disinfozone/The_Info_Web
1
0
Fork 0
Code Issues Pull requests Projects Releases Packages Wiki Activity Actions

vault backup: 2026-10-27 00:25:03

Browse source
This commit is contained in:
disinfo.zone 2026-10-27 00:25:03 -04:00
parent fee42b73b8
commit 974685db34
No known key found for this signature in database
71 changed files with 10752 additions and 1921 deletions
Download patch file Download diff file Expand all files Collapse all files

132
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony C. Sutton.md
View file

@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ relations:
with: "[[Phoenix Letter]]"
start: 1984
role: "editor, Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984) masthead"
fn: 45
fn: 54
---
Antony Cyril Sutton (1925 to 2002) was born in London, educated at the Universities of London, Göttingen and California, and held a research fellowship at the [[Hoover Institution]] at [[Stanford University]] from 1968 to 1973. He died in [[Reno, Nevada]]. His Hoover studies of Western technology in the Soviet economy were published in three volumes, and his later books covered the financing of the Bolshevik and Nazi movements, the [[Skull and Bones]] and other [[Yale University]] senior societies, and the [[Trilateral Commission]].[^1][^2][^3][^4]
@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ The synopsis adds further claims. Sutton wrote that [[Ludwig Martens]], the firs
#### Wall Street and FDR (1975)
The second book, dated October 1974 in its preface, extends the thesis to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and the New Deal. Sutton wrote that the evidence was based largely on Roosevelt's own papers and that Wall Street financiers were associated with Roosevelt between 1917 and 1934.[^27] Its chapter on the 1934 [[Business Plot]] hearings describes [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]] of 52 Broadway, and [[Smedley Butler]]'s testimony that [[Gerald P. MacGuire]] proposed a plan through that firm. Sutton wrote that Murphy was, in the early 1930s, a director of several companies controlled by the [[J. P. Morgan]] interests, including the Guaranty Trust Company, and that the speechwriter proposed for Butler, [[John W. Davis]], was a partner at Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardner and Reed.[^28] He suggested that Wall Street "had none other than Franklin Delano Roosevelt in mind as 'the man on the white horse.'"[^28]
The second book, dated October 1974 in its preface, extends the thesis to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and the New Deal. Sutton wrote that the evidence was based largely on Roosevelt's own papers and that Wall Street financiers were associated with Roosevelt between 1917 and 1934.[^27] Its chapter on the 1934 [[Business Plot]] hearings describes [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]] of 52 Broadway, and [[Smedley Butler]]'s testimony that [[Gerald P. MacGuire]] proposed a plan through that firm. Sutton wrote that Murphy was, in the early 1930s, a director of several companies controlled by the [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan]] interests, including the Guaranty Trust Company, and that the speechwriter proposed for Butler, [[John W. Davis]], was a partner at Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardner and Reed.[^28] He suggested that Wall Street "had none other than Franklin Delano Roosevelt in mind as 'the man on the white horse.'"[^28]
#### Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976)
@ -107,35 +107,45 @@ The book's sections are organized as numbered "memoranda," in which the author s
#### Hypothesis One and the family tiers
The chart lists nine old-line families with settlement dates and places: Whitney (1635, Watertown, Massachusetts), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, Boston), Taft (1679, Braintree), Phelps (1630, Dorchester), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, Newtown), Lord (1635, Cambridge) and Gilman (1638, Hingham). It labels seven families of newer wealth with their sources of fortune: Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil), Harriman (railroads), Davison (J. P. Morgan), Weyerhaeuser (lumber), Pillsbury (flour milling) and Sloane (retail).[^36]
The chart lists nine old-line families with settlement dates and places: Whitney (1635, Watertown, Massachusetts), Stimson (1635, Watertown), [[Perkins family|Perkins]] (1631, Boston), Taft (1679, Braintree), [[Phelps family|Phelps]] (1630, Dorchester), Bundy (1635, Boston), [[Wadsworth family|Wadsworth]] (1632, Newtown), [[Lord family|Lord]] (1635, Cambridge) and Gilman (1638, Hingham). It labels seven families of newer wealth with their sources of fortune: Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil), Harriman (railroads), Davison (J. P. Morgan), [[Weyerhaeuser family|Weyerhaeuser]] (lumber), [[Pillsbury family|Pillsbury]] (flour milling) and Sloane (retail).[^36]
Sutton wrote that a group of 20 to 30 families had come to dominate the society, and that the families fell into two groups. The first were "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams." The second were "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^37] He wrote that intermarriage among these families was common, and that the Puritan families "either intermarried with financial power" or took in the sons of money.[^36]
Sutton's chart captions give Charles Edwin Lord as Acting Comptroller of the Currency (1981) and [[Winston Lord]] as Chairman of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] (1983), and his text states that [[David Rockefeller]], a former Council chairman, is not a member of the Order but that "the present CFR chairman, Winston Lord, is."[^37]
Sutton's book calls Charles Phelps Taft, a member of the Yale class of 1918, a nephew of [[William Howard Taft]] and places him at the Twentieth Century Foundation.[^38] The Yale obituary record for William Howard Taft lists a Charles Phelps, 2d, B.A. 1918 and LL.B. 1921, among Taft's own children.[^39] The Yale record of the President's half brother, Charles Phelps Taft (B.A. 1864, 1843 to 1929), lists "Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18" among that half brother's nephews.[^40] The Yale class of 1918 member is therefore the President's son and the nephew of the elder Charles Phelps Taft.
The 1889 genealogy of the John Perkins family of Ipswich records that John Perkins sailed from Bristol in the ship Lyon on December 1, 1630 and took the freeman's oath at Boston on May 18, 1631.[^38] The same genealogy lists George Walbridge Perkins of Chicago (born January 31, 1862) as a descendant through Jacob, Joseph, Joseph, Joseph, Elijah and William W. Perkins of Erie, and the 1910 Who's Who gives [[George W. Perkins]] as born at Chicago on that date, a J. P. Morgan & Co. partner from 1901 and a director of the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]].[^38][^39] Sutton wrote: "The name Morgan has never appeared on the membership lists, although some Morgan partners are with the inner core, for example, Davison and Perkins."[^40] Sutton's index of members lists four Perkinses, in the classes of 1840, 1842 and 1858.[^41]
Sutton wrote that a group of 20 to 30 families had come to dominate the society, and that the families fell into two groups. The first were "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams." The second were "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^42] He wrote that intermarriage among these families was common, and that the Puritan families "either intermarried with financial power" or took in the sons of money.[^36]
Sutton's book calls Charles Phelps Taft, a member of the Yale class of 1918, a nephew of [[William Howard Taft]] and places him at the Twentieth Century Foundation.[^43] The Yale obituary record for William Howard Taft lists a Charles Phelps, 2d, B.A. 1918 and LL.B. 1921, among Taft's own children.[^44] The Yale record of the President's half brother, Charles Phelps Taft (B.A. 1864, 1843 to 1929), lists "Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18" among that half brother's nephews.[^45] The Yale class of 1918 member is therefore the President's son and the nephew of the elder Charles Phelps Taft.
Sutton named [[William Huntington Russell]] and [[Alphonso Taft]] as the two founding members who "went far," and wrote that Taft "was Secretary of War in 1876 - the first of several members of The Order to hold this post down into the 1950s." He gave Taft's later offices as Attorney General in 1876 to 1877, minister to Austria in 1882 to 1884 and, in his words, "Ambassador to Russia" in 1884 to 1885; the Office of the Historian of the Department of State lists both posts as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (Austria, appointed April 26, 1882; Russia, appointed July 4, 1884).[^46] The family history that Alphonso Taft gave at the 1874 Taft family gathering in Uxbridge, Massachusetts dates the family's Braintree holding to 1678 and says that Robert Taft made arrangements to move to Mendon in 1679; Sutton's chart gives 1679 at Braintree.[^47]
In the section on [[G. Stanley Hall]] at Antioch College, Sutton wrote that "The most prominent trustee of Antioch College was none other than the co-founder of The Order, Alphonso Taft," and in his discussion of [[Horace Mann]] and the look-say method that "The most influential Trustee of Antioch College was the co-founder of The Order - Alphonso Taft."[^48] Hall's memoir gives the trustee claim in his own words, in a passage on his Sundays in Cincinnati: "Ex-President Taft was then a boy and his father, Judge Alonzo Taft, was a trustee of Antioch College." Sutton's quotation of Hall adds "(sic)" after the spelling "Alonzo" and cites page 201 of the memoir; the passage is on page 200 of the 1923 Appleton edition.[^49]
### Brown Brothers Harriman, Union Banking and Prescott Bush
Sutton's account of the [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] partnership says that by the 1970s the firm had "taken in so many of 'the Brotherhood'" that, of its 26 individual partners, "no fewer than 9 were members of The Order."[^41] The list he gives of partners who were members includes [[Prescott Bush]], whom he describes as a partner for over forty years, the father of President George H. W. Bush, and initiated in 1917. It also includes W. Averell Harriman (initiated 1913) and his brother [[E. Roland Harriman]] (initiated 1917).[^41]
Sutton's account of the [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] partnership says that by the 1970s the firm had "taken in so many of 'the Brotherhood'" that, of its 26 individual partners, "no fewer than 9 were members of The Order."[^50] The list he gives of partners who were members includes [[Prescott Bush]], whom he describes as a partner for over forty years, the father of President George H. W. Bush, and initiated in 1917. It also includes W. Averell Harriman (initiated 1913) and his brother [[E. Roland Harriman]] (initiated 1917).[^50]
Sutton devotes a passage to the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York. He writes that Union Banking had eight directors, including four members of the Yale class of 1917, that Guaranty Trust was represented by [[Knight Woolley]], that two directors, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, were Nazi directors of the Rotterdam bank [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], which he identifies as the former von Heydt bank, and that Prescott Bush and [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery S. James]] were partners in Brown Brothers, later Brown Brothers, Harriman.[^41][^42] In The Rise of Hitler he describes Union Banking as a joint Thyssen and Harriman operation, with E. Roland Harriman as a director in 1932.[^42][^43]
Sutton devotes a passage to the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York. He writes that Union Banking had eight directors, including four members of the Yale class of 1917, that Guaranty Trust was represented by [[Knight Woolley]], that two directors, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, were Nazi directors of the Rotterdam bank [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], which he identifies as the former von Heydt bank, and that Prescott Bush and [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery S. James]] were partners in Brown Brothers, later Brown Brothers, Harriman.[^50][^51] In The Rise of Hitler he describes Union Banking as a joint Thyssen and Harriman operation, with E. Roland Harriman as a director in 1932.[^51][^52]
### The Stimson and Bundy chain
The book's section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence" follows a family line through a sequence of offices. Sutton wrote that [[Henry L. Stimson]] went to work for the Root firm in 1890 after Yale and Harvard Law School, married the daughter of a Skull and Bones member, was appointed Secretary of War by William Howard Taft in 1911, and held offices under every president from Taft through Truman except [[Warren G. Harding]].[^44] He wrote that Stimson brought [[Harvey Hollister Bundy]] into the wartime Pentagon as a special assistant, and that Stimson brought Harvey's son [[McGeorge Bundy]] into the Pentagon to work on the 1948 book On Active Service in Peace and War.[^44] Sutton summarized the pattern as Stimson using his office "to advance the career of fellow members of The Order," naming Harvey Hollister Bundy and McGeorge Bundy.[^44]
The book's section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence" follows a family line through a sequence of offices. Sutton wrote that [[Henry L. Stimson]] went to work for the Root firm in 1890 after Yale and Harvard Law School, married the daughter of a Skull and Bones member, was appointed Secretary of War by William Howard Taft in 1911, and held offices under every president from Taft through Truman except [[Warren G. Harding]].[^53] He wrote that Stimson brought [[Harvey Hollister Bundy]] into the wartime Pentagon as a special assistant, and that Stimson brought Harvey's son [[McGeorge Bundy]] into the Pentagon to work on the 1948 book On Active Service in Peace and War.[^53] Sutton summarized the pattern as Stimson using his office "to advance the career of fellow members of The Order," naming Harvey Hollister Bundy and McGeorge Bundy.[^53]
Sutton's account of Stimson in the Second World War also refers to the atomic bombing of [[Japan]], which he says Stimson recommended in 1945.[^44]
Sutton's account of Stimson in the Second World War also refers to the atomic bombing of [[Japan]], which he says Stimson recommended in 1945.[^53]
### Phoenix Letter and the Yale senior societies
Sutton's October 1984 issue of the Phoenix Letter, which named him as editor and was published by Research Publications at a Phoenix, Arizona post office box, argues that the three Yale senior societies, Skull and Bones ([[Russell Trust Association|Russell Trust]]), [[Scroll and Key]] (Kingsley Trust) and [[Wolf's Head]] (Phelps Trust), form a network. It states that Scroll and Key had been founded by members of Skull and Bones, and that "three quarters of the inner core" had been identified in his diagram of the society.[^45] The same issue cites [[George Wilson Pierson]]'s official history of Yale, and it states that the [[Elihu]] society catalog lists [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding in 1903.[^45] The newsletter also says that it had not yet accounted for the power of Edward Mandel House, whom it had earlier identified as a friend of Yale initiates in the society.[^45]
Sutton's October 1984 issue of the Phoenix Letter, which named him as editor and was published by Research Publications at a Phoenix, Arizona post office box, argues that the three Yale senior societies, Skull and Bones ([[Russell Trust Association|Russell Trust]]), [[Scroll and Key]] (Kingsley Trust) and [[Wolf's Head]] (Phelps Trust), form a network. It states that Scroll and Key had been founded by members of Skull and Bones, and that "three quarters of the inner core" had been identified in his diagram of the society.[^54] The same issue cites [[George Wilson Pierson]]'s official history of Yale, and it states that the [[Elihu]] society catalog lists [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding in 1903.[^54] The newsletter also says that it had not yet accounted for the power of Edward Mandel House, whom it had earlier identified as a friend of Yale initiates in the society.[^54]
Sutton's booklet How the Order Controls Education is catalogued by archive.org with a 1985 date.[^46]
The class history of 1896 records [[Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.]], Secretary of Yale University from 1899, as a member of Bones: "Phi Beta Kappa. He Boule. D. K. E. Bones."[^55] Rupert Hughes in *Munsey's Magazine* for June 1894 and A. C. Stevens in *The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities* (1899) give the Phelps Trust Association as the corporate name of Wolf's Head, and George W. Pierson's history of Yale College dates the incorporation to 1886.[^56]
Sutton's booklet How the Order Controls Education is catalogued by archive.org with a 1985 date.[^57]
### Trilaterals Over America and later works
Sutton's book on the Trilateral Commission, in the 1995 edition titled Trilaterals Over America, states that the commission was founded in 1973 by the New York banker [[David Rockefeller]], then chairman of [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], and the Harvard academic [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], later National Security Adviser to President [[Jimmy Carter]]. Its appendix lists members as of October 1978 and July 1993.[^47] The book refers to an earlier volume, Trilaterals Over Washington, written with [[Patrick M. Wood]] and published in Scottsdale, Arizona, by the August Corporation (the Library of Congress record gives c1978, 1979 printing).[^47][^48] The 1995 book directs readers to the Phoenix Letter, then in its twelfth year, at an address in Billings, Montana.[^47]
Sutton's book on the Trilateral Commission, in the 1995 edition titled Trilaterals Over America, states that the commission was founded in 1973 by the New York banker David Rockefeller, then chairman of [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], and the Harvard academic [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], later National Security Adviser to President [[Jimmy Carter]]. Its appendix lists members as of October 1978 and July 1993.[^58] The book refers to an earlier volume, Trilaterals Over Washington, written with [[Patrick M. Wood]] and published in Scottsdale, Arizona, by the August Corporation (the Library of Congress record gives c1978, 1979 printing).[^58][^59] The 1995 book directs readers to the Phoenix Letter, then in its twelfth year, at an address in Billings, Montana.[^58]
His later titles include The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), each catalogued by archive.org.[^49]
His later titles include The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), each catalogued by archive.org.[^60]
### Death and the 2002 edition
@ -144,51 +154,121 @@ Sutton's copyright page for America's Secret Establishment gives 1983, 1986 and
### Footnotes
[^1]: International Economic Policy: Hearings before the Subcommittee on International Trade of the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Ninety-third Congress, second session, on H. Res. 774 and H.R. 13838 and 13839 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1974), statement of Antony C. Sutton, April 24, 1974, pp. 156 to 167. https://archive.org/details/international-economic-policy-hearings-before-the-subcommittee-on-international-
[^2]: Sutton, prepared statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), pp. 159 to 160 (volume chronology, publication dates, the 1972 Republican convention attempt, removal from Hoover and the dust-jacket wording).
[^3]: Library of Congress Name Authority File, "Sutton, Antony C., 1925-2002," record n79122365 (birth 1925, London; death 2002, Reno, Nevada; source note citing the 2009 edition of America's Secret Establishment, p. iv). https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n79122365
[^4]: Author note, Antony C. Sutton, Wall Street and FDR (reissue with publisher's note; born in London in 1925, educated at the universities of London, Göttingen and California, Hoover research fellow 1968 to 1973, later economics professor at California State University, Los Angeles, "He died in 2002"). The same note appears in the Trine Day edition of America's Secret Establishment, which adds a D.Sc. from the University of Southampton.
[^5]: Author note, Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1981 printing), back cover ("still affiliated with the institution"; "former economics professor at California State University, Los Angeles"; "bom in London in 1925").
[^6]: Hoover Institution Library & Archives, Antony C. Sutton papers, 1920 to 1972 (4 manuscript boxes, 1 microfilm reel; acquired 1990), Online Archive of California finding aid. https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt287033k0
[^7]: Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 3 vols. (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1968, 1971, 1973), as listed in Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Selected Bibliography, pp. 209 to 210.
[^8]: Michael R. Dohan, review of Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1930 to 1945, Slavic Review 31, no. 4 (December 1972): 904 to 905. https://doi.org/10.2307/2493797
[^9]: Howard J. Sherman, review of Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1917 to 1930, American Political Science Review 67, no. 3 (September 1973): 1126 to 1128. https://doi.org/10.2307/1958770
[^10]: Carl B. Turner, review of Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1930 to 1945, American Political Science Review 70, no. 3 (September 1976): 1017 to 1018. https://doi.org/10.2307/1959932
[^11]: Sutton, prepared statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), Appendix A, "Bibliography of Published Works" (pp. 165 to 166) and Appendix B, "Reviews of Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, Volumes One and Two (up to March 1973 only)" (pp. 166 to 167).
[^12]: Antony C. Sutton, "Western Technology in the Soviet Union: A Summation," Washington and Lee Commerce Review, vol. 1, no. 1 (Winter 1973), Lexington, Virginia.
[^13]: Press summary of the 1972 Republican platform, Michael Raoul-Duval Papers, Box 23, folder "Republican Platform - 1976: Background Material, 1960-1975 (2)," Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library (hearings for a week in Miami Beach; Representative John J. Rhodes, committee chairman, naming Martin C. Anderson of the Hoover Institution as the "wordsmith"). https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/sites/default/files/pdf_documents/library/document/0205/148729960.pdf
[^14]: Republican Party, 1972 platform, proposed by the Committee on Resolutions to the Republican National Convention, August 21, 1972, Miami Beach, Florida, foreign policy section. https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/sites/default/files/pdf_documents/library/document/0205/1672784.pdf
[^15]: Antony C. Sutton, "The East-West Trade Fight," Human Events, vol. 32, no. 11, March 11, 1972, p. 14.
[^16]: Antony C. Sutton, National Suicide: Military Aid to the Soviet Union (New York: Arlington House, 1973).
[^17]: Sutton, oral statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), p. 159 ("reminiscent of Hitler's book burning"; urging that Congress investigate), and prepared statement, p. 160 ("police state tactics of Hitler's Germany").
[^18]: Sutton, oral statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), pp. 157 to 159 (marine diesel engines, the 68 and 80 percent figures, computers, ball bearings and trucks).
[^19]: International Economic Policy (1974), colloquy between Chairman Ashley and Sutton following the panel testimony, April 24, 1974.
[^20]: International Economic Policy (1974), statement of Franklyn D. Holzman, following Sutton's statement (the 1920s concession arrangements "larger than has commonly been believed").
[^21]: International Economic Policy (1974), prepared statement of a panel witness preceding Sutton's, referring to "the recent work by Antony C. Sutton" on the 1920s concessions.
[^22]: International Economic Policy (1974), questioning by Representative Ben B. Blackburn of Roger E. Shields and other witnesses, pp. 796 to 797 (Sutton's computer findings; Bryant Chucking Grinder ball bearing machines sold in 1972).
[^23]: Antony C. Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Arlington House, 1974), Preface, p. 11 (dated March 1974); the Decimal File quotation appears in the same preface.
[^24]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974), note 1 to the synopsis, p. 169, citing Michael Futrell, Northern Underground (London: Faber and Faber, 1963); Stefan Possony, Lenin: The Compulsive Revolutionary (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1966); and George Katkov, "German Foreign Office Documents on Financial Support to the Bolsheviks in 1917," International Affairs 32 (1956).
[^25]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974), "The Evidence Presented: A Synopsis," pp. 169 to 171 (Aschberg, May, Ruskombank, Thompson's one million dollars and the cablegram, 120 Broadway).
[^26]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974), Chapter 8, "120 Broadway, New York City," pp. 125 to 137, and synopsis, pp. 171 to 172.
[^27]: Sutton, Wall Street and FDR (New York: Arlington House, 1975), Preface, p. 9 (dated October 1974, Cupertino, California).
[^28]: Sutton, Wall Street and FDR (1975), Chapter 10, "FDR: Man on the White Horse," pp. 144 to 147 (Murphy as director, the Butler plan, Davis and the speech, the "man on the white horse" passage).
[^29]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), p. 21, quoting the Kilgore Committee. The quotation begins "The United States accidentally played an important role in the technical arming of Germany."
[^30]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), pp. 21 to 22 and p. 68 (Standard Oil and the Jasco agreement, quoting the Kilgore Committee's conclusion that Standard "fully accomplished I.G.'s purpose").
[^31]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Selected Bibliography, pp. 209 to 211 (Senate Military Affairs subcommittee hearings, 1944 and 1945; Control Council Field Information Agency report EF/ME/1, September 4, 1945; Strategic Bombing Survey reports; Nuremberg Military Tribunals, Volume VIII, I.G. Farben case).
[^32]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), pp. 102 to 103 (Thyssen, the 250,000 marks credit and the Harriman connection), and p. 106 (I Paid Hitler, "later repudiated").
[^33]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones (Trine Day, 2002 edition), Preface, dated July 30, 1983 at Phoenix, Arizona.
[^34]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones (Trine Day, 2002 edition), copyright page (1983, 1986, 2002) and the section "The Order of Skull and Bones Yale Catalogue," compiled by Kris Millegan.
[^35]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the "Addresses" books (the membership lists back to 1832, and the remark about members bound by oath).
[^36]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), Memorandum Number Four, "Who Is In This Secret Society?" (membership of about 2,500 initiates, Hypothesis One) and the chart the text places on page 19.
[^37]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the membership history from 1833, including the founders William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft and the description of the two groups of families.
[^38]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), passage on the Twentieth Century Foundation and Evans Clark, naming "Charles Phelps Taft (The Order '18), nephew of President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^39]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 (children: "Charles Phelps, 2d (B.A. 1918, LL.B. 1921)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^40]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864" (born December 21, 1843; died December 31, 1929; nephews include "William Howard Taft, 2d, '09, Robert A Taft, '10, and Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, including the list of partners initiated into The Order in the mid-1970s.
[^42]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the directors of Union Banking Corporation (eight directors, four Yale 1917 initiates, Knight Woolley, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, and Ellery S. James and Prescott S. Bush).
[^43]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Table 7-1 and text, p. 103 (Union Banking Corporation directors in 1932, including E. Roland Harriman).
[^44]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," points 1 to 4, and the summary bullets that follow.
[^45]: "The Yale Senior Society Program," Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Box 39850, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6.
[^46]: Antony C. Sutton, How the Order Controls Education (1985), archive.org catalogue record.
[^47]: Antony C. Sutton, Trilaterals Over America (1995), Chapter One, "What is the Trilateral Commission?" (founded in 1973 by David Rockefeller, then chairman of Chase Manhattan) and Appendix A, "Membership October 1978 and July 1993."
[^48]: Library of Congress catalog record, Sutton, Antony C., and Patrick M. Wood, Trilaterals Over Washington (Scottsdale, Ariz.: August Corp., c1978, 1979 printing), call number HF1411 .S8864. https://www.loc.gov/item/78078277
[^49]: Archive.org catalogue records for The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), by Antony C. Sutton.
[^37]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart captions for the Lords and section "The Role Of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^38]: George Augustus Perkins, *The Family of John Perkins of Ipswich, Massachusetts* (1889), pp. 1 to 3 and entries 387a, 619 and 886 to 890. https://archive.org/details/familyofjohnperk00perk
[^39]: *Who's Who in America*, 1910-1911, entry for George Walbridge Perkins. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1910-1911_6
[^40]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), on the membership lists and the Morgan partners. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1840, 1842 and 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^42]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the membership history from 1833, including the founders William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft and the description of the two groups of families.
[^43]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), passage on the Twentieth Century Foundation and Evans Clark, naming "Charles Phelps Taft (The Order '18), nephew of President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^44]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 (children: "Charles Phelps, 2d (B.A. 1918, LL.B. 1921)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^45]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864" (born December 21, 1843; died December 31, 1929; nephews include "William Howard Taft, 2d, '09, Robert A Taft, '10, and Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section on the first members of the Order; Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, "Alphonso Taft (1810-1891)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/taft-alphonso
[^47]: *Taft Family Gathering. Proceedings of the Meeting of the Taft Family, at Uxbridge, Mass., August 12, 1874*, "Historical Address" by Judge Alphonso Taft of Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 14 to 15. https://archive.org/details/taftfamilygather00uxbr
[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section "Hall At Antioch College" and the memorandum on Horace Mann and the look-say method. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^49]: G. Stanley Hall, *Life and Confessions of a Psychologist* (New York: D. Appleton, 1923), p. 200, chapter "Germany, Antioch College." https://archive.org/details/lifeconfessionso0000gsta
[^50]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, including the list of partners initiated into The Order in the mid-1970s.
[^51]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the directors of Union Banking Corporation (eight directors, four Yale 1917 initiates, Knight Woolley, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, and Ellery S. James and Prescott S. Bush).
[^52]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Table 7-1 and text, p. 103 (Union Banking Corporation directors in 1932, including E. Roland Harriman).
[^53]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," points 1 to 4, and the summary bullets that follow.
[^54]: "The Yale Senior Society Program," Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Box 39850, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6.
[^55]: *History of the Class of 1896, Yale College: Decennial Record* (New Haven, 1907), biography of Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., pp. 588 to 590. https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich
[^56]: Rupert Hughes, "Secret Societies at Yale," *Munsey's Magazine*, vol. 11, no. 3 (June 1894), https://archive.org/details/sim_munseys-magazine_1894-06_11_3 ; A. C. Stevens, *The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities* (1899), https://archive.org/details/StevensACTheCyclopaediaOfFraternities1899 ; George W. Pierson, *Yale College: An Educational History, 1871-1921* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), https://archive.org/details/yalecollegeeduca0000pier
[^57]: Antony C. Sutton, How the Order Controls Education (1985), archive.org catalogue record.
[^58]: Antony C. Sutton, Trilaterals Over America (1995), Chapter One, "What is the Trilateral Commission?" (founded in 1973 by David Rockefeller, then chairman of Chase Manhattan) and Appendix A, "Membership October 1978 and July 1993."
[^59]: Library of Congress catalog record, Sutton, Antony C., and Patrick M. Wood, Trilaterals Over Washington (Scottsdale, Ariz.: August Corp., c1978, 1979 printing), call number HF1411 .S8864. https://www.loc.gov/item/78078277
[^60]: Archive.org catalogue records for The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), by Antony C. Sutton.

14
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Franklin D. Roosevelt.md
View file

@ -22,6 +22,10 @@ relations:
with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]"
role: "maternal grandfather (Franklin D. Roosevelt Library catalogues him as Warren Delano II)"
fn: 2
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Frederic Adrian Delano]]"
role: "maternal uncle; son of Warren Delano II"
fn: 3
---
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 - April 12, 1945) was the thirty-second president of the [[United States]], elected to four terms from 1933 until his death in office in April 1945. His administration enacted the New Deal response to the Great Depression and led the country through most of [[World War II]].[^1]
@ -29,9 +33,11 @@ Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 - April 12, 1945) was the thirty-sec
Roosevelt's maternal grandfather, [[Warren Delano Jr.]] (catalogued by the Roosevelt Library as Warren Delano II, 1809 to 1898), sailed to [[Canton]] in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce, was associated there with Russell Sturgis and Company, and in January 1840 became a partner in [[Russell and Company]], the American commission house at Canton. He remained in Canton and [[Macao]] during the [[Opium War]] and served as acting consul. The panic of 1857 brought him severe losses, and in 1859 he returned to China.[^2] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] holds the Delano family papers, and its finding aid lists the Russell and Company records among the family's China interests.[^2]
Roosevelt's maternal uncle, [[Frederic Adrian Delano]], a son of Warren Delano II, was born at [[Hong Kong]] on September 10, 1863. He was president of the [[Wabash Railroad]] from October 1905 and one of its receivers from 1911, and served on the [[Federal Reserve Board]] as vice governor from August 10, 1914 to August 9, 1916 and as a member until July 21, 1918.[^3] In 1925 and 1926 he chaired the [[League of Nations]] commission of enquiry into the production of opium in Persia.[^4] He was a member of the National Planning Board and its successors from July 1933 to August 1943 and chaired the [[National Resources Planning Board]] from 1939; in 1933 Roosevelt named him chairman for ten years.[^5] A profile of April 2, 1943 describes him as an uncle of the President.[^6]
### Wartime Intelligence and Science
In July 1941 Roosevelt appointed [[William J. Donovan]] as Coordinator of Information, and in 1942 he authorized the creation of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]], the wartime intelligence agency that became the institutional ancestor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. He also approved the [[Manhattan Project]], the secret program to build an atomic bomb, and appointed [[Nelson Rockefeller]] as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]] to manage hemispheric policy and propaganda.[^3]
In July 1941 Roosevelt appointed [[William J. Donovan]] as Coordinator of Information, and in 1942 he authorized the creation of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]], the wartime intelligence agency that became the institutional ancestor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. He also approved the [[Manhattan Project]], the secret program to build an atomic bomb, and appointed [[Nelson Rockefeller]] as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]] to manage hemispheric policy and propaganda.[^7]
### Death and Succession
@ -41,4 +47,8 @@ Roosevelt died of a cerebral hemorrhage at Warm Springs, [[Georgia]], on April 1
[^1]: Smith, Jean Edward. *FDR*. Random House, 2007.
[^2]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano family papers, biographical introduction to Warren Delano II, pp. 1-2 of the PDF. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf
[^3]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
[^3]: *Chicago Daily Tribune*, October 6, 1905, p. 1; Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, biographical note; Federal Reserve Board, *Federal Reserve Bulletin*, vol. 4, no. 7 (July 1, 1918), p. 587. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/FRB/1910s/frb_071918.pdf
[^4]: Edward Terry and Mabel Pellens, *The Opium Problem* (Bureau of Social Hygiene, 1928), pp. 720-721. https://archive.org/details/opiumproblem00terr
[^5]: National Archives, *Guide to the Records of Federal Agencies*, Record Group 187, §187.3.2. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/187.html
[^6]: *United States News*, April 2, 1943, pp. 59-60.
[^7]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.

