman sold 5,000 to [[Simon Stevens]] at $12.50; Stevens sold the lot to Major General [[John C. Frémont]] at $22.[^17]
The report names Morgan as the person who held the arms. In the committee's words, "The arms were placed under the control of J. Pierpont Morgan to secure him the payment of $20,000 he had advanced to Stevens."[^18] Stevens testified before the committee in New York. Asked "Of whom did you procure those arms?" he answered, "I got them from J. Pierpont Morgan, to send to General Fremont." Asked how the arms went into Morgan's hands, he said, "They were placed in his hands as collateral security for money loaned upon them," the money having been loaned to him. Asked what interest Morgan had in the sale, he answered that Morgan "had no interest in the sale of the carbines to General Fremont other than that he was to be refunded the $20,000 borrowed from him, with interest, and to be paid for his services and expenses in attending to the sale and collection of the money as trustee for all parties concerned." Stevens declined to state the amount of that compensation, and said that [[Morris Ketchum]]'s banking house, Ketchum, Sons & Co., held a draft he had given Eastman on J. P. Morgan, payable when in funds from the proceeds of the sale to Frémont.[^19] Ketchum testified that he advanced "between forty and fifty thousand dollars," that his only security was the Frémont telegram and letter "held by Mr. Morgan," and that "Mr. Morgan holds subject to me, when he gets his pay from the government."[^20]
The payee on the government's vouchers was Morgan. Captain [[Franklin D. Callender]], the ordnance officer at the St. Louis arsenal, testified on October 26, 1861: "According to the best information I have, J. Pierpont Morgan sold them to the government." He produced a bill dated August 7, 1861, headed "The United States to J. Pierpont Morgan, Dr.," for 2,500 Hall's rifled carbines at $55,550, certified by Frémont on September 9 and marked "Paid September 10, 1861," with a receipt for "fifty-five thousand five hundred and fifty dollars, in full of the above account" signed "J. PIERPONT MORGAN, By his attorney, J. T. HOWARD." Callender said the funds came from $82,662.50 turned over by the quartermaster, Captain Turnley, who had been directed to transfer $100,000, and that Howard had wanted the account paid so that Stevens's draft on Frémont would not "go back protested."[^21] A second bill in Morgan's name, for the other 2,500 carbines at $22 and accessories, totalled $58,175 and was marked "Not paid for want of funds."[^22]
The committee reached these findings: that the arm was worth to the government "very nearly $12 50," the sum Stevens paid Eastman; that the government had paid Morgan $55,550, a sum that "seems to include one per cent. for interest, exchange, or commission"; that $6,950 remained due on that basis; and that the claim sought "some $49,000 over and above the value of the property sold." The report added that "if J. Pierpont Morgan was the party actually selling the arms to the government, it would be difficult to explain Stevens's connexion with the draft, except as the general's agent," and it questioned Frémont's certification on that ground. Its resolution, offered by Van Wyck, asked the Secretary of the Treasury to adjust the claim for the five thousand carbines "on the basis of a sale of said arms to the government for $12 50 each, rejecting all other demands."[^23][^24] The resolution was before the House on May 1, 1862.[^25]
Dawes defended the committee on April 25, 1862, describing "a private speculation in which one Simon Stevens was interested, and through which $90,000 was to be taken out of the Treasury of the United States, without a dollar of consideration, in the simple sale and repurchase of five thousand arms." [[Thaddeus Stevens]] answered on April 28 that the resolution charged Frémont with "buying them for the Government through an agent." A letter from [[C. B. Sedgwick]] to Frémont dated February 20, 1862 asked about the carbines, and Frémont replied on February 22 that "the Hall's carbines, concerning which question is made, were purchased by me directly from Mr. Stevens, and not through him, agreeably to the offer of sale received from him by telegram."[^26] The debates of February 6, 1862 had already recorded that the carbines were "purchased ... of Simon Stevens, for the sum of twenty-two dollars apiece," on a letter of June 20, 1861 giving Eastman "all of the Hall's carbines ... at the rate of $3 50 each."[^27]
The claim was also before the War Department's commission of [[Joseph Holt]] and [[Robert Dale Owen]], which Secretary [[Edwin M. Stanton]] created on March 13, 1862, and which docketed it as Case No. 97 in Morgan's name, taken from the voucher. R. Gordon Wasson, in a study of the affair, quotes the commission's opening finding from its report (Senate Executive Document 72, 37th Congress, second session, p. 460): "The purchase was not made from the claimant, J. Pierpont Morgan, but from Simon Stevens. Morgan having loaned Stevens money, the carbines passed into the possession of Morgan as a security for the advance thus made, and were by him delivered to General Fremont, under the sale made by Stevens to him; and the bills against the government were made out in favor of Morgan." Wasson reports that the commission decided the case on June 12, 1862, found a fair value of $65,228.05, credited the $55,550 already paid, and allowed a brokerage fee of 2.5 per cent.[^28] Ketchum appeared before the committee again on January 22, 1862 with a statement of the financial relationships in the transaction. Wasson's reckoning is that the $55,550 voucher yielded net proceeds of $54,994.50; that Morgan retained $26,343.54, of which $156.04 was interest at 7 per cent and $5,400 a commission; and that he passed the balance of $28,650.96 to Ketchum on September 16, 1861.[^29]
Stevens sued the United States in the [[United States Court of Claims]] in 1866. Wasson reports a judgment of May 6, 1867, for $58,175 by a three to one decision, Judge Peck writing the opinion in *Stevens v. United States*, 2 Ct. Cl. 95; the government's appeal was dismissed on August 22, 1868, and Stevens was paid $61,577.83 on August 24, 1868.[^30] Wasson cites a remark by Holman in the House that Stevens "uses the name of J. Pierpont Morgan, a New York broker, to cover the transaction."[^31]
Wasson's essay was printed in 1941 in an edition of 100 copies and revised in 1948 in an edition of 750. Its preface states that, "insofar as the case against Morgan is concerned," the alleged transaction "is legend, not history."[^32] The author, [[R. Gordon Wasson]], was a vice president at J.P. Morgan & Company.[^33]
The same committee report treats a different Morgan in its naval section: [[George D. Morgan]] of New York, to whom the purchase of vessels for the Navy Department at New York was transferred on May 8, 1861 under an arrangement the committee called "most singular and extraordinary," with compensation that the committee estimated at more than $95,000. The Senate and House named him in February 1862 as the agent "to purchase vessels for the Government."[^34]
### The 1895 gold syndicate
The [[Commercial and Financial Chronicle]] reported on February 9, 1895 that "The syndicate is managed by Messrs. J. P. Morgan and August Belmont."[^35] The contract dated February 8, 1895, printed in the February 16 issue, was made between the Secretary of the Treasury and a syndicate that included [[August Belmont & Co.]], [[N. M. Rothschild & Sons]] of London, and "J. P. Morgan & Co. ... on behalf of Messrs. J. S. Morgan & Co., of London." Under the contract the syndicate agreed to deliver 3,500,000 ounces of standard gold coin at $17.80441 per ounce, payable in 4 per cent thirty-year United States bonds dated February 1, 1895. At least one half of the gold was to be obtained in and shipped from Europe.[^36]
The Treasury's annual report for 1895 records that the amount of bonds issued under the contract was $62,315,400 and the gold received $65,116,244.62; the last deposit under the contract was made June 24, 1895 and syndicate deposits continued until September 11, 1895.[^37] The report states that the parties to the contract stipulated that they would "as far as lies in their power exert all financial influence and will make all legitimate efforts to protect the Treasury of the United States against the withdrawals of gold pending the complete performance of this contract."[^38]
In January 1896 Morgan wrote to the members of what he called the United States Bond Syndicate, a circular printed by the Chronicle on January 18, 1896. He wrote that on December 23 he "was invited to Washington for a conference" and that "no negotiations for a loan were commenced or even suggested" during the visit. On his return, he wrote, he formed a syndicate to sell the government $200,000,000 in gold coin, naming [[James Stillman]] of the [[National City Bank]], [[Edward D. Adams]] for the [[Deutsche Bank]] of Berlin, [[John A. Stewart]] of the [[United States Trust Company]] and [[Pliny Fisk]] among those whose "ready acquiescence" encouraged him. The participations reached $200,000,000 in three or four days and were, he wrote, "about equally divided" among four classes: European institutions prepared to ship gold, banks and individuals holding gold who wanted bonds, banks in several cities willing to exchange gold for bonds, and parties willing to obtain gold at any cost.[^39]
The circular reprinted his letter of January 4, 1896 to the President, signed "J. PIERPONT MORGAN," which urged a contract for 11,500,000 ounces of gold, "approximating 200,000,000 of dollars, on about the basis of the contract of February 8, 1895," and pledged, if the President preferred public advertisement, "every influence and effort in my power" to make the sale successful. The Treasury issued its call for $100,000,000 of bonds on January 6; Morgan wrote that the minimum fixed in the syndicate contract made it available only for a bid for "all or none," and that he "at once decided to dissolve the Syndicate," delaying notice until January 14 because "every financial interest required the protection afforded by the knowledge that the Syndicate was in existence."[^40][^41]
### Peabody Education Fund
The trustees of the Peabody Education Fund, the trust created by George Peabody, included Morgan, Anthony J. Drexel, former President [[Grover Cleveland]], [[Joseph H. Choate]], [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] and [[Daniel Coit Gilman]].[^42] At the annual meetings of the trustees from 1893 to 1899 the minutes record that "Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan was re-elected Treasurer."[^43]
### United States Steel
The prospectus of the United States Steel Corporation, dated March 2, 1901 from the "Office of J. P. Morgan & Co., 23 Wall Street, New York," was addressed to the stockholders of the Federal Steel, National Steel, National Tube, American Steel and Wire, American Tin Plate, American Steel Hoop and American Sheet Steel companies. It stated that the corporation had been organized under New Jersey law, that "A syndicate, comprising leading financial interests throughout the United States and Europe, of which the undersigned are managers," had been formed with subscriptions of $200,000,000, and that the syndicate had "already arranged for the acquisition of substantially all the bonds and stock of the Carnegie Company, including Mr. Carnegie's holdings." The authorized capital stock was $850,000,000, half 7 per cent preferred, with 5 per cent gold bonds up to $904,000,000. The document ends: "J. P. Morgan & Co. are to receive no compensation for their services as syndicate managers beyond a share in any sum which ultimately may be realised by the syndicate." It was printed as Exhibit 1 to the testimony of [[Charles M. Schwab]] before the Industrial Commission.[^44]
Asked by a commissioner about the terms on which the constituent companies had been exchanged, Schwab answered: "I did not make the agreement. You must get that from Mr. Morgan."[^45] Another witness, E. R. Chapman, told the same commission that the formation of the corporation "became an absolute necessity under the situation confronting Mr. Morgan" and that "Mr. Morgan stepped to the front and devised a system by which practically the entire steel business of the country could be brought under control."[^46]
[[Andrew Carnegie]] gave two accounts of the sale to the House committee in 1911 and 1912. Asked whether the Carnegie properties could have met the Morgan combination, he answered: "Nonsense. [Laughter.] Why did Morgan send word to me that he would like to buy me out?" He added, "Ask Schwab about that."[^47] Later, asked by Representative McGillicuddy when he first negotiated with Morgan, he answered: "I never negotiated with Mr. Morgan at all, nor saw him nor heard from him nor any of his men. Mr. Schwab came to me." Pressed for a date, he said it was "near January, 1901."[^48]
### Northern Securities
Morgan was one of the individual defendants in the suit that the United States brought under the Sherman Act against the Northern Securities Company. The statement of the case lists "J. Pierpont Morgan" with [[James J. Hill]], [[Robert Bacon]], [[George F. Baker]], [[D. Willis James]], [[John S. Kennedy]], [[William P. Clough]] and [[Daniel S. Lamont]], and it names the [[Great Northern Railway Company]] and the [[Northern Pacific Railway Company]] as defendants.[^49] The Supreme Court decided the case on March 14, 1904 and affirmed the decree. Justice [[John Marshall Harlan]]'s opinion states that "under the leadership of the defendants Hill and Morgan" the stockholders of the two railways combined to organize the holding corporation, and quotes Morgan's testimony: asked why the stocks of both companies were put into one holding company, he "frankly answered: 'In the first place, this holding company was simply a question of custodian, because it had no other alliances.'"[^50]
### The 1907 panic and Tennessee Coal
In November 1907, during the panic, the steel corporation was asked to take up a block of [[Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company]] stock that the brokerage firm [[Moore & Schley]] had been holding. On November 4, 1907 [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wrote to the Attorney General, [[Charles J. Bonaparte]], after a visit from [[Elbert H. Gary]] and [[Henry C. Frick]]. The letter, read into the record of the House committee chaired by [[Augustus Owsley Stanley]], quoted their account of "a certain business firm" that "will undoubtedly fail this week if help is not given," and of the purchase as urged "by the combination of the most responsible bankers in New York who are now thus engaged in endeavoring to save the situation." Roosevelt wrote that "I felt it no public duty of mine to interpose any objection."[^51]
Gary testified that in the panic transaction he dealt "with Mr. Ledyard alone. Mr. Ledyard was the attorney of Col. Payne. Col. Payne was one of the customers of Moore & Schley," adding: "It was he who first suggested, I think, the possibility of the United States Steel Corporation buying the stock."[^52] The lawyer [[Lewis Cass Ledyard]] testified that [[Oliver Hazard Payne]], a [[Standard Oil]] figure, had told him he "thought it could be best brought to the attention of the United States Steel Corporation through Mr. Morgan."[^53] [[John W. Gates]] of the Moore & Schley syndicate testified that on his return from Europe on November 6 or 7, 1907 he found negotiations pending, and that "Judge Gary, Mr. Morgan, and Mr. Frick were trying to acquire this block of stock," with the principals at Morgan's residence on Thirty-sixth Street, the trade being made after "three, four, or five hours of telephoning backward and forward."[^54]
### The Pujo hearings, December 1912
The House subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, chaired by [[Arsène Pujo]], examined Morgan on December 18 and 19, 1912 under House Resolutions 429 and 504. [[Samuel Untermyer]] conducted the examination for the committee. On the first day the examination established the partnership and its membership.[^11][^12]
On the second day Untermyer asked whether Morgan wanted control. Morgan answered, "I want to control nothing," and "I do not want any control." He continued: "control is a thing, particularly in money, and you are talking about a money control, now, there is nothing in the world that you can make a trust on money." Asked about competition, he said, "I do not object to competition, either. I like a little competition."[^55] In the afternoon he was asked whether control of credit involves control of money: "A control of credit? No." He added, "Money is gold, and nothing else."[^56]
On the same day, as printed on page 1084, Untermyer asked, "Is not commercial credit based primarily upon money or property?" Morgan answered: "No, sir; the first thing is character." Asked "Before money or property?" he added: "Before money or anything else. Money can not buy it."[^57]