219
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Henry L. Stimson.md
View file

@ -55,23 +55,23 @@ relations:
start: 1940
end: 1945
role: "Secretary of War, July 10, 1940 to September 21, 1945"
fn: 27
fn: 28
- type: employed_by
with: "[[United States Department of War]]"
start: 1940
end: 1945
role: "Secretary of War"
fn: 27
fn: 28
- type: head_of
with: "[[Interim Committee]]"
start: 1945
role: "chairman; George L. Harrison acted as chairman in his absence"
fn: 40
fn: 44
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Manhattan Project]]"
start: 1945
role: "advised the President on the use of the atomic bomb; struck Kyoto from the target list"
fn: 50
fn: 55
- type: partner_of
with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]"
role: "co-author of On Active Service in Peace and War (1948), with Bundy credited for the writing"
@ -120,210 +120,161 @@ The [[National Security Agency]] account of the office states that an agreement
In his 1931 book, *The American Black Chamber*, Yardley wrote: "The secret activities of the American Black Chamber, which I directed, ceased in 1929." The book's foreword says that "a new Secretary of State ordered the door of the Black Chamber closed and bolted."[^20]
In 1932 Stimson appointed [[Harvey H. Bundy]], a Boston lawyer with experience in finance, as Assistant Secretary of State. The memoir says that the death of a senior officer had left the Department "without a senior officer experienced in economic matters," and that Bundy was appointed to fill that gap.[^21]
In 1931 [[Harvey H. Bundy]], a Boston lawyer with experience in finance, became Assistant Secretary of State under Stimson. The Register of the Department of State records his commission on June 10, 1931, his entry on duty on July 13, 1931 and his retirement on March 4, 1933.[^21] The memoir says that the death of a senior officer had left the Department "without a senior officer experienced in economic matters," and that Bundy was appointed to fill that gap.[^22]
### The Stimson Doctrine, 1932
A telegram of January 7, 1932 from the Secretary of State to the [[Nanking]] consul general instructed him to deliver a note to the Chinese and Japanese governments. The same instruction went to the ambassador in [[Japan]], and the text was repeated to the consul at [[Geneva]] for transmission to the League of Nations. The note stated that the United States "does not intend to recognize any situation, treaty or agreement which may be brought about by means contrary to the covenants and obligations of the Pact of Paris of August 27, 1928."[^22]
A telegram of January 7, 1932 from the Secretary of State to the [[Nanking]] consul general instructed him to deliver a note to the Chinese and Japanese governments. The same instruction went to the ambassador in [[Japan]], and the text was repeated to the consul at [[Geneva]] for transmission to the League of Nations. The note stated that the United States "does not intend to recognize any situation, treaty or agreement which may be brought about by means contrary to the covenants and obligations of the Pact of Paris of August 27, 1928."[^23]
The Office of the Historian's essay on the Mukden Incident is titled "The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine." It states that Secretary Stimson "issued the Stimson Doctrine in early 1932," that the United States would not recognize any treaty or agreement between Japan and China that violated American rights or agreements to which it subscribed, and that the policy "proved incredibly ineffectual in the face of on-going Japanese aggression and expansion."[^23] The Department's biography of Stimson states that the doctrine "later became known as" the Stimson Doctrine.[^24]
The Office of the Historian's essay on the Mukden Incident is titled "The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine." It states that Secretary Stimson "issued the Stimson Doctrine in early 1932," that the United States would not recognize any treaty or agreement between Japan and China that violated American rights or agreements to which it subscribed, and that the policy "proved incredibly ineffectual in the face of on-going Japanese aggression and expansion."[^24] The Department's biography of Stimson states that the doctrine "later became known as" the Stimson Doctrine.[^25]
The memoir's chapter on the Far Eastern crisis has a section headed "From Conciliation to Nonrecognition," and calls nonrecognition "a moral weapon, a moral sanction."[^25]
The memoir's chapter on the Far Eastern crisis has a section headed "From Conciliation to Nonrecognition," and calls nonrecognition "a moral weapon, a moral sanction."[^26]
### Secretary of War, 1940 to 1945
Stimson went to New Haven for the Yale Commencement of June 1940. The memoir says that after addressing the alumni on compulsory military training he prepared a radio speech, delivered on June 18, that "fully set forth his principles and policies in the face of the crisis," and that its delivery put "him squarely on record before he accepted public office."[^26] The National Archives gives the dates of his service as Secretary of War as July 10, 1940, to September 21, 1945; [[Cordell Hull]] was Secretary of State from March 4, 1933, to November 20, 1944.[^27]
Stimson went to New Haven for the Yale Commencement of June 1940. The memoir says that after addressing the alumni on compulsory military training he prepared a radio speech, delivered on June 18, that "fully set forth his principles and policies in the face of the crisis," and that its delivery put "him squarely on record before he accepted public office."[^27] The National Archives gives the dates of his service as Secretary of War as July 10, 1940, to September 21, 1945; [[Cordell Hull]] was Secretary of State from March 4, 1933, to November 20, 1944.[^28]
The Department's principal civilian assistants included [[Robert A. Lovett]], who arrived in November 1940 as Stimson's air assistant, [[John J. McCloy]], and [[Robert P. Patterson]]. The memoir says that "only Patterson of all his civilian assistants was with Stimson from the beginning to the end." Harvey H. Bundy, who had served with Stimson before, is named among the same group.[^28]
The Department's principal civilian assistants included [[Robert A. Lovett]], who arrived in November 1940 as Stimson's air assistant, [[John J. McCloy]], and [[Robert P. Patterson]]. The memoir says that "only Patterson of all his civilian assistants was with Stimson from the beginning to the end." Harvey H. Bundy, who had served with Stimson before, is named among the same group.[^29]
In April 1941 Stimson acquired a fourth assistant in Harvey H. Bundy, who with the title of Special Assistant to the Secretary became "my closest personal assistant."[^30] On July 22, 1943, at 10 Downing Street, Bundy wrote the record of the meeting at which [[Winston Churchill]], Sir John Anderson and Lord Cherwell met Stimson, Vannevar Bush and Bundy on the exchange of atomic information.[^31] The memoir calls Bundy Stimson's "direct agent" on the atomic project and American secretary of the Combined Policy Committee.[^32]
### Japanese American evacuation
The [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] quoted Stimson's diary entry for February 10, 1942, which says: "The second generation Japanese [Nisei] can only be evacuated either as part of a total evacuation, giving access to the areas only by permits, or by frankly trying to put them out on the ground that their racial characteristics are such that we cannot understand or trust even the citizen Japanese. This latter is the fact but I am afraid it will make a tremendous hole in our constitutional system to apply it."[^29]
The [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] quoted Stimson's diary entry for February 10, 1942, which says: "The second generation Japanese [Nisei] can only be evacuated either as part of a total evacuation, giving access to the areas only by permits, or by frankly trying to put them out on the ground that their racial characteristics are such that we cannot understand or trust even the citizen Japanese. This latter is the fact but I am afraid it will make a tremendous hole in our constitutional system to apply it."[^33]
The commission records that Stimson met on February 18, 1942 with officials of the Department of Justice and the War Department about the executive order, and quotes his record of February 17 for the scale of the plan: "It will involve the tremendous task of moving between fifty and one hundred thousand people from their homes and finding temporary support and sustenance for them in the meanwhile, and ultimately locating them in new places away from the coast."[^30]
The commission records that Stimson met on February 18, 1942 with officials of the Department of Justice and the War Department about the executive order, and quotes his record of February 17 for the scale of the plan: "It will involve the tremendous task of moving between fifty and one hundred thousand people from their homes and finding temporary support and sustenance for them in the meanwhile, and ultimately locating them in new places away from the coast."[^34]
[[Executive Order 9066]], dated February 19, 1942, carried the title "Executive Order Authorizing the Secretary of War to Prescribe Military Areas."[^31] The commission states that the order "empowered the Secretary of War or his delegate to designate military areas" to which entry of any or all persons could be barred.[^32] On February 20, 1942, Stimson wrote to [[John L. DeWitt]] delegating authority to implement the order within the [[Western Defense Command]].[^32]
[[Executive Order 9066]], dated February 19, 1942, carried the title "Executive Order Authorizing the Secretary of War to Prescribe Military Areas."[^35] The commission states that the order "empowered the Secretary of War or his delegate to designate military areas" to which entry of any or all persons could be barred.[^36] On February 20, 1942, Stimson wrote to [[John L. DeWitt]] delegating authority to implement the order within the [[Western Defense Command]].[^36]
The commission's summary states that "In May 1944 Secretary Stimson put before President Roosevelt and the Cabinet his position that the exclusion no longer had a military justification." It concludes that the President delayed action "until the first Cabinet meeting following the Presidential election of November 1944," and that "The inescapable conclusion from this factual pattern is that the delay was motivated by political considerations."[^33] Its account of the Cabinet meeting of May 26, 1944 records [[Francis Biddle]] noting that the Secretary of War raised "whether it was appropriate for the War Department, at this time, to cancel the Japanese Exclusion Orders and let the Japs go home."[^34] The commission describes McCloy as the "civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions."[^35]
The commission's summary states that "In May 1944 Secretary Stimson put before President Roosevelt and the Cabinet his position that the exclusion no longer had a military justification." It concludes that the President delayed action "until the first Cabinet meeting following the Presidential election of November 1944," and that "The inescapable conclusion from this factual pattern is that the delay was motivated by political considerations."[^37] Its account of the Cabinet meeting of May 26, 1944 records [[Francis Biddle]] noting that the Secretary of War raised "whether it was appropriate for the War Department, at this time, to cancel the Japanese Exclusion Orders and let the Japs go home."[^38] The commission describes McCloy as the "civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions."[^39]
### Bases and big powers, January 1945
On January 23, 1945, Stimson sent Secretary of State [[Edward R. Stettinius Jr.]] a list of points under the heading "Bases and Big Powers," arguing that the four large powers would have to maintain security "during the time necessary to establish a permanent organization of the whole world," and that attempting to formulate the Dumbarton Oaks organization before settling those foundations repeated the error of creating the League of Nations without a prior guarantee of French security. The editors of the Foreign Relations series refer readers to the memoir's discussion at pages 599 to 605.[^36]
On January 23, 1945, Stimson sent Secretary of State [[Edward R. Stettinius Jr.]] a list of points under the heading "Bases and Big Powers," arguing that the four large powers would have to maintain security "during the time necessary to establish a permanent organization of the whole world," and that attempting to formulate the Dumbarton Oaks organization before settling those foundations repeated the error of creating the League of Nations without a prior guarantee of French security. The editors of the Foreign Relations series refer readers to the memoir's discussion at pages 599 to 605.[^40]
### April 25, 1945: the briefing of Truman
Stimson's memorandum of April 25, 1945, prepared with [[George L. Harrison]] and approved by [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]] and Major General [[Leslie R. Groves]], began: "Within four months we shall in all probability have completed the most terrible weapon ever known in human history." It stated that no other nation could reach the American position for some years but that this was "practically certain" not to last, and that a system of control would involve "such thorough-going rights of inspection and internal controls as we have never heretofore contemplated." It added that the question of sharing the weapon with other nations "becomes a primary question of our foreign relations."[^37]
Stimson's memorandum of April 25, 1945, prepared with [[George L. Harrison]] and approved by [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]] and Major General [[Leslie R. Groves]], began: "Within four months we shall in all probability have completed the most terrible weapon ever known in human history." It stated that no other nation could reach the American position for some years but that this was "practically certain" not to last, and that a system of control would involve "such thorough-going rights of inspection and internal controls as we have never heretofore contemplated." It added that the question of sharing the weapon with other nations "becomes a primary question of our foreign relations."[^41]
His diary for the same day records that he spent the morning on the paper with Harrison, showed it to Marshall and Groves, and then went to the White House by a route chosen so that the reporters waiting in the President's anteroom would not see him with Groves, whom Colonel McCarthy, the Secretary of the General Staff, had brought through underground passages to a room near the President. Stimson showed Truman the memorandum on the political aspects of "S-1," Groves reported on production, and Truman took one copy of the papers while Stimson and Groves kept the other. The same entry records a telephone conversation with McCloy about the war crimes plan for the San Francisco conference, in which Stimson wrote that the British "have come out strongly against having a trial and wish to kill the people offhand," and that Truman "strongly supported our position."[^38]
His diary for the same day records that he spent the morning on the paper with Harrison, showed it to Marshall and Groves, and then went to the White House by a route chosen so that the reporters waiting in the President's anteroom would not see him with Groves, whom Colonel McCarthy, the Secretary of the General Staff, had brought through underground passages to a room near the President. Stimson showed Truman the memorandum on the political aspects of "S-1," Groves reported on production, and Truman took one copy of the papers while Stimson and Groves kept the other. The same entry records a telephone conversation with McCloy about the war crimes plan for the San Francisco conference, in which Stimson wrote that the British "have come out strongly against having a trial and wish to kill the people offhand," and that Truman "strongly supported our position."[^42]
### The Interim Committee and the Manhattan Project
In April 1945 Stimson set up a committee "charged with the function of advising the President on the various questions raised by our apparently imminent success in developing an atomic weapon." It was known as the [[Interim Committee]], and advised on the atomic weapon then being developed under the [[Manhattan Project]]. The memoir states that Stimson was its chairman, but that the "principal labor of guiding its extended deliberations" fell to George L. Harrison, who acted as chairman in Stimson's absence. The memoir lists its other members as [[James F. Byrnes]], [[Ralph A. Bard]], [[William L. Clayton]], [[Vannevar Bush]], [[Karl T. Compton]] and [[James B. Conant]].[^39]
In April 1945 Stimson set up a committee "charged with the function of advising the President on the various questions raised by our apparently imminent success in developing an atomic weapon." It was known as the [[Interim Committee]], and advised on the atomic weapon then being developed under the [[Manhattan Project]]. The memoir states that Stimson was its chairman, but that the "principal labor of guiding its extended deliberations" fell to George L. Harrison, who acted as chairman in Stimson's absence. The memoir lists its other members as [[James F. Byrnes]], [[Ralph A. Bard]], [[William L. Clayton]], [[Vannevar Bush]], [[Karl T. Compton]] and [[James B. Conant]].[^43]
The notes of the committee's meeting of Thursday, May 31, 1945, taken by its secretary, Second Lieutenant R. Gordon Arneson, list Stimson as chairman and present with the committee members the scientists [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Arthur H. Compton]] and [[Ernest O. Lawrence]], and, by invitation, Marshall, Groves, Harvey H. Bundy and Arthur Page. The notes open with Stimson explaining that the committee "had been appointed by him with the approval of the President, to make recommendations on temporary war-time controls, public announcement, legislation and post-war organization," and that Marshall shared with him the responsibility for recommendations to the President on the military aspects.[^40]
The notes of the committee's meeting of Thursday, May 31, 1945, taken by its secretary, Second Lieutenant R. Gordon Arneson, list Stimson as chairman and present with the committee members the scientists [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Arthur H. Compton]] and [[Ernest O. Lawrence]], and, by invitation, Marshall, Groves, Harvey H. Bundy and Arthur Page. The notes open with Stimson explaining that the committee "had been appointed by him with the approval of the President, to make recommendations on temporary war-time controls, public announcement, legislation and post-war organization," and that Marshall shared with him the responsibility for recommendations to the President on the military aspects.[^44]
The notes record the discussion of Russia. Byrnes feared that if information were given to the Russians even in general terms, "Stalin would ask to be brought into the partnership." Marshall favored building a combination of like-minded powers and raised the question whether two prominent Russian scientists should be invited to witness the test. Oppenheimer suggested that the subject be opened with the Soviets tentatively and in the most general terms. The notes record the view, "generally agreed to by all present," that the United States should stay ahead in production and research while making every effort to better its political relations with Russia.[^40]
The notes record the discussion of Russia. Byrnes feared that if information were given to the Russians even in general terms, "Stalin would ask to be brought into the partnership." Marshall favored building a combination of like-minded powers and raised the question whether two prominent Russian scientists should be invited to witness the test. Oppenheimer suggested that the subject be opened with the Soviets tentatively and in the most general terms. The notes record the view, "generally agreed to by all present," that the United States should stay ahead in production and research while making every effort to better its political relations with Russia.[^44]
The afternoon session took up the effect of bombing on the Japanese. The notes state the conclusion "on which there was general agreement" as Stimson expressed it: that "we could not give the Japanese any warning," that the bomb should not be concentrated on a civilian area, but that the committee "should seek to make a profound psychological impression on as many of the inhabitants as possible." At Conant's suggestion Stimson agreed that the most desirable target would be a vital war plant employing a large number of workers and closely surrounded by workers' houses. Groves objected to several simultaneous strikes. Under a separate heading, Groves stated that the program had been "plagued since its inception by the presence of certain scientists of doubtful discretion and uncertain loyalty," and the meeting agreed that nothing could be done about dismissing them until after the bomb had been used or at least tested. The notes close with the next meeting set for June 1, 1945, at 11:00 a.m. in the Secretary of War's office, to hear four representatives of industry.[^40]
The afternoon session took up the effect of bombing on the Japanese. The notes state the conclusion "on which there was general agreement" as Stimson expressed it: that "we could not give the Japanese any warning," that the bomb should not be concentrated on a civilian area, but that the committee "should seek to make a profound psychological impression on as many of the inhabitants as possible." At Conant's suggestion Stimson agreed that the most desirable target would be a vital war plant employing a large number of workers and closely surrounded by workers' houses. Groves objected to several simultaneous strikes. Under a separate heading, Groves stated that the program had been "plagued since its inception by the presence of certain scientists of doubtful discretion and uncertain loyalty," and the meeting agreed that nothing could be done about dismissing them until after the bomb had been used or at least tested. The notes close with the next meeting set for June 1, 1945, at 11:00 a.m. in the Secretary of War's office, to hear four representatives of industry.[^44]
On June 6, 1945, Arneson wrote to Harrison that the notes of "the Thursday and Friday meetings" indicated the following action: that the committee, "while recognizing that the final selection of the target is essentially a military decision," recommended that the bomb be used against Japan as soon as possible, that it be used on a dual target, "that is, a military installation or war plant surrounded by or adjacent to homes or other buildings most susceptible to damage," and that it be used without prior warning. The memorandum also recommended that the committee advise the Secretary that there might be advantage in a small military panel on the highest level to discuss with him the type of target and the timing.[^41]
On June 6, 1945, Arneson wrote to Harrison that the notes of "the Thursday and Friday meetings" indicated the following action: that the committee, "while recognizing that the final selection of the target is essentially a military decision," recommended that the bomb be used against Japan as soon as possible, that it be used on a dual target, "that is, a military installation or war plant surrounded by or adjacent to homes or other buildings most susceptible to damage," and that it be used without prior warning. The memorandum also recommended that the committee advise the Secretary that there might be advantage in a small military panel on the highest level to discuss with him the type of target and the timing.[^45]
The memoir records that the committee "on June 1, recommended that the bomb should be used against Japan, without specific warning, as soon as possible, and against such a target as to make clear its devastating strength." It continues: "The ultimate responsibility for the recommendation to the President rested upon me, and I have no desire to veil it."[^42]
The memoir records that the committee "on June 1, recommended that the bomb should be used against Japan, without specific warning, as soon as possible, and against such a target as to make clear its devastating strength." It continues: "The ultimate responsibility for the recommendation to the President rested upon me, and I have no desire to veil it."[^46]
Stimson's memorandum of a conference with Truman on June 6, 1945, begins with the dispute with Charles de Gaulle over French troop movements into Italian territory, in which Stimson told Truman he had come to regard de Gaulle as psychopathic and that the President shared the opinion. It then reports that Byrnes had already told the President of the committee's work, and Stimson's account of its points of agreement: no revelation to Russia or others until the weapon had been successfully used on Japan, and an international committee of control with full power of inspection. Truman said he was thinking of the Polish, Rumanian, Yugoslavian and Manchurian settlements as the quid pro quo for bringing the Soviets into a partnership. In the same conference Stimson told Truman that he was holding down area bombing of Japan because he feared the United States would get "the reputation of outdoing Hitler in atrocities," and that the Air Force might leave Japan so thoroughly bombed that the new weapon would lack "a fair background to show its strength," at which, the memorandum records, Truman laughed and said he understood.[^43]
Stimson's memorandum of a conference with Truman on June 6, 1945, begins with the dispute with Charles de Gaulle over French troop movements into Italian territory, in which Stimson told Truman he had come to regard de Gaulle as psychopathic and that the President shared the opinion. It then reports that Byrnes had already told the President of the committee's work, and Stimson's account of its points of agreement: no revelation to Russia or others until the weapon had been successfully used on Japan, and an international committee of control with full power of inspection. Truman said he was thinking of the Polish, Rumanian, Yugoslavian and Manchurian settlements as the quid pro quo for bringing the Soviets into a partnership. In the same conference Stimson told Truman that he was holding down area bombing of Japan because he feared the United States would get "the reputation of outdoing Hitler in atrocities," and that the Air Force might leave Japan so thoroughly bombed that the new weapon would lack "a fair background to show its strength," at which, the memorandum records, Truman laughed and said he understood.[^47]
### Potsdam, July 1945
The first test of the weapon in New Mexico took place on July 16, 1945, while Stimson was at Potsdam. Harrison's coded telegram of that date to Stimson reads: "Operated on this morning. Diagnosis not yet complete but results seem satisfactory and already exceed expectations." Stimson's diary records that he took the first message to the President's house at 7:30 p.m. and showed it to Truman and Byrnes.[^44]
The first test of the weapon in New Mexico took place on July 16, 1945, while Stimson was at Potsdam. Harrison's coded telegram of that date to Stimson reads: "Operated on this morning. Diagnosis not yet complete but results seem satisfactory and already exceed expectations." Stimson's diary records that he took the first message to the President's house at 7:30 p.m. and showed it to Truman and Byrnes.[^48]
On July 16 Stimson sent Truman a memorandum on the conduct of the war with Japan, urging that "we are at the psychological moment to commence our warnings to Japan," and recommending a warning delivered during the conference, with "the full force of our newer weapons" to follow if Japan persisted. His diary for July 17 records that Byrnes "was opposed to a prompt and early warning to Japan which I had first suggested," and that he outlined a timetable the President had apparently agreed to, so Stimson "pressed it no further."[^45] On July 20 Stimson proposed changing the words "until her unconditional capitulation" in the draft proclamation to "until she ceases to resist," observing that a capitulation was defined in his only dictionary as "a conditional surrender; a treaty."[^46]
Harvey H. Bundy, Stimson's special assistant, was present at three of Stimson's conversations at Potsdam. Stimson's diary summaries in the Foreign Relations volume record that on July 19 "he and Bundy and I sat out under the trees" with [[Lord Cherwell]]. On July 21 Stimson "picked up Bundy, and went to the Prime Minister's house." On July 22 the diary records: "At ten-forty Bundy and I again went to the British headquarters and talked to the Prime Minister and Lord Cherwell for over an hour. Churchill read Groves' report in full."[^49]
On July 21 Groves's special report on the test reached Stimson by courier. Stimson's diary describes it as "an immensely powerful document," states that it revealed "far greater destructive power than we expected," and records that he read it to Truman and Byrnes, who were "immensely pleased," and that the President said it "gave him an entirely new feeling of confidence."[^47]
On July 16 Stimson sent Truman a memorandum on the conduct of the war with Japan, urging that "we are at the psychological moment to commence our warnings to Japan," and recommending a warning delivered during the conference, with "the full force of our newer weapons" to follow if Japan persisted. His diary for July 17 records that Byrnes "was opposed to a prompt and early warning to Japan which I had first suggested," and that he outlined a timetable the President had apparently agreed to, so Stimson "pressed it no further."[^50] On July 20 Stimson proposed changing the words "until her unconditional capitulation" in the draft proclamation to "until she ceases to resist," observing that a capitulation was defined in his only dictionary as "a conditional surrender; a treaty."[^51]
On July 25 Stimson met [[Joseph Stalin]] at Potsdam for eighteen minutes and spoke of the Teheran and Yalta conferences and the Pacific war. His memorandum of the conversation records Stalin saying that "Three Power intervention in the Pacific would surely speed up victory."[^48]
On July 21 Groves's special report on the test reached Stimson by courier. Stimson's diary describes it as "an immensely powerful document," states that it revealed "far greater destructive power than we expected," and records that he read it to Truman and Byrnes, who were "immensely pleased," and that the President said it "gave him an entirely new feeling of confidence."[^52]
On July 25 Stimson met [[Joseph Stalin]] at Potsdam for eighteen minutes and spoke of the Teheran and Yalta conferences and the Pacific war. His memorandum of the conversation records Stalin saying that "Three Power intervention in the Pacific would surely speed up victory."[^53]
### Kyoto
Harrison cabled Stimson on July 21 that all his local military advisers "definitely favor your pet city," meaning Kyoto, and would like to use it as first choice if those on the scene selected it from the four possible targets.[^49] Stimson replied on July 23, asking for the date and for the name of the target or alternates, "always excluding the particular place against which I have decided," and adding: "My decision has been confirmed by highest authority." The Foreign Relations editors print his diary entries for the period. On July 22 Truman "strongly confirmed my view and said he felt the same way." General [[Henry H. Arnold]] told Stimson he agreed "about the target which I had struck off the program." On July 24 Stimson gave Truman his reasons again, and Truman was "particularly emphatic in agreeing" that a "wanton act" at Kyoto "might make it impossible during the long post-war period to reconcile the Japanese to us in that area rather than to the Russians."[^50]
Harrison cabled Stimson on July 21 that all his local military advisers "definitely favor your pet city," meaning Kyoto, and would like to use it as first choice if those on the scene selected it from the four possible targets.[^54] Stimson replied on July 23, asking for the date and for the name of the target or alternates, "always excluding the particular place against which I have decided," and adding: "My decision has been confirmed by highest authority." The Foreign Relations editors print his diary entries for the period. On July 22 Truman "strongly confirmed my view and said he felt the same way." General [[Henry H. Arnold]] told Stimson he agreed "about the target which I had struck off the program." On July 24 Stimson gave Truman his reasons again, and Truman was "particularly emphatic in agreeing" that a "wanton act" at Kyoto "might make it impossible during the long post-war period to reconcile the Japanese to us in that area rather than to the Russians."[^55]
In the Harper's article Stimson wrote: "With President Truman's warm support I struck off the list of suggested targets the city of Kyoto. Although it was a target of considerable military importance, it had been the ancient capital of Japan and was a shrine of Japanese art and culture. We determined that it should be spared. I approved four other targets including the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki."[^51]
In the Harper's article Stimson wrote: "With President Truman's warm support I struck off the list of suggested targets the city of Kyoto. Although it was a target of considerable military importance, it had been the ancient capital of Japan and was a shrine of Japanese art and culture. We determined that it should be spared. I approved four other targets including the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki."[^56]
### The Hiroshima decision and the 1947 Harper's article
The memoir states that "It was in the fall of 1941 that the question of atomic energy was first brought directly to my attention." It describes Stimson's article in [[Harper's Magazine]] of February 1947 as "a careful record of his personal connection with this issue."[^52]
The memoir states that "It was in the fall of 1941 that the question of atomic energy was first brought directly to my attention." It describes Stimson's article in [[Harper's Magazine]] of February 1947 as "a careful record of his personal connection with this issue."[^57]
The article was reprinted in the *Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists* of February 1947. It prints the memorandum of July 2, 1945, which proposed a warning to Japan and stated: "I personally think that if in saying this we should add that we do not exclude a constitutional monarchy under her present dynasty, it would substantially add to the chances of acceptance." Stimson wrote of that memorandum: "It was designed to promise destruction if Japan resisted, and hope, if she surrendered," and that the atomic bomb was not mentioned in it because "on grounds of secrecy the bomb was never mentioned except when absolutely necessary, and furthermore, it had not yet been tested." He wrote that the Potsdam ultimatum of July 26 "very closely followed" the memorandum "with the exception that it made no mention of the Japanese Emperor," and that on July 28 Premier Suzuki rejected it by announcing that it was "unworthy of public notice."[^51]
The article was reprinted in the *Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists* of February 1947. It prints the memorandum of July 2, 1945, which proposed a warning to Japan and stated: "I personally think that if in saying this we should add that we do not exclude a constitutional monarchy under her present dynasty, it would substantially add to the chances of acceptance." Stimson wrote of that memorandum: "It was designed to promise destruction if Japan resisted, and hope, if she surrendered," and that the atomic bomb was not mentioned in it because "on grounds of secrecy the bomb was never mentioned except when absolutely necessary, and furthermore, it had not yet been tested." He wrote that the Potsdam ultimatum of July 26 "very closely followed" the memorandum "with the exception that it made no mention of the Japanese Emperor," and that on July 28 Premier Suzuki rejected it by announcing that it was "unworthy of public notice."[^56]
The article states that "all the evidence I have seen indicates that the controlling factor in the final Japanese decision to accept our terms of surrender was the atomic bomb," and, of the two bombs, that "The two atomic bombs which we had dropped were the only ones we had ready, and our rate of production at the time was very small." It describes Hiroshima as an army center and Nagasaki as a naval and industrial city. Its closing passage reads: "The decision to use the atomic bomb was a decision that brought death to over a hundred thousand Japanese. No explanation can change that fact and I do not wish to gloss it over."[^51] The two bombs were dropped on [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] in August 1945.
The article states that "all the evidence I have seen indicates that the controlling factor in the final Japanese decision to accept our terms of surrender was the atomic bomb," and, of the two bombs, that "The two atomic bombs which we had dropped were the only ones we had ready, and our rate of production at the time was very small." It describes Hiroshima as an army center and Nagasaki as a naval and industrial city. Its closing passage reads: "The decision to use the atomic bomb was a decision that brought death to over a hundred thousand Japanese. No explanation can change that fact and I do not wish to gloss it over."[^56] The two bombs were dropped on [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] in August 1945.
The memoir's introduction states that "The writing of the book has been the work of Mr. McGeorge Bundy. Its style and composition are his."[^53] Bundy's note at the end of the book describes the sources as "two: Mr. Stimson himself and his records," and describes the diary as beginning in 1910, with "a long account of the period May, 1911 to March, 1913, written in the spring of the latter year," sporadic entries between 1913 and 1926, and a separate manuscript volume of entries made overseas in 1918.[^54]
The memoir's introduction states that "The writing of the book has been the work of Mr. McGeorge Bundy. Its style and composition are his."[^58] Bundy's note at the end of the book describes the sources as "two: Mr. Stimson himself and his records," and describes the diary as beginning in 1910, with "a long account of the period May, 1911 to March, 1913, written in the spring of the latter year," sporadic entries between 1913 and 1926, and a separate manuscript volume of entries made overseas in 1918.[^59]
### The Morgenthau Plan
On September 5, 1944, Stimson sent Roosevelt, through Hull, his comments on a Cabinet Committee paper on the treatment of Germany. He wrote that "With the exception of the last paragraph I find myself in agreement with the principles stated therein." The paragraph called for the German standard of living to be "held down to subsistence levels" and for German economic position in Europe to be eliminated.[^55] [[Henry Morgenthau Jr.]] wrote to Stimson on September 6, 1944: "I do not remember anybody suggesting closing down the Saar."[^55]
On September 5, 1944, Stimson sent Roosevelt, through Hull, his comments on a Cabinet Committee paper on the treatment of Germany. He wrote that "With the exception of the last paragraph I find myself in agreement with the principles stated therein." The paragraph called for the German standard of living to be "held down to subsistence levels" and for German economic position in Europe to be eliminated.[^60] [[Henry Morgenthau Jr.]] wrote to Stimson on September 6, 1944: "I do not remember anybody suggesting closing down the Saar."[^60]
Stimson's memorandum of September 9, 1944 set out his objection to the Morgenthau proposal: "The fundamental remedy of Mr. Morgenthau is to provide that the industry of Germany shall be substantially obliterated."[^56] The editors of the Foreign Relations series state that Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944 shows that the enclosures were prepared with the assistance of McCloy, and that Stimson presented them at a meeting between the Cabinet Committee on Germany and Roosevelt on September 9.[^57]
Stimson's memorandum of September 9, 1944 set out his objection to the Morgenthau proposal: "The fundamental remedy of Mr. Morgenthau is to provide that the industry of Germany shall be substantially obliterated."[^61] The editors of the Foreign Relations series state that Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944 shows that the enclosures were prepared with the assistance of McCloy, and that Stimson presented them at a meeting between the Cabinet Committee on Germany and Roosevelt on September 9.[^62]
### Papers and diaries
Stimson's papers for the years before 1933 were placed on deposit in the Yale University Library in 1949 and became a gift on February 11, 1952.[^58] They are held by the Manuscripts and Archives department as the Henry Lewis Stimson papers, MS 465.[^59] The National Security Archive's collection of atomic bomb documents prints diary entries of April 25, May 14 and 15, June 6 and July 1945 from the Stimson Diary at Yale, with a microfilm copy at the Library of Congress.[^38] The editors of the Foreign Relations series cite Stimson's diary for September 1944 to the "Stimson Papers."[^57]
Stimson's papers for the years before 1933 were placed on deposit in the Yale University Library in 1949 and became a gift on February 11, 1952.[^63] They are held by the Manuscripts and Archives department as the Henry Lewis Stimson papers, MS 465.[^64] The National Security Archive's collection of atomic bomb documents prints diary entries of April 25, May 14 and 15, June 6 and July 1945 from the Stimson Diary at Yale, with a microfilm copy at the Library of Congress.[^42] The editors of the Foreign Relations series cite Stimson's diary for September 1944 to the "Stimson Papers."[^62]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," pp. 11-12 (born September 21, 1867, New York City; died October 20, 1950, Huntington, N.Y.; lawyer 1891-1950; U.S. attorney Southern District of New York 1906-9 and special assistant 1909-10; Secretary of War 1911-13 and 1940-45; Secretary of State 1929-33; special Presidential representative in Nicaragua 1927; Governor General of the Philippine Islands 1928-29; London Naval Conference 1930 and Geneva Disarmament Conference 1932; marriage of July 6, 1893; coronary thrombosis; burial). Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf.
[^2]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), Introduction by Henry L. Stimson, p. xi; "A Note of Explanation and Acknowledgment" by McGeorge Bundy, pp. 673-674; title page (Secretary of War 1940-45, Secretary of State 1929-33).
[^3]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, pp. 3-6, quoting "In the autumn of 1884 I entered the class of '88 at Yale."
[^4]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951, entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11 (Berkeley Premium, English composition prize, Townsend Premium, DeForest Prize Medal, "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa").
[^5]: *The Yale Banner*, vol. 47 (New Haven, 1888), "Commencement" section, Commencement speakers, June 27, 1888 ("'John Hale and the Latitudinarians,' by Henry Lewis Stimson, of New York City"). https://archive.org/details/yalebanner02univgoog.
[^6]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," with the family entries for Stimson (1635, Watertown, Mass.), Taft (1679, Braintree, Mass.), Bundy (1635, Boston, Mass.) and Harriman (railroads).
[^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, article on Skull and Bones, *Esquire*, September 1977.
[^8]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, pp. 3-6 (admission to the bar in June 1891, clerkship with Root & Clarke, admission to the firm on January 1, 1893, Bronson Winthrop, and the 1897 firm name).
[^9]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, p. 6 (West Hills, Township of Huntington, the central ridge of Long Island, the name "Highhold," and forty-four years).
[^10]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, p. 9 (Hearst's office, seven indictments within five months, fourteen more the following year).
[^11]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, pp. 9-10 (New York Central and the American Sugar Refining Company, three successive jury trials, the company's surrender on the remaining indictments, the counsel's remark, and Root's advice).
[^12]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, p. 10 (prosecution of Charles W. Morse for misusing the funds of the Bank of North America).
[^13]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. II, p. 29 (Taft's offer of the Secretary of War post, accepted by Stimson); Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University 1950-1951, p. 11 ("Secretary of War of the United States 1911-13"); United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State (appointed Secretary of War by Taft in 1911), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis.
[^14]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. II, "With Roosevelt and Taft," pp. 18-55, and table of contents ("The Split of 1912").
[^15]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State (Chile-Peru mediation of 1925, Nicaraguan civil war of 1927, appointment as Governor General by Coolidge, Secretary of State from March 1929), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis.
[^16]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), table of contents and chapter headings: ch. V, "As Private Citizen," section "The Peace of Tipitapa" (pp. 101-116); ch. VI, "Governor General of the Philippines" (p. 117), with sections "The Background," "A Happy Year" and "Later Disappointments and Some Hopes" (pp. 117-154).
[^17]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson" (Secretary of State: appointed March 5, 1929; entry on duty March 28, 1929; termination March 4, 1933; succeeded Frank Kellogg; London Naval Conference 1930; Geneva Disarmament Conference 1932), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis.
[^18]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. VII, p. 188 (the Black Chamber passage and the principle that "the way to make men trustworthy is to trust them").
[^19]: National Security Agency, "The Black Chamber", https://www.nsa.gov/History/Cryptologic-History/Historical-Events/Article-View/Article/2740622/the-black-chamber/ (May 1919 agreement and $100,000 appropriation; Stimson's decision; May 1929 Signal Corps reorganization; severance and "confidential funds"; Yardley's charge and Stimson's autobiography).
[^20]: Herbert O. Yardley, *The American Black Chamber* (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1931), ch. 1, "The State Department Code Room" (the "ceased in 1929" sentence) and Foreword (the "new Secretary of State" sentence).
[^21]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. VII, p. 193 (appointment of Harvey H. Bundy as Assistant Secretary, and of Herbert Feis as Economic Adviser, after the death of an officer named Cotton).
[^22]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1932, Volume III, The Far East*, telegram, The Secretary of State to the Consul General at Nanking (Peck), January 7, 1932, document 10, p. 7, with the text of the note (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1932v03/d10).
[^23]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine," Milestones: 1921-1936, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/mukden-incident.
[^24]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State ("what later became known as the 'Stimson Doctrine'"), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis.
[^25]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. IX, "The Far Eastern Crisis," section 1, "From Conciliation to Nonrecognition," beginning p. 220.
[^26]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 317 (Yale Commencement of June 1940, the radio speech of June 18, 1940, and "before he accepted public office").
[^27]: National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (Record Group 107), agency history note ("The wartime Secretaries of War were Henry L. Stimson, July 10, 1940-September 21, 1945, and Robert P. Patterson"), https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/military/rg-107.html; United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Cordell Hull" (appointed March 4, 1933; served until November 20, 1944), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell.
[^28]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 338 (Lovett's arrival in November 1940 as air assistant, Patterson's service "from the beginning to the end," and Harvey H. Bundy's earlier service with Stimson).
[^29]: Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, *Personal Justice Denied* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1982), pp. 79-80, including nn. 151-152 (Stimson diary, February 10, 1942).
[^30]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 83, including nn. 166-167 (Stimson's record of February 17, 1942, and the meeting of February 18, 1942).
[^31]: National Archives, "Executive Order 9066: Resulting in Japanese-American Incarceration (1942)," transcript of Executive Order No. 9066, February 19, 1942 (https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/executive-order-9066).
[^32]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 99 (the powers conferred by Executive Order 9066, and Stimson's letter of February 20, 1942 to DeWitt).
[^33]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), Summary, p. 15 (May 1944 position; delay until after the November 1944 election; "motivated by political considerations").
[^34]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 227 (Cabinet meeting of May 26, 1944, and Biddle's note).
[^35]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 47 (McCloy as civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions).
[^36]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, Volume I, General: The United Nations*, document 6, Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson) to the Secretary of State, January 23, 1945, with editorial note citing Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War*, pp. 599-605 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v01/d6).
[^37]: Memorandum discussed with the President, April 25, 1945, Henry Stimson Diary, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library (microfilm at the Library of Congress), in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, "The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II," Document 3b (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/3b.pdf); see also Document 3a, the memorandum of April 23, 1945 prepared by Groves.
[^38]: Stimson Diary, April 25, 1945, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 3d (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/3d.pdf); Document 3c (War Department record of the arrangements for Groves to accompany Stimson); the collection's index of documents drawn from the Stimson Diary (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/).
[^39]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "The Atomic Bomb and the Surrender of Japan," p. 616 (the committee set up in April, its chairmanship, and the list of members).
[^40]: "Notes of the Interim Committee Meeting, Thursday, 31 May 1945," signed R. Gordon Arneson, Secretary, Records of the Army Corps of Engineers (RG 77), Manhattan Engineer District, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 12 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf), sections on the opening statement, Russia, effect of the bombing on the Japanese, undesirable scientists and next meeting.
[^41]: Memorandum from R. Gordon Arneson to Mr. Harrison, June 6, 1945, RG 77, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 14 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/14.pdf).
[^42]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 617.
[^43]: Memorandum of Conference with the President, June 6, 1945, Stimson Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 15 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/15.pdf).
[^44]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference), 1945, Volume II*, document 1303, Harrison to Stimson, July 16, 1945, with the editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 16 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1303).
[^45]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1236, Stimson to the Secretary of State, with memorandum for the President, "The Conduct of the War with Japan," July 16, 1945, and the editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 17, 23 and 24 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1236).
[^46]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1241, Stimson to the President, "Proposed Proclamation to Japan," July 20, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1241).
[^47]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1305, Groves to Stimson, editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 21, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1305).
[^48]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 710a-109, Memorandum by the Secretary of War, "Conference with Generalissimo Stalin, 25 July 1945, 1225 to 1243 at Schloss Cecilienhof" (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d710a-109).
[^49]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1307, Harrison to Stimson, July 21, 1945, with editorial footnote on the selection of Kyoto as a possible target (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1307).
[^50]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1310, Stimson to Harrison, July 23, 1945, with editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 22 and 24, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1310).
[^51]: Henry L. Stimson, "The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb," *Harper's Magazine*, February 1947, as reprinted in *Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists*, vol. 3, no. 2 (February 1947) (https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-atomic-scientists_1947-02_3_2), sections on the memorandum of July 2, "The Use of the Bomb" and "A Personal Summary," and the Bulletin's editorial "The Decision to Use the Bomb."
[^52]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 609 (the fall of 1941, and the Harper's article as "a careful record").
[^53]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), Introduction, p. xi.
[^54]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "A Note of Explanation and Acknowledgment," pp. 673-674.
[^55]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 85, The Secretary of War (Stimson) to the President, September 5, 1944, and footnote quoting Morgenthau's letter to Stimson of September 6, 1944 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d85).
[^56]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson), September 9, 1944, enclosure 1 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90).
[^57]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, editorial footnote on Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944, citing "Stimson Papers" (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90).
[^58]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951, p. 12 ("Mr. Stimson's papers for the years prior to 1933 were placed on deposit in the University Library in 1949, and became a gift February 11, 1952").
[^59]: Henry Lewis Stimson papers (MS 465), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library (https://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/mssa.ms.0465).
[^21]: *Register of the Department of State for the year 1933*, list of former officers. https://archive.org/details/registerofdepart1933unit
[^22]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. VII, p. 193 (appointment of Harvey H. Bundy as Assistant Secretary, and of Herbert Feis as Economic Adviser, after the death of an officer named Cotton).
[^23]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1932, Volume III, The Far East*, telegram, The Secretary of State to the Consul General at Nanking (Peck), January 7, 1932, document 10, p. 7, with the text of the note (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1932v03/d10).
[^24]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine," Milestones: 1921-1936, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/mukden-incident.
[^25]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State ("what later became known as the 'Stimson Doctrine'"), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis.
[^26]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. IX, "The Far Eastern Crisis," section 1, "From Conciliation to Nonrecognition," beginning p. 220.
[^27]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 317 (Yale Commencement of June 1940, the radio speech of June 18, 1940, and "before he accepted public office").
[^28]: National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (Record Group 107), agency history note ("The wartime Secretaries of War were Henry L. Stimson, July 10, 1940-September 21, 1945, and Robert P. Patterson"), https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/military/rg-107.html; United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Cordell Hull" (appointed March 4, 1933; served until November 20, 1944), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell.
[^29]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 338 (Lovett's arrival in November 1940 as air assistant, Patterson's service "from the beginning to the end," and Harvey H. Bundy's earlier service with Stimson).
[^30]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), pp. 343-344. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235
[^31]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943*, Memorandum by the Secretary of War's Special Assistant (Bundy), London, July 22, 1943. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943
[^32]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 614. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235
[^33]: Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, *Personal Justice Denied* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1982), pp. 79-80, including nn. 151-152 (Stimson diary, February 10, 1942).
[^34]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 83, including nn. 166-167 (Stimson's record of February 17, 1942, and the meeting of February 18, 1942).
[^35]: National Archives, "Executive Order 9066: Resulting in Japanese-American Incarceration (1942)," transcript of Executive Order No. 9066, February 19, 1942 (https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/executive-order-9066).
[^36]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 99 (the powers conferred by Executive Order 9066, and Stimson's letter of February 20, 1942 to DeWitt).
[^37]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), Summary, p. 15 (May 1944 position; delay until after the November 1944 election; "motivated by political considerations").
[^38]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 227 (Cabinet meeting of May 26, 1944, and Biddle's note).
[^39]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 47 (McCloy as civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions).
[^40]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, Volume I, General: The United Nations*, document 6, Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson) to the Secretary of State, January 23, 1945, with editorial note citing Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War*, pp. 599-605 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v01/d6).
[^41]: Memorandum discussed with the President, April 25, 1945, Henry Stimson Diary, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library (microfilm at the Library of Congress), in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, "The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II," Document 3b (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/3b.pdf); see also Document 3a, the memorandum of April 23, 1945 prepared by Groves.
[^42]: Stimson Diary, April 25, 1945, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 3d (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/3d.pdf); Document 3c (War Department record of the arrangements for Groves to accompany Stimson); the collection's index of documents drawn from the Stimson Diary (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/).
[^43]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "The Atomic Bomb and the Surrender of Japan," p. 616 (the committee set up in April, its chairmanship, and the list of members).
[^44]: "Notes of the Interim Committee Meeting, Thursday, 31 May 1945," signed R. Gordon Arneson, Secretary, Records of the Army Corps of Engineers (RG 77), Manhattan Engineer District, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 12 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf), sections on the opening statement, Russia, effect of the bombing on the Japanese, undesirable scientists and next meeting.
[^45]: Memorandum from R. Gordon Arneson to Mr. Harrison, June 6, 1945, RG 77, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 14 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/14.pdf).
[^46]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 617.
[^47]: Memorandum of Conference with the President, June 6, 1945, Stimson Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 15 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/15.pdf).
[^48]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference), 1945, Volume II*, document 1303, Harrison to Stimson, July 16, 1945, with the editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 16 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1303).
[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam), 1945*, vol. II, Stimson-Cherwell conversation, noon, July 19, 1945; Stimson-Churchill conversations, about 4:30 p.m., July 21, 1945, and 10:40 a.m., July 22, 1945, with the editorial notes quoting Stimson's diary. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02
[^50]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1236, Stimson to the Secretary of State, with memorandum for the President, "The Conduct of the War with Japan," July 16, 1945, and the editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 17, 23 and 24 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1236).
[^51]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1241, Stimson to the President, "Proposed Proclamation to Japan," July 20, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1241).
[^52]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1305, Groves to Stimson, editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 21, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1305).
[^53]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 710a-109, Memorandum by the Secretary of War, "Conference with Generalissimo Stalin, 25 July 1945, 1225 to 1243 at Schloss Cecilienhof" (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d710a-109).
[^54]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1307, Harrison to Stimson, July 21, 1945, with editorial footnote on the selection of Kyoto as a possible target (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1307).
[^55]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1310, Stimson to Harrison, July 23, 1945, with editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 22 and 24, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1310).
[^56]: Henry L. Stimson, "The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb," *Harper's Magazine*, February 1947, as reprinted in *Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists*, vol. 3, no. 2 (February 1947) (https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-atomic-scientists_1947-02_3_2), sections on the memorandum of July 2, "The Use of the Bomb" and "A Personal Summary," and the Bulletin's editorial "The Decision to Use the Bomb."
[^57]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 609 (the fall of 1941, and the Harper's article as "a careful record").
[^58]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), Introduction, p. xi.
[^59]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "A Note of Explanation and Acknowledgment," pp. 673-674.
[^60]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 85, The Secretary of War (Stimson) to the President, September 5, 1944, and footnote quoting Morgenthau's letter to Stimson of September 6, 1944 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d85).
[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson), September 9, 1944, enclosure 1 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90).
[^62]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, editorial footnote on Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944, citing "Stimson Papers" (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90).
[^63]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951, p. 12 ("Mr. Stimson's papers for the years prior to 1933 were placed on deposit in the University Library in 1949, and became a gift February 11, 1952").
[^64]: Henry Lewis Stimson papers (MS 465), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library (https://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/mssa.ms.0465).