The subcommittee also confirmed the partners of the firm. Asked whether he was "a partner in the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co.," [[Charles Steele]] answered, "I am."[^58] Asked whether [[Thomas W. Lamont]] was a partner, Morgan answered, "He is."[^59] [[George B. Cortelyou]], Secretary of the Treasury from March 5, 1907 to March 18, 1909, testified that on the evening of October 22, 1907 he met at the [[Hotel Manhattan]] with "Mr. Morgan, Mr. Stillman ... Mr. Hepburn, Mr. Cannon, Mr. George F. Baker, Mr. Vanderlip, Mr. Perkins, and two or three others." Asked whether [[George W. Perkins]] "was then a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co.," Cortelyou answered, "He was."[^60] Perkins's family appears on the [[Perkins family]] page. [[Walter E. Frew]], president of the [[Corn Exchange Bank]], testified on December 10, 1912 that he became a director of the [[Bankers Trust Company]] (organized in March 1903) about 1905 on the invitation of [[Henry P. Davison]]. Untermyer asked, "Mr. H. P. Davison, of J. P. Morgan & Co.?" and Frew answered, "Of the First National Bank at that time." Asked whether Davison was a member of J. P. Morgan & Co., he said, "He is now; yes, sir. He was not at the time." Frew agreed that the voting trustees of the Bankers Trust Company were "Henry P. Davison, George W. Perkins, and Daniel G. Reid," and that Perkins "was then a member of J. P. Morgan & Co."[^61]
[[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote in his 1983 book on [[Skull and Bones]] that "Although Morgan himself was not a member of The Order, some of his partners were." Sutton named the partner Henry P. Davison, "whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920," and wrote that Davison "brought Thomas Lamont and Willard Straight into the Morgan firm."[^62]
### Jekyll Island, 1910
In late 1910 a group of bankers and federal officials met at [[Jekyll Island]], Georgia, to draft the plan that became the [[Aldrich Plan]] for a central banking system. [[Frank A. Vanderlip]] wrote in 1935 that a letter from James Stillman set out Aldrich's plan of "getting Davison and me down to his estate in Rhode Island without any one's knowing of it." The meeting went to Georgia instead. Vanderlip wrote: "Those who had been asked to go were Henry Davison, Paul Warburg, Ben Strong, and myself," and he recorded that [[A. Piatt Andrew]] came from Washington.[^63]
Vanderlip described Davison as "a splendid person to prevent wrangles in any company."[^64] The Davison family finding aid says that Davison "became a senior partner at JP Morgan & Company" in 1909, that "The following year Davison attended a secret meeting in Jekyll Island, Georgia," and that "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve." The finding aid lists the children of Davison and his wife, [[Mary Kate Trubee]], as including [[Henry P. Davison Jr.]] and [[F. Trubee Davison]].[^65]
### Art and the Metropolitan Museum
Morgan became a trustee of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in 1889 and was elected its president in 1904. A speaker at the Chamber of Commerce memorial said Morgan "was interested in our Metropolitan Museum from the very beginning," and that he was one of the public-spirited citizens who worked for a year to raise "the pitiful $106,000 with which it was started." The speaker also said that Morgan "had a broad vision of a great American Academy at Rome," formed by the union of the original Academy with the American School for Classical Study.[^66]
The 1928 genealogy calls the donation of his library, miniatures and other works of art to the public "his most precious monument."[^67]
### Will and death
Morgan died in Rome on March 31, 1913. The Chronicle reported on April 12 that his funeral would be held at [[St. George's Church]], Stuyvesant Square, with burial at [[Hartford, Connecticut]]. The honorary pallbearers were [[George S. Bowdoin]], Lewis Cass Ledyard and [[Robert W. de Forest]]. The Stock Exchange closed.[^68] The Chamber of Commerce met on April 3, 1913, and its memorial speakers included [[Elihu Root]], Joseph H. Choate, Robert W. de Forest and [[Seth Low]].[^66]
The *New-York Tribune* of April 20, 1913 printed the will, which Morgan had made in New York on January 4, 1913, with a codicil of January 6, shortly before he left for [[Egypt]]. Its first article reads: "I commit my soul into the hands of my Saviour, in full confidence that, having redeemed it and washed it in His most precious blood, He will present it faultless before the throne of my Heavenly Father; and I entreat my children to maintain and defend, at all hazard and at any cost of personal sacrifice, the blessed doctrine of the complete atonement for sin through the blood of Jesus Christ, once offered, and through that alone." The Tribune counted about thirteen thousand words and legacies of about $17,000,000, and gave the art collection, which it valued at $60,000,000, with the books and curios in the library on East Thirty-sixth Street and Morgan's 502 shares in the [[Equitable Life Assurance Society]], to [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]] as residuary legatee.[^69]
Article XXXII of the will states that Morgan had long been "interested in gathering my collections of paintings, miniatures, porcelains and other works of art," that it was his intention to make a disposition "which would render them permanently available for the instruction and pleasure of the American people," and that, failing that in his lifetime, the collections would pass to his son. It adds that "it would be agreeable to me to have 'The Morgan Memorial' which forms a portion of the property of the [[Wadsworth Atheneum]] at Hartford, Conn., utilized to effectuate a part of this purpose," while imposing on his son no "duty or obligation, legal or moral."[^70] The will directed burial in the family plot at Hartford, with services at St. George's Church, and made provision for the continuation of the firm: the executors were to carry out the agreements in the partnership.[^71] The executors were J. P. Morgan Jr., [[William Pierson Hamilton]], [[Herbert L. Satterlee]] and Lewis Cass Ledyard, and the witnesses to the codicil were Ledyard, Choate and Gary.[^72]
### Successor banks
The firm passed into later banks. On December 31, 2000 J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated "merged with and into The Chase Manhattan Corporation," which was renamed J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. The [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]] had been formed on April 24, 1959 by the merger of J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated with the Guaranty Trust Company of New York.[^73]
### Footnotes
[^1]: James Allen Crosby, *Pierpont Genealogy and Connecting Lines, Particularly Rev. John Pierpont of Hollis Street Church, Boston, Massachusetts* (Boston: Arthur E. Boardman, 1928), entry for John Pierpont Morgan (born April 17, 1837, died March 31, 1913). https://archive.org/details/pierpontgenealog00barn
[^2]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 96, no. 2494 (April 12, 1913), report of the death at Rome on March 31 and the funeral arrangements. https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1913-04-12_96_2494
[^3]: Crosby, *Pierpont Genealogy* (1928), founder's entry (James Pierpont, born Roxbury 1659, Harvard 1681, New Haven 1685, died November 14, 1714; "one of the founders of Yale College"), the entry for James Pierpont 3d (married Elizabeth Collins, 1782), and the entry for Rev. John Pierpont (born Litchfield, South Farms, April 6, 1785; Hollis Street Church, Boston). https://archive.org/details/pierpontgenealog00barn
[^4]: Crosby, *Pierpont Genealogy* (1928), "The Morgan Line" (entry P.XXV.3, Juliet Pierpont, born July 30, 1816, married May 2, 1836, to Junius Spencer Morgan "of Hartford, Conn., but later associated with the Banking-house of Peabody & Morgan of London, England"; John Pierpont Morgan, born April 17, 1837; Amelia Sturges, married 1861, died February 1862; Frances Louisa Tracy, married 1865). https://archive.org/details/pierpontgenealog00barn
[^5]: Crosby, *Pierpont Genealogy* (1928), entry for John Pierpont Morgan ("America's leading financier of International fame"; the firms listed). https://archive.org/details/pierpontgenealog00barn
[^6]: Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York, *Tribute of the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York to the Memory of John Pierpont Morgan* (memorial meeting of April 3, 1913), remarks on Peabody and Junius Spencer Morgan. https://archive.org/details/tributeofchamberny00newy
[^7]: *Junius S. Morgan and Walter H. Burns, copartners as J. S. Morgan & Company, Appellants, v. The United States*, No. 526, Supreme Court of the United States, October Term 1884 (case caption). https://archive.org/details/per_scotus_1884_526-527
[^8]: Chamber of Commerce memorial (1913): the Duncan, Sherman clerkship and the 1857 entry into the banking house. https://archive.org/details/tributeofchamberny00newy
[^9]: *Drexel v. Berney*, No. 305, Supreme Court of the United States, October Term 1886, on appeal from the Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York (appellants Francis A. Drexel, Anthony D. Drexel, Charles H. Godfrey, Joseph W. Drexel, John Pierpont Morgan and J. Hood Wright; "Statement of the Case": "The complainants compose the firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co., bankers at the City of New York"; the will of Robert Berney, who died at Paris). https://archive.org/details/per_scotus_1886_305
[^10]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Money Trust Investigation: Investigation of Financial and Monetary Conditions in the United States under House Resolutions Nos. 429 and 504*, Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, 62d Cong., 3d sess., Part 14 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), testimony of J. Pierpont Morgan, December 18, 1912, pp. 1003 to 1004 (the Philadelphia house). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu
[^11]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 14, pp. 1003 to 1004 (the partners read by Morgan; the firm as partner in the London and Paris houses). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu
[^12]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 14, p. 1003 (Untermyer: "Are you senior member of the partnership or firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., bankers, of New York City?" Morgan: "I am, sir."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu
[^13]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, testimony of Henry P. Davison, p. 1808 ("I am a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co."; "Since the 1st of January, 1909."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu
[^14]: *New York Times*, May 7, 1922, obituary and life sketch of Henry Pomeroy Davison (birth on June 13, 1867; the Astor Place National Bank; the Liberty National Bank presidency at thirty-two; "the idea of a trust depository for national bank money"; the tablet at the Bankers Trust building; the 1907 Clearing House committee; "expert on banking" to the Monetary Commission; Morgan's invitation in late 1908; the 1910 Six-Power Chinese loan negotiations in Paris; the Geneva conference; the $600,000,000 proposal; the Foreign Finance Corporation; honors; directorships; "died today upon the conclusion of an operation upon an infiltrating tumor which could only be partially removed"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1922-05-07_71_23479
[^15]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), testimony of J. Pierpont Morgan, December 19, 1912, pp. 1011 to 1012 (deposits of about "one hundred millions"; "upward of eighty-one millions" held for seventy-three interstate corporations; directors "With some of them"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu
[^16]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, p. 1015 (the New Haven: "I know we had financial arrangements with them, but nothing formal"; "Were you not their financial agents ... ?" "I think we had."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu
[^17]: U.S. House of Representatives, 37th Cong., 2d sess., House Report No. 2, "Government Contracts" (report of the select committee to inquire into the contracts of the government, presented by Mr. Washburne; the committee was appointed July 8 and 10, 1861), section "The purchase of the Hall carbines," pp. 40 to 43. https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1
[^18]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., p. 43 ("The arms were placed under the control of J. Pierpont Morgan to secure him the payment of $20,000 he had advanced to Stevens"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1
[^19]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., testimony of Simon Stevens, "Testimony: Purchase of Arms," pp. 242 to 245 (the sale to Frémont at $22; "I got them from J. Pierpont Morgan, to send to General Fremont"; the collateral security; Morgan's interest; the draft on J. P. Morgan held by Ketchum, Sons & Co.), also quoted in the committee's report at p. 43. https://archive.org/details/11037290bsb
[^20]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., testimony of Morris Ketchum, quoted in the committee's report at pp. 43 to 44 ("between forty and fifty thousand dollars"; "Mr. Morgan holds subject to me, when he gets his pay from the government"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1
[^21]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., testimony of Captain Franklin D. Callender, St. Louis, October 26, 1861, quoted in the committee's report at pp. 47 to 49 (Form No. 13, "The United States to J. Pierpont Morgan, Dr.," August 7, 1861, 2,500 Hall's rifled carbines, $55,550; Frémont's certificate of September 9; payment of September 10; the $82,662.50 from Captain Turnley). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1
[^22]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., p. 50 (second Form No. 13, 2,500 Hall's carbines at $22 and accessories, $58,175; "Not paid for want of funds"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1
[^23]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., pp. 51 to 53 (the committee's findings on value, the $55,550 paid, the $6,950 balance and "some $49,000 over and above the value of the property sold"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1
[^24]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., closing resolutions offered by Mr. Van Wyck (the Hall carbine resolution "on the basis of a sale of said arms to the government for $12 50 each, rejecting all other demands"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1
[^25]: *Congressional Globe*, 37th Cong., 2d sess., May 1, 1862 (the resolution before the House). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-congressional-globe_1862-05-01_117
[^26]: Henry L. Dawes, *Defence of the Committee on Government Contracts*, speech of April 25, 1862. https://archive.org/details/defenceofcommitt00dawe ; Thaddeus Stevens, *Government Contracts*, speech of April 28, 1862, printing C. B. Sedgwick to John C. Frémont, February 20, 1862, and Frémont's reply of February 22, 1862. https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00stev
[^27]: *Congressional Globe*, 37th Cong., 2d sess., February 6, 1862 (Hall's carbines "purchased ... of Simon Stevens, for the sum of twenty-two dollars apiece"; the letter of June 20, 1861 to Eastman). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-congressional-globe_1862-02-06_67
[^28]: R. Gordon Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair: A Study in Contemporary Folklore* (revised edition, 1948), pp. 44 to 48, quoting and citing the Report of the Commission on Ordnance Claims and Contracts, Senate Executive Document 72, 37th Cong., 2d sess., p. 460 (Case No. 97; the opening finding; the decision of June 12, 1862; the fair value of $65,228.05; the 2.5 per cent brokerage). https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp
[^29]: Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair* (1948), pp. 21 to 23 (Ketchum's statement of January 22, 1862; the net proceeds of $54,994.50; the $26,343.54 retained by Morgan; the balance of $28,650.96 paid on September 16, 1861). https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp
[^30]: Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair* (1948), pp. 51 to 53, citing *Stevens v. United States*, Nott & Huntington, *Cases Decided in the Court of Claims*, December Term 1866, vol. 2, pp. 95 to 103 (judgment of May 6, 1867, $58,175; appeal dismissed August 22, 1868; payment of $61,577.83 on August 24, 1868). https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp
[^31]: Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair* (1948), p. 44, citing *Congressional Globe*, 37th Cong., 2d sess., Appendix, p. 136 (Holman). https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp
[^32]: Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair* (1948), title page, copyright page ("First edition in 1941, 100 copies; Revised edition in 1948, 750 copies") and preface. https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp
[^33]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown and Company, 2017), on R. Gordon Wasson as vice president at J.P. Morgan & Company.