4
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/John D. Rockefeller Jr..md
View file

@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ relations:
role: "8.5 million dollars for the East River site"
fn: 1
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-26
---
John Davison Rockefeller Jr. (January 29, 1874, in [[Cleveland]], to May 11, 1960, in [[Tucson]]) was the son of [[John D. Rockefeller Sr.]], founder of [[Standard Oil]], and [[Laura Spelman Rockefeller]]. He graduated from [[Brown University]] in 1897, married [[Abby Aldrich Rockefeller]] (daughter of Senator [[Nelson W. Aldrich]] of [[Rhode Island]]) on October 9, 1901, and, three years after her death in 1948, married [[Martha Baird Rockefeller|Martha Baird Allen]] on August 15, 1951.[^1] Estimates of his net worth were 995 million dollars in 1928, 379.6 million in 1938 and 336.5 million in 1950. His children were Abby, [[John D. Rockefeller III]], [[Nelson Rockefeller]], [[Laurance Rockefeller]], [[Winthrop Rockefeller]] and [[David Rockefeller]]; five sons established the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] in 1940, and he gave it 58.9 million dollars.[^1] His first employment was in his father's office at 26 Broadway, where he worked with the Reverend [[Frederick T. Gates]].[^1]
@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ In 1910 he served on a New York grand jury that investigated "white slavery," an
### Standard Oil of Indiana
Before the 1929 annual meeting of [[Standard Oil of Indiana]], Rockefeller, a minority stockholder, examined the testimony of its chairman [[Robert W. Stewart]] before the [[United States Senate Committee on Public Lands and Surveys|Senate Committee on Public Lands]] about the [[Continental Trading Company]] bonds, talked with him and asked him to resign. [[Time]] reported on January 28, 1929 that Stewart had testified "I never had anything to do with the distribution of any bonds" and later "I know about the disposition of $759,500 of these bonds," that the Senate had charged him with perjury and contempt and that juries acquitted him of both, and that Rockefeller, who according to his own account had received Stewart's promise to comply nine months earlier, "sailed for Egypt last fortnight, but left behind him a letter to stockholders, expressing loss of confidence."[^17] The company had 9,160,000 shares held by about 58,000 holders, and the vote was set for March 7 at [[Whiting, Indiana]]. Time listed the acting Alien Property Custodian, [[Howard Sutherland]] (proxies for 12,000 shares seized from Germans and Austrians in the World War), and [[A. P. Giannini]] (32,000 shares) among Rockefeller's supporters, reported that the house of [[J. P. Morgan and Company]] was "authoritatively said to be advising clients to support" him, and noted that the [[University of Chicago]], "object of many Rockefeller benefactions," was expected to vote its 30,000 shares with him; the company's president [[Edward G. Seubert]] and its board voted unanimously for Stewart, and Time reported that Standard Oil of Indiana profits for 1928 were estimated at 80 million dollars.[^17]
Before the 1929 annual meeting of [[Standard Oil of Indiana]], Rockefeller, a minority stockholder, examined the testimony of its chairman [[Robert W. Stewart]] before the [[United States Senate Committee on Public Lands and Surveys|Senate Committee on Public Lands]] about the [[Continental Trading Company]] bonds, talked with him and asked him to resign. [[Time]] reported on January 28, 1929 that Stewart had testified "I never had anything to do with the distribution of any bonds" and later "I know about the disposition of $759,500 of these bonds," that the Senate had charged him with perjury and contempt and that juries acquitted him of both, and that Rockefeller, who according to his own account had received Stewart's promise to comply nine months earlier, "sailed for Egypt last fortnight, but left behind him a letter to stockholders, expressing loss of confidence."[^17] The company had 9,160,000 shares held by about 58,000 holders, and the vote was set for March 7 at [[Whiting, Indiana]]. Time listed the acting Alien Property Custodian, [[Howard Sutherland]] (proxies for 12,000 shares seized from Germans and Austrians in the World War), and [[A. P. Giannini]] (32,000 shares) among Rockefeller's supporters, reported that the house of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan and Company]] was "authoritatively said to be advising clients to support" him, and noted that the [[University of Chicago]], "object of many Rockefeller benefactions," was expected to vote its 30,000 shares with him; the company's president [[Edward G. Seubert]] and its board voted unanimously for Stewart, and Time reported that Standard Oil of Indiana profits for 1928 were estimated at 80 million dollars.[^17]
The Whiting-Robertsdale Historical Society states that Rockefeller retained [[Charles Evans Hughes]] to lead his lawyers and that Stewart retained [[Frank J. Hogan]], who had defended [[Edward L. Doheny]] in the [[Teapot Dome scandal|Teapot Dome]] case, and that Hughes's staff published a 69-page statement of Rockefeller's case. According to the society, Rockefeller did not attend the meeting and sent his brother-in-law Winthrop W. Aldrich with about 200 eastern stockholders; the Rockefeller side claimed 57 percent of the proxies; Stewart conceded, "I'm afraid, my friends, that the 'noes' have it, if the vote is taken by shares"; and the society quotes the [[Gary Times]] that Stewart "was plucked out of the chairmanship."[^18] The society's account names [[Harry F. Sinclair]] as one of the four oil company heads who created the Continental Trading Company in 1921.[^18]

2
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Michael Whitney Straight.md
View file

@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ Michael Whitney Straight (September 1, 1916 to January 4, 2004) was a magazine p
### Parents and Childhood
His father was an investment banker with [[JPMorgan Chase|J. P. Morgan & Company]], who died of septic pneumonia while serving with the American Expeditionary Forces in France in 1918. His mother, an heiress, had started [[The New Republic]] with her husband in 1914. In 1925 she married [[Leonard Knight Elmhirst]], and the couple ran [[Dartington Hall]], the progressive school in [[Devon]]. Michael was the third and youngest child; his brother [[Whitney Straight]] became a racing driver and head of the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]], and his sister [[Beatrice Straight]] an actress.[^1] The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] recorded his birth as September 1, 1916, at [[Southampton, Long Island|Southampton]], [[Long Island]], while the [[The New York Times|New York Times]] gave [[New York City]].[^1][^2] He attended the [[Lincoln School]] in New York and Dartington Hall, then spent a year at the [[London School of Economics]] before going on to Cambridge in 1934.[^1] He told the FBI in 1963 that his father died two years after his birth, that he was taken to [[England]] and raised there, and that his early life was that of an orphan who lacked no material thing.[^2] An FBI summary of his military record lists the London School of Economics in 1934 and [[Cambridge University]] from 1934 to 1937.[^3]
His father was an investment banker with [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan & Company]], who died of septic pneumonia while serving with the American Expeditionary Forces in France in 1918. His mother, an heiress, had started [[The New Republic]] with her husband in 1914. In 1925 she married [[Leonard Knight Elmhirst]], and the couple ran [[Dartington Hall]], the progressive school in [[Devon]]. Michael was the third and youngest child; his brother [[Whitney Straight]] became a racing driver and head of the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]], and his sister [[Beatrice Straight]] an actress.[^1] The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] recorded his birth as September 1, 1916, at [[Southampton, Long Island|Southampton]], [[Long Island]], while the [[The New York Times|New York Times]] gave [[New York City]].[^1][^2] He attended the [[Lincoln School]] in New York and Dartington Hall, then spent a year at the [[London School of Economics]] before going on to Cambridge in 1934.[^1] He told the FBI in 1963 that his father died two years after his birth, that he was taken to [[England]] and raised there, and that his early life was that of an orphan who lacked no material thing.[^2] An FBI summary of his military record lists the London School of Economics in 1934 and [[Cambridge University]] from 1934 to 1937.[^3]
### Cambridge and the Apostles

122
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Nelson Rockefeller.md
View file