[^34]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., section on the purchase of vessels, from p. 21 (the transfer of vessel purchasing to George D. Morgan on May 8, 1861; the compensation arrangement and the figure of "more than $95,000"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 ; *Congressional Globe*, 37th Cong., 2d sess., Senate, February 8, 1862 (the employment of "George D. Morgan, of New York, to purchase vessels for the Government") and February 15, 1862 (the appointment of "Mr. George D. Morgan, of the city of New York, to that agency"). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-congressional-globe_1862-02-08_45 ; https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-congressional-globe_1862-02-15_51
[^35]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 60, no. 1546 (February 9, 1895), financial notes on the gold contract ("The syndicate is managed by Messrs. J. P. Morgan and August Belmont"). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1895-02-09_60_1546
[^36]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 60, no. 1547 (February 16, 1895), p. 283, "Syndicate for the Sale Contract of Gold," printing the contract dated February 8, 1895 (3,500,000 ounces at $17.80441; 4 per cent thirty-year bonds dated February 1, 1895; at least one half of the coin from Europe; "J. P. Morgan & Co ... on behalf of Messrs. J. S. Morgan & Co, of London"). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1895-02-16_60_1547
[^37]: U.S. Department of the Treasury, *Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances for the Year 1895* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1896), "Condition of the Treasury and the Currency," p. lxx (bonds issued under the contract $62,315,400; gold received $65,116,244.62; last deposit June 24, 1895; syndicate deposits until September 11, 1895); also the statement of receipts (the purchase of $65,116,244.62 gold coin "at a cost in four per cent thirty year bonds of $62,315,400"). https://archive.org/details/annualreportofco1895trea_a1t1
[^38]: Treasury, *Annual Report ... 1895*, p. lxx (the stipulation "as far as lies in their power exert all financial influence and will make all legitimate efforts to protect the Treasury of the United States against the withdrawals of gold pending the complete performance of this contract"). https://archive.org/details/annualreportofco1895trea_a1t1
[^39]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 62, no. 1595 (January 18, 1896), pp. 117 to 118, "Mr. Morgan and the Bond Syndicate" (circular of January 14, 1896 from 23 Wall Street: the invitation to Washington of December 23; the four classes of participants; the names of Stillman, Adams, Stewart and Fisk). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1896-01-18_62_1595
[^40]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 62, no. 1595 (January 18, 1896), p. 118 (Morgan to the President, January 4, 1896, signed "J. PIERPONT MORGAN"). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1896-01-18_62_1595
[^41]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 62, no. 1595 (January 18, 1896), p. 118 (the Treasury call of January 6 for $100,000,000 of bonds; the "all or none" minimum; the dissolution of the syndicate). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1896-01-18_62_1595
[^42]: *Proceedings of the Trustees of the Peabody Education Fund*, vol. 5 (Boston: John Wilson and Son, 1900), "Trustees of the Peabody Education Fund" (list including J. Pierpont Morgan, Anthony J. Drexel, Ex-President Grover Cleveland, Joseph H. Choate, Ex-President Rutherford B. Hayes and Daniel C. Gilman). https://archive.org/details/proceedingstrus00fundgoog
[^43]: *Proceedings of the Trustees of the Peabody Education Fund*, vol. 5 (1900), annual meetings of 1893 (p. 53) through 1899 (p. 407) ("Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan was re-elected Treasurer"). https://archive.org/details/proceedingstrus00fundgoog
[^44]: U.S. Industrial Commission, *Reports of the Industrial Commission*, vol. 13, *Industrial Combinations* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901), testimony of Charles M. Schwab, Exhibit 1, "Prospectus of United States Steel Corporation," pp. 475 to 477 (Office of J. P. Morgan & Co., 23 Wall Street, March 2, 1901; the $200,000,000 syndicate; $850,000,000 authorized stock; bonds up to $904,000,000; the compensation sentence; signed "J. P. Morgan & Co., Syndicate Managers"). https://archive.org/details/report141commgoog
[^45]: *Reports of the Industrial Commission*, vol. 13 (1901), testimony of Charles M. Schwab, p. 467. https://archive.org/details/report141commgoog
[^46]: *Reports of the Industrial Commission*, vol. 13 (1901), testimony of E. R. Chapman, p. 109. https://archive.org/details/report141commgoog
[^47]: *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, House of Representatives, vol. 4 (pp. 2469 to 3255), testimony of Andrew Carnegie, p. 2513. https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste00stangoog
[^48]: *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 4, testimony of Andrew Carnegie, pp. 2535 to 2536. https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste00stangoog
[^49]: *Northern Securities Co. v. United States*, 193 U.S. 197 (1904), statement of the case (defendants including "J. Pierpont Morgan," and the suit under the act of July 2, 1890). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/193/197
[^50]: *Northern Securities Co. v. United States*, 193 U.S. 197 (1904), opinion of Justice Harlan and the judgment (decree affirmed), decided March 14, 1904. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/193/197
[^51]: Theodore Roosevelt to Charles J. Bonaparte, November 4, 1907, in *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 1 (pp. 1 to 782), testimony of Elbert H. Gary, pp. 140 to 141. https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog
[^52]: *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 1, p. 184 (testimony of Elbert H. Gary: "Mr. Ledyard was the attorney of Col. Payne. Col. Payne was one of the customers of Moore & Schley"; "It was he who first suggested, I think, the possibility of the United States Steel Corporation buying the stock"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog
[^53]: *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 2 (pp. 783 to 1602), p. 934 (testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard on Payne's statement that he "thought it could be best brought to the attention of the United States Steel Corporation through Mr. Morgan"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog
[^54]: *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 1, pp. 4 to 5 (testimony of John W. Gates). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog
[^55]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, pp. 1050 to 1051 (Morgan: "I want to control nothing"; "I do not want any control"; "there is nothing in the world that you can make a trust on money"; "I like a little competition"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu
[^56]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, p. 1081 (Untermyer: "The control of credit involves a control of money, does it not?" Morgan: "A control of credit? No."; "Money is gold, and nothing else."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu
[^57]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, testimony of J. Pierpont Morgan, December 19, 1912, p. 1084 ("No, sir; the first thing is character." "Before money or anything else. Money can not buy it."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu
[^58]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 6, testimony of Charles Steele, p. 455 (Untermyer: "You are a partner in the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., are you not?" Steele: "I am."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0006.001.umich.edu
[^59]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, p. 1044 (Untermyer: "Is Mr. Thomas W. Lamont a partner in your firm?" Morgan: "He is."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu
[^60]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 6, testimony of George B. Cortelyou, pp. 430 to 431 (Secretary of the Treasury, March 5, 1907 to March 18, 1909; the conference at the Hotel Manhattan on the evening of October 22, 1907; Untermyer: "Mr. Perkins was then a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co.?" Cortelyou: "He was."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0006.001.umich.edu
[^61]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 8, p. 596, testimony of Walter E. Frew, December 10, 1912 (Frew a director of the Bankers Trust Co. from about 1905; "Who invited you to become a member?" "Mr. H. P. Davison, sir."; "Mr. H. P. Davison, of J. P. Morgan & Co.?" "Of the First National Bank at that time."; "Mr. Davison is a member of J. P. Morgan & Co., is he not?" "He is now; yes, sir. He was not at the time."; the voting trustees Davison, Perkins and Daniel G. Reid; Perkins "then a member of J. P. Morgan & Co."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0008.001.umich.edu
[^62]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), text on the Morgan partnership ("Although Morgan himself was not a member of The Order, some of his partners were"; "whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920"; "brought Thomas Lamont and Willard Straight into the Morgan firm"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^63]: Frank A. Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935), chapter XXI, "A Conclave on Jekyl Island," pp. 209 to 215 (the Stillman letter and the Rhode Island estate; "Those who had been asked to go were Henry Davison, Paul Warburg, Ben Strong, and myself"; "From Washington came A. Piatt Andrew"). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip
[^64]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), pp. 216 to 217 ("Harry Davison was a splendid person to prevent wrangles in any company."). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip
[^65]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, finding aid for Henry Pomeroy Davison and Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr. (biographical note: "In 1909, Davison became a senior partner at JP Morgan & Company. The following year Davison attended a secret meeting in Jekyll Island, Georgia. Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve."; family list). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
[^66]: Chamber of Commerce memorial (April 3, 1913): the Metropolitan Museum (trustee 1889, president 1904, "the pitiful $106,000 with which it was started"), the American Academy at Rome and the list of speakers. https://archive.org/details/tributeofchamberny00newy
[^67]: Crosby, *Pierpont Genealogy* (1928), entry for John Pierpont Morgan ("his most precious monument"). https://archive.org/details/pierpontgenealog00barn
[^68]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 96, no. 2494 (April 12, 1913), report of the funeral arrangements (St. George's Church, Stuyvesant Square; burial at Hartford; honorary pallbearers; the Stock Exchange closed). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1913-04-12_96_2494
[^69]: *New-York Tribune*, April 20, 1913, p. 1 and continuation, "Morgan's Will a Human Document" and "Left Nearly $17,000,000 in Specific Legacies" (Library of Congress, Chronicling America, New-York Tribune, April 20, 1913, images 1, 6 and 7; the will text of Article I; the dates of January 4 and 6; the 502 Equitable shares; the $60,000,000 art valuation). https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83030214/1913-04-20/ed-1/
[^70]: *New-York Tribune*, April 20, 1913 (full text of the will, Article XXXII, art collections and "The Morgan Memorial" of the Wadsworth Athenaeum). https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83030214/1913-04-20/ed-1/
[^71]: *New-York Tribune*, April 20, 1913 (the will's articles on burial at Hartford, services at St. George's Church and Article XXVI on the firm's agreements). https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83030214/1913-04-20/ed-1/
[^72]: *New-York Tribune*, April 20, 1913 (the executors named in Article XXXIII; witnesses to the codicil; residuary legatee). https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83030214/1913-04-20/ed-1/
[^73]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001 (filed March 22, 2002), Item 1, Item 14 Exhibit 4.1 and Management's Discussion (the December 31, 2000 merger with The Chase Manhattan Corporation); the April 24, 1959 merger as recorded on the vault's Morgan Guaranty Trust page. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm

42
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John Kerry.md
View file

@ -19,44 +19,54 @@ relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
role: "member, Class of 1966"
fn: 4
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Forbes family]]"
role: "mother's line: Rosemary Isabel Forbes (1913 to 2002), daughter of James Grant Forbes (1879 to 1955), a son of Francis Blackwell Forbes of Russell and Company"
fn: 2
---
John Kerry is a former Democratic Senator from [[Massachusetts]] who chaired the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics, and International Operations of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]].[^1]
### Family
Kerry's mother, Rosemary Isabel Forbes, was born in Paris on October 27, 1913, and died at Manchester-by-the-Sea, Massachusetts on November 14, 2002. She was the daughter of James Grant Forbes (1879 to 1955), born at Shanghai, and Margaret Tyndal Winthrop, a daughter of Robert Charles Winthrop Jr., whom he married at Boston on November 28, 1906. She married Richard John Kerry at Montgomery, Alabama on February 8, 1941.[^2] James Grant Forbes was a son of Francis Blackwell Forbes (1839 to 1908), who went to China in 1857 and became a partner in [[Russell and Company]], and a grandson of the Reverend John Murray Forbes (1807 to 1885), a first cousin of the [[Robert Bennet Forbes]] and [[John Murray Forbes]] of Milton who appear on the [[Forbes family]] page.[^3]
### Yale and Skull and Bones
John Forbes Kerry is listed under the class of 1966 in the index of members that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces from the society's membership catalogue.[^2]
John Forbes Kerry is listed under the class of 1966 in the index of members that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces from the society's membership catalogue.[^4]
### BCCI Investigation
Kerry's subcommittee spearheaded probes of drug trafficking and money laundering, which veered into [[Manuel Noriega]]'s financial dealings.[^3] He proposed a serious investigation of [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]], but his efforts were initially brushed aside, leading him to believe there was a high-level cover-up.[^3]
Kerry's subcommittee spearheaded probes of drug trafficking and money laundering, which veered into [[Manuel Noriega]]'s financial dealings.[^5] He proposed a serious investigation of [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]], but his efforts were initially brushed aside, leading him to believe there was a high-level cover-up.[^5]
He was a key figure in pushing for investigations into BCCI's activities, despite resistance from government agencies. Kerry's subcommittee issued subpoenas for BCCI records and investigated the bank's secret ownership of [[First American Bank]].[^4] He also questioned [[Richard J. Kerr]], Acting [[Central Intelligence Agency]] Director, about the agency's knowledge of BCCI's operations.[^5]
He was a key figure in pushing for investigations into BCCI's activities, despite resistance from government agencies. Kerry's subcommittee issued subpoenas for BCCI records and investigated the bank's secret ownership of [[First American Bank]].[^6] He also questioned [[Richard J. Kerr]], Acting [[Central Intelligence Agency]] Director, about the agency's knowledge of BCCI's operations.[^7]
Kerry received money from [[Clark Clifford]] and [[Robert Altman]], members of their law firm, during the same month that [[Jack Blum]]'s contract with his subcommittee was terminated.[^6] He introduced a bill that would allow the government to revoke the license of any bank whose officials had been convicted of money laundering, known as the "death penalty bill," which was opposed by BCCI's lawyers.[^7]
Kerry received money from [[Clark Clifford]] and [[Robert Altman]], members of their law firm, during the same month that [[Jack Blum]]'s contract with his subcommittee was terminated.[^8] He introduced a bill that would allow the government to revoke the license of any bank whose officials had been convicted of money laundering, known as the "death penalty bill," which was opposed by BCCI's lawyers.[^9]
### Contra Drug Trafficking Investigation
In 1987 and 1988, Kerry's subcommittee investigated links between the [[Contras]] and [[Cocaine]] trafficking, with chief investigator Jack Blum uncovering direct connections.[^8] The committee took videotaped depositions from Contra leaders who acknowledged receiving drug profits with the apparent knowledge of the CIA. Drug dealers admitted under oath to giving money to the Contras and passed polygraph tests. Pilots admitted flying weapons south and cocaine and marijuana north.[^8]
In 1987 and 1988, Kerry's subcommittee investigated links between the [[Contras]] and [[Cocaine]] trafficking, with chief investigator Jack Blum uncovering direct connections.[^10] The committee took videotaped depositions from Contra leaders who acknowledged receiving drug profits with the apparent knowledge of the CIA. Drug dealers admitted under oath to giving money to the Contras and passed polygraph tests. Pilots admitted flying weapons south and cocaine and marijuana north.[^10]
[[Norwin Meneses]] was an early target of the investigation, but the Justice Department stonewalled the committee's requests for information. Blum told Webb that he eventually gave up trying to obtain the records.[^8]
[[Norwin Meneses]] was an early target of the investigation, but the Justice Department stonewalled the committee's requests for information. Blum told Webb that he eventually gave up trying to obtain the records.[^10]
### Wanda Palacios and William Weld
In 1986, Kerry's staff interviewed [[Wanda Palacios]], a [[Miami]] FBI informant who reported witnessing [[Southern Air Transport]] planes being loaded with cocaine and unloading guns in Barranquilla, [[Colombia]]. Kerry and an aide took her eleven-page statement to the Justice Department and met with William Weld, one of Attorney General Edwin Meese's top assistants. Weld "read about a half a page and chuckled" and said "this isn't the first time today I've seen allegations about CIA agent involvement in drugs." Weld stated that "while he couldn't vouch for every line in it, there was nothing in it which didn't appear true to him." When Palacios's allegations leaked, she was publicly dismissed as a crank.[^9]
In 1986, Kerry's staff interviewed [[Wanda Palacios]], a [[Miami]] FBI informant who reported witnessing [[Southern Air Transport]] planes being loaded with cocaine and unloading guns in Barranquilla, [[Colombia]]. Kerry and an aide took her eleven-page statement to the Justice Department and met with William Weld, one of Attorney General Edwin Meese's top assistants. Weld "read about a half a page and chuckled" and said "this isn't the first time today I've seen allegations about CIA agent involvement in drugs." Weld stated that "while he couldn't vouch for every line in it, there was nothing in it which didn't appear true to him." When Palacios's allegations leaked, she was publicly dismissed as a crank.[^11]
### Suppression of Findings
Blum described how the investigation was systematically undermined: "We laid it all out, and we were trashed. We were totally hit by the leadership of the administration and much of the congressional leadership. They simply turned around and said, 'These people are crazy.' And they dumped all over us." The major newspapers largely ignored the committee's findings.[^8]
Blum described how the investigation was systematically undermined: "We laid it all out, and we were trashed. We were totally hit by the leadership of the administration and much of the congressional leadership. They simply turned around and said, 'These people are crazy.' And they dumped all over us." The major newspapers largely ignored the committee's findings.[^10]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9.
[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^3]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 26.
[^4]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 30.
[^5]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 89.
[^6]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 65.
[^7]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 370.
[^8]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue: "It was like they didn't want to know"
[^9]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends"
[^2]: Holcombe genealogy, person page 547 (Rosemary Isabel Forbes, born Paris, October 27, 1913, died Manchester-by-the-Sea, November 14, 2002; James Grant Forbes, born Shanghai, October 22, 1879, died Paris, April 24, 1955; his marriage of November 28, 1906 to Margaret Tyndal Winthrop; Richard John Kerry and John Forbes Kerry, born December 11, 1943). https://www.holcombegenealogy.com/g0/p547.htm
[^3]: Massachusetts Historical Society, *Forbes Family Papers, 1732-1931* (Ms. N-49), collection guide, biographical sketch of Francis Blackwell Forbes and Appendix, "Condensed Genealogy of the Forbes Family." https://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0269
[^4]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^5]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 26.
[^6]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 30.
[^7]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 89.
[^8]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 65.
[^9]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 370.
[^10]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue: "It was like they didn't want to know"
[^11]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends"

300
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Lord family.md Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,300 @@
---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
aliases:
- "Lord family"
- "Lord family of Hartford"
- "Lord clan"
tags:
- Person
- Family
- Lord
- YaleUniversity
- SkullAndBones
- LordDayAndLord
- GaleyAndLord
- WinstonLord
- HerbertBrownell
- CouncilOnForeignRelations
- Kissinger
- UnitedNationsHumanRightsCommission
- Pillsbury
- AntonySutton
- NewYorkTimes
- PentagonPapers
- Onassis
category: "Intelligence & Government"
summary: "Hartford and New York family whose members include the Lord, Day and Lord law partners (Brownell's firm), a Galey and Lord textile executive, a United Nations human rights delegate and the diplomat Winston Lord."
location: "New York, New York"
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1854-01-01
role: "George DeForest Lord, Yale class of 1854, listed in Sutton's index of members"
fn: 6
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1898-01-01
role: "Franklin Atkins Lord, class of 1898, per Sutton's index"
fn: 9
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1922-01-01
role: "William Galey Lord, Yale class of 1922; the Yale Banner prints his name in the senior society list"
fn: 21
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1926-01-01
role: "Oswald Bates Lord, Yale class of 1926; the Yale Banner prints his name in the senior society list"
fn: 24
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1949-01-01
role: "Charles Edwin Lord II, class of 1949, per Sutton's index"
fn: 9
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1959-01-01
role: "Winston Lord, Yale class of 1959, per Sutton's index and Quigley's list"
fn: 22
- type: founded
with: "[[Lord, Day and Lord]]"
role: "Daniel Lord, senior member of the firm in 1849 when Henry Day became a partner"
fn: 8
- type: represented
with: "[[New York Times]]"
start: 1948-01-01
end: 1971-07-01
role: "Lord, Day and Lord, corporate counsel to the Times for 23 years as of August 1971"
fn: 19
- type: represented
with: "[[Aristotle Onassis]]"
start: 1948-01-01
end: 1950-06-01
role: "Lord, Day and Lord, George DeForest Lord the partner in charge, on the Shipping Act citizenship requirements"
fn: 17
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Galey & Lord]]"
start: 1923-01-01
role: "William Galey Lord, salesman; vice president from 1933, president from 1943 per the Marquis entry"
fn: 20
- type: head_of
with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
start: 1977-01-01
end: 1985-06-30
role: "Winston Lord, president"
fn: 2
- type: appointed
with: "[[State Department]]"
start: 1973-10-12
end: 1977-01-20
role: "Winston Lord, director of the Policy Planning Staff"
fn: 40
- type: appointed
with: "[[State Department]]"
start: 1985-11-06
end: 1989-04-23
role: "Winston Lord, ambassador to China"
fn: 40
- type: appointed
with: "[[State Department]]"
start: 1993-04-22
end: 1997-02-18
role: "Winston Lord, Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs"
fn: 40
- type: appointed
with: "[[United Nations Human Rights Commission]]"
start: 1953-01-01
end: 1961-12-31
role: "Mary Pillsbury Lord, United States representative"
fn: 28
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Mary Pillsbury Lord]]"
start: 1929-12-07
role: "Oswald Bates Lord, married December 7, 1929"
fn: 25
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Pillsbury family]]"
role: "Mary Pillsbury Lord, daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and granddaughter of Charles A. Pillsbury"
fn: 25
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Winston Lord]]"
role: "son of Oswald Bates Lord and Mary Pillsbury Lord"
fn: 33
---
The Lord family is a Hartford and New York family of lawyers, textile merchants, United Nations delegates and diplomats. Its New England founder, [[Thomas Lord]], arrived in 1635 and settled among the followers of [[Thomas Hooker]] at [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] and then at [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]]. [[Antony C. Sutton]] places the family among the old-line families of the [[Skull and Bones]], with a chart label reading "LORD FAMILY (1635, Cambridge, Mass.)," and names the New York law firm [[Lord, Day and Lord]] as "dominated by the Lord family."[^1] The family's best-known public figure is [[Winston Lord]], president of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] from 1977 to 1985 and ambassador to China from 1985 to 1989.[^2]
### Thomas Lord and the Hartford settlers
The 1892 family genealogy records that Thomas Lord, aged fifty, was registered on April 29, 1635 for transportation to New England on the ship [[Elizabeth and Ann]], with his wife Dorothy, aged forty-six, and seven children. The entry cites Hotten's Original Lists.[^3] [[James Savage|Savage]]'s genealogical dictionary gives the same ship and year, and says Thomas stopped at Boston or Cambridge for a year or more before settling at Hartford. Savage records the eldest son, Richard Lord, at Cambridge by 1632, admitted a freeman there on March 4, 1635, and sent to Hartford with Hooker in 1636 as an original proprietor. Savage adds that Richard was the captain relied on, with [[John Pynchon]], to secure the regicides [[William Goffe]] and [[Edward Whalley]] in New England. Richard died at [[New London, Connecticut|New London]] on May 17, 1662. His son Richard married Mary Smith in 1665 and was lost at sea in 1685, and the widow married Dr. Thomas Hooker in 1686.[^4]
Sutton's chart gives the Lord settlement as Cambridge in 1635, and his text says Thomas Lord left [[Essex]] in 1635 in a company led by Hooker and settled at what is now Hartford.[^1] The 1892 genealogy traces the line through Thomas Lord's son William, his grandson Thomas (born 1645) and his great-grandson Joseph (born 1697) to Capt. Daniel Lord (born 1736), who married his first cousin Elizabeth Lord. Their son Dr. Daniel Lord settled at [[Stonington, Connecticut|Stonington]] and married Phebe Crary, and removed with his family to New York in 1797.[^5]
### Daniel Lord and the founding of the law firm
The New York lawyer [[Daniel Lord]] was born at Stonington in December 1794, the only child of Dr. Daniel and Phebe (Crary) Lord. The Yale obituary record for 1868 states that he began his law studies at the [[Litchfield Law School]], finished them in the office of [[George Griffin]] in New York, and was admitted to the bar in 1817. The same record states that he "stood in the foremost rank in his profession," steadily refused all public offices, and was engaged in "many of the most important cases of his day." He graduated from [[Yale University]] in 1814, married in 1818 Susan, daughter of Lockwood DeForest, and died in New York on March 4, 1868. One of his sons, George DeForest Lord, graduated from Yale in the class of 1854.[^6]
The 1892 genealogy lists Daniel Lord's children as Daniel DeForest, Phoebe Lucretia, John Crary, James Couper, Sarah, Edward Crary and George DeForest Lord, the last married to Frances Shelton. Phoebe Lucretia married Henry Day, and the genealogy names among their children a George DeForest Lord Day. A grandson, Daniel Lord Jr., is described there as "one of the firm of Lord, Day and Lord, successors of Hon. Daniel Lord."[^7]
Henry Day was born at South Hadley, Massachusetts in 1820, graduated from Yale in 1845, studied at Harvard Law School and practiced in New York. According to the 1897 biographical compendium *Prominent Families of New York*, he became in 1849 "a partner in the legal firm of Lord, Day & Lord, of which the distinguished Daniel Lord was the senior member." The same sketch says Day became attorney and a director of the Equitable Life Assurance Society and a director of the Consolidated Gas Company, the Mercantile Trust Company and the Lawyers' Title and Guarantee Company, that the legal affairs of the estates of Samuel F. B. Morse, Edward Morgan and the Astors were entrusted to him, and that at his death in 1893 he was the sole survivor of the original members of the firm, with which he had been connected for nearly forty-five years. His son George Lord Day, educated at [[Princeton University]], also became a member of the firm and retired after a hunting accident in 1894.[^8]
Sutton's text names George DeForest Lord (initiated 1854) as the first Lord initiated into the Order and states that he and his father, Daniel Lord, established the firm. Sutton wrote that its present-day clients were the [[New York Times]] and the Rubin Foundation, which he describes as one of the financial supporters of the [[Institute for Policy Studies]], and, in his section on the law, that "the major establishment law firms in New York are saturated with The Order," naming Lord, Day and Lord first.[^9]
### Lord, Day and Lord in the twentieth century
The firm's partners recorded in the successive editions of *Who's Who in America* include [[Lucius Hart Beers]], a member of the firm, a director of Lawyers Title and Guaranty Company, Lawyers Trust Company and the 25 Broadway Corporation, and a member of the advisory board of the National Surety Company.[^10] [[Howard Mansfield]] (Yale 1871) is listed as a member of the firm from 1901, counsel for the [[Cuba Company]] and the Cuba Railroad Company from 1900, and trustee and treasurer of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].[^11] [[Randolph E. Paul]], the tax lawyer who became general counsel of the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] in 1942, is recorded in the *National Cyclopaedia of American Biography* as becoming a member of Lord, Day and Lord in 1938.[^12]
The firm kept a Washington address. The Federal Bureau of Investigation's [[Silvermaster file]] for December 1945 to January 1946 reports that [[Lauchlin Currie]] arrived in Washington from New York on December 5, 1945 and stayed at 1614 I Street, N.W. A Bureau agent determined on December 26 that the address was "apparently a law firm wherein several lawyers have a common reception room," and the directories available to the Washington Field Office listed at that address Lord, Day and Lord, lawyers, and Randolph Paul, lawyer, among others. On January 8, 1946 agents took up surveillance at Paul's office at the same address and saw Currie enter. The same report carries a background note on Paul from a 1940 investigation of his application for a Justice Department judicial post, which records that he had been associated with Lord, Day and Lord and that Lord, Day and Lord "also have offices at" the I Street address.[^13] Paul had left the firm for [[Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton and Garrison]] in March 1944.[^12]
[[Aleister Crowley]]'s statement of October 11, 1918, as summarized by Bureau of Investigation Agent [[Frank X. O'Donnell]], says that the funds of the Order he described were deposited with the [[Title Guarantee and Trust Company]] in New York and had come through the law firm of Lord, Day and Lord from the sale of Crowley's property in [[Scotland]].[^14]
[[Herbert Brownell]] moved to Lord, Day and Lord in 1929 and became a partner in 1932, according to the Justice Department's biography. He served as chairman of the [[Republican National Committee]] and was appointed Attorney General by [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] on January 21, 1953, serving until November 8, 1957.[^15]
### The Onassis shipping inquiry
In 1958 a special subcommittee of the House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries examined the "trade-out and build" activities of the Onassis shipping companies. [[Aristotle Onassis]] testified that he had consulted many law firms about the Shipping Act of 1916 requirement that an American citizen hold control of vessels under the American flag, and when Representative Herbert Zelenko asked whether Lord, Day and Lord was among them, Onassis answered: "Lord, Day & Lord, Mr. George Lord was the highest authority in admiralty law in the United States, and one in the world." Asked whether Brownell was a member of that firm, Onassis answered that he was. Zelenko observed that Brownell was the man who "later became Attorney General and you were indicted by him."[^16]
Brownell appeared before the subcommittee. His statement said that from 1948 to 1950 Onassis, for himself and certain shipping companies, consulted Lord, Day and Lord on questions of interpretation of the Shipping Act, "the late Mr. George DeForest Lord being the partner in charge," that Mr. Lord died in February 1950 and that by June 1950 the firm ceased to advise Onassis. He added that the firm did not advise Onassis at the time of the 1951 applications to the [[Maritime Commission]] on which the later indictment was based, and that he took no part in the Justice Department's handling of the cases after becoming Attorney General. He also stated that he approved, with the recommendations of the Civil and Criminal Division heads, the December 1955 disposition of the civil and criminal cases against the Onassis group, and that he became counsel to Lord, Day and Lord in November 1957. Under questioning he agreed that as a member of the firm he shared in the fees and was responsible for the firm's opinions, and that he had testified as a defense witness in 1954 in *United States v. Philadelphia Marine*, another prosecution brought by his department, about a legal opinion given by the firm in 1948.[^17] The Yale obituary record of 1868 names a George DeForest Lord, a son of Daniel Lord, in the class of 1854; the hearing names the partner in charge of the Onassis matter as the late Mr. George DeForest Lord, who died in February 1950.
### The Times, Sullivan and the Pentagon Papers
In the Times libel appeal *New York Times Co. v. Sullivan* (1964), the United States Reports list Herbert Wechsler as arguing the cause for the Times, with the notation "With him on the brief were Herbert Brownell, Thomas F. Daly, Louis M. Loeb, T. Eric Embry, Marvin E. Frankel, Ronald S. Diana and Doris Wechsler." Brownell and Louis Loeb are the Lord, Day and Lord partners *Time* later named in connection with the Times.[^18]
*Time* reported on August 2, 1971 that Lord, Day and Lord had been corporate counsel to the Times for twenty-three years and that, when the Times fought the Pentagon Papers case to the Supreme Court, the firm "played no part." According to *Time*, the firm felt strongly that the paper should not publish the classified material; when Times executives debated the series in spring 1971, partner Louis Loeb "repeatedly advised that publication would be improper and might be illegal," while the Times's general counsel, James Goodale, disagreed. *Time* quoted Goodale: "Lord, Day & Lord backed out on us," and "We had to get another law firm at the last minute." It attributed the stated conflict of interest to Brownell, who "has long been associated with Richard Nixon, John Mitchell and William Rogers" and who, as Eisenhower's Attorney General, "supervised the drafting of the current classification regulations." The firm weighed, the magazine reported, whether to inform the government of the Times's intention to publish, and decided not to. The Times then gave its litigation to Cahill, Gordon, Sonnett, Reindel and Ohl, whose lawyers, with [[Alexander Bickel]] of Yale, represented the paper in the case.[^19]
### William Galey Lord and the Yale societies
[[Charles Edwin Lord]] of [[Tarrytown, New York|Tarrytown]], New York, and his wife Lucie-Taylor (Weart) Lord had at least two sons who went to Yale. The elder, [[William Galey Lord]], was born in Tarrytown on July 1, 1901, took an A.B. at Yale in 1922 and married Frances Norton in 1925. The *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry* entry records him as a salesman for [[Galey & Lord]], Inc., of New York from 1923, vice president from 1933, a director from 1934 and president from 1943, president of the National Federation of Textiles from 1942, and a member of the [[Board of Economic Warfare]]. His children are listed as Sheridan Norton and Charles Edwin II.[^20]
The *Yale Banner and Pot Pourri* for 1921 to 1922 lists William G. Lord as class secretary, chairman of the class book committee, class historian and business manager of the yearbook. Under the heading "Senior Society," without naming the society, it prints fifteen names including William Galey Lord, a list that matches the 1922 class given by Sutton.[^21] Sutton's index and [[Carroll Quigley]]'s list of members both give William Galey Lord the class of 1922.[^22]
A company of the same name, Galey & Lord, Inc., was incorporated in Delaware in 1987 to acquire in February 1988 the Blends Apparel and Prints divisions of [[Burlington Industries]]. Its 1996 annual report describes it as a maker of cotton and cotton blend apparel fabrics.[^23]
### Oswald Bates Lord and Mary Pillsbury Lord
[[Oswald Bates Lord]], born March 15, 1903, the younger son, graduated from Yale in 1926. The *Yale Banner and Pot Pourri* for that year prints his name in a "Senior Society" list with Daniel Allen James Davis Bronson Jr., Henry Stetson Crosby, Reginald Dean Root and others, which matches Sutton's 1926 class. It also lists him as business manager of the *Yale Daily News* under chairman Carlos French Stoddard Jr., and as chairman of the academic senior class book.[^24] Sutton's index lists "1926 Oswald Bates Lord ... = Mary Pillsbury (of Pillsbury flour family) ... son is Winston Lord," and Quigley's list carries "Oswald B. Lord FR/S&B 1926."[^22]
Mary Stinson Pillsbury was born on November 14, 1904, a daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and Helen Pendleton Winston and a granddaughter of [[Charles A. Pillsbury]]. *Vogue* announced the engagement in October 1929 and reported in January 1930 that on December 7 Oswald Bates Lord, son of Charles E. Lord, and Mary Stinson Pillsbury had married at Minneapolis. Her brother was [[Philip W. Pillsbury]].[^25] The 1978 Associated Press obituary names Oswald as a New York merchant.[^26] In 1970 [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] published *Exit Backward, Bowing*, credited to Oswald Bates Lord "with the advice and dissent of Mary Pillsbury Lord," with drawings by [[Roy Doty]].[^27]
Mary Pillsbury Lord was active in the Eisenhower campaign in 1951 and 1952, according to the finding aid for her oral history at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]]. She served as United States representative to the [[United Nations Human Rights Commission]] from 1953 to 1961, as an alternate representative to the [[United Nations General Assembly]] from 1953 to 1959, and as a delegate to the General Assembly in 1958 and 1960.[^28] Her first instruction came from [[John Foster Dulles]]'s department. A memorandum of March 26, 1953 from Assistant Secretary [[John D. Hickerson]] and Legal Adviser Herman Phleger proposed that "Mrs. Oswald B. Lord point out in the Commission" that the United States considered there were more effective ways to promote the Charter's human rights objectives than drafting the proposed Covenants on Human Rights, and that the Commission give its attention to other means, among them world-wide surveys by a rapporteur on freedom of religion and the right to a fair trial.[^29] Dulles recommended a presidential message for the April 7 opening of the Commission's Geneva session, and Eisenhower's message of April 7, 1953 named "Mrs. Oswald B. Lord, the new Representative of the United States."[^30] A *Time* report of November 23, 1953 identified her as the United States representative on the Commission on Human Rights.[^31]
Her oral history, recorded for the [[Columbia University]] oral history project by [[John T. Mason Jr.]] in 1967 to 1969, runs to 429 pages in the finding aid. The first interview covers her first meeting with Eisenhower, her service as assistant director of civil defense for New York, New Jersey and Delaware, the advisory committee on women in the Army and the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services, a trip to Europe to visit the Women's Army Corps, [[William J. Donovan]], pre-convention work for Eisenhower, [[UNICEF]], the United Nations covenants on human rights, [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and [[Marietta Tree]].[^28] In 1965 she sat on the panel of judges for the [[Federal Woman's Award]].[^32] She died of cancer on Friday, July 21, 1978, at the age of seventy-three.[^26]
### Winston Lord
Winston Lord was born in New York City on August 14, 1937, the son of Oswald Bates Lord and Mary Pillsbury Lord.[^33] A State Department biography issued in 1993 records a Yale B.A., magna cum laude, in 1959 and an M.A. from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy in 1960, service as a Foreign Service officer from 1961 to 1967, the Defense Department's Policy Planning Staff in International Security Affairs from 1967 to 1969, and the National Security Council staff from 1969. It gives his later posts as chairman of the National Endowment for Democracy, vice chairman of the International Rescue Committee and chairman of the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]'s National Commission on America and the New World, and says he met his wife, [[Bette Bao Lord]], while both were students at the Fletcher School.[^34] Sutton's index and Quigley's list both give him the class of 1959; Quigley's entry reads "Winston Bao Lord BB/S&B 1959/TC."[^22] The [[Trilateral Commission]] page lists him among its North American members.