@ -16,25 +16,25 @@ born: 1908-07-08
died: 1979-01-26
location: New York, NY
created: 2026-06-05
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[Planning Coordination Group]]"
role: "chairman"
start: 1955-03-10
end: 1955
fn: 23
fn: 25
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Interdepartmental Committee on Foreign Nationality Problems]]"
start: 1942
role: "CIAA representative (Mr. N. A. Rockefeller)"
fn: 11
fn: 13
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel]]"
role: "convener, Quantico II"
start: 1955-08-16
end: 1955-12-05
fn: 26
fn: 28
---
Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller (July 8, 1908 - January 26, 1979), named after his maternal grandfather and US Senator [[Nelson Aldrich]], was the dominant figure in US-Latin American relations from World War II through the mid-1970s. As coordinator of inter-American affairs (1940-1944), assistant secretary of state for American republic affairs (1944-1945), and later as President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'s special assistant for national security, he built the institutional architecture that governed American policy toward [[Latin America]] and shaped the intelligence community's covert operations in the Western Hemisphere. His private vehicles, the [[IBEC]] (International Basic Economy Corporation) and the [[AIA]] (American International Association), extended [[Rockefeller family]] commercial interests into the Brazilian Amazon and beyond.
@ -57,51 +57,53 @@ In 1936-1940, Nelson assembled a coterie of trusted advisers he called "the Junt
On August 16, 1940, the US [[Council of National Defense]] established the Office for Coordination of Commercial and Cultural Relations Between the American Republics (OCCCRBAR) and named Rockefeller, then 32, as its first coordinator. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] formalized and expanded the office through [[Executive Order 8840]], signed July 30, 1941, which reconstituted it as the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (OCIAA) within the Executive Office of the President and named Rockefeller as Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs. Executive Order 8840 designated the Coordinator as "the center for the coordination of the cultural and commercial relations of the Nation affecting hemisphere defense" and granted authority to develop programs across "the arts and sciences, education and travel, the radio, the press, and the cinema." The appointment reflected Roosevelt's need to remove German and British commercial and cultural influence from Latin America and replace it with American hegemony before the United States entered the war.[^6]
Under Rockefeller's direction, the CIAA became the first official US government propaganda operation, producing radio programs broadcast throughout Latin America, subsidizing 1,200 newspaper publishers dependent on CIAA-controlled newsprint shipments, producing newsreels and political cartoons, and publishing the magazine *En Guardia* with a circulation of 80,000 by summer 1941. The CIAA battled and defeated [[William J. Donovan]]'s rival Coordinator of Information for control of Latin American psychological warfare. Roosevelt ruled in Rockefeller's favor, restricting Donovan's future [[OSS]] to Europe and Asia.[^7]
In January 1942 the trade weekly [[Motion Picture Herald]] reported that Rockefeller and [[John Hay Whitney]] had selected [[Walt Disney]] as the first Hollywood producer of films meant to carry a message of goodwill to South America.[^7] The film work of the agency was then run through a unit directed by Whitney, and in October 1942 the trade paper recorded that [[Francis Alstock]] had succeeded him as director of the motion picture division.[^8]
The CIAA's "coordinating committees" in Brazil and elsewhere were staffed with American businessmen and served primarily to draw Latin American raw materials (rubber, tin, quinine, and oil) into the US war supply chain. Critics within the State Department noted the committees were composed of "the biggest businessmen" with "the most reactionary" policy views. The CIAA spent $140 million by 1944, far beyond its initial $3.5 million authorization.[^8]
Under Rockefeller's direction, the CIAA became the first official US government propaganda operation, producing radio programs broadcast throughout Latin America, subsidizing 1,200 newspaper publishers dependent on CIAA-controlled newsprint shipments, producing newsreels and political cartoons, and publishing the magazine *En Guardia* with a circulation of 80,000 by summer 1941. The CIAA battled and defeated [[William J. Donovan]]'s rival Coordinator of Information for control of Latin American psychological warfare. Roosevelt ruled in Rockefeller's favor, restricting Donovan's future [[OSS]] to Europe and Asia.[^9]
Rockefeller used the CIAA to advance US aviation dominance in Latin America through the [[Inter-American Escadrille]], displacing German airlines from Colombia, Bolivia, and Brazil, and integrating Latin American air forces into a US-led hemispheric defense system. His brother [[Laurance Rockefeller]] supported this effort through his position as director of [[Eastern Airlines]].[^9]
The CIAA's "coordinating committees" in Brazil and elsewhere were staffed with American businessmen and served primarily to draw Latin American raw materials (rubber, tin, quinine, and oil) into the US war supply chain. Critics within the State Department noted the committees were composed of "the biggest businessmen" with "the most reactionary" policy views. The CIAA spent $140 million by 1944, far beyond its initial $3.5 million authorization.[^10]
The CIAA's rubber program in the Amazon drove 100,000 people off their land (including a Haitian displacement project), a pattern that would repeat throughout Rockefeller's career in Latin American development.[^10]
Rockefeller used the CIAA to advance US aviation dominance in Latin America through the [[Inter-American Escadrille]], displacing German airlines from Colombia, Bolivia, and Brazil, and integrating Latin American air forces into a US-led hemispheric defense system. His brother [[Laurance Rockefeller]] supported this effort through his position as director of [[Eastern Airlines]].[^11]
Minutes and memoranda of the [[Interdepartmental Committee on Foreign Nationality Problems]], convened by [[Adolf Berle|Adolf A. Berle]] at the State Department in 1942 and filed in the CIA reading room under an [[Office of Strategic Services]] heading, list Rockefeller among the CIAA representatives. A [[Coordinator of Information]] memorandum of February 11, 1942 names "Mr. Nelson Rockefeller, Dr. Max Ascoli and Mr. Wallace K. Harrison of the Office of the Coordinator for Latin American Relations" among those present; Berle's letter of February 27, 1942 to the Secretary of War lists the CIAA members as "Mr. N. A Rockefeller; Mr. Wallace K. Harrison; Dr. Ascoli"; and the minutes of the sixth meeting (March 11, 1942) record Rockefeller, Harrison and [[Max Ascoli]] as CIAA representatives. At that meeting Ascoli reported on the possible recruitment of anti-Fascist Italians in South America for an Italian legion.[^11] Laura Fermi writes that Ascoli was associate director of cultural relations in the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs.[^12] [[Hugh Wilford]] writes that during the war Ascoli "worked alongside Nelson Rockefeller, John Hay Whitney, and C. D. Jackson."[^13]
The CIAA's rubber program in the Amazon drove 100,000 people off their land (including a Haitian displacement project), a pattern that would repeat throughout Rockefeller's career in Latin American development.[^12]
Rockefeller's office was one of the principal customers of the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]]. He wrote to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]] on March 5, 1942 about the "invaluable aid" the service supplied to his organization. On July 29, 1942 he wrote that his office had "been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau," and asked for a greater volume of verbatim transcripts for hemispheric propaganda work.[^14] [[Goodwin Watson]] wrote to him on July 7, 1942 about an offer the CIAA had made to an FBIS analyst, and [[Robert D. Leigh]] wrote to him on January 2, 1943 proposing a release system for Latin American information modeled on the service's own.[^15]
Minutes and memoranda of the [[Interdepartmental Committee on Foreign Nationality Problems]], convened by [[Adolf Berle|Adolf A. Berle]] at the State Department in 1942 and filed in the CIA reading room under an [[Office of Strategic Services]] heading, list Rockefeller among the CIAA representatives. A [[Coordinator of Information]] memorandum of February 11, 1942 names "Mr. Nelson Rockefeller, Dr. Max Ascoli and Mr. Wallace K. Harrison of the Office of the Coordinator for Latin American Relations" among those present; Berle's letter of February 27, 1942 to the Secretary of War lists the CIAA members as "Mr. N. A Rockefeller; Mr. Wallace K. Harrison; Dr. Ascoli"; and the minutes of the sixth meeting (March 11, 1942) record Rockefeller, Harrison and [[Max Ascoli]] as CIAA representatives. At that meeting Ascoli reported on the possible recruitment of anti-Fascist Italians in South America for an Italian legion.[^13] Laura Fermi writes that Ascoli was associate director of cultural relations in the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs.[^14] [[Hugh Wilford]] writes that during the war Ascoli "worked alongside Nelson Rockefeller, John Hay Whitney, and C. D. Jackson."[^15]
Rockefeller's office was one of the principal customers of the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]]. He wrote to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]] on March 5, 1942 about the "invaluable aid" the service supplied to his organization. On July 29, 1942 he wrote that his office had "been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau," and asked for a greater volume of verbatim transcripts for hemispheric propaganda work.[^16] [[Goodwin Watson]] wrote to him on July 7, 1942 about an offer the CIAA had made to an FBIS analyst, and [[Robert D. Leigh]] wrote to him on January 2, 1943 proposing a release system for Latin American information modeled on the service's own.[^17]
### The Act of Chapultepec and Cold War Architecture (1945)
Appointed assistant secretary of state for American republic affairs on December 20, 1944 (his entry on duty date), Rockefeller convened the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace at [[Chapultepec Castle]] in [[Mexico City]], which ran from February 21 to March 8, 1945. There he pushed through the Act of Chapultepec (formally adopted March 6, 1945), which authorized a regional military pact making an attack on any American state an attack on all, a Latin American precursor to [[NATO]] that both the State Department and the Soviet Union recognized as a violation of the Yalta accords.[^16]
Appointed assistant secretary of state for American republic affairs on December 20, 1944 (his entry on duty date), Rockefeller convened the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace at [[Chapultepec Castle]] in [[Mexico City]], which ran from February 21 to March 8, 1945. There he pushed through the Act of Chapultepec (formally adopted March 6, 1945), which authorized a regional military pact making an attack on any American state an attack on all, a Latin American precursor to [[NATO]] that both the State Department and the Soviet Union recognized as a violation of the Yalta accords.[^18]
At Chapultepec, Rockefeller assembled his "Latin American Junta": [[Galo Plaza]] of Ecuador, [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]] of Colombia, and Mexico's [[Ezequiel Padilla]]. These men would become presidents, OAS secretaries-general, and trustees of the Rockefeller Foundation. Rockefeller also arranged for Adolf Berle to replace [[Jefferson Caffery]] as US ambassador to Brazil.[^17]
At Chapultepec, Rockefeller assembled his "Latin American Junta": [[Galo Plaza]] of Ecuador, [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]] of Colombia, and Mexico's [[Ezequiel Padilla]]. These men would become presidents, OAS secretaries-general, and trustees of the Rockefeller Foundation. Rockefeller also arranged for Adolf Berle to replace [[Jefferson Caffery]] as US ambassador to Brazil.[^19]
The Act of Chapultepec killed 180 Latin American resolutions promoting industrialization and protective tariffs, replacing them with an open-door policy for American corporate investment and commitments to road-building that served extractive industries. Rockefeller supported Argentina's [[Juan Perón]]'s admission to the founding United Nations conference over strong objections, adding the Latin American bloc's 19 votes to the Western tally against the Soviets. Adolf Berle warned him privately this would be a political error; Rockefeller ignored the advice and paid with his job when the move was exposed as a violation of Yalta.[^18]
The Act of Chapultepec killed 180 Latin American resolutions promoting industrialization and protective tariffs, replacing them with an open-door policy for American corporate investment and commitments to road-building that served extractive industries. Rockefeller supported Argentina's [[Juan Perón]]'s admission to the founding United Nations conference over strong objections, adding the Latin American bloc's 19 votes to the Western tally against the Soviets. Adolf Berle warned him privately this would be a political error; Rockefeller ignored the advice and paid with his job when the move was exposed as a violation of Yalta.[^20]
Nelson's appointment as assistant secretary terminated on August 17, 1945. President [[Harry S. Truman]] reversed his policies and shut down the OCIAA shortly thereafter; whether his departure was a dismissal or a resignation has been characterized differently by different sources, with the State Department's official record listing a termination date of August 17, 1945.[^19]
Nelson's appointment as assistant secretary terminated on August 17, 1945. President [[Harry S. Truman]] reversed his policies and shut down the OCIAA shortly thereafter; whether his departure was a dismissal or a resignation has been characterized differently by different sources, with the State Department's official record listing a termination date of August 17, 1945.[^21]
### Private Instruments: IBEC, AIA, and the "First Cold War Coup"
Back in New York, Rockefeller reconvened his Junta and created two private vehicles for Latin American penetration: the IBEC (International Basic Economy Corporation, of which he served as president from 1947 to 1953 and again from 1956 to 1958) and the AIA (American International Association for Economic and Social Development, of which he served as president from 1946 to 1953 and again from 1957 to 1958). These nominally separate entities combined Rockefeller commercial interests with US government development goals.[^20]
Back in New York, Rockefeller reconvened his Junta and created two private vehicles for Latin American penetration: the IBEC (International Basic Economy Corporation, of which he served as president from 1947 to 1953 and again from 1956 to 1958) and the AIA (American International Association for Economic and Social Development, of which he served as president from 1946 to 1953 and again from 1957 to 1958). These nominally separate entities combined Rockefeller commercial interests with US government development goals.[^22]
Through his former CIAA aide Adolf Berle and his CIA Western Hemisphere operations director [[J.C. King]] (a former Johnson & Johnson Latin American manager), Rockefeller was connected to the 1945 coup that overthrew Brazilian president [[Getulio Vargas]]. The coup ended Vargas's plan for state-directed Amazon development and opened Brazil to the American corporate penetration Rockefeller had prepared during the CIAA years.[^21]
Through his former CIAA aide Adolf Berle and his CIA Western Hemisphere operations director [[J.C. King]] (a former Johnson & Johnson Latin American manager), Rockefeller was connected to the 1945 coup that overthrew Brazilian president [[Getulio Vargas]]. The coup ended Vargas's plan for state-directed Amazon development and opened Brazil to the American corporate penetration Rockefeller had prepared during the CIAA years.[^23]
### Eisenhower's Cold War General (1953-1955)
In 1953, Rockefeller accepted appointment as chair of the President's Advisory Committee on Government Organization, which ran from 1952 to 1953, before becoming Under Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (1953-1954). On December 15, 1954, President Eisenhower sent Rockefeller a letter appointing him Special Assistant to the President for Foreign Affairs (also described as Special Assistant for Cold War Strategy). The appointment letter tasked him with providing "advice and assistance in the development of increased understanding and cooperation among all peoples" and attending meetings of the Cabinet, the National Security Council, the [[Council on Foreign Economic Policy]], and the [[Operations Coordinating Board]].[^22]
In 1953, Rockefeller accepted appointment as chair of the President's Advisory Committee on Government Organization, which ran from 1952 to 1953, before becoming Under Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (1953-1954). On December 15, 1954, President Eisenhower sent Rockefeller a letter appointing him Special Assistant to the President for Foreign Affairs (also described as Special Assistant for Cold War Strategy). The appointment letter tasked him with providing "advice and assistance in the development of increased understanding and cooperation among all peoples" and attending meetings of the Cabinet, the National Security Council, the [[Council on Foreign Economic Policy]], and the [[Operations Coordinating Board]].[^24]
On March 3, 1955, Bureau of the Budget Director Rowland Hughes recommended that Eisenhower designate Rockefeller as a member and vice chairman of the OCB and as chairman of a new Planning Coordination Group. Eisenhower approved these recommendations on March 10, 1955. The Planning Coordination Group (PCG), operating within the framework of [[NSC 5412]] governing covert operations, comprised Rockefeller as chairman, the Under Secretary of State, the Deputy Secretary of Defense, and the Director of Central Intelligence. Its function was to "advise and assist the responsible operating agencies in the coordinated development of plans and programs" and to serve as the "normal channel for giving policy approval" for CIA covert operations. CIA director [[Allen Dulles]] and State Department officials refused to cooperate, and their obstruction stymied the PCG's initiatives. Rockefeller recommended the group's abolishment in September 1955 and resigned as Special Assistant to the President in December 1955.[^23]
On March 3, 1955, Bureau of the Budget Director Rowland Hughes recommended that Eisenhower designate Rockefeller as a member and vice chairman of the OCB and as chairman of a new Planning Coordination Group. Eisenhower approved these recommendations on March 10, 1955. The Planning Coordination Group (PCG), operating within the framework of [[NSC 5412]] governing covert operations, comprised Rockefeller as chairman, the Under Secretary of State, the Deputy Secretary of Defense, and the Director of Central Intelligence. Its function was to "advise and assist the responsible operating agencies in the coordinated development of plans and programs" and to serve as the "normal channel for giving policy approval" for CIA covert operations. CIA director [[Allen Dulles]] and State Department officials refused to cooperate, and their obstruction stymied the PCG's initiatives. Rockefeller recommended the group's abolishment in September 1955 and resigned as Special Assistant to the President in December 1955.[^25]
In this role, he commissioned and partly directed the [[Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel|Quantico I and II]] strategy panels. Quantico I convened June 5-10, 1955, at the Marine Corps School in [[Quantico]], [[Virginia]], where eleven experts in Soviet-American relations (including [[W.W. Rostow]] of [[MIT]] as panel chairman, [[C.D. Jackson]] of [[Time-Life]], and [[Hans Speier]] of the [[RAND Corporation]]) assessed the US position in the psychological dimensions of the Cold War. The panel's aerial inspection proposal is identified in the Foreign Relations volumes as the genesis of the "Open Skies" offer, which Rockefeller, [[Arthur W. Radford]], [[Harold Stassen]], [[Robert B. Anderson]] and [[Alfred Gruenther]] discussed in Paris and which Eisenhower and Dulles took up at Geneva before the President made it on July 21, 1955.[^24] The [[Rockefeller Archive Center]]'s description of his Special Assistant subseries states that he "played a key role in the development of the Open Skies policy."[^25] Quantico II, which Rockefeller invited on August 16, 1955 to study "the psychological aspects of future United States strategy," met in Washington in late August and at Quantico in September, with Major General [[Frederick L. Anderson]], USAF (ret.), as chairman. Its twelve members sought "an optimum, integrated national program within which specific long-term military, economic, technological and ideological programs can be developed and financed."[^26] Bessner dates the Quantico sessions to September 25 to 29, 1955.[^27] Anderson submitted the panel's report, "Psychological Aspects of United States Strategy," on November 29, 1955, with a source book of individual papers dated November 1955.[^26][^28] Rockefeller forwarded it to Eisenhower on December 2.[^26] His papers at the Rockefeller Archive Center hold folders for Quantico I and II and a 1956 folder, "Quantico III Meeting," described as a preliminary meeting to the Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project.[^25] He brought [[Henry Kissinger]], then a young Harvard academic, in as director of the Special Studies Project of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]], whose six panel reports appeared between January 1958 and September 1960; Kissinger directed the project until June 30, 1958.[^29] Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett wrote that the reports shaped the Kennedy administration's counterinsurgency strategy.[^30]
In this role, he commissioned and partly directed the [[Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel|Quantico I and II]] strategy panels. Quantico I convened June 5-10, 1955, at the Marine Corps School in [[Quantico]], [[Virginia]], where eleven experts in Soviet-American relations (including [[W.W. Rostow]] of [[MIT]] as panel chairman, [[C.D. Jackson]] of [[Time-Life]], and [[Hans Speier]] of the [[RAND Corporation]]) assessed the US position in the psychological dimensions of the Cold War. The panel's aerial inspection proposal is identified in the Foreign Relations volumes as the genesis of the "Open Skies" offer, which Rockefeller, [[Arthur W. Radford]], [[Harold Stassen]], [[Robert B. Anderson]] and [[Alfred Gruenther]] discussed in Paris and which Eisenhower and Dulles took up at Geneva before the President made it on July 21, 1955.[^26] The [[Rockefeller Archive Center]]'s description of his Special Assistant subseries states that he "played a key role in the development of the Open Skies policy."[^27] Quantico II, which Rockefeller invited on August 16, 1955 to study "the psychological aspects of future United States strategy," met in Washington in late August and at Quantico in September, with Major General [[Frederick L. Anderson]], USAF (ret.), as chairman. Its twelve members sought "an optimum, integrated national program within which specific long-term military, economic, technological and ideological programs can be developed and financed."[^28] Bessner dates the Quantico sessions to September 25 to 29, 1955.[^29] Anderson submitted the panel's report, "Psychological Aspects of United States Strategy," on November 29, 1955, with a source book of individual papers dated November 1955.[^28][^30] Rockefeller forwarded it to Eisenhower on December 2.[^28] His papers at the Rockefeller Archive Center hold folders for Quantico I and II and a 1956 folder, "Quantico III Meeting," described as a preliminary meeting to the Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project.[^27] He brought [[Henry Kissinger]], then a young Harvard academic, in as director of the Special Studies Project of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]], whose six panel reports appeared between January 1958 and September 1960; Kissinger directed the project until June 30, 1958.[^31] Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett wrote that the reports shaped the Kennedy administration's counterinsurgency strategy.[^32]
### Brazil and the 1964 Coup
By 1964, Rockefeller's instruments were in place for a more decisive intervention. His former CIAA colleague Adolf Berle maintained connections to Brazilian military officers through the State Department and private channels. The CIA's J.C. King coordinated with US Ambassador [[Lincoln Gordon]] and Military Attaché [[Vernon Walters]]. Rockefeller's IBEC had major agricultural and commercial holdings in Brazil, and his brother [[David Rockefeller]]'s [[Chase Manhattan Bank]] was deeply invested in the Brazilian economy.[^31]
By 1964, Rockefeller's instruments were in place for a more decisive intervention. His former CIAA colleague Adolf Berle maintained connections to Brazilian military officers through the State Department and private channels. The CIA's J.C. King coordinated with US Ambassador [[Lincoln Gordon]] and Military Attaché [[Vernon Walters]]. Rockefeller's IBEC had major agricultural and commercial holdings in Brazil, and his brother [[David Rockefeller]]'s [[Chase Manhattan Bank]] was deeply invested in the Brazilian economy.[^33]
The April 1964 coup deposing President [[Joao Goulart]] was welcomed within the Rockefeller network. Planning for the contingency had been underway since at least December 1962: a November 22, 1963 contingency plan showed "heavy emphasis on U.S. armed intervention," and Ambassador Gordon's March 28, 1964 telegram from Rio de Janeiro described Goulart as "now definitely engaged on campaign to seize dictatorial power, accepting the active collaboration of the Brazilian Communist Party." On March 31, 1964, the Joint Chiefs of Staff assigned the code name "Brother Sam" to a naval task force authorized to supply arms and potentially deploy combat troops in support of the coup if needed. [[Operation Brother Sam]] was the military expression of a strategy Rockefeller had been building since Chapultepec. These deliberations are documented in FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. XXXI, which covers South and Central America and includes the Lincoln Gordon cables and the JCS Brother Sam authorization.[^32]
The April 1964 coup deposing President [[Joao Goulart]] was welcomed within the Rockefeller network. Planning for the contingency had been underway since at least December 1962: a November 22, 1963 contingency plan showed "heavy emphasis on U.S. armed intervention," and Ambassador Gordon's March 28, 1964 telegram from Rio de Janeiro described Goulart as "now definitely engaged on campaign to seize dictatorial power, accepting the active collaboration of the Brazilian Communist Party." On March 31, 1964, the Joint Chiefs of Staff assigned the code name "Brother Sam" to a naval task force authorized to supply arms and potentially deploy combat troops in support of the coup if needed. [[Operation Brother Sam]] was the military expression of a strategy Rockefeller had been building since Chapultepec. These deliberations are documented in FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. XXXI, which covers South and Central America and includes the Lincoln Gordon cables and the JCS Brother Sam authorization.[^34]
### The Nixon Mission and Latin American Backlash (1969)
In 1969, President [[Richard Nixon]] asked Rockefeller, on Nixon's first full day in office, to assess the effectiveness of the [[Alliance for Progress]] program and prepare a policy report on Latin America. Rockefeller undertook a 20-nation tour in summer 1969. The tour was met with riots, demonstrations, and stone-throwing in nearly every country he visited, a response that shocked official Washington but not those who had watched his career from the other side. The tour's report, delivered to Nixon and titled "Quality of Life in the Americas," recommended reversing recent trends to reduce security assistance to Latin American military governments. The report stated, "At the moment there is only one Castro among the 26 nations of the hemisphere; there can well be more in the future." Its military aid recommendations further deepened US backing for Latin American military dictatorships.[^33]
In 1969, President [[Richard Nixon]] asked Rockefeller, on Nixon's first full day in office, to assess the effectiveness of the [[Alliance for Progress]] program and prepare a policy report on Latin America. Rockefeller undertook a 20-nation tour in summer 1969. The tour was met with riots, demonstrations, and stone-throwing in nearly every country he visited, a response that shocked official Washington but not those who had watched his career from the other side. The tour's report, delivered to Nixon and titled "Quality of Life in the Americas," recommended reversing recent trends to reduce security assistance to Latin American military governments. The report stated, "At the moment there is only one Castro among the 26 nations of the hemisphere; there can well be more in the future." Its military aid recommendations further deepened US backing for Latin American military dictatorships.[^35]
### The Rockefeller Commission (1975)
@ -109,21 +111,21 @@ In 1975, amid the congressional [[Church Committee]] investigations into CIA abu
Rockefeller "attempted to head off inclusion of the subject" of CIA assassination plots, restricting consideration of assassinations to the question of Cuba's possible role in the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]]. When the Commission voted on whether to include assassination investigations, it overrode its own chairman, with [[Ronald Reagan]] (then Governor of California, serving as a commissioner) siding with executive director David Belin against Rockefeller. In a March 10, 1975 memorandum to Commission members, Belin argued that selective investigation of assassination plots would confuse the public and that "the threat of assassination" warranted comprehensive inquiry. The Commission took testimony from CIA General Counsel [[John Warner]] on April 14, 1975.
Despite the Commission's vote to include the assassination material, the Ford White House suppressed it. An entire 86-page section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders" (dated June 5, 1975), covering plots against [[Fidel Castro]], [[Rafael Trujillo]], and references to [[Patrice Lumumba]] and [[Sukarno]], was removed from the final report before public release. Then-Deputy White House Chief of Staff [[Richard Cheney]] made handwritten edits throughout the draft on or around June 1, 1975, altering language describing CIA activities from "unlawful" to merely "improper" in most instances, while drug experiments on US citizens retained the characterization "illegal." White House Counsel [[Philip Buchen]] coordinated the suppression. Commission public affairs director Peter Clapper warned that deleting the section would "cast doubt on the rest of the report" and be perceived as a cover-up; his objection was overridden. Senator [[Frank Church]] personally visited Rockefeller in early May 1975, alleging that CIA documents were being withheld from the Church Committee by the Rockefeller Commission. President Ford wrote to Church on October 31, 1975, urging suppression of assassination findings; Church rejected the request, stating that "the national interest is better served by letting the American people know the true and complete story." These internal documents are collected in National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, published February 29, 2016, edited by John Prados and Arturo Jimenez-Bacardi.[^34]
Despite the Commission's vote to include the assassination material, the Ford White House suppressed it. An entire 86-page section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders" (dated June 5, 1975), covering plots against [[Fidel Castro]], [[Rafael Trujillo]], and references to [[Patrice Lumumba]] and [[Sukarno]], was removed from the final report before public release. Then-Deputy White House Chief of Staff [[Richard Cheney]] made handwritten edits throughout the draft on or around June 1, 1975, altering language describing CIA activities from "unlawful" to merely "improper" in most instances, while drug experiments on US citizens retained the characterization "illegal." White House Counsel [[Philip Buchen]] coordinated the suppression. Commission public affairs director Peter Clapper warned that deleting the section would "cast doubt on the rest of the report" and be perceived as a cover-up; his objection was overridden. Senator [[Frank Church]] personally visited Rockefeller in early May 1975, alleging that CIA documents were being withheld from the Church Committee by the Rockefeller Commission. President Ford wrote to Church on October 31, 1975, urging suppression of assassination findings; Church rejected the request, stating that "the national interest is better served by letting the American people know the true and complete story." These internal documents are collected in National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, published February 29, 2016, edited by John Prados and Arturo Jimenez-Bacardi.[^36]
Rockefeller's chairmanship of the commission investigating the agency he had supervised under Eisenhower was widely considered a conflict of interest. Key findings were withheld or classified. The Commission also added Recommendations 29 (civilian oversight committee) and 20 (periodic declassification reviews) to the report without a Commission vote, under [[White House]] direction.[^35]
Rockefeller's chairmanship of the commission investigating the agency he had supervised under Eisenhower was widely considered a conflict of interest. Key findings were withheld or classified. The Commission also added Recommendations 29 (civilian oversight committee) and 20 (periodic declassification reviews) to the report without a Commission vote, under [[White House]] direction.[^37]
### New York Politics and the Vice Presidency
Rockefeller served as governor of New York from 1959 to 1973, during which time he built the South Mall (later renamed the [[Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza]]) and pursued the presidency unsuccessfully in 1960, 1964, and 1968, repeatedly blocked by the Republican right wing. On August 20, 1974, President Ford nominated Rockefeller as vice president under Section 2 of the [[25th Amendment]]. After a nearly four-month confirmation process, the Senate confirmed the nomination 90-7 on December 10, 1974, and the House confirmed 287-128 on December 19, 1974. Rockefeller was sworn in as the 41st Vice President on December 19, 1974, the second person appointed vice president under the 25th Amendment (Ford having been the first).[^36]
Rockefeller served as governor of New York from 1959 to 1973, during which time he built the South Mall (later renamed the [[Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza]]) and pursued the presidency unsuccessfully in 1960, 1964, and 1968, repeatedly blocked by the Republican right wing. On August 20, 1974, President Ford nominated Rockefeller as vice president under Section 2 of the [[25th Amendment]]. After a nearly four-month confirmation process, the Senate confirmed the nomination 90-7 on December 10, 1974, and the House confirmed 287-128 on December 19, 1974. Rockefeller was sworn in as the 41st Vice President on December 19, 1974, the second person appointed vice president under the 25th Amendment (Ford having been the first).[^38]
### Death
Rockefeller died on January 26, 1979, of a heart attack at his townhouse at 13 West 54th Street in Manhattan, in the presence of Megan Marshack, a 25-year-old aide who had worked for him during his vice presidency and to whom he had provided financial assistance in purchasing a condominium nearby. After Rockefeller suffered the cardiac event, Marshack called her friend, television journalist Ponchitta Pierce, to the townhouse; Pierce phoned an ambulance approximately one hour after the attack. Initial reports, quickly corrected, stated he had died at his desk at Rockefeller Center. The circumstances received extensive press coverage but diverted attention from his political legacy.[^37]
Rockefeller died on January 26, 1979, of a heart attack at his townhouse at 13 West 54th Street in Manhattan, in the presence of Megan Marshack, a 25-year-old aide who had worked for him during his vice presidency and to whom he had provided financial assistance in purchasing a condominium nearby. After Rockefeller suffered the cardiac event, Marshack called her friend, television journalist Ponchitta Pierce, to the townhouse; Pierce phoned an ambulance approximately one hour after the attack. Initial reports, quickly corrected, stated he had died at his desk at Rockefeller Center. The circumstances received extensive press coverage but diverted attention from his political legacy.[^39]
### The Pocantico Network
The Rockefeller family's 3,600-acre Pocantico Hills estate in Sleepy Hollow, New York, served as both residence and operational headquarters for family strategic planning. The Rockefeller Brothers Fund, co-organized in 1940, became the vehicle for coordinating family philanthropy, "soft" intelligence operations, and policy influence across generations. Nelson used the RBF to channel funds into psychological warfare and counterintelligence programs, with his brother David reluctantly acquiescing to Nelson's demands. The Rockefeller Archive Center, which holds the family papers and is located at Pocantico, holds the primary records for Rockefeller's government and private activities.[^38]
The Rockefeller family's 3,600-acre Pocantico Hills estate in Sleepy Hollow, New York, served as both residence and operational headquarters for family strategic planning. The Rockefeller Brothers Fund, co-organized in 1940, became the vehicle for coordinating family philanthropy, "soft" intelligence operations, and policy influence across generations. Nelson used the RBF to channel funds into psychological warfare and counterintelligence programs, with his brother David reluctantly acquiescing to Nelson's demands. The Rockefeller Archive Center, which holds the family papers and is located at Pocantico, holds the primary records for Rockefeller's government and private activities.[^40]
### Footnotes
@ -133,35 +135,37 @@ The Rockefeller family's 3,600-acre Pocantico Hills estate in Sleepy Hollow, New
[^4]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 5 ("The Rites of Political Passage"); Ch. 6 ("Good Neighbors Make Good Allies"); Rockefeller Archive Center biographical summary (director of Creole Petroleum Company from 1935).
[^5]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 6; Ch. 13 ("Latin America's First Cold War Coup").
[^6]: Council of National Defense order establishing OCCCRBAR, August 16, 1940; Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941, signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt. Text at The American Presidency Project (presidency.ucsb.edu). Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Coordinator").
[^7]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance").
[^8]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative").
[^9]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies").
[^10]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Preempting the Cold War").
[^11]: CIA reading room, "OSS: Memoranda on meetings of the Interdepartmental Committee on Foreign Nationality Problems," CIA-RDP13X00001R000100370009-5, PDF pp. 17-18, 22, 29-30 and 39-41, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp13x00001r000100370009-5.
[^12]: Laura Fermi, Illustrious Immigrants (University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 284.
[^13]: Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer (Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 230-231.
[^14]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), note 24, quoting Nelson A. Rockefeller to James L. Fly, 29 July 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm. Roop, Part I, pp. 158-159, on the 5 March 1942 letter. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^15]: Roop, Part I, pp. 218-219, on Watson's letter of 7 July 1942, and pp. 101-102, on Leigh's letter of 2 January 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^16]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Triumph at Chapultepec"); Act of Chapultepec, formally adopted March 6, 1945, at the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace (Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City, February 21 - March 8, 1945). Text at Avalon Project, Yale Law School (avalon.law.yale.edu). State Department appointment record: "Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller," Office of the Historian, People, Department History (history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/rockefeller-nelson-aldrich), entry on duty December 20, 1944.
[^17]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Nelson's Latin American Junta").
[^18]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Roosevelt's Crucial Decision"; "Rekindling the Cold War").
[^19]: State Department Office of the Historian, "Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller," termination date August 17, 1945 (history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/rockefeller-nelson-aldrich).
[^20]: Rockefeller Archive Center biographical summary (president of AIA 1946-1953, 1957-1958; president of IBEC 1947-1953, 1956-1958). Colby and Dennett, Ch. 13 ("Latin America's First Cold War Coup"); Ch. 14.
[^21]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 13; Introduction (2017).
[^22]: Rockefeller Archive Center biographical summary; Dwight D. Eisenhower, "Letter to Nelson A. Rockefeller Appointing Him Special Assistant to the President," December 15, 1954 (released December 16, 1954), The American Presidency Project (presidency.ucsb.edu).
[^23]: Rowland Hughes memorandum, March 3, 1955 (FRUS 1950-55, Intelligence, Document 210, history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d210); Eisenhower approval, March 10, 1955. NSC 5412, "National Security Council Directive on Covert Operations." Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 18 ("Ike's Cold War General").
[^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Volume V, Austrian State Treaty; Summit and Foreign Ministers Meetings, 1955*, editorial note preceding document 221, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v05/d221, stating "Its genesis lies in the Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel which met in June." Document 208 (July 20, 1955, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v05/d208) lists Rockefeller, Radford, Stassen, Robert B. Anderson and Gruenther as "recent arrivals from Paris" at the President's villa meeting of July 20, 1955.
[^25]: Rockefeller Archive Center, Nelson A. Rockefeller personal papers, Washington, DC, Series O, Special Assistant to the President for Foreign Affairs, Subseries 7, and Activities, Series A ("Quantico III Meeting," 1956), https://dimes.rockarch.org/collections/H45i6yf7MUHuaRwQVupvg5.
[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Volume XIX, National Security Policy*, document 42, editorial note on the Quantico II Panel, pp. 153-154, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v19/d42. Gives the August 16, 1955 invitations, the twelve members, the November 29 submission, the December 2 letter to the President and the December 5 memorandum "Action Program for Free World Strength."
[^27]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 265 and note 145, citing James Desmond, *Nelson Rockefeller, a Political Biography* (Macmillan, 1964), p. 151.
[^28]: "Psychological Aspects of United States Strategy: Source Book of Individual Papers," November 1955, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP86B00269R000300120001-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000300120001-4. Preface names Rockefeller as "Special Assistant to the President."
[^29]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund. *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports.* Doubleday, 1961, list of project staff and preface. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america-the-rockefeller-panel-reports-rockefeller-brothers-fund-1961
[^30]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 23 ("Ascent of the Hawk"); Ch. 27. Quantico I panel composition from FRUS 1955-57, Vol. 24, Editorial Note, Document 12 (history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v24/d12).
[^31]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 28-29.
[^32]: FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. XXXI (South and Central America). Document 12 (March 29, 1964), Ambassador Lincoln Gordon telegram, Rio de Janeiro: Goulart "now definitely engaged on campaign to seize dictatorial power, accepting the active collaboration of the Brazilian Communist Party." Document 15 (April 1, 1964), coup status update. JCS code name "Brother Sam" assigned March 31, 1964 (Document 198, FRUS 1964-68 Vol. XXXI, history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31). National Security Archive, NSAEBB No. 465 ("Brazil Marks 50th Anniversary of Military Coup"), 2014. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 29 ("Operation Brother Sam").
[^33]: Nelson A. Rockefeller, "Quality of Life in the Americas" (Report of a Presidential Mission for the Western Hemisphere), 1969. Published in Department of State Bulletin. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 38-40; Appendix A.
[^34]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, "Gerald Ford White House Altered Rockefeller Commission Report in 1975; Removed Section on CIA Assassination Plots," February 29, 2016, edited by John Prados and Arturo Jimenez-Bacardi (nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report). Documents cited: Document 3 (David W. Belin memorandum to Commission members, "Scope of Commission Investigation - Assassinations," March 10, 1975, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library); Document 7 (Testimony of CIA General Counsel John Warner, April 14, 1975); Document 15 (Richard Cheney handwritten edits, c. June 1, 1975); Document 19 (86-page suppressed section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders," June 5, 1975); Document 21 (Ford letter to Church, October 31, 1975); Document 22 (Church response rejecting suppression request, November 4, 1975).
[^35]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 44 ("Hiding the Family Jewels"); Appendix B.
[^36]: 1974 United States vice presidential confirmation: Senate vote 90-7, December 10, 1974; House vote 287-128, December 19, 1974; sworn in December 19, 1974.
[^37]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 40-44. Death circumstances and location (13 West 54th Street townhouse): "Megan Marshack dies at 70; was with Nelson Rockefeller at his death," *Seattle Times*, October 3, 2024; *New York Times* obituary, January 27, 1979. Marshack died October 2, 2024, at age 70.
[^38]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 13. Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York (rockarch.org).
[^7]: "Rockefeller and Whitney Hire Disney to Make Goodwill Films," *Motion Picture Herald*, January 10, 1942 (selection of Walt Disney by Nelson Rockefeller and John Hay Whitney as first Hollywood producer of films for the goodwill program; South American cartoons to be produced at cost). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher146unse
[^8]: *Motion Picture Herald*, October 3, 1942 (staff changes at Nelson Rockefeller's Office of Inter-American Affairs: "Francis Alstock, who succeeded John Hay Whitney as director of the motion picture division"). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher1481unse
[^9]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance").
[^10]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative").
[^11]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies").
[^12]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Preempting the Cold War").
[^13]: CIA reading room, "OSS: Memoranda on meetings of the Interdepartmental Committee on Foreign Nationality Problems," CIA-RDP13X00001R000100370009-5, PDF pp. 17-18, 22, 29-30 and 39-41, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp13x00001r000100370009-5.
[^14]: Laura Fermi, Illustrious Immigrants (University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 284.
[^15]: Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer (Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 230-231.
[^16]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), note 24, quoting Nelson A. Rockefeller to James L. Fly, 29 July 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm. Roop, Part I, pp. 158-159, on the 5 March 1942 letter. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^17]: Roop, Part I, pp. 218-219, on Watson's letter of 7 July 1942, and pp. 101-102, on Leigh's letter of 2 January 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^18]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Triumph at Chapultepec"); Act of Chapultepec, formally adopted March 6, 1945, at the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace (Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City, February 21 - March 8, 1945). Text at Avalon Project, Yale Law School (avalon.law.yale.edu). State Department appointment record: "Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller," Office of the Historian, People, Department History (history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/rockefeller-nelson-aldrich), entry on duty December 20, 1944.
[^19]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Nelson's Latin American Junta").
[^20]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Roosevelt's Crucial Decision"; "Rekindling the Cold War").
[^21]: State Department Office of the Historian, "Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller," termination date August 17, 1945 (history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/rockefeller-nelson-aldrich).
[^22]: Rockefeller Archive Center biographical summary (president of AIA 1946-1953, 1957-1958; president of IBEC 1947-1953, 1956-1958). Colby and Dennett, Ch. 13 ("Latin America's First Cold War Coup"); Ch. 14.
[^23]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 13; Introduction (2017).
[^24]: Rockefeller Archive Center biographical summary; Dwight D. Eisenhower, "Letter to Nelson A. Rockefeller Appointing Him Special Assistant to the President," December 15, 1954 (released December 16, 1954), The American Presidency Project (presidency.ucsb.edu).
[^25]: Rowland Hughes memorandum, March 3, 1955 (FRUS 1950-55, Intelligence, Document 210, history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d210); Eisenhower approval, March 10, 1955. NSC 5412, "National Security Council Directive on Covert Operations." Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 18 ("Ike's Cold War General").
[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Volume V, Austrian State Treaty; Summit and Foreign Ministers Meetings, 1955*, editorial note preceding document 221, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v05/d221, stating "Its genesis lies in the Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel which met in June." Document 208 (July 20, 1955, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v05/d208) lists Rockefeller, Radford, Stassen, Robert B. Anderson and Gruenther as "recent arrivals from Paris" at the President's villa meeting of July 20, 1955.
[^27]: Rockefeller Archive Center, Nelson A. Rockefeller personal papers, Washington, DC, Series O, Special Assistant to the President for Foreign Affairs, Subseries 7, and Activities, Series A ("Quantico III Meeting," 1956), https://dimes.rockarch.org/collections/H45i6yf7MUHuaRwQVupvg5.
[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Volume XIX, National Security Policy*, document 42, editorial note on the Quantico II Panel, pp. 153-154, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v19/d42. Gives the August 16, 1955 invitations, the twelve members, the November 29 submission, the December 2 letter to the President and the December 5 memorandum "Action Program for Free World Strength."
[^29]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 265 and note 145, citing James Desmond, *Nelson Rockefeller, a Political Biography* (Macmillan, 1964), p. 151.
[^30]: "Psychological Aspects of United States Strategy: Source Book of Individual Papers," November 1955, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP86B00269R000300120001-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000300120001-4. Preface names Rockefeller as "Special Assistant to the President."
[^31]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund. *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports.* Doubleday, 1961, list of project staff and preface. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america-the-rockefeller-panel-reports-rockefeller-brothers-fund-1961
[^32]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 23 ("Ascent of the Hawk"); Ch. 27. Quantico I panel composition from FRUS 1955-57, Vol. 24, Editorial Note, Document 12 (history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v24/d12).
[^33]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 28-29.
[^34]: FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. XXXI (South and Central America). Document 12 (March 29, 1964), Ambassador Lincoln Gordon telegram, Rio de Janeiro: Goulart "now definitely engaged on campaign to seize dictatorial power, accepting the active collaboration of the Brazilian Communist Party." Document 15 (April 1, 1964), coup status update. JCS code name "Brother Sam" assigned March 31, 1964 (Document 198, FRUS 1964-68 Vol. XXXI, history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31). National Security Archive, NSAEBB No. 465 ("Brazil Marks 50th Anniversary of Military Coup"), 2014. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 29 ("Operation Brother Sam").
[^35]: Nelson A. Rockefeller, "Quality of Life in the Americas" (Report of a Presidential Mission for the Western Hemisphere), 1969. Published in Department of State Bulletin. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 38-40; Appendix A.
[^36]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, "Gerald Ford White House Altered Rockefeller Commission Report in 1975; Removed Section on CIA Assassination Plots," February 29, 2016, edited by John Prados and Arturo Jimenez-Bacardi (nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report). Documents cited: Document 3 (David W. Belin memorandum to Commission members, "Scope of Commission Investigation - Assassinations," March 10, 1975, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library); Document 7 (Testimony of CIA General Counsel John Warner, April 14, 1975); Document 15 (Richard Cheney handwritten edits, c. June 1, 1975); Document 19 (86-page suppressed section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders," June 5, 1975); Document 21 (Ford letter to Church, October 31, 1975); Document 22 (Church response rejecting suppression request, November 4, 1975).
[^37]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 44 ("Hiding the Family Jewels"); Appendix B.
[^38]: 1974 United States vice presidential confirmation: Senate vote 90-7, December 10, 1974; House vote 287-128, December 19, 1974; sworn in December 19, 1974.
[^39]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 40-44. Death circumstances and location (13 West 54th Street townhouse): "Megan Marshack dies at 70; was with Nelson Rockefeller at his death," *Seattle Times*, October 3, 2024; *New York Times* obituary, January 27, 1979. Marshack died October 2, 2024, at age 70.
[^40]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 13. Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York (rockarch.org).

325
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Oliver Hazard Payne.md Normal file
View file

@ -0,0 +1,325 @@
---
category: "Business & Finance"
aliases:
- "Oliver Hazard Payne"
- "Oliver H. Payne"
- "Oliver Payne"
- "Col. Oliver H. Payne"
- "Colonel Oliver H. Payne"
- "Colonel Payne"
- "O. H. Payne"
tags:
- Person
- Payne
- StandardOil
- Whitney
- Yale
- AmericanTobacco
- TennesseeCoal
- Philanthropy
- Cleveland
- CivilWar
summary: "Standard Oil treasurer and trustee, uncle of Payne Whitney and son of Ohio senator Henry B. Payne, who sat on the boards of American Tobacco and Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad."
born: 1839
died: 1917
location: "Cleveland, Ohio; New York City"
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Standard Oil]]"
role: "treasurer until 1884"
end: 1884
fn: 12
- type: director_of
with: "[[Standard Oil]]"
start: 1884
role: "board of directors after 1884 per the Yale record; the Evening World reported that he withdrew from the directorates after the antitrust decrees"
fn: 12
- type: participant_in
with: "[[South Improvement Company]]"
start: 1872
role: "stockholder, 180 shares"
fn: 15
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Standard Oil Trust]]"
start: 1882
end: 1885
role: "trustee in the first term of the 1882 trust agreement"
fn: 17
- type: subject_of
with: "[[Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States]]"
start: 1911
role: "named among the seven individual defendants"
fn: 19
- type: director_of
with: "[[American Tobacco Company]]"
role: "director, per Yale obituary record"
fn: 50
- type: director_of
with: "[[Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company]]"
role: "director, per Yale obituary record"
fn: 50
- type: subject_of
with: "[[United States v. American Tobacco Co.]]"
start: 1911
role: "named among the individual defendants"
fn: 51
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Moore & Schley]]"
start: 1907
role: "member of the Tennessee Coal syndicate (10,300 shares per the committee counsel's list), creditor of the firm and lender of securities to it"
fn: 53
- type: participant_in
with: "[[124th Ohio Infantry]]"
start: 1861
end: 1865
role: "first lieutenant, then lieutenant colonel and colonel; brevet brigadier general of volunteers March 13, 1865"
fn: 9
- type: funded
with: "[[Cornell University Medical College]]"
role: "gifts, including $4,000,000 per the Weill Cornell history, and a bequest of a permanent endowment of $500,000"
fn: 76
- type: funded
with: "[[Yale University]]"
end: 1917
role: "bequest of one million dollars by will"
fn: 82
- type: funded
with: "[[New York Public Library]]"
end: 1917
role: "bequest of one million dollars by will"
fn: 82
- type: funded
with: "[[Lakeside Hospital]]"
end: 1917
role: "bequest of one million dollars by will"
fn: 82
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Henry B. Payne]]"
role: "son"
fn: 6
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Flora Payne]]"
role: "sister"
fn: 2
- type: relative_of
with: "[[William Collins Whitney]]"
role: "brother-in-law"
fn: 2
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Payne Whitney]]"
role: "uncle"
fn: 3
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Harry Payne Whitney]]"
role: "uncle"
fn: 2
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Dorothy Payne Whitney]]"
role: "uncle"
fn: 3
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
---
Oliver Hazard Payne (July 21, 1839 to June 27, 1917) was a Cleveland oil refiner who served as treasurer of [[Standard Oil]] until 1884 and then sat on its board in New York. He was the son of [[Henry B. Payne]], a United States senator from Ohio, and the brother of [[Flora Payne]], who married [[William Collins Whitney]]. He entered [[Yale University]] with the class of 1863 and left in October 1861 for the Union Army.[^1] His sister Flora was the mother of his nephews [[Payne Whitney]] and [[Harry Payne Whitney]], who were sons of the [[Whitney family]].[^2][^3]
[[Antony C. Sutton]], in his book on [[Skull and Bones]], placed the Payne family under Standard Oil among the families of new wealth in his chart "Hypothesis Number One," beside the old-line Whitney family.[^4] Sutton wrote that William C. Whitney "married Flora Payne, daughter of Standard Oil Treasurer Oliver Payne," and that adding "the Payne piece of the Standard Oil fortune made Whitney's fortune that much larger."[^5] Payne Whitney's Yale record gives his mother as Flora Payne, and Oliver Payne's Yale record lists one of his sisters as the wife of William Collins Whitney.[^2][^3]
### Early life and Yale
Payne was born in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]] on July 21, 1839, the son of Henry B. Payne and Mary (Perry) Payne, a daughter of Nathan Perry.[^1] The Yale record gives his father's career as a Cleveland lawyer for twelve years, a member of the Ohio Senate from 1849 to 1851, the Democratic candidate for United States Senate in 1851 and for governor in 1857, a member of the Forty-fourth Congress, a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1880 and 1884, and a United States senator from 1885 to 1891.[^6] Oliver Payne was prepared for Yale at [[Phillips Academy]] in Andover, Massachusetts.[^7]
He remained in the class of 1863 only until October 1861, when he left to accept a commission as first lieutenant in the [[124th Ohio Infantry]].[^7] The Yale Corporation voted him the degree of B.A. in 1878, and from that date he was enrolled in the class of 1863.[^8] His brother, [[Henry W. Payne]], graduated from Yale in 1867 and died in 1878. One of his sisters, Flora Payne, was the wife of William Collins Whitney (Yale 1863), and another was the wife of [[Charles W. Bingham]] (Yale 1868); a niece was the wife of Dudley S. Blossom (Yale 1901).[^2][^3] The Yale record states that he never married.[^2]
### Civil War service
The Yale record says that Payne rose to the rank of colonel in the 124th Ohio and that on March 13, 1865 he was brevetted brigadier general of volunteers.[^9] The Heitman register of Army officers gives the regiment and dates in more detail. It lists him as lieutenant colonel of the 124th Ohio Infantry from September 11, 1862, colonel from January 1, 1863, and brevet brigadier general of volunteers from March 13, 1865 for faithful and meritorious service, with a resignation dated November 2, 1864.[^10] The Yale record says that he returned to Cleveland "after completing his service in the Army."[^11] The two records agree on the March 13, 1865 brevet. They differ on whether his service ended in 1864 or 1865.
### Cleveland refining and the Standard Oil combination
After leaving the Army, Payne entered the oil refining business in Cleveland with [[James B. Clark]]. [[John Huntington]] later became a partner.[^12] The Yale record says that the business was absorbed by the Standard Oil Company, that Payne was its treasurer until 1884, when he removed to New York City, and that he had been on its board of directors since.[^12] The [[Encyclopedia of Cleveland History]] names the firm as Clark, Payne & Co., describes it as the largest Cleveland competitor of the Rockefeller, Andrews and Flagler firm, and says it merged into the Standard Oil Company in 1872, with Payne becoming its treasurer.[^13]
[[Ida M. Tarbell]] wrote that Payne was "one of the thirteen original members of the South Improvement Company," and "one of the rare Cleveland refiners who had a strong enough stomach to go into the Standard Oil Company when it swept up the oil trade of Cleveland in 1872."[^14] Her list of the South Improvement Company's stockholders gives "O. H. Payne, Cleveland" 180 shares, the same holding as [[Henry M. Flagler|H. M. Flagler]], [[William Rockefeller]] and [[John D. Rockefeller]]. She wrote that Payne and [[J. A. Bostwick]] "soon after became stockholders in the Standard Oil Company."[^15]
Tarbell also described Payne as treasurer in the House inquiry of 1879. She wrote that the Committee on Commerce summoned "O. H. Payne, treasurer of the Standard Oil Company" with the railroad officers, and that Payne "refused also to furnish the committee with information."[^16] She names his father as an ally in the same matter: "Congressman H. B. Payne, of Cleveland," through whose good offices the matter was referred to that committee.[^16]
### The 1882 trust and the trustees
The trust agreement of January 2, 1882 vested the stock of the Standard Oil companies in nine trustees, under what is called here the [[Standard Oil Trust]]. The Ohio Supreme Court reproduced the agreement in its 1892 decision in the state's suit. It named as trustees for the first term, ending in April 1885, "J. D. Rockefeller, O. H. Payne and Wm. Rockefeller," together with "J. A. Bostwick, H. M. Flagler and W. G. Warden," and "Chas. Pratt, Benj. Brewster and Jno. D. Archbold."[^17] The same decision lists "O. H. Payne, trustee" among the holders of trust stock.[^18] Two of the nine places went to members of the [[Rockefeller family]], John D. and William Rockefeller.
In the Supreme Court's 1911 decision in the government's suit, the seven individual defendants were John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller, [[Henry H. Rogers]], Henry M. Flagler, [[John D. Archbold]], Oliver H. Payne and [[Charles M. Pratt]].[^19] The Court's statement of the trust agreement names the same trustees as the Ohio decision.[^19]
### The 1884 Ohio Senate election of Henry B. Payne
The Ohio legislature elected Henry B. Payne to the United States Senate in January 1884, after the Democratic caucus of January 8, 1884 gave him 46 votes on the first ballot, against 17 for Durbin Ward, 15 for George H. Pendleton and one for Booth.[^20] His credentials were received in the Senate, and he took his oath on March 4, 1885.[^21]
Tarbell wrote that the Payne candidacy was promoted at the Neil House in Columbus by his son, "Oliver H. Payne, at that time treasurer of the Standard Oil Company," and by "Colonel Thompson, a prominent personage in the same concern." She wrote that a rumour held that Oliver Payne said the election cost him $100,000, and that it was claimed that a check for $65,000 had been cashed in Cleveland by a man prominent in the Payne boom and spent in Columbus.[^22] Tarbell quoted newspapers that blamed the Standard for the result, among them the Butler County Democrat, the Columbus Times, and a New York Sun letter headed "Was Payne's Election Bought?"[^23]
A Republican legislature took office in January 1886. On January 13, 1886 the Ohio House of Representatives adopted a resolution creating a select committee of five (Thomas A. Cowgill, chairman, George C. Rawlins, Emmett Tompkins, Charles M. Le Blond and E. B. Hubbard) to inquire into charges that the Cincinnati Commercial-Gazette had printed on the authority of S. K. Donavin against four named House members.[^24] The committee took the testimony of fifty-five witnesses between January 20 and April 6, 1886, and the testimony and the committee's reports were laid before the United States Senate on April 27, 1886 and printed as Senate Miscellaneous Document No. 106.[^24]
The testimony, as printed, names Oliver Payne and officers of the Standard Oil Company in the following passages.
L. A. Russell, a Cleveland lawyer and Democrat, testified that on the afternoon of the caucus he watched members of the legislature go from the Payne headquarters in room 32 of the Neil House to the room of David R. Paige, "where Colonel Oliver Payne and Colonel Thompson were most of the time or at least where I frequently saw them as I passed."[^25] Asked whether he recognized "the principal officers of the great corporation known as the Standard Oil Company" among the leading workers for Henry B. Payne, Russell answered: "there was Oliver H. Payne, Henry B. Payne's son, who was the leader and manager of the Payne forces. At least that was our understanding at the time that he was, and was certainly supposed to be by anybody that knew anything about the way matters were conducted here. Oliver Payne was at that time treasurer of the Standard Oil Company." He added that Thompson "was employed by the company in some capacity at that time" and "has since been made treasurer himself, since Payne's resignation."[^26]
L. C. Cole, a Democratic member of the legislature, testified: "The Standard Oil Company, with its officers and workers, were here in force. The secretary and the treasurer of the company were here, and there was the unlimited use of money to bring the friends of every member of the legislature here from their own county for the purpose of laboring with them to support Mr. Payne." Cole said that his own conjecture was that the result was brought about "not by corrupting members, not by purchasing them, but by the unlimited use of money to bring men here upon the ground, and to be kept here and to nurse these members."[^27]
James Boyle, the Commercial-Gazette correspondent, testified that a member from Hamilton County told him he had dined at the Neil House "on tickets which were distributed by the hundred by Oliver H. Payne, and the men associated with him in the election of his father." Boyle also testified that Representative L. A. Bruner told him that the only thing he received was a promise from Oliver Payne of help if he needed it, and later that he had "either borrowed or got Mr. Payne to indorse a note" for about $3,500.[^28] Boyle described two members elected as workingmen's representatives who arrived at the Neil House "with some gentlemen who were pointed out to me by residents of Columbus as officers of the Standard Oil Company," Thompson and, he believed, Huntington.[^29] W. A. Taylor testified that "Mr. Huntington and Mr. Thompson and others of the Standard Oil Company" were "here who were the most prominent figures in the canvass."[^30]
D. C. Coolman, a Parkersburg banker, testified that Paige deposited between ten and twelve thousand dollars with his firm in 1883 and drew drafts on it to county committees across Ohio. Asked whether he had heard that Oliver Payne contributed to the fund, he answered: "I know that Oliver Payne contributed some, but I don't know how much."[^31]
W. L. Matthews, a member of the legislature, testified that Bruner told him that Oliver Payne asked him to come to Cleveland, asked whom he would support if Converse did not run, and then "wrote out a check for $150" with the request that he go to Washington and see Converse.[^32] S. K. Donavin testified to a report that Bruner said "he borrowed $3,500 from Col. Oliver Payne, and that it was given him on account of services that he had time and again rendered the family."[^33] Bruner did not testify before the committee.[^34]
James E. Fisher, a newspaper correspondent, testified that he published a list of members said to have been paid, and that "one day when I was in Cleveland the Standard Oil Company, or Col. Oliver Payne, said he didn't approve of lists being published, and I never published any lists after that." Fisher said the list "was guess-work, or a good part of it was."[^35]
Other witnesses gave testimony that did not support the charges. Joseph W. Brewster, who testified that he knew Oliver Payne and slept in the room of John R. McLean, a Payne supporter, testified that he saw no money paid and heard no discussion of the use of money; he said Payne's conversation with him "was on the general subjects of politics, with a view to give me a very favorable opinion of himself as always having rewarded his friends."[^36] Asked whether he ever received money from Colonel Oliver Payne, the witness George L. Johnson answered, "No, sir; I never received a dollar," and the witness W. H. McLyman said he "had my mind fully made up to vote for Mr. Payne before I ever saw Oliver."[^37]
The majority of the select committee (Cowgill, Rawlins and Tompkins) found that the charges against the four named members were not sustained. They reported "a general concurrence of testimony" that Henry B. Payne's candidacy was not publicly announced until well after the October 1883 election, that suspicion of illegal means was prevalent and "in many instances amounted almost to conviction," and that there were "numerous remarkable changes, difficult to account for without assuming the use of unusual inducements." They reported that "leading actors in behalf of the successful candidate" had "kept themselves beyond the jurisdiction of the House and the process of the committee," and recommended that the testimony be sent to the Senate.[^38] The minority (Le Blond and Hubbard) found nothing "whatever to cast any reflection" on the four members and reported that the testimony created no suspicion against Henry B. Payne's election.[^39]
Ex-Lieutenant Governor Mueller's account of the Paige room, which Hall repeated to the committee, ended with Mueller telling Henry B. Payne that money was in use, and with Payne's reply: "You don't suppose I would indorse anything of that kind, do you?"[^40] Henry B. Payne wrote to the chairman on January 22, 1886, "My private correspondence and books of account will be cheerfully submitted to your inspection if you desire it." Cowgill replied on January 25 that if any testimony tending to inculpate Payne was received, his request to appear before the committee would be granted.[^41]
[[Henry Demarest Lloyd]], in *Wealth Against Commonwealth* (1894), wrote that the Ohio memorialists, John Little and [[Benjamin Butterworth]], presented to the Senate committee charges that "among the chief managers of Mr. Payne's canvass, and those who controlled its financial operations, were four of the principal members in Ohio of the oil trust: its treasurer, the vice-president of one of its most important subordinate companies, its Cincinnati representative, and another." Lloyd wrote that one of the four "carried $65,000 with him, 'next to his skin,' to Columbus," that the cashier of a Cleveland bank would testify that the money was procured on a check given by the treasurer of the oil combination, and that "the treasurer of the oil trust and other wealthy Democrats" contributed $10,000 to $13,500 before the legislative election. He also wrote: "No charge was made to connect Senator Payne personally with the corruption."[^42] Lloyd wrote that the Senate committee voted against investigating, "Senators Pugh, Saulsbury, Vance, and Eustis voting against Hoar and Frye."[^43]
[[Albert H. Walker]], a Hartford lawyer, wrote in a pamphlet of 1886 that Oliver Payne's payment of $150 to Bruner and the later "loan" of $3,500 to him called for "a thorough investigation of the true character" of the advance, and he called the $150 payment "an undeniable case of bribery." Walker noted that Bruner "did not himself testify before the committee."[^44]
The Senate referred the Ohio papers to its Committee on Privileges and Elections on May 11, 1886.[^21] The Ohio Senate's resolution of May 14, 1886 stated that the election "was procured and brought about by the corrupt use of money paid to or for the benefit of divers and sundry members" of the legislature, and on May 18, 1886 the Ohio House adopted a resolution that the testimony warranted the belief that the seat "was purchased by the corrupt use of money."[^45] The committee's report of July 15, 1886, submitted by [[James L. Pugh]] for four Democratic members, held that the testimony taken by the Ohio House was "merely cumulative and speculative" and that it did not justify an investigation. The majority recommended that the Senate make no further investigation.[^46] Three Republican members, [[Henry M. Teller]], [[William M. Evarts]] and [[John A. Logan]], submitted separate views recommending against an investigation, on the ground that the testimony showed no fraud, corruption or bribery affecting the votes "in the caucus or in the legislature" sufficiently to vitiate the election.[^47] According to the Senate's historical summary, a minority of two Republicans urged an investigation. On July 23, 1886 the Senate voted 44 to 17 to drop the matter.[^21]
Tarbell quoted [[George F. Hoar]], who said, "The most unfortunate fact in the history of the Senate," and she wrote that the failure to investigate "rather intensified the convictions that Payne's seat was bought by the Standard Oil Company."[^48] She also wrote that "It was never proved that his seat was bought," and that "In the minds of great numbers this silence was a confession of guilt."[^49]
### Directorships: American Tobacco and Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad
Yale lists his directorships as the [[American Tobacco Company]], the Virginia and Southeastern Railway Company, the Coal Creek Mining and Manufacturing Company, and the [[Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company]].[^50] The Supreme Court's 1911 opinion in the government's suit against American Tobacco lists "Oliver H. Payne" among the twenty-nine individual defendants.[^51] The same opinion states that before the merger that created the American Tobacco Company, the [[Consolidated Tobacco Company]] had acquired nearly all the common shares of the old American and Continental companies, and that "a majority of whose $40,000,000 share capital was held by J. B. Duke, Thomas F. Ryan, William C. Whitney, Anthony N. Brady, Peter A. B. Widener, and Oliver H. Payne."[^51] The list includes William C. Whitney, Payne's brother-in-law.
The *Evening World* of New York wrote at his death that Payne and his father had lent John D. Rockefeller the capital that started him in the oil business, that Payne was one of the largest Standard Oil stockholders and was heavily interested in American Tobacco and in railroads, and that after the government's antitrust suits had reorganized the Standard Oil and tobacco "trusts" he withdrew from the directorates.[^52]
### The Tennessee Coal syndicate and the 1907 panic
The House Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation, chaired by [[Augustus Owsley Stanley]], took testimony in 1911 and 1912 on the acquisition of the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company by the [[United States Steel Corporation]] in November 1907. The firm of [[Moore & Schley]] held a majority of the Tennessee Coal stock on behalf of a syndicate that included Payne.[^53]
[[J. W. Gates]] testified that "the majority of the stock was bought by a syndicate. Col. Oliver Payne was in that syndicate, and I think Mr. J. B. Duke and Mr. E. J. Berwind." Gates put the syndicate at "in the neighborhood of 200,000 shares, perhaps more," and said that "in the original participation, I think Payne, Kessler, Berwind, Schley, Duke, and myself each had 18,000 shares."[^54] In the testimony of [[Elbert H. Gary]], chairman of United States Steel, the committee's counsel, Mr. Littleton, read a list of the syndicate: "O. H. Payne, who had 10,300 shares," with [[L. C. Hanna]], [[J. B. Duke]], [[E. J. Berwind]], Gates, [[A. N. Brady]], [[G. A. Kessler]], [[Oakleigh Thorne]] and [[G. B. Schley]], each with the same number, and smaller holdings for the rest, a total of 118,300 shares. Gary answered that the list was correct "except I do not think Kessler was in the original syndicate."[^55] A report of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary in 1909 (Senators Culberson, Kittredge, Overman, Rayner, Bacon, Nelson and Foraker), reprinted in the hearings, printed the same list under the heading O. H. Payne 10,300 and stated that in 1905 a number of persons at the suggestion of Grant B. Schley purchased a controlling interest in the company.[^56]
[[Lewis Cass Ledyard]], a New York lawyer, testified that he had been Payne's counsel "for many years, and am still," and that Payne "had retired from active business many years ago." Ledyard testified: "within the last week of October, 1907, Col. Payne said to me that the firm of Moore & Schley were very largely indebted to him, and that he was very much concerned over their condition." Payne told him that "he did not see any way for Moore & Schley to be saved, except through the acquisition of that stock by the United States Steel Corporation," that the stock "could be best brought to the attention of the United States Steel Corporation through Mr. Morgan," and that "he intended to suggest to Mr. Schley that I be asked to see Mr. Morgan."[^57] Ledyard described the loans: "Col. Payne would lend them Northern Pacific and Great Northern and standard railroad stock, and they would secure that by giving him uncurrent and unactive securities." He testified that Payne had a million dollars of profit out of the transactions, was "quite angry at having a profit," and asked him to cancel them.[^58] Ledyard testified that Payne held 25,000 shares of Tennessee Coal, 10,000 of his own and 15,000 received from Moore and Schley as collateral, that the shares were turned into United States Steel bonds, and that Payne loaned those bonds to Moore and Schley, who "again had an extra $2,500,000."[^59] He testified that his object was "to save Col. Payne's very large interest in that house as a creditor."[^60] Ledyard also testified that Morgan proposed that three men, one of them Payne, put up securities with [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan and Company]] against a cash credit of a million dollars each, to be used in Morgan's discretion to support Moore and Schley, and that "Col. Payne has his credit of a million dollars for the purpose."[^61]
The Republican minority's supplementary report, signed by H. O. Young, states that "Col. Oliver H. Payne, one of the syndicate, who was a warm friend of Mr. Schley, loaned Mr. Schley, for the use of Moore & Schley, from $6,000,000 to $8,000,000 of standard securities to use in supporting their loans, taking as security therefor uncurrent securities of Moore & Schley." The loan was later changed into an exchange. The report states that Payne, "becoming alarmed at the situation, urged Mr. Schley to dispose of his Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co. stock as the only possible means of relief," that this urging "continued for about a month," and that "at Col. Payne's solicitation Mr. Schley finally sent for Mr. Ledyard, and asked him to go and see Mr. J. P. Morgan." It records Ledyard's account of the meeting with Morgan on the day after October 31, 1907, that Morgan telephoned Gary and [[Henry Clay Frick]], and that Gary "expressed great reluctance to buy the stock, saying it was not worth over $60 or $65 per share."[^62] The same report states that Payne, Baker, president of the First National Bank of New York, and one other tendered $1,000,000 each of securities to Morgan.[^63] The majority report of the committee (Stanley) states that Schley, with "$6,000,000 or $7,000,000 of current securities, the property of O. H. Payne, in his possession, had hypothecated them to save his imperiled credit, and had afterwards given Payne 'uncurrent' securities in their stead."[^64] The majority report quotes Ledyard that "Col. Payne, who had a lot of this stock did not want to sell it."[^65]
Gary testified before the Stanley committee: "Commodore Ledyard was the counsel of Col. Oliver Payne. Payne was one of the syndicate members. I understood that Mr. Schley, or Moore & Schley, were indebted to Col. Payne in a considerable amount," and that Ledyard "was acting for and in behalf of the interests of Mr. Schley, because that would benefit Mr. Payne, who was a creditor of Moore & Schley."[^66] Of the sale, Gary said: "Mr. Ledyard was the attorney of Col. Payne. Col. Payne was one of the customers of Moore & Schley and, I think, was a large creditor of Moore & Schley. ... It was he who first suggested, I think, the possibility of the United States Steel Corporation buying the stock." Gary also said: "we had nothing to do except to accept the statement of Commodore Ledyard that Moore & Schley could be relieved only by the purchase of the securities of the syndicate, represented, in the way I have suggested, through Col. Payne, and from him through his lawyer, Mr. Ledyard."[^67] Gary also said that "Commodore Ledyard said Mr. Payne would provide a million dollars, and other parties, I remember, about two millions more," and that United States Steel then offered to add a loan of five or six million dollars.[^68]
On November 4, 1907 President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wrote to Attorney General [[Charles J. Bonaparte]] that Gary and Frick had called on him on behalf of the Steel Corporation, that a business firm "will undoubtedly fail this week if help is not given," that "among its assets are a majority of the securities of the Tennessee Coal Co.," and that "I answered that while of course I could not advise them to take the action proposed, I felt it no public duty of mine to interpose any objection." In his message to the Senate of January 6, 1909 he wrote that "I was personally cognizant of and responsible for its every detail."[^69] The seven senators on the Judiciary Committee who signed the 1909 views wrote: "In our opinion the President permitted and sanctioned the acquisition and merger."[^70]
### Yachting and residence
The Yale record says that each summer from 1898 to 1914 Payne went to Europe in his steam yacht [[Aphrodite]], and that the war led him to confine his cruising to American waters.[^71] A news dispatch of July 7, 1917 described the yacht as then "in commission for the federal government."[^72] Payne lived in New York City, where he died at his home.[^73]
### Philanthropy
The Yale obituary names his most notable gifts as those to the Cornell Medical School, and it records that in 1887 he endowed the Loomis Laboratory, "an institution organized for the promotion of original research in chemistry, biology, and pathology."[^74] The obituary also lists gifts to the University of Virginia, Western Reserve University, the New York University Medical College and the Post-Graduate Hospital of New York City.[^75]
The Weill Cornell Medicine history of the medical center states that after the affiliation agreement between Cornell University Medical College and the Society of the New York Hospital, "the college's benefactor, Oliver Hazard Payne, donated $4,000,000 to Cornell University Medical College."[^76] The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History puts his anonymous lifetime gifts at "more than $8 million."[^77]
### Death, will and estate
Payne died at his home in New York City on June 27, 1917, after an illness of eight months due to spinal rheumatism, and was buried in Cleveland.[^78] The *Evening World* of June 28, 1917 reported his death in his town house and described him as a bachelor and the brother of the first wife of William C. Whitney, Secretary of the Navy under President Cleveland.[^79]
According to the news dispatch of July 7, 1917, his will left cash bequests of more than $7,000,000 to charitable and educational institutions, the largest being $1,000,000 each to Lakeside Hospital in Cleveland, Yale University and the New York Public Library, and a permanent endowment of $500,000 to Cornell University Medical College.[^80] The *Evening World* of July 7, 1917 listed further bequests of $200,000 each to St. Vincent's Charity Hospital in Cleveland, the Cleveland Jewish Orphan Asylum, Hamilton College and the University of Virginia, and a bequest to Phillips Academy.[^81] The Yale obituary states that the bequests of a million dollars each to Yale, the New York Public Library and Lakeside Hospital were made by will.[^82] The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History lists the Lakeside gift among his gifts and bequests.[^77]
The same dispatches state that Payne Whitney received most of the household and personal effects, including the yacht Aphrodite, Greenwood Plantation at Thomasville, Georgia, and all real estate except a country place in Ulster County, which went with a legacy of $2,000,000 to his nephew Harry Payne Bingham, and that Harry Payne Whitney received a painting of Payne. Lewis Cass Ledyard, one of the executors, was bequeathed $100,000.[^80] The *Evening World* wrote that the residue of the estate went equally to nephews and nieces: Payne Whitney, [[Pauline Whitney Paget]] (who had died the previous fall, leaving two daughters), Harry Payne Bingham, William Bingham 2d, Elizabeth R. Blossom and [[Frances Payne Bolton|Frances Bolton]].[^81] The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History gives the estate as estimated at $190 million and says it was distributed, after the bequests, among nieces and nephews.[^83]
According to the Washington Daily News, which reported the New York appraisal of Payne Whitney's estate in November 1928, the larger part of that estate was a half interest in the [[Northern Finance Corporation]]. The paper said the holding grew from a fund set aside by Payne Whitney's uncle, Col. Oliver H. Payne, whom it described as a director of Standard Oil of New Jersey, and who established the fund to be relieved of the care of large blocks of Standard Oil and subsidiary stocks and of tobacco shares.[^84]
### Payne Whitney, Harry Payne Whitney and the Whitney line
Payne Whitney, born in New York City on March 20, 1876, was the son of William Collins Whitney and Flora Payne. He graduated from Yale in 1898. The Yale obituary lists him as a member of "Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^3] He took an LL.B. at Harvard in 1901, was a director of the [[Great Northern Paper Company]], and was director and vice president of the Northern Finance Corporation from 1911 until 1927.[^3] He married [[Helen Hay Whitney|Helen Hay]], daughter of [[John Hay]], in 1902, and gave $2,000,000 to the New York Public Library in 1923.[^3] He died in [[Manhasset, New York]] on May 25, 1927.[^3]
The Weill Cornell history says that Payne Whitney's will provided $12,400,000 for the New York Hospital, $6,200,000 for the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic and $2,800,000 for the medical college.[^76] Oliver Payne's gifts to Cornell University Medical College and his nephew's bequest to the same medical center therefore appear in one institution's history.
Harry Payne Whitney, Yale 1894, is the other nephew of Oliver Payne named in the Yale record.[^2] Sutton's text gives the two brothers as Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98) and states that they "went to Yale and became members of The Order." His index of members by class year prints them in reverse order, listing Payne Whitney as 1894 and Harry Payne Whitney as 1898.[^85] The Yale records give Harry Payne Whitney 1894 and Payne Whitney 1898.[^2][^3] Sutton wrote that Harry Payne Whitney "inherited two Standard Oil fortunes from the Payne and the Whitney families."[^86] The 1917 Yale entry names a third nephew as [[Henry Payne Bingham]], Yale 1910. The 1927 entry for Payne Whitney calls him "Harry Payne Bingham" and a cousin.[^2][^3]
[[Dorothy Payne Whitney]], a niece of Oliver Payne and the sister of Payne Whitney, appears in the 1927 record as the sister who married Leonard K. Elmhirst of Yorkshire.[^3]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (birth July 21, 1839; death June 27, 1917; class of 1863; commission in the 124th Ohio; the Standard Oil treasurership and board). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^2]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, pp. 295 to 296 (brother Henry W. Payne, Yale 1867, died 1878; sisters Flora, wife of William Collins Whitney, Yale 1863, and the wife of Charles W. Bingham, Yale 1868; nephews Harry Payne Whitney, Yale 1894, Payne Whitney, Yale 1898, and Henry Payne Bingham, Yale 1910; "never married"). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^3]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (birth, death, descent, Yale relatives including "Oliver H. Payne, 63" as an uncle and "Harry Payne Bingham, '10" as a cousin, the listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones," the Harvard LL.B., Northern Finance Corporation, the New York Public Library gift of 1923, the marriage to Helen Hay, and survivors including a sister, Mrs. Leonard K. Elmhirst). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4.
[^4]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," with the spokes WHITNEY FAMILY (1635, Watertown, Mass.), PAYNE FAMILY (Standard Oil) and ROCKEFELLER AND PAYNE (Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^5]: Sutton (1983), section on the Whitney family, passage beginning "William C. Whitney married Flora Payne, daughter of Standard Oil Treasurer Oliver Payne." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^6]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 295 (parents Henry B. Payne and Mary Perry Payne; Henry B. Payne's Ohio Senate service 1849 to 1851, candidacies of 1851, 1857, 1880 and 1884, Forty-fourth Congress, Senate 1885 to 1891). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^7]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 295 (preparation at Phillips Academy, Andover; departure from the class in October 1861 for a commission as first lieutenant in the 124th Ohio). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^8]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 295 (degree of B.A. voted by the Corporation in 1878; enrolment in the class of 1863 from that date). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^9]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 295 (rank of colonel in the 124th Ohio; brevet of brigadier general of volunteers on March 13, 1865). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^10]: Francis B. Heitman, *Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army, from its Organization, September 29, 1789, to March 2, 1903*, vol. 1 (Washington: GPO, 1903), entry "Payne, Oliver Hazard. Ohio." (Lt. col. 124 Ohio inf. September 11, 1862; col. January 1, 1863; brevet brigadier general of volunteers March 13, 1865; resigned November 2, 1864). https://archive.org/details/historicalregist01heitrich.
[^11]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 295 (return to Cleveland "after completing his service in the Army"). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^12]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, pp. 295 to 296 (oil refining with James B. Clark, John Huntington as later partner, treasurer of the Standard Oil Company until 1884 and member of its board thereafter). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^13]: Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, "Payne, Oliver Hazard," Case Western Reserve University (Clark, Payne & Co.; the 1872 merger into Standard Oil; treasurer). https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/payne-oliver-hazard/.
[^14]: Ida M. Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (New York: McClure, Phillips, 1904), p. 112 (Payne as one of the thirteen original members of the South Improvement Company, and as one of the Cleveland refiners who joined the Standard in 1872). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft.
[^15]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 1 (1904), p. 57 (the South Improvement Company subscription list: "O. H. Payne, Cleveland 180"; "O. H. Payne and J. A. Bostwick, who soon after became stockholders in the Standard Oil Company, also had each 180 shares"). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar01tarbuoft.
[^16]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 1 (1904), p. 168 (the Committee on Commerce summons of "O. H. Payne, treasurer of the Standard Oil Company," his refusal to furnish information, and the reference of the matter through "Congressman H. B. Payne, of Cleveland"). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar01tarbuoft.
[^17]: *State, ex rel. Attorney General v. Standard Oil Company*, 49 Ohio St. 137 (1892), statement of the trust agreement of January 2, 1882 (nine trustees; first term to the first Wednesday of April, 1885). https://cite.case.law/ohio-st/49/137/.
[^18]: *State, ex rel. Attorney General v. Standard Oil Company*, 49 Ohio St. 137 (1892), list of holders of trust stock naming "O. H. Payne, trustee." https://cite.case.law/ohio-st/49/137/.
[^19]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), opinion of White, C.J., statement of the bill and of the decree (the seven individual defendants, including "Oliver H. Payne," and the trust agreement of 1882 with its nine trustees). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1.
[^20]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Privileges and Elections, Report No. 1490, 49th Cong., 1st sess., July 15, 1886 (submitted by Mr. Pugh), "Ohio Senatorial Election," p. 9 (caucus of January 8, 1884: Booth one vote, Pendleton fifteen, Ward seventeen, Payne forty-six). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/pdf/75_Jul_15_1886_Payne.pdf.
[^21]: U.S. Senate, "Henry B. Payne (Ohio)," Contested Senate Elections (oath March 4, 1885; referral of April 27 and May 11, 1886; reports of July 15, 1886; minority of two Republicans favoring investigation; vote of July 23, 1886, 44 to 17, to drop further investigation). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/075Henry_Payne.htm. The page cites Anne M. Butler and Wendy Wolff, *United States Senate Election, Expulsion, and Censure Cases, 1793-1990*, S. Doc. 103-33 (1995).
[^22]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (1904), pp. 112 to 113 (the Payne boom at the Neil House; "Oliver H. Payne, at that time treasurer of the Standard Oil Company," and "Colonel Thompson"; the rumour of $100,000; the $65,000 check). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft.
[^23]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (1904), pp. 113 to 114 (newspaper comment from the Butler County Democrat, the Carroll County Chronicle, the Columbus Times and the New York Sun, "Was Payne's Election Bought?"). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft.
[^24]: U.S. Senate, Mis. Doc. No. 106, 49th Cong., 1st sess. (April 27, 1886), "Ohio Senatorial Investigation," pp. 1 to 2 (House resolution No. 28 of January 13, 1886; committee of Cowgill, Rawlins, Tompkins, Le Blond and Hubbard; House resolution No. 75 of April 16, 1886 directing transmission to the Senate) and p. 10 ("fifty-five witnesses have been examined"). https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-02346_00_00-008-0106-0000. The dates of January 20 to April 6, 1886 for the testimony are from Senate Report No. 1490 (1886), pp. 1 to 3.
[^25]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of L. A. Russell, pp. 216 to 217 (the Payne headquarters in room 32 of the Neil House and Paige's room above it on the afternoon of the caucus; Colonel Oliver Payne and Colonel Thompson in the headquarters). The passage is also quoted in the select committee's report, pp. 4 to 5.
[^26]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of L. A. Russell, p. 221 (answer on the principal officers of the Standard Oil Company; Oliver Payne as treasurer; Thompson's employment and later treasurership).
[^27]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of L. C. Cole, p. 42 (the Standard Oil Company "in force"; the secretary and treasurer present; Cole's own conjecture). The first sentences are quoted in the select committee's report, p. 3.
[^28]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of James Boyle, pp. 57 to 58 (Bruner's statements about the promise of help and the note or loan of about $3,500; Cummings and the dinner tickets distributed by Oliver H. Payne), and recalled, p. 60 (Bruner "had either got Mr. Oliver H. Payne to indorse a note, or he had loaned him the money").
[^29]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of James Boyle, p. 61 (Mooney and Roach arriving with gentlemen "pointed out to me by residents of Columbus as officers of the Standard Oil Company. Mr. Thompson was one, and I believe Mr. Huntingdon").
[^30]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of W. A. Taylor, p. 124 ("There was Mr. Huntington and Mr. Thompson and others of the Standard Oil Company here who were the most prominent figures in the canvass").
[^31]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of D. C. Coolman, pp. 62 to 65 (funds deposited by Paige with Coolman & Paige in 1883 and drawn on for county committees; "I know that Oliver Payne contributed some, but I don't know how much," p. 65).
[^32]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of W. L. Matthews, pp. 66 to 67 (Bruner's account of the visit to Cleveland, the question about Converse, the check for $150 and the journey to Washington).
[^33]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of S. K. Donavin, p. 84 (a report from a person on the cars that Bruner "borrowed $3,500 from Col. Oliver Payne, and that it was given him on account of services that he had time and again rendered the family").
[^34]: Albert H. Walker, *The Payne Bribery Case and the United States Senate* (Hartford: Clark & Smith, 1886), p. 17 ("Bruner did not himself testify before the committee"). https://archive.org/details/paynebriberycas00walkgoog.
[^35]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of James E. Fisher, p. 26 (the Cleveland remark and the list "guess-work").
[^36]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of Joseph W. Brewster, pp. 44 to 46 (rooms; Payne's room "on the first floor, nearly opposite the elevator"; no money seen; Payne's conversation on rewarding friends).
[^37]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of George L. Johnson, p. 243 (no money received from Colonel Oliver Payne), and of W. H. McLyman, p. 257 (conversation with Oliver Payne before the caucus; no inducements); testimony of George W. Hull, recalled, p. 115 (no recollection of a conversation with Oliver H. Payne about money).
[^38]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), report of the select committee majority, pp. 2 to 11 (the charges against the four members "not sustained"; the three points of "general concurrence of testimony"; leading actors "beyond the jurisdiction of the House"; recommendation of transmittal to the Senate, p. 11).
[^39]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), minority report of the select committee (Le Blond and Hubbard), pp. 12 to 16.
[^40]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), select committee report, p. 4 (testimony of J. J. Hall repeating the account of ex-Lieutenant Governor Mueller of Paige's room and Henry B. Payne's reply).
[^41]: U.S. Senate, Report No. 1490 (1886), p. 10 (letter of Henry B. Payne to Thomas A. Cowgill, Washington, January 22, 1886; reply of Cowgill, Columbus, January 25, 1886). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/pdf/75_Jul_15_1886_Payne.pdf.
[^42]: Henry Demarest Lloyd, *Wealth Against Commonwealth* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1894), pp. 374 to 381 (the memorial of Ohio presented by John Little and Benjamin Butterworth; "No charge was made to connect Senator Payne personally with the corruption," p. 377; the four oil trust principals, the $65,000, the Cleveland bank cashier and the $10,000 to $13,500, pp. 377 to 381). Lloyd cites Report No. 1490 and Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106. https://archive.org/details/cu31924079612051.
[^43]: Lloyd, *Wealth Against Commonwealth* (1894), p. 383 (the committee vote). https://archive.org/details/cu31924079612051.
[^44]: Walker, *The Payne Bribery Case and the United States Senate* (1886), pp. 16 to 18 (the case of L. A. Bruner, citing Mis. Doc. 106 at pp. 57, 66 and following). https://archive.org/details/paynebriberycas00walkgoog.
[^45]: U.S. Senate, Report No. 1490 (1886), pp. 1 to 4 and 14 (Ohio Senate resolution of May 14, 1886; Ohio House resolution of May 18, 1886). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/pdf/75_Jul_15_1886_Payne.pdf.
[^46]: U.S. Senate, Report No. 1490 (1886), pp. 6 and 8 (majority of Pugh, Saulsbury, Vance and Eustis: testimony "merely cumulative and speculative"; recommendation that the Senate make no further investigation; requirement of personal participation by the sitting member).
[^47]: U.S. Senate, Report No. 1490 (1886), pp. 12 to 15, "Views of Mr. Teller, Mr. Evarts, and Mr. Logan" (no evidence "which purports to prove that fraud, corruption, or bribery was employed in the election of Mr. Payne" "in the caucus or in the legislature"; recommendation against investigation). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/pdf/75_Jul_15_1886_Payne.pdf.
[^48]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (1904), p. 116 (quotation of Senator Hoar, "The most unfortunate fact in the history of the Senate"; the sentence on the failure to investigate). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft.
[^49]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (1904), p. 118 ("It was never proved that his seat was bought"; "In the minds of great numbers this silence was a confession of guilt"). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft.
[^50]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (directorships: American Tobacco Company, Virginia and Southeastern Railway Company, Coal Creek Mining and Manufacturing Company, Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^51]: *United States v. American Tobacco Co.*, 221 U.S. 106 (1911), opinion of White, C.J., statement of the defendants (the margin list of twenty-nine individuals, including "Oliver H. Payne") and of the Consolidated Tobacco Company's share holdings before the merger. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/106.
[^52]: "O. H. Payne Dies in His Town Home," *The Evening World* (New York), June 28, 1917, p. 15. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030193/1917-06-28/ed-1/?sp=15.
[^53]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, 62nd Cong., vol. 1 (1911), testimony of Elbert H. Gary, pp. 128 to 129 (Moore & Schley holding a majority of the Tennessee Coal stock for a syndicate). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog.
[^54]: Hearings, vol. 1, testimony of J. W. Gates, pp. 5 to 6 (Col. Oliver Payne in the syndicate; "in the neighborhood of 200,000 shares, perhaps more"; 18,000 shares each for Payne, Kessler, Berwind, Schley, Duke and Gates). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog.
[^55]: Hearings, vol. 1, testimony of Elbert H. Gary, pp. 128 to 129 (Mr. Littleton's reading of the syndicate list with "O. H. Payne, who had 10,300 shares"; Gary's answer that Kessler was not in the original syndicate; "118,300 shares"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog.
[^56]: Senate Committee on the Judiciary, "Absorption of the Tennessee Coal & Iron Co.," S. Rept. 1110, pt. 2, 60th Cong., 2d sess. (March 2, 1909), views of Messrs. Culberson, Kittredge, Overman, Rayner, Bacon, Nelson and Foraker, reprinted in *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 2 (1911), pp. 1124 to 1125 (the 1905 purchase "at the suggestion of Grant B. Schley"; "O.H. Payne 10,300"; total 118,300). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog.
[^57]: Hearings, vol. 2, testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard, pp. 932 to 934 (counsel for Payne "for many years"; Payne's statements in the last week of October 1907). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog.
[^58]: Hearings, vol. 2, testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard, p. 935 (Payne's loans of Northern Pacific, Great Northern and standard railroad stock against uncurrent securities of Moore & Schley; conversion into exchanges; the million dollars of profit and Payne's request to cancel). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog.
[^59]: Hearings, vol. 2, testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard, p. 939 (Payne's 25,000 shares of Tennessee Coal, "10,000 shares of his own" and 15,000 as collateral; conversion into steel bonds and loan to Moore & Schley). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog.
[^60]: Hearings, vol. 2, testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard, p. 943 ("My object was to save Col. Payne's very large interest in that house as a creditor at the time"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog.
[^61]: Hearings, vol. 2, testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard, p. 950 (three gentlemen, one of them Col. Payne, to put up securities with J. P. Morgan & Co. against a cash credit of a million dollars each; "Col. Payne has his credit of a million dollars for the purpose"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog.
[^62]: U.S. House of Representatives, H. Rept. No. 1127, pt. 3, 62nd Cong., 2d sess. (August 2, 1912), "Investigation of United States Steel Corporation," views of the minority, supplementary report on the facts by H. O. Young, pp. 55 to 56 (Payne's loan of standard securities; his urging of the sale; Ledyard's account of October 1907; Morgan, Gary and Frick). https://archive.org/details/cu31924002403917.
[^63]: H. Rept. No. 1127, pt. 3 (1912), Young, p. 63 (Payne's 25,000 shares converted into steel bonds; Payne, Baker and one other tendering $1,000,000 each of securities to Morgan). https://archive.org/details/cu31924002403917.
[^64]: H. Rept. No. 1127, pt. 1, 62nd Cong., 2d sess. (August 2, 1912), report of the committee (Stanley), p. 191 (Schley and the securities "the property of O. H. Payne"). https://archive.org/details/cu31924002403917.
[^65]: H. Rept. No. 1127, pt. 1 (1912), p. 178, quoting Ledyard, Hearings, p. 963 ("Col. Payne, who had a lot of this stock did not want to sell it"). https://archive.org/details/cu31924002403917.
[^66]: Hearings, vol. 1, testimony of Elbert H. Gary, p. 177 (Ledyard as counsel of Col. Oliver Payne; Payne as a syndicate member; Moore & Schley indebted to Payne). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog.
[^67]: Hearings, vol. 1, testimony of Elbert H. Gary, pp. 184 and 191 to 192 (Ledyard as Payne's attorney; "It was he who first suggested, I think, the possibility of the United States Steel Corporation buying the stock"; Ledyard's statement that Moore & Schley could be relieved only by the purchase of the syndicate's securities). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog.
[^68]: Hearings, vol. 1, testimony of Elbert H. Gary, pp. 133 to 134 (exchange with Mr. Gardner on Payne's offer of a million dollars and the later loan proposal). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog.
[^69]: Message of President Theodore Roosevelt to the Senate, January 6, 1909, enclosing his letter of November 4, 1907 to Attorney General Bonaparte, reprinted in Hearings, vol. 2, p. 1122. https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog.
[^70]: S. Rept. 1110, pt. 2, 60th Cong. (1909), views of Messrs. Culberson and others, reprinted in Hearings, vol. 2, p. 1123 ("we think it was, in effect, a direction to the Attorney General not to interfere"; "In our opinion the President permitted and sanctioned the acquisition and merger"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog.
[^71]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (summers in Europe in the steam yacht Aphrodite from 1898 to 1914; cruising confined to American waters). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^72]: "Col. Payne Left $7,000,000 in Gifts," *Brattleboro Daily Reformer* (Brattleboro, Vt.), July 7, 1917, p. 1 (yacht Aphrodite "now in commission for the federal government"). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn86071593/1917-07-07/ed-1/?sp=1.
[^73]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (residence in New York City; death at his home). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^74]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (gifts to the Cornell Medical School; endowment of the Loomis Laboratory in 1887). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^75]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (gifts to the University of Virginia, Western Reserve University, the New York University Medical College and the Post-Graduate Hospital). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^76]: Weill Cornell Medicine, "History of the Medical Center" (undated PDF, Weill Cornell Medicine Library), passages on the affiliation with the Society of the New York Hospital and the gift of Oliver Hazard Payne ($4,000,000 to Cornell University Medical College), and on Payne Whitney's will (provisions of $12,400,000 for the hospital, $6,200,000 for the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic and $2,800,000 for the medical college). https://library.weill.cornell.edu/sites/default/files/history_of_the_medical_center.pdf.
[^77]: Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, "Payne, Oliver Hazard," Case Western Reserve University (anonymous lifetime gifts of "more than $8 million"; gifts and bequests including Lakeside Hospital). https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/payne-oliver-hazard/.
[^78]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (death on June 27, 1917 after an illness of eight months due to spinal rheumatism; burial in Cleveland). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^79]: "O. H. Payne Dies in His Town Home," *The Evening World*, June 28, 1917, p. 15 (death in his town house; his sister Flora as the first wife of William C. Whitney; "Col. Payne was a bachelor"). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030193/1917-06-28/ed-1/?sp=15.
[^80]: "Col. Payne Left $7,000,000 in Gifts," *Brattleboro Daily Reformer*, July 7, 1917, p. 1 (bequests of $1,000,000 each to Lakeside Hospital, Yale and the New York Public Library; permanent endowment for Cornell University Medical College; Payne Whitney's inheritance of the yacht Aphrodite and Greenwood Plantation; Harry Payne Bingham's $2,000,000; Ledyard as executor with $100,000; Harry Payne Whitney's painting). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn86071593/1917-07-07/ed-1/?sp=1.
[^81]: "Col. Payne Left Public Bequests," *The Evening World*, July 7, 1917, p. 2 (institutional bequests, residue to nephews and nieces and the names printed). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030193/1917-07-07/ed-1/?sp=2.
[^82]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 ("By his will, bequests of a million dollars each were made to Yale, the New York Public Library, and Lakeside Hospital, Cleveland"). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^83]: Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, "Payne, Oliver Hazard," Case Western Reserve University (estate estimated at $190 million, distributed after the bequests among nieces and nephews). https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/payne-oliver-hazard/.
[^84]: "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," *Washington Daily News*, November 23, 1928, p. 6 (appraised net value, death tax estimate, the larger part of the estate as a half interest in the Northern Finance Corporation, and the statement that the holding grew from a fund set aside by "his uncle, Col. Oliver H. Payne"). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82016181/1928-11-23/ed-1/?sp=6.
[^85]: Sutton (1983), Whitney family section ("Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98), went to Yale and became members of The Order") and index of members by class year ("1894 Payne Whitney" and "1898 Harry Payne Whitney"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^86]: Sutton (1983), section on the Harriman family and the Whitney-Payne fortune, passage on "Harry Payne Whitney (The Order'94) inherited two Standard Oil fortunes from the Payne and the Whitney families." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.