The *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on China lists him as a member of the Office of International Security Affairs in the [[Department of Defense]] until 1969, a member of the [[National Security Council]] Planning Group, and from 1971 a member of the NSC staff for United Nations affairs.[^35] On April 17, 1971 Lord sent [[Henry A. Kissinger]] a seven-page memorandum listing the major contacts between the United States and the People's Republic of China through [[Pakistan]], [[Romania]] and other channels.[^36] On June 21, 1971 Kissinger, Lord and the Pakistani ambassador [[Agha Hilaly]] met at the White House, where Hilaly handed over two notes in the exchange that arranged Kissinger's trip to China.[^37] Lord was one of the four Americans who met Premier [[Chou En-lai]] in [[Beijing]] on July 9, 1971, with Kissinger, [[John Holdridge]] and [[Richard Smyser]]; Lord, Holdridge and Smyser prepared the transcripts, according to Lord's memoranda to Kissinger of July 29, August 6 and August 12.[^38]
On October 21, 1971, in Beijing, Kissinger said of CIA agents, "Most write long, incomprehensible reports and don't make revolution," and added, "They are mostly from Yale and they don't have the people." Chou asked, "He is from Yale [pointing to Winston Lord]?" Kissinger answered, "Does he look like a revolutionary?"[^39]
Lord was director of the Policy Planning Staff at the [[State Department]] from October 12, 1973 to January 20, 1977.[^40] In November 1973 he prepared the briefing papers for Kissinger's trip to Beijing, which ran from November 10 to 14. The record of the Beijing talks of November 11 lists him as director of planning and coordination among the American participants, with Kissinger, Holdridge, [[David Bruce]], chief of the [[United States Liaison Office in China]], and [[Robert McCloskey]], the State Department press spokesman.[^41]
He was president of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1977 to 1985. The Council's annual report for July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 lists "Winston Lord, President, 1977-1985" on its staff page, and in a letter dated August 19, 1985 [[David Rockefeller]] wrote of "wishing Winston and Bette well as they embark on their challenging new career," linking it to Lord's role as "the President's emissary to the People's Republic of China."[^42] Sutton's 1983 text states that David Rockefeller is not a member of the Order "but the present CFR chairman, Winston Lord, is," and his chart carries the caption "Chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations (1983)."[^43]
Lord was ambassador to China from November 6, 1985 to April 23, 1989, and Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs from April 22, 1993 to February 18, 1997.[^40] The Senate proceedings of the 99th Congress record the nomination of Winston Lord, of New York, to be ambassador to the People's Republic of China, and the 1993 State Department biography records that the Senate confirmed him as Assistant Secretary on April 21, 1993.[^34][^44] Bette Bao Lord was described as chairman of [[Freedom House]] in the 1994 and 1998 press; in 1994 the *Jordan Times* quoted her as Freedom House chairwoman at a news conference on the organization's annual survey.[^45]
### Other Lords in the Order
Sutton's index lists the Lords of the Order as George DeForest Lord (initiated 1854), Franklin Atkins Lord (1898), William Galey Lord (1922), Oswald Bates Lord (1926), Charles Edwin Lord II (1949) and Winston Lord (1959).[^9] Quigley's list gives "Lord S&B 1854," William Galey Lord and Oswald B. Lord of the classes of 1922 and 1926, and Winston with the middle name "Bao," the middle name of his wife.[^22]
A Charles E. Lord served as Acting Comptroller of the Currency in 1981: he signed as such in the *Federal Register* on November 24, 1981 and testified as such before a Senate panel on October 30, 1981. [[Ronald Reagan]] nominated a Charles E. Lord of the District of Columbia to be first vice president and vice chairman of the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], and the Senate Banking Committee held a hearing on the nominations of Charles E. Lord and James E. Yonge in 1982.[^46] The Council's 1984 to 1985 membership list includes a "Charles E. Lord" on page 127.[^47] Sutton's chart caption names a Charles Edwin Lord as Acting Comptroller of the Currency in 1981.[^48] Charles Edwin Lord II, of the Yale class of 1949, is recorded as a son of William Galey Lord. Sutton's chart caption gives the name of the Acting Comptroller of the Currency of 1981 as Charles Edwin Lord, the name under which his index lists the class of 1949 member.
### Footnotes
[^1]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One" (label "LORD FAMILY (1635, Cambridge, Mass.)"), the passage on the Lord family (Thomas Lord who left Essex in 1635 in a company led by Rev. Thomas Hooker and settled in what is now Hartford) and the section on the law ("Lord, Day and Lord, dominated by the Lord family already discussed"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^2]: Council on Foreign Relations, *Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985* (New York, 1985), staff page ("Winston Lord, President, 1977-1985"). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^3]: "Family histories and genealogies," vol. 1 (1892), Lord family section, p. 247, citing Hotten's Original Lists for the registration on the *Elizabeth and Ann* of April 29, 1635 of Thomas Lord, aged fifty, his wife Dorothy, aged forty-six, and seven named children. https://archive.org/details/familyhistoriesg01sali
[^4]: James Savage, *A Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England*, vol. 3 (Boston, 1860 to 1862), pp. 115 to 116, entries for Richard Lord (Cambridge 1632; freeman March 4, 1635; with Hooker to Hartford in 1636; "capt. relied on" with John Pyncheon for the regicides Goffe and Whalley; died New London May 17, 1662; son Richard married Mary Smith in 1665, lost at sea in 1685, widow married Dr. Thomas Hooker in 1686) and Thomas Lord of Hartford (came in the *Elizabeth and Ann* in 1635, aged 50, with wife Dorothy, 46; stopped at Boston or Cambridge a year or more). https://archive.org/details/genealogicaldic03savarich
[^5]: "Family histories and genealogies," vol. 1 (1892), Lord family section, pp. 247 to 274, descent from Thomas and Dorothy Lord through William, Thomas (born 1645), Joseph (born 1697) and Capt. Daniel (born October 12, 1736), who married Elizabeth Lord, and Dr. Daniel Lord, who married Phebe Crary, settled at Stonington and removed to New York in 1797. https://archive.org/details/familyhistoriesg01sali
[^6]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College deceased during the academical year ending in July 1868* (New Haven, 1868), entry for Daniel Lord, class of 1814 (died New York March 4, 1868, aged 73; son of Dr. Daniel and Phebe (Crary) Lord, born Stonington December 1794; law studies at Litchfield and in the office of George Griffin; admitted to the bar 1817; married 1818 Susan, daughter of Lockwood DeForest; "One of his sons, George DeForest Lord, is a graduate of this College, of the Class of 1854"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_0
[^7]: "Family histories and genealogies," vol. 1 (1892), Lord family section, "Children of Hon. Daniel Lord" (p. 279) and the memorial supplied by "his grandson Daniel Lord Jun. Esq. of New York, one of the firm of Lord, Day and Lord, successors of Hon. Daniel Lord" (p. 274). https://archive.org/details/familyhistoriesg01sali
[^8]: Lyman Horace Weeks, ed., *Prominent Families of New York* (New York: The Historical Company, 1897), sketch of George Lord Day (Henry Day, born South Hadley 1820, Yale 1845; "In 1849, he became a partner in the legal firm of Lord, Day & Lord, of which the distinguished Daniel Lord was the senior member"; attorney and director of the Equitable Life Assurance Society; estates of Morse, Edward Morgan and the Astors; died 1893, sole survivor of the original members; George Lord Day, Princeton, retired 1894). https://archive.org/details/prominentfamilie00week
[^9]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), the passage on George DeForest Lord and Daniel Lord ("Among its present day clients are The New York Times and the Rubin Foundation. The Rubin Foundation is one of the financial angels for the Institute for Policy Studies"), the section "The Law," and the list "Past Lords In The Order" (1854, 1898, 1922, 1926, 1949, 1959). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^10]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 15 (1928 to 1929), entry for Lucius Hart Beers (born New York November 28, 1859; Columbia A.B. 1881, LL.B. 1883; "mem. firm of Lord, Day & Lord"; director of Lawyers Title and Guaranty Co., Lawyers Trust Co., 25 Broadway Corporation; advisory board of the National Surety Co.). https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinamerica15chic
[^11]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 16 (1930 to 1931), entry for Howard Mansfield (born Hamden, Conn., July 2, 1849; Yale A.B. 1871; Columbia LL.B. 1874; "mem. firm Lord, Day & Lord since 1901. Since 1900 counsel for Cuba Co., Cuba R.R. Co., etc."; Metropolitan Museum of Art trustee and treasurer). https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinamerica16chic
[^12]: *The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography*, vol. 45, entry for Randolph Evernghim Paul (born Hackensack, N.J., August 8, 1890; "In 1938 he became a member of the firm of Lord, Day & Lord, New York city"; special adviser to Treasury Secretary Morgenthau December 1941; general counsel to the Treasury August 1942; left March 1944 for Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison). https://archive.org/details/nationalcyclopae45newy
[^13]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Silvermaster file, part 19 (December 1945 to January 1946), report on Lauchlin Currie (arrival in Washington December 5, 1945 and stay at 1614 I Street, N.W.; agent's determination of December 26 that the address was "apparently a law firm wherein several lawyers have a common reception room," with directory listings including "Lord, Day and Lord, lawyers" and "Randolph Paul, lawyer"; surveillance at the offices of Randolph E. Paul, 1614 I Street, on January 8, 1946; background note on Paul recording his association with Lord, Day and Lord and that the firm "also have offices at" 1614 I Street). https://archive.org/details/FBISilvermasterFile
[^14]: Frank X. O'Donnell, Bureau of Investigation report of July 19, 1919 (case 365985, filed July 30, 1919), summarizing Crowley's statement of October 11, 1918; reproduced in Richard T. Cole, *From Crowley With Love: The F.B.I. Files* (2009) and at https://aleistercrowleytimeline.com/Diaries/Law-Enforcement/1919-07-19-Frank-O-Donnell.html
[^15]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Attorney General, "Attorney General: Herbert Brownell, Jr." (born Peru, Nebraska, February 20, 1904; Yale Law School 1927; "moved to the firm of Lord, Day & Lord in 1929 and became a partner in 1932"; chairman of the Republican National Committee; appointed Attorney General January 21, 1953, in office until November 8, 1957). https://www.justice.gov/ag/bio/brownell-herbert-jr
[^16]: U.S. Congress, House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, *Study of Trade-Out and Build Activities of Onassis Companies*, hearing before the Special Subcommittee, 85th Cong., June 17 to August 15, 1958, testimony of Aristotle Onassis, pp. 176 to 177 (exchange with Rep. Zelenko on Lord, Day & Lord and Brownell). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-hearings-prints-and-reports_june-17-19-24-july-8-15-22-august-13-15-19
[^17]: *Study of Trade-Out and Build Activities of Onassis Companies* (1958), testimony of Herbert Brownell, Jr., pp. 313 to 322 (statement on the firm's advice from 1948 to 1950 with "the late Mr. George DeForest Lord being the partner in charge," Mr. Lord's death in February 1950, resignation from the firm on becoming Attorney General, approval of the 1955 dispositions, and counsel to Lord, Day & Lord from November 1957; fee-sharing exchange; testimony in *United States v. Philadelphia Marine*, December 1954), and p. 310 (testimony of George C. Doub). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-hearings-prints-and-reports_june-17-19-24-july-8-15-22-august-13-15-19
[^18]: *New York Times Co. v. Sullivan*, 376 U.S. 254 (1964), counsel listing for No. 39. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep376/usrep376254/usrep376254.pdf
[^19]: "The Law: The Times v. Its Law Firm," *Time*, August 2, 1971, p. 42. https://archive.org/details/time-1971-11-15
[^20]: *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry: The International Business Who's Who*, Fifth International Edition (Marquis, 1947; copyright 1936, 1938, 1940, 1944, 1947), entry for William Galey Lord (born Tarrytown July 1, 1901; son of Charles Edwin and Lucie (Weart) Lord; A.B. Yale 1922; married Frances Norton June 22, 1925; children Sheridan Norton and Charles Edwin II; salesman, Galey & Lord, Inc., 1923; vice president 1933; director 1934; president 1943; president of the National Federation of Textiles from 1942; Board of Economic Warfare). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.75608
[^21]: *The Yale Banner and Pot Pourri*, 1921-1922 (New Haven), "Senior Society" list (Malcolm Pratt Aldrich, James Smith Bush, Ward Cheney, Albert Hastings Crosby, Albert Carl Frost Jr., Frederick Whiley Hilles, Robert Johnson Larner, William Galey Lord, Robert Guthrie Page, Welles Crosby Root, Robert Folger Solley, Henry Barnard Strong, John Allen Thomas, Frederic dePeyster Townsend Jr., Stanley Woodward) and class officer and committee listings for William G. Lord. https://archive.org/details/yalebannerpotpo192122newh
[^22]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1922, 1926 and 1959, and Carroll Quigley, *Tragedy and Hope: A History of the World in Our Time* (1966), list of Skull and Bones members ("Lord S&B 1854," "Oswald B. Lord FR/S&B 1926," "William Galey Lord S&B 1922," "Winston Bao Lord BB/S&B 1959/TC"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones ; https://archive.org/details/tragedy-and-hope-a-history-of-the-world-in-our-time-carroll-quigley-1st-edition-1966
[^23]: Galey & Lord, Inc., Annual Report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1996, Item 1 ("incorporated in Delaware in 1987 for the purpose of acquiring, in February 1988, substantially all of the assets of the Blends Apparel and Prints divisions of Burlington Industries, Inc."). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/884124/0000950168-96-002475.txt
[^24]: *The Yale Banner and Pot Pourri*, 1925-1926 (New Haven), "Senior Society" list (Daniel Allen James Davis Bronson Jr., Henry Cornick Coke, Henry Stetson Crosby, Benjamin Crawford Cutler, John Alfred Davenport, Alfred Ludlow Ferguson Jr., John McArthur Hoysradt, Howard Thayer Kingsbury Jr., Oswald Bates Lord, Anthony Lee Michel, Charles Graydon Poore, Reginald Dean Root, Frank Ford Russell, Charles Hastings Willard); *Yale Daily News* masthead (Carlos French Stoddard Jr., chairman; Oswald Bates Lord, business manager); "Academic Senior Class Book, 1926, Oswald Bates Lord, Chairman." https://archive.org/details/yalebannerandpo00univgoog
[^25]: *Vogue*, October 26, 1929 (engagement of Mary Stinson Pillsbury, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Charles Stinson Pillsbury of Minneapolis, to Oswald Bates Lord, son of Mr. and Mrs. Charles E. Lord) and January 4, 1930 ("Lord-Pillsbury. On December 7, Mr. Oswald Bates Lord ... and Miss Mary Stinson Pillsbury"); John McGill, *The Beverley Family of Virginia* (Columbia, S.C.: R. L. Bryan Company, 1956), Winston line, p. 987 and following (Mary Stinson Pillsbury, born November 14, 1904, daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and Helen Pendleton Winston, married December 7, 1929 Oswald Bates Lord, born March 15, 1903); William Pope Anderson, *Anderson-Overton* (Cincinnati, 1945), entries 122, 1221 and 1222 (Philip Winston Pillsbury; issue Charles Pillsbury Lord and Winston Lord). https://archive.org/details/sim_vogue_1930-01-04_75_1 ; https://archive.org/details/sim_vogue_1929-10-26_74_9 ; https://archive.org/details/beverleyfamilyof00mcgi ; https://archive.org/details/andersonovertonc00ande
[^26]: "Bank Robber: The Case of the Overeager Author" (Associated Press item datelined New York, July 23, 1978, headed "Mary Pillsbury Lord"), *International Herald Tribune*, July 24, 1978, p. 2 ("Mary Stinson Pillsbury Lord, 73, a former U.S. representative to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, died Friday of cancer"; granddaughter of Charles A. Pillsbury; wife of Oswald Lord, a New York merchant). https://archive.org/details/InternationalHeraldTribune1978FranceEnglish
[^27]: Catalog of Copyright Entries, Third Series, Part 1, July to December 1970, entry "Lord, Mary Pillsbury. Exit backward, bowing. Oswald Bates Lord, with the advice and dissent of Mary Pillsbury Lord; drawings by Roy Doty. Macmillan, 240 p." https://archive.org/details/catalogofco1970324112libr
[^28]: Eisenhower Presidential Library, oral history finding aid OH-115, "Lord, Mary Pillsbury" (Eisenhower campaign, 1951 to 1952; U.S. Representative, United Nations Human Rights Commission, 1953 to 1961; alternate representative 1953 to 1959 and delegate 1958 and 1960 to the General Assembly; Columbia Oral History Project, interviews by John T. Mason, Jr., 1967 to 1969; 429 pages). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa115.pdf
[^29]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, United Nations Affairs, Volume III*, Document 976, memorandum by Assistant Secretary Hickerson and Legal Adviser Phleger to the Secretary of State, March 26, 1953, "United States Policy Concerning Proposed Covenants on Human Rights." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v03/d976
[^30]: *FRUS 1952-1954*, vol. III, Document 982, Dulles to the President, with the proposed message for April 7, 1953; Dwight D. Eisenhower, "Message to the Members of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights," April 7, 1953, The American Presidency Project. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v03/d982 ; https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/message-the-members-the-united-nations-commission-human-rights
[^31]: *Time*, November 23, 1953, item identifying "Mary Pillsbury Lord, U.S. representative on the U.N. Commission on Human Rights." https://archive.org/details/time-1953-11-23
[^32]: Virginia Koerber, "Talented Women Win Recognition," *Washington Star*, 1965, report on the Federal Woman's Award, listing the 1965 panel of judges, including Mary Pillsbury Lord. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000200460024-0
[^33]: McGill, *The Beverley Family of Virginia* (1956), p. 987 and following, and Anderson, *Anderson-Overton* (1945), entries 122, 1221 and 1222 (issue Charles Pillsbury Lord and Winston Lord); Sutton's index ("son is Winston Lord"). https://archive.org/details/beverleyfamilyof00mcgi ; https://archive.org/details/andersonovertonc00ande
[^34]: U.S. Department of State, archived biography of Winston Lord, issued with his April 1993 appointment (born New York City, August 14, 1937; Yale B.A. magna cum laude 1959; Fletcher School M.A. 1960; Foreign Service officer 1961 to 1967; Defense Department 1967 to 1969; NSC staff 1969 to 1973; Policy Planning director 1973 to 1977; ambassador to China 1985 to 1989; chairman of the National Endowment for Democracy; vice chairman of the International Rescue Committee; mother Mary Pillsbury Lord; Senate confirmation April 21, 1993). https://web-archive-2017.ait.org.tw/en/19851119-winston-lord.html
[^35]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, list of persons (Lord, Winston). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17
[^36]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 20, editorial note on Lord's seven-page memorandum to Kissinger of April 17, 1971. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d20
[^37]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 135, editorial note on the June 21, 1971 White House meeting of Kissinger, Winston Lord and Ambassador Agha Hilaly. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d135
[^38]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 139, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, July 9, 1971, and source note on the transcripts. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d139
[^39]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 162, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, October 21, 1971. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d162
[^40]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, biography of Winston Lord (Director of the Policy Planning Staff, October 12, 1973 to January 20, 1977; ambassador to China, appointed November 6, 1985, left post April 23, 1989; Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, April 22, 1993 to February 18, 1997). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/lord-winston
[^41]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVIII, China, 1973-1976, Document 55 (headnote: Lord produced the briefing papers for the trip of November 10 to 14, 1973) and Document 56, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, November 11, 1973 (participants include Winston Lord, Director of Planning and Coordination; David Bruce; Robert McCloskey; John Holdridge). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v18/d55 ; https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v18/d56
[^42]: Council on Foreign Relations, *Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985*: President's Office staff page, the President's Report (departure June 30, 1985) and the letter of David Rockefeller dated August 19, 1985. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section "The Role Of The Order" and the chart caption for Winston Lord. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^44]: *Journals and Records of the 99th United States Congress* (Senate proceedings, including the nomination of Winston Lord, of New York, to be Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the People's Republic of China). https://archive.org/details/us_congress_99
[^45]: *Jordan Times* (1994), report of a Freedom House news conference ("Freedom House Chairwoman Bette Bao Lord"); *The Jerusalem Post* (1994), "Bette Bao Lord, Freedom House chairman"; *International Herald Tribune* (1998), op-ed by Bette Bao Lord ("The writer is chairman of Freedom House"). https://archive.org/details/JordanTimes1994JordanEnglish ; https://archive.org/details/TheJerusalemPost1994IsraelEnglish ; https://archive.org/details/InternationalHeraldTribune1998FranceEnglish
[^46]: *Federal Register*, vol. 46 (1981), notice signed "Charles E. Lord, Acting Comptroller of the Currency," November 24, 1981; *Journals and Records of the 97th United States Congress* (hearing panel of October 30, 1981 including "The Honorable Charles E. Lord, Acting Comptroller of the Currency"; Senate committee action on the nomination of Charles E. Lord of the District of Columbia to be First Vice President of the Export-Import Bank); *Monthly Catalog of United States Government Publications*, 1982 ("Nominations of Charles E. Lord and James E. Yonge: hearing before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs"). https://archive.org/details/federalregister46punit ; https://archive.org/details/us_congress_97 ; https://archive.org/details/6monthlycatalogof1982unit
[^47]: Council on Foreign Relations, *Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985*, membership list, p. 127 ("Charles E. Lord"). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart captions for the Lords ("CHARLES EDWIN LORD, Acting Comptroller of the Currency (1981)"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones

154
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/W. Averell Harriman.md
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@ -80,31 +80,31 @@ relations:
start: 1946
end: 1948
role: "Ambassador to the United Kingdom, then Secretary of Commerce; later Special Representative in Europe"
fn: 45
fn: 47
- type: appointed
with: "[[Harry S. Truman]]"
reverse: true
start: 1951-10-11
role: "Director for Mutual Security, nominated"
fn: 49
fn: 51
- type: director_of
with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
start: 1952
end: 1953
role: "Director"
fn: 51
fn: 53
- type: head_of
with: "[[New York]]"
start: 1955
end: 1958
role: "Governor of New York"
fn: 53
fn: 55
- type: appointed
with: "[[John F. Kennedy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1962-09-21
role: "Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, later Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs"
fn: 56
fn: 58
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Pamela Harriman]]"
start: 1971
@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ Sutton writes that E. H. Harriman bought into the Union Pacific after the crash
### Union Pacific and Illinois Central
The Library of Congress chronology lists Harriman as vice president of the Union Pacific from 1915 to 1917, director of the [[Illinois Central Railroad]] from 1915 to 1946, chairman of the Illinois Central executive committee from 1931 to 1942, and chairman of the board of the Union Pacific from 1932 to 1946.[^1] His brother E. Roland Harriman succeeded him as chairman of the board of the Union Pacific in 1946 and held the post until January 30, 1969, according to the company's annual report for 1968; the same report states that Roland Harriman was elected a director in 1920.[^10] On November 2, 1950, [[Harry S. Truman]] announced at a news conference that Roland Harriman, "a brother of Averell Harriman, Special Assistant to me," would become president of the [[American Red Cross]] on December 1, 1950.[^11] A report of December 1930 describes Judge Lovett as the "now chairman" of E. H. Harriman's Union Pacific.[^12] Sutton's chronology adds that in 1917 Harriman became a director of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]], and states that the Harriman family's holding of about one third of Guaranty stock was put into a [[J. P. Morgan and Company]] voting trust in 1912, when Mrs. Edward Harriman sold 8,000 of the 20,000 outstanding shares to Morgan.[^13][^14] The finding aid states that Harriman "took charge of the Union Pacific Railroad" in the early 1930s and was credited with reviving the line during the worst years of the Depression.[^3]
The Library of Congress chronology lists Harriman as vice president of the Union Pacific from 1915 to 1917, director of the [[Illinois Central Railroad]] from 1915 to 1946, chairman of the Illinois Central executive committee from 1931 to 1942, and chairman of the board of the Union Pacific from 1932 to 1946.[^1] His brother E. Roland Harriman succeeded him as chairman of the board of the Union Pacific in 1946 and held the post until January 30, 1969, according to the company's annual report for 1968; the same report states that Roland Harriman was elected a director in 1920.[^10] On November 2, 1950, [[Harry S. Truman]] announced at a news conference that Roland Harriman, "a brother of Averell Harriman, Special Assistant to me," would become president of the [[American Red Cross]] on December 1, 1950.[^11] A report of December 1930 describes Judge Lovett as the "now chairman" of E. H. Harriman's Union Pacific.[^12] Sutton's chronology adds that in 1917 Harriman became a director of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]], and states that the Harriman family's holding of about one third of Guaranty stock was put into a [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan and Company]] voting trust in 1912, when Mrs. Edward Harriman sold 8,000 of the 20,000 outstanding shares to Morgan.[^13][^14] The finding aid states that Harriman "took charge of the Union Pacific Railroad" in the early 1930s and was credited with reviving the line during the worst years of the Depression.[^3]
### Shipping and the Hamburg-American Line
@ -135,71 +135,73 @@ The Harriman papers contain incoming and outgoing cable files with the Hamburg-A
The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of W. A. Harriman and Company from 1920 to 1931; a report of December 1930 states that he and his brother formed the firm in 1919. The same report says the firm "was one of the first to enter Europe after the War, made many a loan in Germany," was active in Polish financing, financed Silesian zinc mines with the [[Anaconda Copper Mining Company|Anaconda]] group, and in 1929 backed the Aviation Corporation together with [[Lehman Brothers]].[^1][^12] Sutton's chronology lists 1920 as the year the firm was established with Roland Harriman as vice president.[^13]
The firm also bought the Dresser family's business (later [[Dresser Industries]]) in Bradford, Pennsylvania, in 1928. The company history describes W. A. Harriman and Company as "an investment-banking firm intending to make the Dresser business into a public company with separate ownership and management," and says the share count rose from 5,000 to 300,000, with 100,000 Class A shares offered at $48 each.[^17] The Handbook of Texas entry names [[Prescott Bush]] as a W. A. Harriman and Company executive involved in the conversion, and Darwin Payne's 1979 corporate history places E. Roland Harriman among the firm's principals.[^18]
### The Georgian manganese concession
The Soviet government concluded a concession contract with the American company "Harriman ('The Georgian Manganese' Stock Company)" dated June 12, 1925, relating to property nationalized by the Georgian Soviet decrees; the Soviet side cited it in 1936 as an example of a concession made by the Union government for property nationalized by a constituent republic.[^17] The Hoover Institution holds an agreement of 1925 between the Tchitouri Manganese Exporting Society (Tchemo) and W. A. Harriman and Company, and the Harriman papers list a Tchemo agreement and a syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925, an assignment from W. A. Harriman and Company of July 18, 1925, property of voting trustees of August 10, 1925, and an ore-shipment contract of November 1925.[^18][^19] Sutton gives the date of the concession agreement as July 12, 1925, states that four million dollars was spent on mechanizing the mines and on a loading elevator at [[Poti]], and writes that the chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company was Matthew C. Brush, whom he calls the Order's "front man." Sutton's chronology dates the formation of the company to 1923.[^13][^20]
The Soviet government concluded a concession contract with the American company "Harriman ('The Georgian Manganese' Stock Company)" dated June 12, 1925, relating to property nationalized by the Georgian Soviet decrees; the Soviet side cited it in 1936 as an example of a concession made by the Union government for property nationalized by a constituent republic.[^19] The Hoover Institution holds an agreement of 1925 between the Tchitouri Manganese Exporting Society (Tchemo) and W. A. Harriman and Company, and the Harriman papers list a Tchemo agreement and a syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925, an assignment from W. A. Harriman and Company of July 18, 1925, property of voting trustees of August 10, 1925, and an ore-shipment contract of November 1925.[^20][^21] Sutton gives the date of the concession agreement as July 12, 1925, states that four million dollars was spent on mechanizing the mines and on a loading elevator at [[Poti]], and writes that the chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company was Matthew C. Brush, whom he calls the Order's "front man." Sutton's chronology dates the formation of the company to 1923.[^13][^22]
A report of March 1926 ranked the manganese rights obtained by the Harriman interests second among the concessions granted to foreigners, after the Volga timber concessions given to the former German chancellor [[Joseph Wirth]]. A report of July 1927 states that the Soviets had reconfirmed the concession and that the British had been using their offices to thwart it.[^21][^22] The Library of Congress lists a trip to the USSR in 1926 and the investment as running 1925 to 1928; its files include Harriman's correspondence while in the USSR for 1926 and 1927, his resignation in 1928, a termination agreement of August 21 to 28, 1928, and Soviet notes from 1928 to 1943.[^1][^19] The Soviet Bureau of Foreign Concessions announced in July 1928 the "amicable termination" of the 22-year concession after three years, with the 3,500,000 dollars spent by the concessionaires to be treated as a loan repaid by the Soviet government.[^23] Sutton wrote that the Soviets expropriated the concessions of the 1920s, including Harriman's, usually without reimbursement, and that Harriman took three million dollars in Soviet bonds as compensation. Sutton quotes a statement of Harriman to [[John B. Stetson Jr.]] of the State Department: "Mr. Harriman said that they expect to drop about three million dollars which they would charge off to experience."[^24]
A report of March 1926 ranked the manganese rights obtained by the Harriman interests second among the concessions granted to foreigners, after the Volga timber concessions given to the former German chancellor [[Joseph Wirth]]. A report of July 1927 states that the Soviets had reconfirmed the concession and that the British had been using their offices to thwart it.[^23][^24] The Library of Congress lists a trip to the USSR in 1926 and the investment as running 1925 to 1928; its files include Harriman's correspondence while in the USSR for 1926 and 1927, his resignation in 1928, a termination agreement of August 21 to 28, 1928, and Soviet notes from 1928 to 1943.[^1][^21] The Soviet Bureau of Foreign Concessions announced in July 1928 the "amicable termination" of the 22-year concession after three years, with the 3,500,000 dollars spent by the concessionaires to be treated as a loan repaid by the Soviet government.[^25] Sutton wrote that the Soviets expropriated the concessions of the 1920s, including Harriman's, usually without reimbursement, and that Harriman took three million dollars in Soviet bonds as compensation. Sutton quotes a statement of Harriman to [[John B. Stetson Jr.]] of the State Department: "Mr. Harriman said that they expect to drop about three million dollars which they would charge off to experience."[^26]
A second Soviet-related business, the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, is documented in the Harriman papers for 1921 to 1952, including its consolidation with the Georgia Manganese Company in 1927 and an agreement with the Soviet government in 1928. A folder in the same files is titled "Reynders, John V. W. re J. Henry Schroder Banking Corp. acquisition of Thyssen stock, 1940."[^25] The Georgian National Archives hold a photograph of Harriman in Poti dated about 1920 to 1921, and the description attached to the image states that "Harriman's company held the concession for the Chiatura manganese mines during this period."[^26] Sutton writes that Harriman participated in [[Ruskombank]], the first Soviet commercial bank, whose first vice president for foreign operations was Max May of Guaranty Trust Company.[^27]
A second Soviet-related business, the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, is documented in the Harriman papers for 1921 to 1952, including its consolidation with the Georgia Manganese Company in 1927 and an agreement with the Soviet government in 1928. A folder in the same files is titled "Reynders, John V. W. re J. Henry Schroder Banking Corp. acquisition of Thyssen stock, 1940."[^27] The Georgian National Archives hold a photograph of Harriman in Poti dated about 1920 to 1921, and the description attached to the image states that "Harriman's company held the concession for the Chiatura manganese mines during this period."[^28] Sutton writes that Harriman participated in [[Ruskombank]], the first Soviet commercial bank, whose first vice president for foreign operations was Max May of Guaranty Trust Company.[^29]
### Brown Brothers Harriman
On December 22, 1930 the merger of Brown Brothers and Company and the Harriman firms was reported as completed "last week"; the report counts 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman and Company, eleven of them Yale graduates, and notes that partner [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] was a classmate of the Harriman partners Edward Roland Noel Harriman, [[Prescott Bush]] and [[Knight Woolley]], and that Robert A. Lovett was the son of Judge Lovett.[^12] The firm's own history states that the merger was first discussed among six partners in November 1930, that twelve of 17 partners had graduated from Yale, and that in 1931 an emergency infusion of 10 million dollars from Averell and Roland Harriman averted collapse after Germany declared a standstill on debt payments to foreign creditors.[^28] A finding aid for the firm's records gives 1931 as the year Brown Brothers merged with the Harriman interests.[^29] The printed circular announcing the union, dated January 2, 1931, states that "effective January 1, 1931" the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., Harriman Brothers & Co. and W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. were united in Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^30] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date Averell and Roland Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank (organized on St. Patrick's Day 1927 under the name W. A. Harriman & Co. and renamed Harriman Brothers & Co.), and January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946 as his term as general partner of the merged firm, with limited partner status afterward.[^30] The firm's history records that he chaired the Department of Commerce Business Advisory Council from 1937 to 1939 and served with the N.R.A., the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the [[Office of Production Management]] before going to Great Britain for lend-lease.[^30] [[Zachary Karabell]] wrote that the merger was announced on December 12, 1930, and that Harriman "was flush with the millions provided by his father's fortune" but "his business was struggling as well."[^31] The Library of Congress lists Harriman as a partner from 1931 to 1946, and holds a cable file of Brown Brothers Harriman for 1931.[^1][^16] The report describes Brown Brothers as formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, with an associate house, Brown, Shipley and Company, in which Montagu Norman had been a partner before becoming head of the Bank of England. Sutton's chronology gives 1933 for the merger and lists the Brown Brothers Harriman partners who were members of the society, including Averell Harriman (class of 1913) and Roland Harriman (class of 1917).[^13]
On December 22, 1930 the merger of Brown Brothers and Company and the Harriman firms was reported as completed "last week"; the report counts 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman and Company, eleven of them Yale graduates, and notes that partner [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] was a classmate of the Harriman partners Edward Roland Noel Harriman, Prescott Bush and [[Knight Woolley]], and that Robert A. Lovett was the son of Judge Lovett.[^12] The firm's own history states that the merger was first discussed among six partners in November 1930, that twelve of 17 partners had graduated from Yale, and that in 1931 an emergency infusion of 10 million dollars from Averell and Roland Harriman averted collapse after Germany declared a standstill on debt payments to foreign creditors.[^30] A finding aid for the firm's records gives 1931 as the year Brown Brothers merged with the Harriman interests.[^31] The printed circular announcing the union, dated January 2, 1931, states that "effective January 1, 1931" the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., Harriman Brothers & Co. and W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. were united in Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^32] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date Averell and Roland Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank (organized on St. Patrick's Day 1927 under the name W. A. Harriman & Co. and renamed Harriman Brothers & Co.), and January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946 as his term as general partner of the merged firm, with limited partner status afterward.[^32] The firm's history records that he chaired the Department of Commerce Business Advisory Council from 1937 to 1939 and served with the N.R.A., the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the [[Office of Production Management]] before going to Great Britain for lend-lease.[^32] [[Zachary Karabell]] wrote that the merger was announced on December 12, 1930, and that Harriman "was flush with the millions provided by his father's fortune" but "his business was struggling as well."[^33] The Library of Congress lists Harriman as a partner from 1931 to 1946, and holds a cable file of Brown Brothers Harriman for 1931.[^1][^16] The report describes Brown Brothers as formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, with an associate house, Brown, Shipley and Company, in which Montagu Norman had been a partner before becoming head of the Bank of England. Sutton's chronology gives 1933 for the merger and lists the Brown Brothers Harriman partners who were members of the society, including Averell Harriman (class of 1913) and Roland Harriman (class of 1917).[^13]