289
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Perkins family.md Normal file
View file

@ -0,0 +1,289 @@
---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
aliases:
- "Perkins family"
- "Perkins clan"
- "The Perkins family of Boston"
- "Thomas Handasyd Perkins"
tags:
- Person
- Family
- Perkins
- ChinaTrade
- OpiumTrade
- SlaveTrade
- NorthwestCoast
- SaintDomingue
- Canton
- Smyrna
- Boston
- Forbes
- Delano
- Russell
- GraniteRailway
- BunkerHill
- Railroads
- Reparations
- SkullAndBones
category: "Business & Finance"
summary: "Boston merchant family whose firm J. and T. H. Perkins traded from Saint-Domingue and Africa to Canton and Smyrna, merged its China house into Russell and Company, and chartered the Granite Railway."
location: "Boston, Massachusetts"
relations:
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Russell and Company]]"
start: 1830-08-01
end: 1831-12-31
role: "Perkins & Co. at Canton merged into the house; Cushing arranged the merger"
fn: 36
- type: founded
with: "[[J. and T. H. Perkins]]"
start: 1792-01-01
role: "firm organized by Thomas Handasyd Perkins and James Perkins"
fn: 11
- type: funded
with: "[[Boston Athenaeum]]"
start: 1826-01-01
role: "$8,000 each from Thomas and his nephew James toward the 1826 additions fund"
fn: 54
- type: funded
with: "[[Perkins Institution for the Blind]]"
start: 1833-01-01
role: "gift of the Pearl Street mansion conditional on a public fund of more than $50,000"
fn: 55
- type: director_of
with: "[[Massachusetts General Hospital]]"
start: 1814-01-02
role: "trustee; first of the signers of the January 8, 1814 address"
fn: 52
- type: member_of
with: "[[Massachusetts Senate]]"
start: 1805-01-01
role: "elected 1805; afterward in one branch or the other of the legislature for eighteen to twenty years"
fn: 44
- type: founded
with: "[[Granite Railway Company]]"
start: 1826-03-04
role: "first-named incorporator in the act of March 4, 1826; first president"
fn: 50
- type: head_of
with: "[[Bunker Hill Monument Association]]"
start: 1827-01-01
end: 1829-12-31
role: "president, succeeding Daniel Webster; vice-president 1823 to 1827; chairman of the Building Committee"
fn: 47
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Robert Bennet Forbes]]"
role: "Margaret Perkins, sister of James and Thomas H. Perkins, was the mother of Robert Bennet and John Murray Forbes"
fn: 3
- type: relative_of
with: "[[John Murray Forbes]]"
role: "nephew through his sister Margaret Perkins Forbes"
fn: 3
- type: relative_of
with: "[[James Handasyd Perkins]]"
role: "son of Samuel G. Perkins and nephew of Thomas H. Perkins"
fn: 57
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Charles Elliott Perkins]]"
role: "grandson of Samuel G. Perkins"
fn: 59
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Thomas Nelson Perkins]]"
role: "great-grandson of Samuel G. Perkins, through James Handasyd and Edward Cranch Perkins"
fn: 65
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1840-01-01
role: "John Perkins of Natchez, class of 1840, listed in Sutton's index; Yale record of his life"
fn: 75
---
The Perkins family of Boston was a merchant line whose firm J. and T. H. Perkins traded in the West Indies, on the Northwest Coast, in West African slaves, at Canton and at Smyrna, and whose Canton business was merged into [[Russell and Company]] in 1830 and 1831.[^1] [[Antony C. Sutton]] placed a Perkins family settled at Boston in 1631 among the old-line families of [[Skull and Bones]] in his chart.[^2] The best documented member is [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]] (1764 to 1854), the firm's senior partner, who gave a house and his name to the school for the blind that became the [[Perkins Institution for the Blind]], took part in founding the [[Massachusetts General Hospital]], and chartered the [[Granite Railway Company]] and presided over the [[Bunker Hill Monument Association]]. His brother [[James Perkins]] (1761 to 1822) was his partner and his brother [[Samuel G. Perkins]] kept a separate house. Their sister Margaret married Ralph Bennet Forbes, and their sons [[Robert Bennet Forbes]] and [[John Murray Forbes]] went through the firm into the China trade.[^3] The later line produced [[Charles Elliott Perkins]], president of the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]], and [[Thomas Nelson Perkins]], a Boston lawyer, fellow of [[Harvard University]] and alternate American expert at the 1929 reparations conference in Paris.
### Origins in the Boston merchant trade
Thomas Handasyd Perkins was born in Boston on December 15, 1764, and was named for his maternal grandfather, a Boston dealer in furs and imported hats whom Cary calls Thomas Handasyd Peck.[^4] The 1907 family memoir of his grandniece gives the grandfather's name as James Handasyd Peck and gives the death of the father, the merchant James Perkins, as 1773; Cary places it in 1771. Both leave the widow with eight children.[^4][^5] Cary wrote that the father had been connected with [[George Erving]], one of the principal merchants of the town.[^4] The widow carried on the business, and she was part owner of the ship Beaver, which the French government chartered to carry part of its cavalry to [[Cap-Français]].[^6] She died in 1807, and the Boston Female Asylum voted its officers a badge of mourning in her honor.[^6]
As a boy Thomas saw the Boston Massacre, passed part of his youth at Barnstable, where he knew [[Harrison Gray Otis]], was prepared for college by the Reverend Mr. Shute at Hingham, and was then placed in the counting-house of Messrs. Shattuck, with whom he remained until he was twenty-one.[^7]
### Saint-Domingue
Thomas left the Shattuck counting-room in 1785 and, not well, wintered at the French colony of [[Saint-Domingue]] with his elder brother James Perkins.[^8] From there he went to [[Charleston, South Carolina]], where he spent much of his time at the rice plantations of Thomas Ferguson, who "numbered upwards of eight hundred slaves" at Pon Pon.[^8] He then accepted an invitation to rejoin his brother in Saint-Domingue, and the two "formed a house there which was very successful," until the climate did not suit Thomas and he returned to Boston. He married Sarah Elliot in 1788.[^9]
The insurrection in Saint-Domingue came in 1792. Cary records that the insurgents burned the town and the brothers' store, that the planters owed the house large sums that could no longer be paid, and that James and Samuel G. Perkins returned to Boston with most of their property lost.[^10] The Boston firm of J. and T. H. Perkins was organized in 1792, and it ran until James died in 1822.[^11] In 1819 it became J. and T. H. Perkins & Sons, and it kept two or three vessels in the West Indies trade, shipping coffee and sugar to Europe.[^11] The Owls Nest memoir names a Mr. Burling as James Perkins's business partner at Saint-Domingue.[^12]
### The African coast and the slave trade
Perkins's Batavia journal of July 1789 describes the household servants of the city as "the slaves being generally Malays," and records Malay bands of musicians, taken from arriving vessels, sold for "about one hundred paper-dollars a head." He adds: "I was astonished at the low price they bore in comparison to the Guinea slaves in America and the colonies."[^13]
Elmer Donnan's collection of documents on the American slave trade prints a letter of October 6, 1792 from J. and T. H. Perkins to their Saint-Domingue house, Perkins, Burling & Co. The Boston firm agrees to buy slaves as agents of Daniel McNiel and to fit out his vessel, the Katy, for the Coast, at 5 percent on the outfit and 5 percent on the sales. The vessel "must be entered as from St. Eustatia and St. Thomas, and the papers calculated acordingly," a direction the letter explains with the words "we mean his log."[^14] Donnan's notes to the letter quote Briggs's history of the Cabot family. They give a letter of June 24, 1790 to Theodore Lyman, the voyage of the Betsey with thirty-two slaves to Simon Elliot (Thomas Perkins's father-in-law), a letter of December 16, 1791 from Thomas H. Perkins to Jean Laroque offering rum, tobacco and cloths "such as suit the Guinea Market," and a 1793 letter on slaves "worth 250 to 270 Ds." Donnan adds that the Perkins papers are said to contain over a hundred letters to traders in Africa.[^15]
The Sierra Leone governor's account of the Willing Quaker, Robert Adamson master, records her arrival in April 1793 and her departure in July with "upwards of One hundred Slaves" for Surinam. Donnan's note says she had sailed from the West Indies on December 15, 1792 under Perkins and Burling, agents of Captain Daniel McNeil, an owner, and that J. and T. H. Perkins of Boston "may also have been owners." The note adds that the firm was dispatching the Clarissa to Havana with slaves under Captain William McNeil, a nephew of Daniel, and that Havana admitted American vessels only if they carried new negroes.[^16] The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database enters the Willing Quaker's 1792 voyage under Adamson, from Boston on December 15, 1792, with the owners listed as Daniel McNeil, J. Perkins and T. H. Perkins: 110 slaves embarked at the Sierra Leone estuary and 88 disembarked at Suriname in September 1793.[^17] A second entry for a Willing Quaker voyage of 1792, under Daniel McNeil with J. T. H. Perkins as owner, records 63 slaves embarked and 53 landed at Havana in April 1792.[^18]
Donnan also prints a 1803 insurance record for the Danish ship Hope, "Coast of Africa to Havana," $33,300, for J. and T. H. Perkins, written in the office of N. P. Russell, together with a Charleston court's decision that notes were void because the Massachusetts act of 1788 forbade participation in the trade. A letter of January 25, 1810 from N. P. Russell to J. and T. H. Perkins on "the two African risks" (the San Francisco de Asis and the Carlota) records that the underwriters declined them; Donnan infers that the firm was "still concerned" in the trade although it had "apparently hesitated" after the act of Congress of May 10, 1800. A letter from the firm at Havana to James Graham on July 16, 1804 says: "we prefer losing a little upon a few horses than gaining upon human flesh."[^19]
[[Kris Millegan]] wrote that the Perkins syndicate had been "Forced out of the lucrative African slave trade by U.S. law and Caribbean slave revolts," and that leaders of the Cabot, Lowell, Higginson, Forbes, Cushing and Sturgis families had married Perkins siblings and children.[^20]
### The Northwest Coast and the Canton beginnings
Thomas sailed for Canton in February 1789 as supercargo of the Astraea, owned by Elias Hasket Derby of Salem, under Captain James Magee.[^21] At Canton he saw the Columbia, the ship that Captain Gray later took across the bar of the Columbia River. Cary writes that Perkins gathered information on the Chinese market and on the value of sea-otter skins from the Northwest Coast, and that the Hong merchant [[Houqua]] had observed him and a relationship developed. He sent the brig Hope, under Captain Ingraham, to the Northwest Coast, intending the voyage to end at Canton; its main object failed, but it found the northern Marquesas. He then joined Magee in building the Margaret, with Magee as master, and a schooner of about thirty tons set up on the coast took "some twelve or fifteen hundred sea-otters" in one season.[^21]
### Paris, Lafayette and Mount Vernon
Perkins sailed in December 1794 in the Charlotte, a ship of his firm and of S. Higginson & Co., to Bordeaux, and was in Paris in March 1795, where he saw the execution of Fouquier-Tinville and others.[^22] [[James Monroe]], then American minister, asked him to help send George Washington La Fayette to America under the name G. W. Motier. Madame de La Fayette was in Paris, and [[Boissy d'Anglas]] was the contact. Perkins's friend Joseph Russell of Boston took the youth to Le Havre, and the ship was commanded by Captain Thomas Sturgis, a brother of the Robert Sturgis who had married Perkins's eldest sister. Russell and Perkins paid the expenses, and [[Marquis de Lafayette]] later wrote from Olmutz that Perkins had saved his life.[^22] A letter of October 18, 1796 to Joseph Russell, then in Europe, reports that Motier was with Washington.[^23] Perkins visited Mount Vernon in July 1796, introduced by Colonel Lear.[^24] Cary says that Perkins might have been made Secretary of the Navy and that his election to Congress would have been certain had he sought it.[^25]
### Sealing voyages, the Mediterranean and Smyrna
A letter from Boston dated December 27, 1796, to Mr. George Perkins at Smyrna, asks about the Smyrna market for coffee and sugar and refers to "your brother, Mr. Thomas Perkins."[^26] On November 1, 1799 the brig Sally, Captain Stephen Hall, sailed on a sealing voyage to Kerguelen, St Paul and Amsterdam islands, with Peron as chief mate and a plan to sell skins at Canton to the American consul, Mr. Snow. A letter of October 16, 1800 to Robert Bennet Forbes at New York says that Peter Peron was landed at St Paul with eight men and eight more were on Amsterdam.[^27] Orders of May 24, 1800 to Jackson and Tilden for the ship Thomas Russell directed her to Malaga, then up the Mediterranean, Smyrna included, and then to Calcutta.[^28]
The National Park Service nomination for the Russell house at Middletown states that "The Perkins brothers of Boston, who had been associated with the Turkish opium trade since the 1780's, formally organized their Smyrna merchant house in 1816." It adds that "Both of these families would be associated with Russell during his tenure in Canton," and that it is uncertain whether [[John P. Cushing]] and others also explored the India opium market.[^29]
Robert Bennet Forbes described an 1828 voyage to Smyrna in the Danube, fitted out at New York by [[Sturgis and Perkins]] with a credit on [[Baring Brothers]] of about 60,000 pounds, "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China."[^30] He sailed from Vourla under convoy and went on to [[Gibraltar]] to await operations on a larger scale.[^30] At Canton the drug was landed at the store-ships anchored at [[Lintin]] and run up the river in small boats.[^31]
### Perkins and Company at Canton
In 1798 the firm bought the ship Thomas Russell and sent Ephraim Bumstead as supercargo; in 1803 it engaged him to set up a China house, and John Perkins Cushing, then sixteen and a nephew of the brothers, went as his clerk.[^32] Hunter wrote that Perkins & Co. was "established soon after a visit made by Mr. Thomas H. Perkins with two vessels to Canton in 1798," that until the summer of 1829 it was "the most important of the American houses," and that Bumstead represented it until 1807, when Cushing succeeded him.[^33] Cary has Bumstead dying on the way home soon after 1803 and Cushing in copartnership until "the dissolution of the house in 1827"; Hunter has Cushing continuously at Canton until 1828, when he returned in the Milo.[^32][^33] Cary adds that the Canton house grew until consignments interfered with its own business, and "a distinct commission-house was, therefore, established at Canton" under the favor of Perkins and Co.[^32]
Forbes says that Cushing "was principally instrumental in promoting the establishment of Russell & Co.," and that he transferred an important part of his business to the new house. An advertisement of the Canton house dated November 23, 1823, signed by [[Philip Ammidon]] and [[Samuel Russell]], gives as its references Perkins & Co. at Canton and the Boston houses J. and T. H. Perkins & Sons and S. G. Perkins & Co.[^34]
On August 9, 1829, Thomas T. Forbes, who had succeeded Cushing in charge of Perkins & Co., drowned in a typhoon with S. H. Monson, the bookkeeper of Russell & Co. Among his papers was a sealed letter asking Russell & Co., in case of accident, to take charge of his local business and that of J. and T. H. Perkins. Hunter wrote that Houqua's business came to the Russell house with it. Cushing returned to Canton in August 1830, and Hunter quotes the result: "Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up, while the important foreign business of Houqua was then also definitely secured to them."[^35] The Library of Congress finding aid for the Russell records dates the event to 1831, when "the China trading operations of John P. Cushing, William Perkins & Company of Boston, and Houqua" merged with Russell & Company.[^36] The Baker Library guide describes Cushing as the man who arranged to dissolve the Boston house by merging its Canton business into Russell & Co. in 1831, and holds Perkins & Co. letter books from Canton that precede the merger.[^37] J. and T. H. Perkins & Sons was wound up in 1838, and Cary says Thomas withdrew from business "with a large fortune."[^38]
A George C. Perkins of Boston, bookkeeper of Russell & Co., is among the men Hunter names as drowned in the Lantao Channel; Forbes's memoir devotes a passage to "the tragical death of Mr. George Perkins," who sailed from the Sandwich Islands in March 1854 in the Hamburg barque Concordia for Hong Kong and disappeared after bargaining with a Chinese boat to carry him from Green Island passage to Macao. Forbes also records that Perkins and Edward King retired from the Russell house in 1849.[^39][^40]
### The Hartford Convention and the 1815 mission
Cary's appendix says that Perkins "was not a member of the Hartford Convention" but supported its principal measure and accepted a place in the mission that followed.[^41] The twelve Massachusetts delegates to the convention were [[George Cabot]], William Prescott, Harrison Gray Otis, Timothy Bigelow, Stephen Longfellow, Daniel Waldo, George Bliss, Nathan Dane, Hodijah Baylies, Joshua Thomas, Joseph Lyman and Samuel S. Wilde. The 1823 pamphlet A Short Account of the Hartford Convention records that the House resolve was adopted 159 to 48 and prints Governor [[Caleb Strong]]'s commission of January 31, 1815 naming Otis, Perkins and William Sullivan; the three arrived in Washington one day after news of peace.[^42] Perkins wrote from Washington on February 16, 1815 to Cushing at Canton: "I am here on public business in behalf of the State of Massachusetts. The joyful event of peace has suspended the mission on which I came."[^43]
### Bank, Cadets and Senate
Cary says that Perkins was elected to the Massachusetts Senate in 1805, that for eighteen or twenty years he sat in one branch or the other of the legislature, generally the Senate, and that he was president of the Boston branch of the Bank of the United States, succeeded by George Cabot.[^44] Forbes records that he was lieutenant colonel of the Boston Cadets and resigned on November 5, 1800.[^45]
### The Bunker Hill Monument Association
John C. Warren's 1877 history names Perkins as one of five principal originators of the monument, with William Tudor, [[Daniel Webster]], Edward Everett and Dr. John C. Warren, and says he hosted the founding dinner.[^46] The charter was approved on June 7, 1823; Perkins was vice-president from 1823 to 1827, president from 1827 to 1829 in succession to Webster, and chairman of the Building Committee.[^47] The Granite Railway, built to bring the stone, was organized with Perkins as president; Nathaniel P. Russell, in whose office the 1803 Perkins insurance was written, was treasurer of the Association in 1823.[^19][^48] Perkins gave $1,000 toward the Warren statue.[^49]
### The Granite Railway
The act incorporating the Granite Railway Company was passed on March 4, 1826. The incorporators were Thomas H. Perkins, William Sullivan, Amos Lawrence, David Moody, Solomon Willard and Gridley Bryant; section 8 authorized Perkins to call the first meeting. The charter was made perpetual in 1831, and the company's first contract, in 1827, was to carry stone for the monument at fifty cents per ton plus forty cents per ton. The company's 1870 history calls it the second railroad in the United States, where Cary calls it the first; Perkins owned nearly all of it when he died in 1854.[^50] Cary records that he had watched the start of railroads in England and caused a two-mile line to be built from the Quincy quarries to the water.[^51]
### Boston institutions
The trustees of the Massachusetts General Hospital met on January 2, 1814, with Perkins listed first among those present, and the board's address to the public dated January 8, 1814 carries his name first among the signatures.[^52] Cary says that he and his elder brother gave $5,000 each, and that he was active in the hospital's asylum for the insane.[^53] James Perkins's bequests included about $20,000 in real estate to the [[Boston Athenaeum]] and $20,000 to Harvard University.[^54]
In 1826 the Athenaeum needed something over $30,000 for additions. Thomas and his nephew James Perkins each gave $8,000 on condition that the public subscribe the same amount.[^54] In 1833 Thomas proposed to give his mansion house in Pearl Street as a permanent residence for the blind, on condition that a fund be raised; the New-England Institution for the Education of the Blind reported in 1834 that "a twelvemonth ago" he had made the proposition, and that over $50,000 had been subscribed within a month.[^55] Cary says Dr. John D. Fisher had obtained an earlier act of incorporation and that Perkins's proposal "suddenly roused the community to aid in the project."[^51] Cary records the late fundraising for the Washington Monument and the toast to Perkins by [[Robert C. Winthrop]] at Faneuil Hall in October 1854.[^56]
### The Samuel G. Perkins line and Cincinnati
Samuel G. Perkins traded in Boston as S. G. Perkins & Co. and married Barbara Higginson, daughter of Stephen Higginson, in 1795.[^57] Their youngest child, [[James Handasyd Perkins]], was born in Boston on July 31, 1810, entered the counting room of his uncle Thomas at eighteen, studied law, and went to Cincinnati.[^58] He died in 1849.[^57] The Owls Nest property near Cincinnati was bought in 1845, and the sons of James Handasyd and Sarah Elliott Perkins gave it to the city as a park in 1905.[^57]
### Charles Elliott Perkins and the Burlington
Charles Elliott Perkins was born in Cincinnati on November 24, 1840 and went to Burlington, Iowa in 1859 to work on the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad, whose president was John Murray Forbes, a first cousin of his father.[^59] His children included Alice Forbes (born 1867), Edith Forbes (1873), Margaret Forbes (1876), Charles Elliott (1881), Mary Russell (1883) and Samuel George.[^59] The 1906 Who's Who entry records him as a clerk of the Burlington & Missouri River Railroad in 1859, director of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad in 1875, vice-president from 1876 to 1881 and president from 1881 to 1901, resigning on February 21, 1901.[^60]
John Murray Forbes wrote that he held the presidency of the Burlington for two or three years, and that his "cousin, Mr. Perkins, was not yet sufficiently known to warrant putting him at the head of the road"; when Charles E. Perkins "had won the confidence of the board and of the stockholders" and "was entirely competent to run the road," Forbes "gladly turned over the presidency to him."[^61] A board resolution of October 18, 1898, after Forbes's death, is signed "C. E. Perkins, President."[^62]
The Harvard Commission on Western History, in 1912, reprinted a letter of January 27, 1912 establishing the Charles Elliott Perkins Foundation, funded by Mrs. William Hooper in memory of her father. The commission's members were A. McF. Davis, Horace Davis, [[Grenville M. Dodge]], [[Charles G. Dawes]], Charles Moore, [[Howard Elliott]], [[Frederic Adrian Delano|Frederic A. Delano]], Frederick J. Turner, A. C. Coolidge and E. H. Wells; the commission's report says that Elliott and Delano "were trained under Mr. Perkins."[^63]
### Thomas Nelson Perkins
Edward Cranch Perkins, the second son of James Handasyd Perkins, married Jane Watson, described in the memoir as a niece of John Murray Forbes, and their children were Thomas Nelson (born 1870), Elliott (1873 to 1885), James Handasyd (1876) and John Forbes (1878; a daughter of his is listed as born in 1907).[^64] Who's Who records Thomas Nelson Perkins as born at Milton, Massachusetts, in 1870, the son of Edward C. and Jane S. (Watson) Perkins, Harvard A.B. 1891 and LL.B. 1894, a member of the Boston firm Ropes, Gray & Gorham (by 1920 Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins), and a fellow of the President and Fellows of Harvard College.[^65] He married Louisa Catherine Adams, daughter of [[Charles Francis Adams Jr.]], at Lincoln on June 6, 1900.[^66] The Harvard quinquennial catalogue of 1915 lists him as Fellow from 1905; he resigned in 1924 to serve in Europe and was re-elected in October 1926.[^67][^68] In 1917 he sat on the priorities committee of the War Industries Board and studied the British and French control systems.[^69] From 1926 he was president of the Dawes Plan Arbitral Tribunal of Interpretation, signing Award No. II (January 29, 1927) and Award No. III (May 29, 1928).[^70] The Foreign Relations of the United States for 1929 lists, among the American experts at the Paris committee on reparations that produced the Young Plan, [[Owen D. Young]] and [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]], with Perkins and [[Thomas W. Lamont]] as alternates, and Perkins as chairman of its third subcommittee on deliveries in kind; he signed the report at Paris on June 7, 1929.[^71][^72] He was a director of the Boston and Maine from 1924 (chairman of the executive committee from 1928, acting president from 1929 to 1930) and of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company in the annual reports for 1929 through 1936.[^73]
### Skull and Bones and the Perkins names
Sutton's index of members by class year lists four Perkinses: John and William Perkins in the class of 1840, Nathaniel Shaw Perkins in 1842 and Thomas Albert Perkins in 1858.[^74] The Yale records give the following about them.
John Perkins, class of 1840, was born at Natchez on July 1, 1819, the son of Judge John Perkins, took a Harvard LL.B. in 1842, practiced in New Orleans, sat in Congress from 1853, chaired the Louisiana secession convention in January 1861 and sat in the Confederate Congress; his house Somerset was burned, he left the country, returned in 1878 and died at Baltimore on November 28, 1885.[^75] Millegan wrote that John Perkins, Jr. (S&B 1840) was "chairman of the 1861 Louisiana Secession Convention, who fled abroad for 13 years after the Civil War."[^20] William Perkins of the same class was born on April 26, 1821 at Grand Gulf, Mississippi, practiced law, and perished on the steamer Arctic in 1854.[^76] Nathaniel Shaw Perkins (1842) was born at New London on April 19, 1822, the son of Nathaniel Shaw Perkins of the Yale class of 1812, was a partner in the whaling firm Perkins & Smith, and died on February 8, 1905.[^77] Thomas Albert Perkins (1858) was born at Brooklyn on January 17, 1839, the son of Dennis and Maria (Clarke) Perkins, was a cotton merchant at Dennis Perkins & Co., and died on January 1, 1909; the class of 1858's biographical record prints a Skull and Bones roster that includes him.[^78]
Bagg's 1871 account of the Yale societies lists Samuel C. Perkins of the class of 1848 among the incorporators, by the Connecticut act of May 1860, of the Kingsley Trust Association, the legal body of Scroll and Key.[^79]
### The Morgan partner George W. Perkins
[[George W. Perkins]], a partner of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]] from 1901 and later chairman of the executive committee and a director of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, was born at Chicago on January 31, 1862 and began at the Chicago office of the New York Life Insurance Company.[^80] [[George B. Cortelyou]], Secretary of the Treasury from 1907 to 1909, testified before the [[Pujo Committee|Pujo subcommittee]] that at the Hotel Manhattan conference of October 22, 1907 with [[J. P. Morgan]], James Stillman, George F. Baker and others, Perkins "was then a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co."[^81] Walter E. Frew, a director of the [[Bankers Trust Company]], testified on December 10, 1912 that its voting trustees about 1905 were "Henry P. Davison, George W. Perkins, and Daniel G. Reid," and that Perkins "was then a member of J. P. Morgan & Co."[^82] The 1889 genealogy of the Perkins family of Ipswich enters his father, George Walbridge Perkins, as born at Erie, Pennsylvania, on December 25, 1831 and dead at Cleveland on March 29, 1886, who married Sarah Louisa Mills in November 1856 and moved to Chicago in 1859; the children listed are Charles Clarkson (1858), George Walbridge (January 31, 1862), William (1863), Emily Swan and Edward Richard. The genealogy's line runs from John Perkins of Ipswich through Jacob, Joseph, Joseph, Joseph and Elijah to William W. Perkins of Erie.[^83] The same genealogy records that John Perkins sailed in the Lyon from Bristol on December 1, 1630, took the freeman's oath at Boston on May 18, 1631 and removed to Ipswich in 1633, the Boston date Sutton gives for his Perkins family.[^2][^83] Sutton wrote: "The name Morgan has never appeared on the membership lists, although some Morgan partners are with the inner core, for example, Davison and Perkins."[^84]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, 'Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records,' MSS38562, scope and content note. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart 'Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day,' with the spoke 'Perkins (1631, Boston).' https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^3]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 8, 'My mother was Margaret Perkins, sister of Messrs. James and Thomas H. Perkins'; Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), p. 20, on Margaret Perkins and Ralph Bennet Forbes. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^4]: Thomas Greaves Cary, *Memoir of Thomas Handasyd Perkins; containing extracts from his diaries and letters* (Boston, 1856), pp. 2 to 5, on the birth on December 15, 1764, the maternal grandfather, the father's death in 1771 and George Erving. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^5]: Edith Perkins Cunningham, *Owls Nest: A Tribute to Sarah Elliott Perkins* (privately printed, 1907), pp. 14 to 16, on James Perkins's death in 1773, Elizabeth Peck and the grandfather James Handasyd Peck. https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog
[^6]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 2 to 3, on the ship Beaver chartered by the French government and the mother's death in 1807. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^7]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 5 to 8, on the Boston Massacre, Barnstable, Harrison Gray Otis, the Reverend Mr. Shute at Hingham and the Shattuck counting-house. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^8]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 8 to 10, on the 1785 visit to Saint-Domingue, the stay in Charleston and the Pon Pon plantations of Thomas Ferguson. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^9]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 10 to 11, on the house formed with James Perkins in Saint-Domingue and the marriage to Sarah Elliot in 1788. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^10]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 44, on the insurrection of 1792, the burned store, the planters' debts and the return to Boston. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^11]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), addenda, 'Early American Commission Merchants in China,' pp. 333 to 336, on the 1792 organization of J. and T. H. Perkins and its later history; Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 44 to 45. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^12]: Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), p. 18, on Mr. Burling as James Perkins's business partner at Saint-Domingue and Samuel G. Perkins's 'Reminiscences of the Insurrection in St. Domingo.' https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog
[^13]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 31, Perkins's Batavia journal of July 1789, on the Malay bands and the comparison with the Guinea slaves. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^14]: Elizabeth Donnan, ed., *Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America*, vol. 3 (Washington, 1932), document 73, p. 88, letter of October 6, 1792 from J. and T. H. Perkins to Perkins, Burling & Co. https://archive.org/details/donnan3_documentsillustr00donn_1
[^15]: Donnan, *Documents*, vol. 3, p. 88, notes 1 and 4, quoting Briggs, *The Cabot Family*, on the letters of 1790 and 1791 and the Betsey, and on the 1793 letter. https://archive.org/details/donnan3_documentsillustr00donn_1
[^16]: Donnan, *Documents*, vol. 3, document 78, pp. 99 to 100, the governor of Sierra Leone on the Willing Quaker, with Donnan's note on Perkins and Burling, Daniel McNeil and the Clarissa. https://archive.org/details/donnan3_documentsillustr00donn_1
[^17]: SlaveVoyages, Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, voyage 25300 (Willing Quaker, 1792), sources Donnan vol. 3, pp. 99 to 100, and Cabot, vol. 1, p. 391. https://www.slavevoyages.org/documents/download/tastdb-exp-2019.csv
[^18]: SlaveVoyages, Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, voyage 25047 (Willing Quaker, 1792), source Donnan vol. 3, p. 360. https://www.slavevoyages.org/documents/download/tastdb-exp-2019.csv
[^19]: Donnan, *Documents*, vol. 3, document 79, pp. 101 to 102, on the 1803 insurance of the Hope, the Charleston decision, the letter of January 25, 1810 on the two African risks, and the letter of July 16, 1804. https://archive.org/details/donnan3_documentsillustr00donn_1
[^20]: Kris Millegan, ed., *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), the essay on the Perkins syndicate and the account of the early initiates. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^21]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 11 and 42 to 43, on the 1789 voyage of the Astraea, the Columbia at Canton, Houqua, the brig Hope and the Margaret. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^22]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 45 to 59, on the voyage of the Charlotte, Paris in 1795, Monroe's request, George Washington La Fayette and Captain Sturgis. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^23]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 281 to 282, letter of October 18, 1796 to Joseph Russell. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^24]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 197 to 201, on the visit to Mount Vernon in July 1796. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^25]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 207, on the Navy Department and Congress. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^26]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 282 to 283, letter of December 27, 1796 to Mr. George Perkins, Smyrna. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^27]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 284 to 285 and 293 to 294, on the Sally under Captain Stephen Hall and the letter of October 16, 1800. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^28]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 289 to 290, orders of May 24, 1800 for the Thomas Russell. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^29]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, 'Samuel Wadsworth Russell House,' Middletown, Connecticut, section 8, citing Alain Munkittrick, 'Samuel Wadsworth Russell (1789-1862): A Study in Ordered Investment' (Wesleyan University honors thesis, 1973). https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^30]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 123 to 125, on the 1828 voyage of the Danube. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^31]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 142 to 144, on the store-ships at Lintin. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^32]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 208 to 210, on Bumstead, Cushing and the commission-house established at Canton. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^33]: W. C. Hunter, *The 'Fan Kwae' at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118 to 119. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^34]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), addenda, pp. 333 to 336, on Cushing and the advertisement of November 23, 1823. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^35]: Hunter (1882), pp. 118 to 119, on Thomas T. Forbes's death, the sealed letter and the 1830 arrangement. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^36]: Library of Congress, 'Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records,' MSS38562. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^37]: Baker Library, Harvard Business School, collection guide, 'Russell & Company records,' Mss:766, and 'John Perkins Cushing business records,' Mss:8993. https://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/heard/manuscript-collections.html
[^38]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 239, on the dissolution of the firm in 1838. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^39]: Hunter (1882), p. 119, on George C. Perkins of Boston, drowned in the Lantao Channel. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^40]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), chapter VIII, 'Mr. George Perkins's Death,' pp. 387 to 389, and the account of the partners of 1849 to 1851. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^41]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 274 to 276, on the Hartford Convention and the mission. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^42]: [Theodore Lyman], *A Short Account of the Hartford Convention* (Boston, O. Everett, 1823), pp. 13 to 16. https://archive.org/details/shortaccounthart00lymarich
[^43]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 219, letter of February 16, 1815 from Washington to John P. Cushing. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^44]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 206, on the Senate, the legislature and the Bank of the United States. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^45]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), addenda, on the lieutenant colonelcy of the Cadets. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^46]: George Washington Warren, *The History of the Bunker Hill Monument Association* (New York, 1877), pp. 37 to 39. https://archive.org/details/historyofbunkerh00warr
[^47]: Warren, *History* (1877), pp. 44 to 45, the charter of June 7, 1823, and the list of presidents and vice-presidents. https://archive.org/details/historyofbunkerh00warr
[^48]: Warren, *History* (1877), pp. 209 and 212, on the Granite Railway and the Building Committee. https://archive.org/details/historyofbunkerh00warr
[^49]: Warren, *History* (1877), p. 350, on the Warren statue. https://archive.org/details/historyofbunkerh00warr
[^50]: *History of the Granite Railway Company* (Boston, Mudge, 1870), the act of March 4, 1826, section 8, the 1831 perpetual charter and the 1827 contract. https://archive.org/details/historyofgranite00unse
[^51]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 222 to 225, on the Granite Railway, Dr. John D. Fisher and the naming of the institution. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^52]: Trustees of the Massachusetts General Hospital, *Address of the Board of Trustees to the Public* (Boston, 1814), minutes of January 2 and address of January 8, 1814. https://archive.org/details/addressofboardof00mass
[^53]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 220, on the gifts to the hospital and the asylum. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^54]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 221 to 222, on the bequests of James Perkins and the 1826 Athenaeum subscription. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^55]: Trustees of the New-England Institution for the Education of the Blind, *Annual Report* (Boston, J. T. Buckingham, 1834), on the proposal to give the Pearl Street mansion; Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 223, 'In 1833.' https://archive.org/details/annualreportoftr110perk2
[^56]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 256 to 258, on the Washington Monument fund and Winthrop's toast of October 1854. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^57]: Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), on Samuel G. Perkins's marriage to Barbara Higginson in 1795, James Handasyd Perkins (1810 to 1849), the purchase of Owls Nest in 1845 and the gift to the city in 1905. https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog
[^58]: William Henry Channing, ed., *The Memoir and Writings of James Handasyd Perkins* (Boston, 1851), vol. 1, on his birth on July 31, 1810 and his years in his uncle's counting room. https://archive.org/details/memoirwritingsof01perkiala
[^59]: Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), on Charles Elliott Perkins's birth on November 24, 1840, the move to Burlington in 1859 and his children. https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog
[^60]: *Who's Who in America*, 1906-1907, entry for Charles Elliott Perkins. https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinamerica0004john
[^61]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, pp. 216 to 217. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^62]: Hughes, *Letters and Recollections* (1899), vol. 2, appendix, resolution of the directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad Company, October 18, 1898. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^63]: *The Harvard Commission on Western History, Charles Elliott Perkins Foundation* (1912). https://archive.org/details/harvardcommissi00histgoog
[^64]: Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), genealogical table of the children of Edward Cranch Perkins and Jane Watson. https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog
[^65]: *Who's Who in America*, 1910-1911, 1916-1917, 1928-1929 and 1930-1931 entries for Perkins, Thomas Nelson. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1910-1911_6 ; https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1930-1931_16
[^66]: *Harvard College Class of 1891, Secretary's Report, Number IV* (Boston, 1906), entry for Thomas Nelson Perkins: marriage at Lincoln June 6, 1900 to Louisa Catherine Adams, "daughter of Charles Francis Adams"; appointment as Fellow "to fill the vacancy caused by the death of the late Samuel Hoar." https://archive.org/details/secretarysreport41891harvuoft
[^67]: *Quinquennial Catalogue of the Officers and Graduates of Harvard University, 1636-1915* (Cambridge, 1915), "Thomas Nelson Perkins, (see A.B. 1891); Fellow 1905-." https://archive.org/details/quinquennialcat00univgoog
[^68]: "Thomas N. Perkins a Harvard Fellow," *The Christian Science Monitor*, October 26, 1926. https://archive.org/details/per_christian-science-monitor_1926-10-26_18_281
[^69]: Bernard M. Baruch, *American Industry in the War* (1921), p. 48. https://archive.org/details/americanindustry00unit
[^70]: *Die Entscheidungen des Internationalen Schiedsgerichts zur Auslegung des Dawes-plans*, Awards No. II (January 29, 1927) and No. III (May 29, 1928), signed by Perkins as president. https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge02arbi ; https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge00arbi
[^71]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1929*, vol. II, documents 1039, 1041 and 1043 and the editorial note on the American experts (telegrams of January 18 and 21, 1929, files 462.00R296/2622 and 462.00R296/2630; March 3, 1929). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02
[^72]: *International Conciliation*, no. 253 (October 1929), report of the Committee of Experts, signature page, p. 56. https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1929-10_253
[^73]: Boston and Maine Railroad, *Annual Report* for 1937, directors' minute on Perkins; American Telephone and Telegraph Company, *Annual Reports* for 1929 to 1936, lists of directors. https://archive.org/details/bostonandmainerailroadannualreports ; https://archive.org/details/americantelephoneandtelegraphannualreports
[^74]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1840, 1842 and 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^75]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University*, 1886, pp. 308 to 309, entry for John Perkins, class of 1840. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof1886yale
[^76]: *Class of 1840 Statistics*, Yale College, entry for William Perkins. https://archive.org/details/stat1840
[^77]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University*, 1900-1910, pp. 420 to 421, entry for Nathaniel Shaw Perkins, class of 1842. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof19001910yale
[^78]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University*, 1900-1910, class of 1858, entry for Thomas Albert Perkins; *Fifth Biographical Record of the Class of 1858, Yale College* (1908), roster of Skull and Bones. https://archive.org/details/cu31924030632487
[^79]: Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven, Chatfield, 1871), pp. 159 to 160, on the Kingsley Trust Association, incorporated at the May 1860 session of the Connecticut legislature. https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00bagg
[^80]: *Who's Who in America*, 1910-1911, entry for George Walbridge Perkins. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1910-1911_6
[^81]: *Money Trust Investigation: Investigation of Financial and Monetary Conditions in the United States under House Resolutions Nos. 429 and 504*, Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, 62d Cong., 3d sess., Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), testimony of George B. Cortelyou, pp. 430 to 431. https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0006.001.umich.edu
[^82]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 8, testimony of Walter E. Frew, December 10, 1912, p. 596. https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0008.001.umich.edu
[^83]: George Augustus Perkins, *The Family of John Perkins of Ipswich, Massachusetts* (1889), pp. 1 to 3, and entries 387a, 619 and 886 to 890. https://archive.org/details/familyofjohnperk00perk
[^84]: Sutton (1983), on the membership lists and the Morgan partners. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones

325
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Phelps family.md Normal file
View file

@ -0,0 +1,325 @@
---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
aliases:
- "Phelps family"
- "The Phelps family of America"
- "Phelps family of Simsbury"
tags:
- Family
- Phelps
- PhelpsDodge
- PhelpsStokesFund
- Dodge
- Stokes
- James
- Metals
- CustomsFraud
- SkullAndBones
- Yale
- SheffieldScientificSchool
- Congress
- Diplomacy
- WolfsHead
- BisbeeDeportation
- NearEastRelief
- CopperQueen
- WoodrowWilson
- Dorchester
- NewYork
category: "Business & Finance"
summary: "Dorchester family whose Anson Greene Phelps built Phelps, Dodge & Co., and whose lines produced William Walter Phelps, Edward John Phelps, the Wolf's Head Phelps Association and Yale Secretary Anson Phelps Stokes."
location: "Dorchester, Massachusetts; New York City"
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Phelps Dodge]]"
start: 1828-01-01
role: "Phelps, Dodge & Co. organized by Anson Greene Phelps and William Earl Dodge after the dissolution of Phelps, Peck & Co., per the family genealogy; later incorporated in New York in 1885"
fn: 4
- type: relative_of
with: "[[William Earl Dodge]]"
role: "married Melissa Phelps, daughter of Anson Greene Phelps, on June 24, 1828"
fn: 10
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Daniel James]]"
role: "Daniel James, partner of Phelps, Dodge & Co., married Elizabeth Woodbridge Phelps, daughter of Anson Greene Phelps"
fn: 11
- type: relative_of
with: "[[James Boulter Stokes]]"
role: "married Caroline Phelps, daughter of Anson Greene Phelps"
fn: 14
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Arthur v. Dodge]]"
start: 1874-12-01
role: "eight partners of Phelps, Dodge & Co. sued Chester A. Arthur, collector of the port of New York, in December 1874"
fn: 20
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1860-01-01
role: "William Walter Phelps, class of 1860, per the class list in Sutton's book compiled by Kris Millegan from the Yale Catalogue"
fn: 36
- type: funded
with: "[[Yale University]]"
start: 1870-01-01
role: "William Walter Phelps pledged $250 a year for five years toward the Phelps barge races"
fn: 24
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Sheffield Scientific School]]"
start: 1871-02-01
role: "William Walter Phelps among the six incorporators of the school, February 1871"
fn: 28
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Alphonso Taft]]"
role: "Fanny Phelps, daughter of Judge Charles Phelps of Townshend, Vermont, married Alphonso Taft on August 29, 1841"
fn: 59
- type: founded
with: "[[Phelps-Stokes Fund]]"
start: 1910-04-28
role: "trust created by the will of Caroline Phelps Stokes; first meeting of trustees April 28, 1910"
fn: 16
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1918-01-01
role: "Charles Phelps Taft, class of 1918, per Sutton's class list"
fn: 61
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Edward John Phelps]]"
role: "no. 7125 in the 1899 genealogy; son of Samuel S. Phelps of Vermont and a descendant of William Phelps of Windsor; Kent Professor of Law at Yale from 1881"
fn: 31
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Bisbee Deportation]]"
start: 1917-07-11
role: "managers and officials of the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Company (Phelps Dodge) took part in the citizens' meeting that decided the deportation, per the President's Mediation Commission"
fn: 53
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Cleveland H. Dodge]]"
role: "grandson of William Earl Dodge; member of the Princeton class of 1879 with Woodrow Wilson; treasurer of the Near East Relief committee from July 18, 1917"
fn: 56
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1896-01-01
role: "Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., Yale class of 1896, recorded as a member of Bones in the class history"
fn: 18
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Yale University]]"
start: 1899-01-01
role: "Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., elected Secretary of Yale University in the spring of 1899"
fn: 18
---
The Phelps family of [[Dorchester, Massachusetts]] is listed by [[Antony C. Sutton]] among the old-line families of [[Skull and Bones]], with a settlement date of 1630 in his chart.[^1] A two-volume family genealogy published in 1899 follows the descendants of the Dorchester settlers from New England to Connecticut and New York, where [[Anson Greene Phelps]] organized the metals house of [[Phelps Dodge]] and married his daughters into the [[William Earl Dodge|Dodge]], [[Daniel James|James]] and [[James Boulter Stokes|Stokes]] families.[^2] [[William Walter Phelps]], the son of the Wall Street banker [[John Jay Phelps]], sat in Congress, served as minister to Austria-Hungary and to Germany, and was a trustee of [[Yale University]]. A second line, descended from William Phelps of Windsor, Connecticut, produced the Vermont senator [[Samuel S. Phelps]] and his son [[Edward John Phelps]], Kent Professor of Law at Yale and United States minister to Great Britain. The Yale senior society [[Wolf's Head]] was incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association, and its hall of 1884 to 1885 was built for the Phelps Association. A Dodge, [[Cleveland H. Dodge]], was [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s classmate and the treasurer of the Armenian relief committee that became [[Near East Relief]], and a Stokes, [[Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.]], was Secretary of Yale from 1899 to 1921 and a member of Skull and Bones.
### Settlement and the Simsbury branch
The 1897 genealogy of one branch of the family, whose title names William and George Phelps as the founders of the family in America in 1630, states that the first Phelps arrivals landed at Dorchester that year on the ship Mary and John.[^3] Sutton's chart gives the same settlement date and place.[^1] The introduction to that 1897 genealogy names three brothers, William, George and Richard Phelps, as the family's arrivals of 1630.[^3] The fuller record is the 1899 genealogy, compiled by [[Oliver Seymour Phelps]] and [[Andrew T. Servin]] and published at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, which gives the English ancestry and the American descendants of the Phelps settlers in two volumes.[^2]
The branch that matters for the New York firms descends from settlers at Simsbury, Connecticut. Anson Greene Phelps was born there on March 24, 1781. His mother died when he was twelve, and according to the genealogy he was then brought up in the house of the minister of Simsbury. In 1799 he chose his brother Thomas Woodbridge Phelps as his guardian. He settled at Hartford, where his first successful undertaking was a saddle business that shipped to the South, and he built a brick block on North Main Street known as the Phelps Block.[^4] After leaving Simsbury, William and Thomas Phelps and their cousin Job Phelps settled in the West.[^4]
### Anson Greene Phelps and the metals house
In 1812 Anson Greene Phelps moved to New York City and went into business with Elisha Peck as Phelps, Peck & Co., dealing in metals, iron and brass.[^4] The genealogy dates the dissolution of that firm to about 1828. Phelps then organized the house of Phelps, Dodge & Co., composed of himself, his son-in-law William Earl Dodge and others of his relations.[^4] The genealogy lists his support of the American Bible Society, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, the American Home Missionary Society, the Colonization Society and the Blind Asylum of New York, of several of which he was at one time president.[^4] He died in New York in November 1853, in his seventy-third year.[^4]
The dates given for the firm's beginning differ. The genealogy's date of about 1828 for the organization of the firm stands beside other dates. Robert Glass Cleland's history of the company, published in 1952, runs from 1834 to 1950 in its title.[^5] The Copper Manual of 1897 states that Anson G. Phelps, with Israel Coe and John Hungerford, built a brass mill at Wolcottville (now Torrington), Connecticut, in 1834, and that the firm of Phelps, Dodge & Company, which he founded, had operated a copper-rolling mill at Birmingham, Connecticut, before 1844, when Phelps bought the lands on which he founded Ansonia.[^6] Anson Phelps Stokes wrote in his family records that the firm made an assignment in the financial panic of 1837, that his father James Stokes had endorsed largely for it and received the assignment together with a brother-in-law of Dodge, and that the debts were soon paid and the firm "renewed business as before."[^7] The partnership was renewed at intervals thereafter. On December 31, 1878, the partnership of William E. Dodge, Daniel James, James Stokes, William E. Dodge Jr., D. Willis James, Anson Phelps Stokes, Charles C. Dodge, Thomas Stokes and Arthur James of England expired by limitation, and a new partnership under the same name was formed of William E. Dodge Jr., D. Willis James, Joseph Van Vleck and James McLean.[^8]
The firm was later incorporated. The annual report of Phelps Dodge on Form 10-K for fiscal 2006 states that the company was incorporated as a business corporation under the laws of the State of New York in 1885.[^9]
### Intermarriage with the Dodge, James and Stokes houses
Anson Greene Phelps's children married into the partner families of his firm. Melissa Phelps, born at Hartford in 1809, married William Earl Dodge in New York on June 24, 1828. Dodge was the junior partner, and after Anson Greene Phelps died in 1853 he became the head and manager of the house. He sat in the Thirty-ninth Congress for the eighth district of New York and was president of the Chamber of Commerce in New York City.[^10] Their sons included [[William Earl Dodge Jr.]], [[Anson Greene Phelps Dodge]], [[David Stuart Dodge]] and [[Charles Cleveland Dodge]].[^10]
Elizabeth Woodbridge Phelps, born in New York in 1807, married Daniel James, born in Vermont in 1811, who became a merchant at Liverpool. She died at Liverpool in 1847 and he died there in November 1876. Their children included D. Willis James, who married Ellen S. Curtis, and Olivia P. James, who married Robert Hoe.[^11] Dodge told the [[House Committee on Ways and Means]] that his partner Daniel James, the resident partner at Liverpool, had married a daughter of Mr. Phelps and had later joined the firm.[^12]
The Dodge line married back into the Phelps family in the next generation. Ella Ada Phelps, born in New York on March 28, 1838, married Rev. David Stuart Dodge on June 20, 1860. Their daughter Ellen Ada Phelps Dodge married [[Anson Greene Phelps Dodge Jr.]] at London on June 5, 1880.[^13]
### James Boulter Stokes and the Stokes line
Caroline Phelps, born at Hartford on November 30, 1812, married James Boulter Stokes, born in New York on January 31, 1804, the son of Thomas Stokes of London and his wife Elizabeth Ann Boulter. Stokes was a partner in Phelps, Dodge & Co. in New York, in Phelps, James & Co. at Liverpool and in the banking house of [[Phelps, Stokes & Co.]] at 45 Wall Street. The genealogy also names him the first president of the Ansonia companies.[^14]
Their son [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] was born in New York on February 22, 1838, and married [[Helen Louisa Phelps]] on October 17, 1865.[^14] The genealogy lists Helen Louisa, born August 20, 1846, among the children of [[Isaac Newton Phelps]], who had opened the banking office at 45 Wall Street with John Jay Phelps and who continued the business after his partner retired in 1858.[^15] The Stokes daughter [[Caroline Phelps Stokes]], born at New York on December 4, 1854, founded the [[Phelps-Stokes Fund]] by her will.[^16] Anson Phelps Stokes, in his family records, states that in January 1861 he became a partner in Phelps, Dodge & Co. and in Phelps, James & Co.; that in 1855, at the age of seventeen and a half, he had gone to the firm's office; and that his father and his uncles William E. Dodge and Daniel James were then partners, with his cousins William E. Dodge Jr. and D. Willis James.[^7] Of the banker Isaac Newton Phelps he writes that from 1834 to 1848 he was a partner in the hardware house of Sheldon, Phelps & Co., and afterward, with John J. Phelps, "a distant cousin (father of Hon. William Walter Phelps)," established the firm of I. N. and J. J. Phelps, bankers, at 45 Wall Street, which became Phelps, Stokes & Co.[^17]
The son of this Anson Phelps Stokes and Helen Louisa Phelps, born at New Brighton, Staten Island, on April 13, 1874, graduated from Yale in 1896 and is treated below as Secretary of Yale.[^18]
### The customs controversy
The partners of Phelps, Dodge & Co. were involved in the most public episode of the firm's New York business. Dodge told the Ways and Means committee that his partner Daniel James, at Liverpool, found in a newspaper dispatch of December 1872 a report that the United States had seized the firm's books and papers for alleged frauds on the revenue amounting to $1,750,000.[^12] The proceedings of the Forty-third Congress, first session, on the customs laws and the firm were printed in 1875 as an abstract titled [[Congress and Phelps, Dodge & Co.]], which covers the customs "moieties" provisions. Its index lists testimony by George S. Boutwell, James B. Beck, W. E. Dodge and Daniel James, and it also lists an examination of a Mr. Jayne by Beck and a clerk of the firm described in the index as dishonest.[^19]
In December 1874 eight partners of the firm sued [[Chester A. Arthur]], the collector of the port of New York, in the Superior Court of the City of New York. The plaintiffs were William E. Dodge, Daniel James, James Stokes, William E. Dodge Jr., D. Willis James, Anson P. Stokes, Charles C. Dodge and Thomas Stokes, as Phelps, Dodge & Co. The protest on file reads in part, "We do hereby protest against the payment of 15 per cent." The suit sought to recover duties at 15 percent ad valorem paid under protest on merchandise imported in 1874.[^20] The record of the case was filed in the Supreme Court of the United States on October 2, 1877, as No. 206 under the caption [[Arthur v. Dodge]].[^20] Anson Phelps Stokes's family records list under 1874 the publication of the "moiety report" by the Chamber of Commerce on February 2 and its printing by order of Congress on May 2.[^21] The genealogy states that William Walter Phelps resigned his Austrian post, and that "On President Arthur's succession he resigned this office."[^22]
### William Walter Phelps: Yale, Sheffield and the bar
William Walter Phelps was born in New York City on August 24, 1839, the elder and only surviving son of John Jay Phelps and Rachel B. Phinney Phelps.[^23] He entered [[Yale College]] in 1855, left in March 1857 because of his health, and in the autumn of 1858 joined the class of 1860.[^23] He married Ellen Sheffield, daughter of [[Joseph E. Sheffield]], on the evening of Commencement Day, July 26, 1860, and sailed for Europe.[^23] The genealogy gives the wedding as January 26, 1860, and also says it took place on the day of his graduation.[^22]
Phelps graduated from the [[Columbia Law School]] in May 1863. His father's death in May 1869 obliged him to give up general practice in order to manage the family estates and private trusts, and he moved to Englewood, New Jersey.[^23] He was counsel to several large corporations. In 1872 he was elected to the Forty-third Congress as a Republican from New Jersey.[^23]
Phelps's gifts to Yale began before he entered public life. [[Lyman Bagg]] recorded in 1871 that in 1870 William Walter Phelps of the class of 1860 pledged $250 a year for five years toward two summer races, one in six-oared barges in the harbor and one in six-oared shells on [[Lake Saltonstall]]. A barge race for a Phelps flag was rowed on June 7, 1871. Bagg credited the arrangement to his classmate [[Charles H. Owen]].[^24] The same history records a fund of $50,000 given by a William Phelps, the income of which the college was to spend under the direction of his son William W. Phelps of the class of 1860 during the son's lifetime.[^24] The Yale obituary record describes Phelps as the trustee of a large bequest from his father, and it states that his gifts and that bequest made him a helpful friend of the University Library.[^23] Bagg names the donor of the $50,000 as William Phelps, while the obituary names the father as John Jay Phelps.[^24][^23] The Yale treasurer's lists of gifts, reprinted in the 1899 volume on Yale's campus, record "the income of the Phelps legacy" for the University Library from William Walter Phelps, and separately "the income of legacy of John J. Phelps" for the same purpose.[^25] A history of American universities published in 1898 states that in 1874 Phelps "assigned to the Library the income of a bequest from his father," amounting to $3500 a year and continued for twenty years.[^26]
### Congress
Phelps sat in the Forty-third Congress, the body whose customs proceedings the 1875 abstract reproduces.[^23][^19] The genealogy describes him as a debater who took positions against the salary increase, the banking bill and the franking privilege, and who denounced the civil rights bill as improper and unconstitutional.[^22] It also states that he sat on the special committee to inquire into the White League, the Ku Klux Klan and other societies, and that the city of New Orleans gave him a public dinner in recognition of its work.[^22] He declined an offer of the post of assistant secretary of the treasury from President Grant.[^22]
Phelps was the Republican nominee again in 1874 and lost by seven votes.[^23] He was re-elected in 1882, 1884 and 1886 and served several terms after that. The genealogy adds that he acted as a regent of the Smithsonian Institution.[^22][^23]
### Diplomatic posts
President Garfield appointed Phelps minister to Austria on May 5, 1881, and his credentials were presented on June 20, 1881. The mission was superseded on June 30, 1882.[^27] The Yale obituary states that he resigned in the summer of 1882.[^23]
In 1889 President Harrison appointed him to the Samoan commission. The genealogy states that his management of the treaty negotiations with the English and German commissioners won him high honors.[^22] Harrison then appointed him minister to Germany on June 20, 1889, and his credentials were presented on September 26, 1889.[^27] He presented his recall on June 4, 1893.[^27] The Yale obituary says that after his return he accepted appointment as a lay judge of the Court of Errors and Appeals of New Jersey.[^23]
While in Germany, according to the genealogy, Phelps caused a monument to be erected to John Phelps, one of the clerks of the court that tried Charles I, who with other regicides took refuge at Vevey in Switzerland.[^22]
Phelps died of consumption at his home near Englewood on June 17, 1894, in his fifty-fifth year. The Yale obituary states that he was survived by his wife, two sons who were Yale graduates of the classes of 1883 and 1886, and a daughter.[^23]
### Yale and the Sheffield Scientific School
The Yale obituary record states that Phelps was included in the original election of alumni trustees in 1872 and held the office until he declined renomination in 1892. The Corporation conferred the degree of Doctor of Laws on him in June 1890, after Rutgers had given him the same degree in October 1889. He had made liberal gifts to the Sheffield Scientific School, the medical and law schools and other university interests.[^23]
The Sheffield Scientific School was incorporated in February 1871 by Professors Brush, Gilman and Trowbridge and by [[John S. Beach]], William Walter Phelps and Charles J. Sheffield. The board of nine included the governor of Connecticut and the president of Yale.[^28] [[Daniel Coit Gilman]] is among the six incorporators.[^28] Sutton gives Beach the class of 1839, Gilman the class of 1852 and Phelps the class of 1860.[^29]
### Edward John Phelps
Edward John Phelps was born at [[Middlebury, Vermont]], in 1822, the son of Samuel Shether Phelps, who graduated from Yale in 1811, sat on the Supreme Court of Vermont from 1831 to 1838 and in the United States Senate from 1839 to 1851 and again from January 1853 to the close of that session, and died at Middlebury on March 25, 1855.[^30] The 1899 genealogy enters him as no. 7125, with a birth date of July 11, 1822, which an erratum corrects from the 6 April printed in the first volume.[^31] The memoir prefixed to his collected addresses states that the family descended from William Phelps, who emigrated in 1630 and founded Windsor, Connecticut; that he entered Middlebury College at fourteen and graduated in 1840, so that Yale conferred no first degree on him; that he attended a course of lectures at the New Haven law school; and that he studied law with [[Horatio Seymour]] and was admitted to the bar in 1843.[^32]
He delivered the address on Chief Justice Marshall before the American Bar Association at Saratoga on August 21, 1879.[^32] When President [[Grover Cleveland]] named him to London in 1885, the retiring minister, [[James Russell Lowell]], was quoted as saying that "none but a distinguished and agreeable" man "could have chosen to be President of the American Bar Association."[^33] The Office of the Historian records his appointment as envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the United Kingdom on March 23, 1885, the presentation of credentials on May 19, 1885, and his departure on January 31, 1889.[^34] The 1899 genealogy says that on his return he settled at New Haven and lectured on international law at Yale.[^31]
At Yale he was made Kent Professor of Law in 1881, and the memoir gives the chair as his until his death at New Haven on March 9, 1900.[^35] A professorship of commercial law and contracts bearing his name was founded in the law department in 1887 by an anonymous donor, with an endowment of $25,000 recorded in the treasurer's list, and was assigned in 1888 to William K. Townsend.[^35] Under appointment by President [[Benjamin Harrison]] in 1893 he served as senior counsel for the United States before the [[Bering Sea Arbitration|Bering Sea tribunal]] at Paris, and the memoir quotes the tribunal's president as telling him that the argument blended "the deep science of the lawyer with literary refinement and diplomatic dignity."[^32]
The 1899 genealogy enters William Walter Phelps (no. 6131) and Edward John Phelps (no. 7125) in the same work, whose 1897 predecessor names William and George Phelps as the founders of the family in America in 1630.[^3][^31]
### The Order's Phelps members
Sutton's class list, which the book attributes to the Yale Catalogue as compiled by Kris Millegan, places members of the Order by year of graduation. The Phelps names in that list are as follows, each stated as the list gives it.[^36]
- 1860: William Walter Phelps.
- 1862: Henry Phelps Johnston and John Phelps Taylor.
- 1868: Anson Phelps Tinker.
- 1882: William Phelps Eno.
- 1886: Edward Johnson Phelps and Sheffield Phelps.
- 1895: Zira Bennett Phelps.
- 1896: Anson Phelps Stokes.
- 1909: Harold Phelps Stokes.
- 1916: Putnam, Phelps.
- 1918: Charles Phelps Taft.
- 1927: Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.
The 1886 entries can be set against other records. The Yale obituary states that the two sons of William Walter Phelps graduated in 1883 and 1886, and the genealogy names his sons John Jay Phelps and Sheffield Phelps.[^23][^37] A directory of fraternities published in 1899 names Sheffield Phelps among the graduates of Yale who were members of Skull and Bones.[^38] Sutton's list places Sheffield Phelps in the class of 1886. The list gives Edward Johnson Phelps in the same class; the Edward John Phelps of the genealogy (no. 7125) is the Vermont-born lawyer and diplomat whose children are Charles P. Phelps of Detroit and Mary, Mrs. Loomis.[^31] The 1896 Anson Phelps Stokes is Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., the Yale secretary, whose class history records "D. K. E. Bones."[^39][^18] The 1909 Harold Phelps Stokes corresponds to the younger brother whom that class history places in the class of 1909, and the 1927 Anson Phelps Stokes Jr. to the son recorded there as Anson Phelps Stokes 3d, born at New Haven on January 11, 1905.[^18] The Dodge names in the list are Francis Talmage Dodge (1904), Philip Lyndon Dodge (1907) and Washington Dodge (1929), and Sutton's text places Philip Lyndon Dodge among the members of the Order at 120 Broadway.[^40] Sutton also wrote that the membership lists are heavily laced with Dodge, Whitney, Phelps, Perkins, Norton and Putnam names used as middle names.[^41]
Sutton's class list and chart place William Walter Phelps in the Order in the class of 1860, and the 1899 fraternity directory names him among the Yale graduates who were members of Skull and Bones.[^36][^38]
### The Russell Trust, Wolf's Head and the Phelps Association
The Order was incorporated as the Russell Trust Association by a Connecticut act of 1856. The act names [[William Huntington Russell]], John S. Beach, [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel Coit Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] as the body corporate. It capped the association's real and personal estate at fifteen thousand dollars and fixed its first meeting at New Haven for the last Wednesday of July 1856.[^42] Sutton's book dates the incorporation to 1856 under the name The Russell Trust.[^43]
In a 1984 newsletter Sutton identified the three senior societies at Yale as Skull and Bones (Russell Trust), Scroll and Key (Kingsley Trust) and Wolf's Head, which he gave as the Phelps Trust.[^44] Printed sources of the 1890s give the same names. Rupert Hughes, writing on the secret societies at Yale in Munsey's Magazine for June 1894, stated that Bones was incorporated as the Russell Trust Association, Keys as the Kingsley Trust Association and Wolf's Head as the Phelps Trust Association, each with a graduate organization that was "quite an expensive luxury."[^45] A. C. Stevens's Cyclopaedia of Fraternities (1899) states that Wolf's Head "was founded at Yale by a number of members of the class of '84," and that it "is incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association."[^38] Charles Pierson's history of Yale College lists the incorporated bodies of the senior societies with their dates, among them the Kingsley Trust Association (Scroll and Key), 1860, and the Phelps Trust Association (Wolf's Head), 1886.[^46]
John Williams Andrews's history of the society, The Founding of Wolf's Head, issued by the Phelps Association in 1934 and reprinted in Kris Millegan's 2003 compilation, places the founding in June 1883, "entirely unknown to the College or the world-at-large," and says that the society "was to be called later Wolf's Head and 'The Phelps Association.'"[^47] Welch and Camp's volume on Yale of 1899 dates the three societies to 1832, 1842 and 1883.[^48] The society's hall on Prospect Street, in Richardsonian Romanesque, was designed by McKim, Mead & White in 1884 to 1885 for the Phelps Association; Yale's building history gives the property as later purchased by the University, and a later Wolf's Head building on York Street was designed by Bertram Goodhue in 1924.[^49]
Yale's own records carry the Phelps name in other places in the same years. The treasurer's lists reprinted in 1899 record a bequest of $50,000 from William Walter Phelps for the erection of Phelps Hall, with $20,000 more from his family, and the chronology of the university records the erection of the Phelps Memorial Gateway in 1895. The Classical Club of the university had its headquarters in the principal room of Phelps Hall.[^25] The Phelps barge races and the Phelps flag of 1871 are recorded by Bagg.[^24]
The same 1984 newsletter quotes the catalog of the Elihu society, founded in 1903, for the entry "Anson Phelps Stokes" as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding.[^44] The Yale class history of 1896 records Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., Secretary of the University, as a member of Bones.[^18]
### The Phelps-Stokes Fund
Caroline Phelps Stokes left her residuary estate in trust under the seventeenth clause of her will. The trust was to be known as the Phelps-Stokes Fund, and its income was to be used for tenement dwellings for poor families in New York City and for education, in Africa and the United States, of Black students, North American Indians and needy white students.[^50] The trustees named in the will were the Protestant Episcopal bishop of New York, the chancellor of the University of the City of New York, the Reverend Lyman Abbott, Olivia Egleston Phelps Stokes, I. Newton Phelps Stokes, Helen Olivia Phelps Stokes, Francis Louis Slade, Mabel Slade, Caroline M. Phelps Stokes, [[Grace H. Dodge]] and [[Arthur Curtiss James]].[^50]
The trustees first met on April 28, 1910, at the New York residence of Anson Phelps Stokes, the meeting having been called by him and by Olivia E. P. Stokes. Bishop Greer was elected temporary chairman and Francis Louis Slade temporary secretary.[^50] The report's list of trustees for 1910 to 1920 includes [[Henry Sloane Coffin]], printed there as Henry Sloan Coffin and listed from 1916, along with Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Charles Sumner Burch, John Sherman Hoyt and Edward W. Sheldon.[^50] The report's biographical sketch of Caroline Phelps Stokes records that she gave Ansonia, Connecticut, a public library in memory of her grandfather, Anson G. Phelps, founder of the town, and of her parents.[^50]
The trustees were authorized on the fund's incorporation under the laws of New York in 1911 to use its means for "research" and "publication." In November 1919 they voted to support a study of education in Africa, undertaken after the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society proposed a commission and the Committee of Reference and Counsel of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America asked that Thomas Jesse Jones, whom the report calls the educational director of the fund, serve as its chairman.[^51] The commission included Jones and James Emman Kwegyir Aggrey of the Gold Coast, and its report, Education in Africa (1922), covered West, South and Equatorial Africa. The report states that the fund's most important work to that date had been the two-volume federal study Negro Education, prepared under Jones's direction and published by the Bureau of Education in 1917.[^51]