### Union Banking Corporation
A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, Cornelis Lievense, believed Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]] might own a substantial interest. It records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which 3,085,000 dollars was delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank on June 15, 1934, and states that "In the fall of 1938, during the Munich crisis, Union Banking Corporation held two million dollars in currency in a safe deposit box in New York, but this sum was subsequently deposited in the company's account with Brown Brothers, Harriman."[^32]
A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, Cornelis Lievense, believed Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]] might own a substantial interest. It records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which 3,085,000 dollars was delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank on June 15, 1934, and states that "In the fall of 1938, during the Munich crisis, Union Banking Corporation held two million dollars in currency in a safe deposit box in New York, but this sum was subsequently deposited in the company's account with Brown Brothers, Harriman."[^34]
On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, vesting the 4,000 shares of Union Banking Corporation, published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, [[Cornelius Lievense]] with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which it describes as owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]]. W. Averell Harriman is not among the registered owners.[^33] Sutton writes that "the Harrimans had a financial interest in" the corporation, that Roland was a director, and that Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E. S. James and Knight Woolley were "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) prime financial backers of Hitler"; he lists eight directors in 1932: E. Roland Harriman, H. J. Kouwenhoven, Knight Woolley, Cornelius Lievense, Ellery Sedgwick James, Johann Groninger, J. L. Guinter and Prescott Sheldon Bush.[^34] A [[Council on Foreign Relations]] table of November 1951 lists Brown Brothers Harriman officers who were members as E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^35]
On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, vesting the 4,000 shares of Union Banking Corporation, published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, [[Cornelius Lievense]] with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which it describes as owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]]. W. Averell Harriman is not among the registered owners.[^35] Sutton writes that "the Harrimans had a financial interest in" the corporation, that Roland was a director, and that Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E. S. James and Knight Woolley were "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) prime financial backers of Hitler"; he lists eight directors in 1932: E. Roland Harriman, H. J. Kouwenhoven, Knight Woolley, Cornelius Lievense, Ellery Sedgwick James, Johann Groninger, J. L. Guinter and Prescott Sheldon Bush.[^36] A [[Council on Foreign Relations]] table of November 1951 lists Brown Brothers Harriman officers who were members as E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^37]
### Today, Newsweek and the Business Advisory Council
The Library of Congress lists Harriman as co-founder with [[Vincent Astor]] of the weekly Today in 1933, merged with [[Newsweek]] in 1937, and as chairman of the [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939; he held the position of Administrator and special assistant at the [[National Recovery Administration]] in 1934 and 1935 and founded the Sun Valley ski resort in Idaho in 1935 and 1936.[^1] On September 11, 1933 Astor and Harriman announced a weekly, Today, to be edited by [[Raymond Moley]].[^36] On March 17, 1961 [[Philip Graham]] sent [[Alfred Friendly]] to Rome to secure a pledge from Harriman, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell his 13 percent holding in Newsweek to the [[Washington Post]].[^37]
The Library of Congress lists Harriman as co-founder with [[Vincent Astor]] of the weekly Today in 1933, merged with [[Newsweek]] in 1937, and as chairman of the [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939; he held the position of Administrator and special assistant at the [[National Recovery Administration]] in 1934 and 1935 and founded the Sun Valley ski resort in Idaho in 1935 and 1936.[^1] On September 11, 1933 Astor and Harriman announced a weekly, Today, to be edited by [[Raymond Moley]].[^38] On March 17, 1961 [[Philip Graham]] sent [[Alfred Friendly]] to Rome to secure a pledge from Harriman, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell his 13 percent holding in Newsweek to the [[Washington Post]].[^39]
### Lend-Lease and the Moscow embassy
Harriman became [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s special representative to Great Britain with the rank of ambassador in March 1941, serving until September 1943, and chaired the President's special mission to the USSR.[^1][^3] On August 6, 1941 the Secretary of State sent [[Winant]], the ambassador in the United Kingdom, a telegram marked "Personal from Harriman" relaying a conversation with [[Brendan Bracken]], the British Minister of Information, about American belief that Britain was using Lend-Lease materials to foster and retain its commercial exports.[^38]
Harriman became [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s special representative to Great Britain with the rank of ambassador in March 1941, serving until September 1943, and chaired the President's special mission to the USSR.[^1][^3] On August 6, 1941 the Secretary of State sent [[Winant]], the ambassador in the United Kingdom, a telegram marked "Personal from Harriman" relaying a conversation with [[Brendan Bracken]], the British Minister of Information, about American belief that Britain was using Lend-Lease materials to foster and retain its commercial exports.[^40]
He was ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1946.[^1] A telegram of February 10, 1944 from Moscow reports a conversation with [[Anastas Mikoyan]] about the Persian route and the decorations proposed for the American officers who supervised it.[^39] On February 13, 1944 he wrote to [[Harry Hopkins]] that he did not intend to object to a supplementary agreement to the Third Protocol and that the Department had indicated legal difficulties in arranging a reconstruction credit under the [[Johnson Act]].[^40] Sutton quotes a report of June 30, 1944 from Harriman in Moscow to the State Department in which Stalin is said to have stated that about two-thirds of all the large industrial enterprises in the Soviet Union had been built with United States help or technical assistance.[^41] On February 10, 1944 the Acting Secretary of State had sent Harriman the replies approved by the President to three questions asked by the Polish government.[^42]
He was ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1946.[^1] A telegram of February 10, 1944 from Moscow reports a conversation with [[Anastas Mikoyan]] about the Persian route and the decorations proposed for the American officers who supervised it.[^41] On February 13, 1944 he wrote to [[Harry Hopkins]] that he did not intend to object to a supplementary agreement to the Third Protocol and that the Department had indicated legal difficulties in arranging a reconstruction credit under the [[Johnson Act]].[^42] Sutton quotes a report of June 30, 1944 from Harriman in Moscow to the State Department in which Stalin is said to have stated that about two-thirds of all the large industrial enterprises in the Soviet Union had been built with United States help or technical assistance.[^43] On February 10, 1944 the Acting Secretary of State had sent Harriman the replies approved by the President to three questions asked by the Polish government.[^44]
Sutton reproduces an account of a dinner party in 1971 at which, he writes, the journalist [[Edward Weintal]] told Harriman: "You told Roosevelt that you were convinced that the Soviets did not want to introduce a Communist government into Poland." Sutton states that Weintal cited a State Department telegram of February 12, 1944 from Harriman to Roosevelt, that Harriman shouted "If you print anything like that in your book, I'll break your jaw," and that a Washington Post reporter noted the details in a column by [[Maxine Cheshire]] of March 17, 1971.[^43]
Sutton reproduces an account of a dinner party in 1971 at which, he writes, the journalist [[Edward Weintal]] told Harriman: "You told Roosevelt that you were convinced that the Soviets did not want to introduce a Communist government into Poland." Sutton states that Weintal cited a State Department telegram of February 12, 1944 from Harriman to Roosevelt, that Harriman shouted "If you print anything like that in your book, I'll break your jaw," and that a Washington Post reporter noted the details in a column by [[Maxine Cheshire]] of March 17, 1971.[^45]
### Ambassador to the United Kingdom and Secretary of Commerce
The State Department records that Harriman resigned as ambassador to the Soviet Union in February 1946 and assumed his duties as ambassador in the United Kingdom in April 1946.[^44] On April 22, 1948 President Truman accepted his resignation as United States Secretary of Commerce, effective that day, so that he could take up the administration of the European Recovery Program.[^45] The Library of Congress lists the commerce post as 1946 to 1948, and states that Truman named him ambassador to the Court of St. James's before recalling him to Washington to become secretary of commerce.[^1][^3] [[Harry Kern]] and the historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern and Harriman, as Secretary of Commerce, helped to turn American occupation policy in Japan away from democratic reform.[^46]
The State Department records that Harriman resigned as ambassador to the Soviet Union in February 1946 and assumed his duties as ambassador in the United Kingdom in April 1946.[^46] On April 22, 1948 President Truman accepted his resignation as United States Secretary of Commerce, effective that day, so that he could take up the administration of the European Recovery Program.[^47] The Library of Congress lists the commerce post as 1946 to 1948, and states that Truman named him ambassador to the Court of St. James's before recalling him to Washington to become secretary of commerce.[^1][^3] [[Harry Kern]] and the historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern and Harriman, as Secretary of Commerce, helped to turn American occupation policy in Japan away from democratic reform.[^48]
### The Marshall Plan
In May 1948 Truman sent Harriman to Paris as Special Representative in Europe to carry out the European Recovery Program, and he returned to the United States in mid-1950 to become the president's special assistant.[^3] [[Lincoln Gordon]] worked under Harriman on the Marshall Plan mission in London. [[Vernon Walters]] served as Harriman's aide at Marshall Plan headquarters in Paris.[^47] [[Robert R. Mullen]] recalled that he and [[E. Howard Hunt]] both worked for the Marshall Plan in Paris from 1948 to 1950, when [[Dorothy Hunt]] was employed by Harriman.[^48] The Library of Congress files for the period also record his mediation in the British-Iranian oil crisis of 1951 and the Korean War controversy over the dismissal of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].[^3]
In May 1948 Truman sent Harriman to Paris as Special Representative in Europe to carry out the European Recovery Program, and he returned to the United States in mid-1950 to become the president's special assistant.[^3] [[Lincoln Gordon]] worked under Harriman on the Marshall Plan mission in London. [[Vernon Walters]] served as Harriman's aide at Marshall Plan headquarters in Paris.[^49] [[Robert R. Mullen]] recalled that he and [[E. Howard Hunt]] both worked for the Marshall Plan in Paris from 1948 to 1950, when [[Dorothy Hunt]] was employed by Harriman.[^50] The Library of Congress files for the period also record his mediation in the British-Iranian oil crisis of 1951 and the Korean War controversy over the dismissal of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].[^3]
### Mutual Security and the Council on Foreign Relations
The volume of Foreign Relations of the United States for 1951 records that the [[International Security Affairs Committee]] was to be abolished and that Harriman had been nominated as Director for Mutual Security on October 11, 1951; the Library of Congress lists him as director of the [[Mutual Security Agency]] from 1951 to 1953 and chairman of the North Atlantic Commission on Defense Plans in 1951 and 1952.[^1][^49] On December 12, 1950 [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement of a Council study group on aid to Europe, noting in the covering letter that [[Allen Dulles]] had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^50] The Council's officers for 1952 to 1953 included Harriman among the directors, and he is listed among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more.[^51][^52]
The volume of Foreign Relations of the United States for 1951 records that the [[International Security Affairs Committee]] was to be abolished and that Harriman had been nominated as Director for Mutual Security on October 11, 1951; the Library of Congress lists him as director of the [[Mutual Security Agency]] from 1951 to 1953 and chairman of the North Atlantic Commission on Defense Plans in 1951 and 1952.[^1][^51] On December 12, 1950 [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement of a Council study group on aid to Europe, noting in the covering letter that [[Allen Dulles]] had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^52] The Council's officers for 1952 to 1953 included Harriman among the directors, and he is listed among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more.[^53][^54]
### Governor of New York
Harriman was governor of New York from 1955 to 1958; the Library of Congress lists the term as 1955 to 1959 and notes that the papers of the governorship are held at Syracuse University.[^1][^53] [[Mary Lasker]] recalled in her Columbia oral history that Harriman asked for suggestions for a commissioner of mental hygiene soon after the election, and that [[Lester Markel]] of the New York Times telephoned to ask whether she knew [[Paul Hoch]], then in charge of research at the institute; Hoch's appointment was announced in July 1955.[^54] The Columbia oral history of [[Grayson Kirk]], held by the Eisenhower Library, covers Harriman's donation of the Arden House estate to [[Columbia University]].[^55]
Harriman was governor of New York from 1955 to 1958; the Library of Congress lists the term as 1955 to 1959 and notes that the papers of the governorship are held at Syracuse University.[^1][^55] [[Mary Lasker]] recalled in her Columbia oral history that Harriman asked for suggestions for a commissioner of mental hygiene soon after the election, and that [[Lester Markel]] of the New York Times telephoned to ask whether she knew [[Paul Hoch]], then in charge of research at the institute; Hoch's appointment was announced in July 1955.[^56] The Columbia oral history of [[Grayson Kirk]], held by the Eisenhower Library, covers Harriman's donation of the Arden House estate to [[Columbia University]].[^57]
### Kennedy administration and Vietnam
By September 1962 Harriman was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, and by August 1963 Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs.[^56][^57] On August 24, 1963 the State Department sent telegram 243 to [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] in Saigon, stating that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands" and instructing the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." The telegram was signed by [[George Ball]].[^58] A memorandum for the record by [[Victor Krulak]] of the same day records the account of [[Michael Forrestal]] that "Hilsman and Governor Harriman" had converted a proposed course of action into an instruction to Lodge, that it had been sent to the President for approval, and that it was not something on which Defense clearance was desired.[^59] [[Maxwell Taylor]] said in 1981 that the telegram had been drafted by Harriman, [[Roger Hilsman]] and Forrestal and dispatched "without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or the CIA," and called it an "end run" in his memoirs; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^60]
By September 1962 Harriman was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, and by August 1963 Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs.[^58][^59] On August 24, 1963 the State Department sent telegram 243 to [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] in Saigon, stating that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands" and instructing the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." The telegram was signed by [[George Ball]].[^60] A memorandum for the record by [[Victor Krulak]] of the same day records the account of [[Michael Forrestal]] that "Hilsman and Governor Harriman" had converted a proposed course of action into an instruction to Lodge, that it had been sent to the President for approval, and that it was not something on which Defense clearance was desired.[^61] [[Maxwell Taylor]] said in 1981 that the telegram had been drafted by Harriman, [[Roger Hilsman]] and Forrestal and dispatched "without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or the CIA," and called it an "end run" in his memoirs; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^62]
On October 7, 1963 Harriman attended a White House meeting on Brazil with Kennedy, [[Robert McNamara]], [[Edwin Martin]] and Lincoln Gordon, at which Kennedy asked whether the United States might find it desirable to intervene militarily.[^61] On June 19, 1963 he attended the meeting at which Kennedy approved a sabotage program against Cuba, one of the programs later grouped as [[Operation Mongoose]], with [[John McCone]] and McGeorge Bundy present.[^62]
On October 7, 1963 Harriman attended a White House meeting on Brazil with Kennedy, [[Robert McNamara]], [[Edwin Martin]] and Lincoln Gordon, at which Kennedy asked whether the United States might find it desirable to intervene militarily.[^63] On June 19, 1963 he attended the meeting at which Kennedy approved a sabotage program against Cuba, one of the programs later grouped as [[Operation Mongoose]], with [[John McCone]] and McGeorge Bundy present.[^64]
### Laos
Harriman headed the American delegation to the Geneva conference on Laos in 1961 and 1962; the Library of Congress lists him as deputy representative to the conference.[^1][^63] A memorandum of his conversation with the North Vietnamese foreign minister at Geneva on July 22, 1962 records that he said the United States intended to carry out the Laos agreements "in the letter and in the spirit," including the removal of its military personnel from Laos.[^64] The State Department editorial note states that "On July 23, Secretary Rusk signed for the United States the Declaration on the Neutrality of Laos."[^65]
Harriman headed the American delegation to the Geneva conference on Laos in 1961 and 1962; the Library of Congress lists him as deputy representative to the conference.[^1][^65] A memorandum of his conversation with the North Vietnamese foreign minister at Geneva on July 22, 1962 records that he said the United States intended to carry out the Laos agreements "in the letter and in the spirit," including the removal of its military personnel from Laos.[^66] The State Department editorial note states that "On July 23, Secretary Rusk signed for the United States the Declaration on the Neutrality of Laos."[^67]
### Paris peace talks
In October 1968 Harriman and [[Cyrus Vance]] led the American side in the Paris talks on Vietnam. A telegram from the Paris embassy dated October 9, 1968 is headed "From Harriman and Vance" and reports a meeting in which [[Le Duc Tho]], [[Xuan Thuy]] and Lau joined the Americans during a tea break.[^66]
In October 1968 Harriman and [[Cyrus Vance]] led the American side in the Paris talks on Vietnam. A telegram from the Paris embassy dated October 9, 1968 is headed "From Harriman and Vance" and reports a meeting in which [[Le Duc Tho]], [[Xuan Thuy]] and Lau joined the Americans during a tea break.[^68]
### Marriages and papers
The Library of Congress lists Harriman's marriages as 1915 to Kathleen Lanier Lawrence (divorced 1929), 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970) and 1971 to [[Pamela Harriman]], formerly Pamela Digby Churchill Hayward. Sutton notes that Pamela Hayward had been married to [[Randolph Churchill]].[^1][^13]
The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division run to 346,760 items in 1,041 containers, with series for the Georgian Manganese Company and the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, and a Classified, Top Secret, Restricted Data and Sensitive Compartmented Information series for 1946 to 1980.[^3] FRUS volume III for 1961 to 1963 records that its documents were drawn from the papers while still in the possession of the late ambassador, and other volumes cite the Chronology File for May to August 1962.[^30][^64]
The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division run to 346,760 items in 1,041 containers, with series for the Georgian Manganese Company and the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, and a Classified, Top Secret, Restricted Data and Sensitive Compartmented Information series for 1946 to 1980.[^3] FRUS volume III for 1961 to 1963 records that its documents were drawn from the papers while still in the possession of the late ambassador, and other volumes cite the Chronology File for May to August 1962.[^32][^66]
### Footnotes
@ -219,53 +221,55 @@ The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division ru
[^14]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology and the section "The Guaranty Trust Company."
[^15]: "Sanction Plan to Run Ships on German Routes," The Omaha Bee, August 17, 1920, p. 2 (Washington dispatch of August 16, 1920). https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn99021999/1920-08-17/ed-1/seq-2
[^16]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Library of Congress, Special Files: Business (cables incoming and outgoing, Hamburg-American Line 1920 to 1926; Cuno, Wilhelm, 1920 to 1931; Brown Brothers Harriman and Co., 1931), Subject File (Hamburg-American Line, 1933 to 1937, Box 56; United American Lines re sale of steamers, 1926). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^17]: Telegram, the Chargé in the Soviet Union (Henderson) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, September 22, 1936, Foreign Relations of the United States, The Soviet Union, 1933 to 1939, document 334. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1933-39/d334
[^18]: W. A. Harriman and Company agreement, 1925, Hoover Institution Library and Archives (Online Archive of California). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp
[^19]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925; property of voting trustees, August 10, 1925; ore shipments, November 1925 contract; Harriman correspondence while in USSR, 1926 to 1927; resignation, 1928; termination agreement, August 21 to 28, 1928; Soviet notes). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^20]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), section "How the Order Developed the Stagnant Soviet Union" (concession agreement of July 12, 1925; four million dollars; Matthew C. Brush; State Department Decimal File 316-138-12/331), and the Order chart naming Brush as chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company.
[^21]: "Russia: Concessions," Time, March 15, 1926. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736634,00.html
[^22]: Time, July 25, 1927, on the Soviet reconfirmation of the Harriman manganese concession. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736830,00.html
[^23]: "Foreign News: Harriman Out," Time, July 16, 1928. https://time.com/archive/6778286/foreign-news-harriman-out/
[^24]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, discussing Harriman's article in Look, October 3, 1967, and State Department file 861.637-Harriman (Stetson).
[^25]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, 1921 to 1952 (Boxes 710 to 731). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^26]: National Archives of Georgia photograph, "American Industrialist W. Averell Harriman in Poti, c. 1920," institutional description, Internet Archive item. https://archive.org/details/043-harriman-in-poti-with-mikaberidze-c-1920-01
[^27]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples of the Order's activity (Ruskombank and Max May of Guaranty Trust).
[^28]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
[^29]: Brown Brothers Harriman records, finding aid, New-York Historical Society collection at NYU. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
[^30]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 19, 202 and partner table pp. 231 to 234. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^31]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 15 to 16. https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
[^32]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA (NND 960103). https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay
[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, 7 Federal Register 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^34]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples and section "The Union Banking Connection" (directors in 1932, Roland Harriman as director).
[^35]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^36]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/
[^37]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/
[^38]: Telegram, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), Washington, August 6, 1941, "Personal from Harriman," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941, vol. III. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d14
[^39]: Telegram 440, Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, February 10, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 761. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d761
[^40]: Telegram, Harriman to the Chairman of the President's Soviet Protocol Committee (Hopkins), Moscow, February 13, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 957. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d957
[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, citing State Department Decimal File 033.1161 Johnston Eric/6-3044, telegram of June 30, 1944.
[^42]: Telegram, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman), Washington, February 10, 1944, 8 p.m., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. III, document 1162. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v03/d1162
[^43]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, passage on Edward Weintal, citing the Washington Post, March 17, 1971, VIP column by Maxine Cheshire.
[^44]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. VI, document 420, editorial headnote. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v06/d420
[^45]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to Secretary Harriman Following His Nomination as U.S. Special Representative in Europe, April 22, 1948, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/83/letter-secretary-harriman-following-his-nomination-us-special
[^46]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), p. 7.
[^47]: Vernon Walters, *Silent Missions* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978).
[^48]: Central Intelligence Agency, Central Cover Staff, "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00297384.
[^49]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, document 769 and its headnote on the Mutual Security Agency. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v01/d769
[^50]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7
[^51]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952), Officers and Standing Committees, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3
[^52]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985), Campaign for the Council, individual donors of $10,000 or more, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^53]: Empire State Plaza, Hall of Governors, "W. Averell Harriman, 48th Governor, 1955 to 1958," New York State Office of General Services. https://empirestateplaza.ny.gov/node/3471
[^54]: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Research Office, Mary Lasker oral history, transcript pages laskerm_1_19_570 and laskerm_1_19_572. https://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/laskerm/transcripts/laskerm_1_19_572.html ; University at Albany, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, record of a 1956 interview of Dr. Paul H. Hoch, Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap015aspace_033e27487bc26a06ec8cf9fd535fb0c3
[^55]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-364, Grayson L. Kirk, interview by David Horrocks, 1975. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa364.pdf
[^56]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 423, Memorandum from the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Johnson) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Harriman), September 21, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d423
[^57]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 243, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman) and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Hilsman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d243
[^58]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 281, Telegram 243, Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, Washington, August 24, 1963, 9:36 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
[^59]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 282, Memorandum for the Record by Krulak, August 24, 1963. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d282
[^60]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War," *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war ; *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. III, document 281, source note citing Taylor, *Swords and Plowshares*, pp. 292-294, and Hilsman, *To Move a Nation*, pp. 487-488. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
[^61]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, Document 9 (White House meeting recording, October 7, 1963; present: Kennedy, Harriman, McNamara, Martin, Gordon and others).
[^62]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 337 and pp. 172 to 173 (Special Group minutes and memorandum of June 19, 1963). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^63]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 106, Paper Prepared by the Head of the Delegation to the Laos Conference (Harriman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d106
[^64]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 410, Memorandum of Conversation, Geneva, July 22, 1962, source Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Harriman Papers, Chronology File, May to August 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d410
[^65]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 411, Editorial Note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d411
[^66]: Telegram 805 (Delto), Embassy in France to the Department of State, Paris, October 9, 1968, "From Harriman and Vance," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 to 1968, vol. VII, document 54. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v07/d54
[^17]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc." (St. James Press), reproduced on Encyclopedia.com, section on the 1928 sale to W. A. Harriman and Company. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^18]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (1979), on the Harriman partners and the 1928 conversion; Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*, Texas State Historical Association, section on the 1928 conversion. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries
[^19]: Telegram, the Chargé in the Soviet Union (Henderson) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, September 22, 1936, Foreign Relations of the United States, The Soviet Union, 1933 to 1939, document 334. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1933-39/d334
[^20]: W. A. Harriman and Company agreement, 1925, Hoover Institution Library and Archives (Online Archive of California). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp
[^21]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925; property of voting trustees, August 10, 1925; ore shipments, November 1925 contract; Harriman correspondence while in USSR, 1926 to 1927; resignation, 1928; termination agreement, August 21 to 28, 1928; Soviet notes). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^22]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), section "How the Order Developed the Stagnant Soviet Union" (concession agreement of July 12, 1925; four million dollars; Matthew C. Brush; State Department Decimal File 316-138-12/331), and the Order chart naming Brush as chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company.
[^23]: "Russia: Concessions," Time, March 15, 1926. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736634,00.html
[^24]: Time, July 25, 1927, on the Soviet reconfirmation of the Harriman manganese concession. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736830,00.html
[^25]: "Foreign News: Harriman Out," Time, July 16, 1928. https://time.com/archive/6778286/foreign-news-harriman-out/
[^26]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, discussing Harriman's article in Look, October 3, 1967, and State Department file 861.637-Harriman (Stetson).
[^27]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, 1921 to 1952 (Boxes 710 to 731). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^28]: National Archives of Georgia photograph, "American Industrialist W. Averell Harriman in Poti, c. 1920," institutional description, Internet Archive item. https://archive.org/details/043-harriman-in-poti-with-mikaberidze-c-1920-01
[^29]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples of the Order's activity (Ruskombank and Max May of Guaranty Trust).
[^30]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
[^31]: Brown Brothers Harriman records, finding aid, New-York Historical Society collection at NYU. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
[^32]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 19, 202 and partner table pp. 231 to 234. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^33]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 15 to 16. https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
[^34]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA (NND 960103). https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay
[^35]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, 7 Federal Register 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^36]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples and section "The Union Banking Connection" (directors in 1932, Roland Harriman as director).
[^37]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^38]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/
[^39]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/
[^40]: Telegram, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), Washington, August 6, 1941, "Personal from Harriman," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941, vol. III. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d14
[^41]: Telegram 440, Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, February 10, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 761. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d761
[^42]: Telegram, Harriman to the Chairman of the President's Soviet Protocol Committee (Hopkins), Moscow, February 13, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 957. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d957
[^43]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, citing State Department Decimal File 033.1161 Johnston Eric/6-3044, telegram of June 30, 1944.
[^44]: Telegram, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman), Washington, February 10, 1944, 8 p.m., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. III, document 1162. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v03/d1162
[^45]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, passage on Edward Weintal, citing the Washington Post, March 17, 1971, VIP column by Maxine Cheshire.
[^46]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. VI, document 420, editorial headnote. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v06/d420
[^47]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to Secretary Harriman Following His Nomination as U.S. Special Representative in Europe, April 22, 1948, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/83/letter-secretary-harriman-following-his-nomination-us-special
[^48]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), p. 7.
[^49]: Vernon Walters, *Silent Missions* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978).
[^50]: Central Intelligence Agency, Central Cover Staff, "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00297384.
[^51]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, document 769 and its headnote on the Mutual Security Agency. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v01/d769
[^52]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7
[^53]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952), Officers and Standing Committees, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3
[^54]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985), Campaign for the Council, individual donors of $10,000 or more, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^55]: Empire State Plaza, Hall of Governors, "W. Averell Harriman, 48th Governor, 1955 to 1958," New York State Office of General Services. https://empirestateplaza.ny.gov/node/3471
[^56]: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Research Office, Mary Lasker oral history, transcript pages laskerm_1_19_570 and laskerm_1_19_572. https://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/laskerm/transcripts/laskerm_1_19_572.html ; University at Albany, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, record of a 1956 interview of Dr. Paul H. Hoch, Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap015aspace_033e27487bc26a06ec8cf9fd535fb0c3
[^57]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-364, Grayson L. Kirk, interview by David Horrocks, 1975. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa364.pdf
[^58]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 423, Memorandum from the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Johnson) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Harriman), September 21, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d423
[^59]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 243, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman) and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Hilsman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d243
[^60]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 281, Telegram 243, Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, Washington, August 24, 1963, 9:36 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
[^61]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 282, Memorandum for the Record by Krulak, August 24, 1963. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d282
[^62]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War," *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war ; *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. III, document 281, source note citing Taylor, *Swords and Plowshares*, pp. 292-294, and Hilsman, *To Move a Nation*, pp. 487-488. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
[^63]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, Document 9 (White House meeting recording, October 7, 1963; present: Kennedy, Harriman, McNamara, Martin, Gordon and others).
[^64]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 337 and pp. 172 to 173 (Special Group minutes and memorandum of June 19, 1963). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^65]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 106, Paper Prepared by the Head of the Delegation to the Laos Conference (Harriman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d106
[^66]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 410, Memorandum of Conversation, Geneva, July 22, 1962, source Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Harriman Papers, Chronology File, May to August 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d410
[^67]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 411, Editorial Note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d411
[^68]: Telegram 805 (Delto), Embassy in France to the Department of State, Paris, October 9, 1968, "From Harriman and Vance," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 to 1968, vol. VII, document 54. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v07/d54