### The Copper Queen and the Bisbee deportation
The [[Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Company]] at [[Bisbee, Arizona]], Arizona Territory, is described in the Copper Manual of 1897 as in operation since 1880, as "operated and controlled by the eminent and well-known firm of Phelps, Dodge & Co.," as the leading copper producer of the Territory, and as headed by J. Douglas as president, with a 1896 product of 23,298,150 pounds of fine copper.[^52]
A strike was called in the Warren district, which contains the Copper Queen and the Calumet and Arizona mines, on June 26, 1917. On July 12 the sheriff of [[Cochise County, Arizona|Cochise County]], [[Harry Wheeler]], and a body of about two thousand armed men acting as his deputies rounded up 1,186 men in the district, put them aboard a train and carried them to [[Columbus, New Mexico]], where the authorities refused to receive them. They were taken on to Hermanas, left there for two days without adequate food, water or shelter, and on July 14 escorted by troops to Columbus.[^53] The [[President's Mediation Commission]], named by President Wilson, reported on the deportation in a text reproduced in the Mining Congress Journal for December 1917. Its seventh finding reads that the deportation "was formally decided upon at a meeting of citizens on the night of July 11, participated in by the managers and other officials of the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Company (Phelps-Dodge Corporation, Copper Queen Division), and the Calumet and Arizona Mining Company," and that those who planned it "purposely abstained from consulting" the United States attorney in Arizona, the law officers of the state or county, or their own legal advisers. The eighth finding states that the leaders used the local offices of the Bell Telephone Company and exercised or attempted to exercise a censorship over parts of the interstate telephone and telegraph lines. The eleventh finding reads: "The deportation was wholly illegal and without authority in law either State or Federal."[^53]
Histories of the event name [[Walter Douglas]], the son of [[James Douglas]]. [[James Byrkit]]'s study of the Arizona labor war carries his portrait among those of the principals, and Truett writes that Phelps Dodge president Walter Douglas, with company detectives, joined Wheeler, who deputized the force.[^54] The same December 1917 issue of the Mining Congress Journal prints the list of presidents of the American Mining Congress, in which Walter Douglas appears for the years 1917 to 1918.[^53]
Twenty-five participants were indicted in federal court for conspiring, under section 19 of the Criminal Code, to injure and intimidate 221 named persons in their right to reside in Arizona and to be free from deportation. A judgment quashing the indictment was affirmed by the Supreme Court on December 13, 1920, in United States v. Wheeler, with Chief Justice White writing that the right asserted was secured against state action only and not against private persons; Justice Clarke dissented. [[Charles Evans Hughes]] appeared for the defendants.[^55]
### Cleveland H. Dodge
Cleveland Hoadley Dodge, grandson of William Earl Dodge and an heir to an interest in Phelps Dodge, was a member of the [[Princeton University]] class of 1879 with Wilson. Robert L. Daniel's study of the friendship states that as an alumni trustee of Princeton he joined other trustees in 1896 in raising a private fund to supplement Wilson's salary, and that in 1902 Dodge and two other members of the class of 1879 notified Wilson of his election as the university's first lay president.[^56] Grabill's study of missionary influence on American policy calls him vice-president of the Phelps Dodge Corporation.[^57]
Daniel states that because Phelps Dodge owned mining properties in northern Mexico, Dodge was well informed on conditions there and that Wilson relied on him for advice during the first months of the administration. Dodge forwarded reports from Judge Haff, an attorney for the Southern Pacific Railroad and spokesman for Phelps Dodge, and Daniel writes that "largely on Dodge's recommendation" Wilson in May 1913 agreed to recognize the regime of [[Victoriano Huerta]] on condition of free elections, then turned with Dodge to [[Venustiano Carranza]] within a month. In 1913 Phelps Dodge officials were accused of making two shipments of ammunition to Mexico in violation of the arms embargo, and both charges were dropped when the United States attorney could not prove that any ammunition crossed the border. Daniel adds that a subsidiary of Phelps Dodge later sold a million rounds to the Carranza government after the State Department lifted the embargo, and that in the 1916 campaign pamphleteers and the Illinois congressman William A. Rodenberg named Dodge as the architect of Wilson's Mexican policy.[^56]
In September 1915 the Armenian relief committee was organized in Dodge's board room. James L. Barton's history of Near East Relief states that Barton wrote to Dodge on September 14, 1915 proposing a conference in Dodge's office, that Dodge was a member of the executive committee from the first and treasurer from July 18, 1917 to his death on June 24, 1926, and that he was "the personal friend of President Woodrow Wilson" and chairman of the board of trustees of [[Robert College]].[^58] Daniel writes that Dodge served as treasurer of the organization and as the link between the committee and the Wilson administration, and that through Dodge the committee obtained access to State Department files and a presidential proclamation.[^56] The act of Congress of August 6, 1919 incorporating Near East Relief names as its first trustees [[James L. Barton]], Cleveland H. Dodge, [[Henry Morgenthau]], [[Charles R. Crane]], [[William Howard Taft]], Hughes, [[Elihu Root]], Cleveland E. Dodge, Arthur Curtiss James and others.[^58] Barton lists [[Edward S. Harkness]], James and Cleveland H. Dodge at the head of the generous supporters, and names [[Thomas Jesse Jones]] of the Phelps-Stokes Fund among those who counseled the field staff of the Near East survey.[^58]
### Anson Phelps Stokes, Secretary of Yale
Anson Phelps Stokes Jr. was born on April 13, 1874, and graduated from Yale in 1896. The class history of 1896 records that he was Class Deacon, chairman of the Yale News, winner of the DeForest Prize Medal, a member of Phi Beta Kappa, of Delta Kappa Epsilon and of Bones, and that he spent a year traveling around the world, took a divinity degree at the Episcopal Theological Seminary at Cambridge in 1900, was ordained deacon by Bishop Potter, and was elected Secretary of Yale University in the spring of 1899, entering on the duties on completing his divinity course.[^18] The same record states that he declined the presidency of Trinity College and the headmastership of St. Paul's School, was a founder of the Yale Foreign Missionary Society, and sat on the boards of the New Haven Y.M.C.A., the New Haven Hospital, the Wellesley College trustees and others; that the Hillhouse property was bought by a committee of Gifford Pinchot, Lewis S. Welch and himself; and that he married Carol Green Mitchell at Bernardsville, New Jersey, on December 30, 1903.[^18] Sutton lists him as Secretary of Yale from 1899 to 1921.[^39]
Woodbridge Hall at Yale was given by his aunts Olivia and Caroline Phelps Stokes, who also gave a chapel to Berea College in 1907 and St. Paul's Chapel to Columbia University.[^17] In the Phelps-Stokes Fund's African education report of 1922 the introduction is signed by Dr. Anson Phelps Stokes.[^51]
### The Vermont line and the Tafts
[[Alphonso Taft]] married Fanny Phelps on August 29, 1841. She was the daughter of Judge Charles Phelps of Townshend, Vermont, and she died on June 2, 1852.[^59] Their sons included [[Peter Rawson Taft]], of the class of 1867, and [[Charles Phelps Taft]], of the class of 1864.[^36][^60] Sutton's class list gives Charles Phelps Taft of the class of 1918 as a member of the Order.[^61]
The Yale obituary records for William Howard Taft and for Charles Phelps Taft name a Charles Phelps Taft, 2d, of the class of 1918, as a son of William Howard Taft and as a nephew of the elder Charles Phelps Taft.[^60]
### Phelps Dodge in later corporate lists
The proxy statement of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]] for its annual meeting of April 12, 2000 lists Phelps Dodge among the organizations whose officers sat on the board of directors of J.P. Morgan and Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York and with which J.P. Morgan had transactions in the ordinary course.[^62]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One" on p. 19 and the old-line family list, "PHELPS FAMILY (1630, Dorchester, Mass.)". https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^2]: Oliver Seymour Phelps and Andrew T. Servin, *The Phelps Family of America and Their English Ancestors*, 2 vols. (Pittsfield, Mass.: Eagle Publishing Company, 1899), vol. 1 and vol. 2, English ancestry and American descendants. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel
[^3]: *Genealogy and a Short Historical Narrative of One Branch of the Family of George Phelps since the Founding of the Family in America by William and George Phelps in 1630* (1897), account of the landing at Dorchester on the ship Mary and John. https://archive.org/details/genealogyandshor1897phel
[^4]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Anson Greene Phelps (no. 819), including the Simsbury guardianship, the Hartford saddle business, the Phelps Block, Phelps, Peck & Co. (1812), the dissolution about 1828, the organization of Phelps, Dodge & Co., and his death in November 1853. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel
[^5]: Robert Glass Cleland, *A History of Phelps Dodge, 1834-1950* (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952), title and dates. https://archive.org/details/historyofphelpsd0000robe
[^6]: *Copper Manual: Copper Mines, Copper Statistics, Copper Shares* (1897), passages on Anson G. Phelps, "founder of the house of Phelps, Dodge & Company," the brass mill built at Wolcottville in 1834, and the copper-rolling mill at Birmingham, Connecticut. https://archive.org/details/coppermanualcop01cogoog
[^7]: Anson Phelps Stokes, *Stokes Records: Notes Regarding the Ancestry and Lives of Anson Phelps Stokes and Helen Louisa (Phelps) Stokes* (New York, 1910), vol. 1, entries for 1837 (the assignment of Phelps, Dodge & Co. to James Stokes and Mr. Porter), 1855 (entry into the firm's office), and 1861 ("In January, 1861, I became a partner in Phelps, Dodge & Co. and Phelps, James & Co."). https://archive.org/details/stokesrecordsnot12instok
[^8]: Stokes, *Stokes Records*, vol. 1, entry for December 31, 1878, on the expiry of the partnership of Phelps, Dodge & Co. and the formation of the new partnership of William E. Dodge Jr., D. Willis James, Joseph Van Vleck and James McLean. https://archive.org/details/stokesrecordsnot12instok
[^9]: Phelps Dodge Corporation, Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2006, filed February 27, 2007 (accession 0000950153-07-000431), Item 1, stating incorporation in New York in 1885. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/78066/000095015307000431/p73493e10vk.htm
[^10]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Melissa Phelps (no. 1467) and the entry for Hon. William Earl Dodge with his children, including the marriage of June 24, 1828, the junior partnership in Phelps, Dodge & Co., the Thirty-ninth Congress and the presidency of the Chamber of Commerce. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel
[^11]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Elizabeth Woodbridge Phelps (no. 1466) and her children by Daniel James (nos. 2392 to 2395). https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel
[^12]: *Congress and Phelps, Dodge & Co.: An Extraordinary History; or, An Abstract of So Much of the Proceedings and Investigations of the 43d Congress (1st Session) in Relation to "Moieties and Customs Revenue Laws"* (1875), p. 28, testimony of W. E. Dodge before the Committee of Ways and Means on Daniel James and on the December 1872 dispatch. https://archive.org/details/congressphelpsdo00wellrich
[^13]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entries for Ella Ada Phelps (no. 9930), with her marriage to Rev. David Stuart Dodge on June 20, 1860, and Ellen Ada Phelps Dodge (no. 9932), with her marriage to Anson Greene Phelps Dodge Jr. on June 5, 1880, in London. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel
[^14]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Caroline Phelps (no. 1469) and the entry for James Boulter Stokes with his children (nos. 2405 to 2417), including Anson Phelps (Stokes), born February 22, 1838, who married Helen Louise Phelps on October 17, 1865; the partnerships in Phelps, Dodge & Co., Phelps, James & Co. and Phelps, Stokes & Co.; the Ansonia companies. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel
[^15]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Isaac Newton Phelps (no. 617), the banking partner at 45 Wall Street, with his children by his first wife, including Helen Louisa Phelps (no. 1115); and Stokes, *Stokes Records*, vol. 1, on I. N. Phelps and the firm of I. N. and J. J. Phelps. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel
[^16]: *Educational Adaptations: Report of Ten Years' Work of the Phelps-Stokes Fund, 1910 to 1920* (New York: Phelps-Stokes Fund, 1920), "Biographical Sketch of Caroline Phelps Stokes," on her birth at Clifton Cottage on December 4, 1854, and on the founding of the fund by her will. https://archive.org/details/educationaladapt00phel
[^17]: Stokes, *Stokes Records*, vol. 1, on Isaac Newton Phelps ("From 1834 to 1848 he was a partner in the large hardware house of Sheldon, Phelps & Co.," afterward with "John J. Phelps, a distant cousin (father of Hon. William Walter Phelps)," the firm of I. N. and J. J. Phelps, and Phelps, Stokes & Co.), and on the gifts of Olivia and Caroline Phelps Stokes (Berea College chapel, 1907; Woodbridge Hall to Yale; St. Paul's Chapel to Columbia). https://archive.org/details/stokesrecordsnot12instok
[^18]: *History of the Class of 1896, Yale College: Decennial Record* (New Haven, 1907), biography of "Rev. Anson Phelps Stokes, Jr., Secretary of Yale University," pp. 588 to 590 (born April 13, 1874; parents; "Phi Beta Kappa. He Boule. D. K. E. Bones."; election as Secretary in spring 1899; the Hillhouse property committee; marriage December 30, 1903; son Anson Phelps Stokes 3d born January 11, 1905; a younger brother in the class of 1909); and the class-dinner narrative of the announcement that "Stokes, our Anson, was to succeed Professor Dexter as Secretary of the University." https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich
[^19]: *Congress and Phelps, Dodge & Co.* (1875), title page and index, including entries for George S. Boutwell (advice in the case of Phelps, Dodge & Co.), James B. Beck, W. E. Dodge and Daniel James. https://archive.org/details/congressphelpsdo00wellrich
[^20]: *Chester A. Arthur, Collector of the Port of New York, Plaintiff in Error, v. William E. Dodge, Daniel James, James Stokes, William E. Dodge, Jr., D. Willis James, Anson P. Stokes, Charles C. Dodge, and Thomas Stokes, as Phelps, Dodge & Co.*, No. 206, Supreme Court of the United States (filed October 2, 1877), record including the complaint filed in the Superior Court of the City of New York in December 1874 and the duties at 15 percent ad valorem. https://archive.org/details/per_scotus_1879_206
[^21]: Stokes, *Stokes Records*, vol. 1, entries under 1874: "February 2, Moiety report published by Chamber of Commerce. May 2, ordered printed by Congress." https://archive.org/details/stokesrecordsnot12instok
[^22]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Hon. Wm. Walter Phelps, covering his service in Congress, the New Orleans committee, the declined assistant secretaryship, the Samoan commission, the Smithsonian regency, the monument to John Phelps, his resignation at Vienna on Arthur's succession, and the wedding date of January 26, 1860 with the statement that he married on the day of his graduation. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel
[^23]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1893-1894* (New Haven: Yale University, 1894), pp. 238 to 239, entry for William Walter Phelps (Yale entry and class, marriage on Commencement Day, July 26, 1860, Columbia Law School 1863, the father's death in May 1869, the 43d Congress, the Austrian and German missions, the alumni trusteeship from 1872 to 1892, the LL.D. of June 1890, and his death on June 17, 1894). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1893-94.pdf
[^24]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), pp. 359 to 360 (the Phelps Barge Races and the second race for the Phelps flag on June 7, 1871), and the passages on gifts to the college (a fund of $50,000 given by William Phelps, with income under his son William W. Phelps of '60) and on the boating program (Phelps pledged $250 a year for five years in 1870, with Charles H. Owen responsible for the arrangement). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^25]: Welch and Camp, *Yale: Her Campus, Class-Rooms, and Athletics* (1899), treasurer's lists of gifts ("For erection of Phelps Hall, from bequest of Hon. William Walter Phelps $50,000.00; by his family $20,000.00"; "For University Library, by Hon. William Walter Phelps (the income of the Phelps legacy) $3,000.00"; "from income of legacy of John J. Phelps $1,383.33"), the chronology entry "1895. Phelps Memorial Gateway erected," and the passage on the Classical Club in "the principal room of Phelps Hall." https://archive.org/details/yalehercampuscla00welc
[^26]: Joshua L. Chamberlain (ed.), *Universities and Their Sons* (Boston: R. Herndon, 1898), vol. 1, history of Yale University, section on the Library. https://archive.org/details/universitiesthei01cham
[^27]: Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, "William Walter Phelps," Department History, People (Austria-Hungary: appointed May 5, 1881, credentials June 20, 1881, superseded June 30, 1882; Germany: appointed June 20, 1889, credentials September 26, 1889, recall presented June 4, 1893). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/phelps-william-walter
[^28]: Fabian Franklin, *The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman* (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1910), pp. 94 to 95, on the incorporation of the Sheffield Scientific School in February 1871 by Professors Brush, Gilman and Trowbridge and Messrs. John S. Beach, William Walter Phelps and Charles J. Sheffield. https://archive.org/details/lifeofdanielcoit00fran
[^29]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Sheffield Scientific School trustees, "John S. Beach (The Order, '39)," "William W. Phelps (The Order, '60)" and "Daniel Coit Gilman (The Order, '52)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^30]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 1, no. 3609, Hon. Samuel Shether Phelps, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, May 13, 1793, "graduated at Yale in the Class of 1811," judge of the Supreme Court of Vermont 1831 to 1838, member of the United States Senate 1839 to 1851 and from January 1853 to the close of the session, died at Middlebury March 25, 1855, with his children including Edward John (no. 7125). https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam01phel
[^31]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, no. 7125, Hon. Edward John Phelps, born at Middlebury, Vermont, "11 July, 1822," married Mary S. Haight, settled at Burlington, appointed by President Cleveland Minister to the Court of St. James, and afterward "lectures on international law in Yale University"; the correction "No. 7125 b. July 11 instead of 6 April" in the errata for p. 692; and no. 6131, Hon. Wm. Walter Phelps. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel
[^32]: John W. Stewart, memoir in J. G. McCullough (ed.), *Orations and Essays of Edward John Phelps, Diplomat and Statesman* (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1901), pp. vii to xi (descent from William Phelps of Windsor; entry to Middlebury College at fourteen and graduation in 1840; the New Haven lectures; admission to the bar in 1843; the Bering Sea argument and the tribunal president's remarks; the American Bar Association address at Saratoga in 1879; the appointment to London in 1885), and the address "Chief Justice Marshall and the Constitutional Law of His Time," delivered at Saratoga, New York, August 21, 1879, before the American Bar Association. https://archive.org/details/orationsessaysof00phel
[^33]: *The Phrenological Journal and Science of Health*, vol. 80, no. 6 (June 1885), article on Edward J. Phelps, minister to England, quoting the retiring minister James Russell Lowell: "None but a distinguished and agreeable could have chosen to be President of the American Bar Association." https://archive.org/details/sim_phrenological-journal-and-science-of-health_1885-06_80_6
[^34]: Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, "Edward John Phelps (1822-1900)," Department History, People (Vermont; Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, United Kingdom; appointed March 23, 1885; credentials presented May 19, 1885; left post January 31, 1889). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/phelps-edward-john
[^35]: Stewart memoir, *Orations and Essays of Edward John Phelps* (1901), on his lectures "at Yale as Kent professor of law from 1881 to the date of his death, at New Haven, March 9, 1900"; and Lewis Sheldon Welch and Walter Camp, *Yale: Her Campus, Class-Rooms, and Athletics* (Boston: L. C. Page, 1899), chronology entries "1881. Hon. E. J. Phelps made Kent Professor of Law," "1887. Edward J. Phelps professorship founded" and "1888. The Edward J. Phelps professorship assigned to Wm. K. Townsend," and the treasurer's list entry "Edward J. Phelps Professorship of Commercial Law and Contracts in the Law Department, by an anonymous donor, $25,000.00." https://archive.org/details/yalehercampuscla00welc
[^36]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), class-by-class list of members of the Order, "This section compiled by Kris Millegan" from the Yale Catalogue, entries for classes 1860, 1862, 1867, 1868, 1882, 1886, 1895, 1896, 1909, 1916, 1918 and 1927. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^37]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Hon. Wm. Walter Phelps, with the children John Jay Phelps (no. 9937), Sheffield Phelps (no. 9938) and Marion Phelps (no. 9939). https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel
[^38]: A. C. Stevens, *The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities* (1899), entry on Yale senior societies, listing "Sheffield Phelps" and "William Walter Phelps" among graduates who are "Bones" men, and stating that Wolf's Head "was founded at Yale by a number of members of the class of '84" and "is incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association"; the passage is reprinted in Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003). https://archive.org/details/StevensACTheCyclopaediaOfFraternities1899
[^39]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), list of Yale officials and members of the Order, entry "STOKES, Anson P. 1896 Secretary of Yale (1899-1921)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), class lists (Dodge, Francis Talmage, 1904; Dodge, Philip Lyndon, 1907; Dodge, Washington, 1929; Stokes, Horace Sheldon, 1889; Stokes, Harold Phelps, 1909) and the list of "Individual Members of the Order at 120 Broadway," including Philip Lyndon Dodge ('07). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section on genetic problems, stating that the membership lists are heavily laced with Dodge, Whitney, Phelps, Perkins, Norton and Putnam used as middle (maternal) names. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^42]: "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856), certified copy from the Connecticut Secretary of the State dated March 28, 2001, as reprinted in Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," pp. 693 to 694. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), text stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^44]: Antony C. Sutton, "The Yale Senior Society Program," *Phoenix Letter*, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6, on Skull & Bones (Russell Trust), Scroll & Key (Kingsley Trust), Wolfs Head (Phelps Trust), and the Elihu catalog entry for Anson Phelps Stokes. https://archive.org/details/sutton-antony-c.-the-yale-senior-society-program-phoenix-letter-vol.-3-no.-8-oct.-1984-pp.-1-6
[^45]: Rupert Hughes, "Secret Societies at Yale," *Munsey's Magazine*, vol. 11, no. 3 (June 1894). https://archive.org/details/sim_munseys-magazine_1894-06_11_3
[^46]: George W. Pierson, *Yale College: An Educational History, 1871-1921* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), list of senior-society trust associations with dates: "Trust Association (Scroll and Key), 1860; Phelps Trust Association (Wolf's Head), 1886." https://archive.org/details/yalecollegeeduca0000pier
[^47]: John Williams Andrews, *The Founding of Wolf's Head* (New Haven: The Phelps Association, 1934), pp. 17 to 67, reprinted in Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 485 to 508 (the passage at p. 506: "In June of 1883, eight months before, entirely unknown to the College or the world-at-large, a third senior society had been successfully founded"). https://archive.org/details/MilleganFleshingOutSkullBonesInvestigationsIntoAmericasMostPowerfulSecretSociety2003
[^48]: Welch and Camp, *Yale: Her Campus, Class-Rooms, and Athletics* (1899), "Skull and Bones was founded in 1832, Scroll and Key in 1842, and Wolfs Head in 1883," with the society homes on High, College and Prospect Streets. https://archive.org/details/yalehercampuscla00welc
[^49]: *Buildings and Grounds of Yale University* (New Haven: Yale University, 1979), entries "Phelps Association, see 77 Prospect Street; Wolf's Head" and the McKim, Mead & White building "in Richardsonian Romanesque for the Phelps Association (Wolfs Head Society). Purchased by the University"; *McKim, Mead & White, Architects* (1983), list of works, "Phelps Association (Wolf's Head), Yale University, 1884-85"; and Patrick Pinnell, *Yale University: Campus Guide* (1999), "Wolf's Head Society" and "Phelps Association," Bertram G. Goodhue, 1924. https://archive.org/details/buildingsgrounds0000yale
[^50]: *Educational Adaptations* (1920), "History of the Phelps-Stokes Fund," text of the seventeenth clause of the will of Caroline Phelps Stokes, "First Meeting of Trustees" (April 28, 1910, at the New York residence of Anson Phelps Stokes, with Bishop Greer temporary chairman and Francis Louis Slade temporary secretary), the list of trustees, and the biographical sketch on the Ansonia library. https://archive.org/details/educationaladapt00phel
[^51]: Thomas Jesse Jones, *Education in Africa: A Study of West, South, and Equatorial Africa by the African Education Commission under the Auspices of the Phelps-Stokes Fund and Foreign Mission Societies of North America and Europe* (New York: Phelps-Stokes Fund, 1922), introduction by Dr. Anson Phelps Stokes, "Origin of the Study" (the 1911 incorporation, the trustees' vote of November 1919, the proposal of the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society, the membership of the commission, the 1917 federal report *Negro Education*). https://archive.org/details/educationinafric00afriuoft
[^52]: *Copper Manual* (1897), account of the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Company ("in operation since 1880," "operated and controlled by the eminent and well-known firm of Phelps, Dodge & Co.," J. Douglas, president; 1896 product 23,298,150 pounds). https://archive.org/details/coppermanualcop01cogoog
[^53]: "Bisbee Deportations Condemned in Report," *The Mining Congress Journal*, vol. 3, no. 12 (December 1917), pp. 434 to 436, reproducing the report of the President's Mediation Commission, findings 1 to 14; and the same issue's list of presidents of the American Mining Congress ("Walter Douglas, President 1917-1918"). https://archive.org/details/sim_amc-journal_1917-12_3_12
[^54]: James W. Byrkit, *Forging the Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor-Management War of 1901-1921* (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982), list of illustrations ("Walter Douglas of Phelps Dodge Corporation") and chapter on the deportation; Samuel Truett, *Fugitive Landscapes: The Forgotten History of the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), on Phelps Dodge president Walter Douglas and Sheriff Harry Wheeler. https://archive.org/details/forgingcoppercol0000byrk
[^55]: *United States v. Wheeler*, 254 U.S. 281 (1920), argued April 28, decided December 13, 1920 (indictment under section 19 of the Criminal Code against 25 defendants for conspiring against 221 persons deported from Bisbee to New Mexico; counsel for defendants included Charles E. Hughes; judgment affirmed; Justice Clarke dissenting). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/254/281
[^56]: Robert L. Daniel, "The Friendship of Woodrow Wilson and Cleveland H. Dodge," *Mid-America: An Historical Review*, vol. 43, no. 3 (July 1961), pp. 183 to 191 (Phelps Dodge interest; Princeton class of 1879; the 1896 fund and the 1902 election; Judge Haff's Mexican reports; the Huerta recognition of May 1913; the 1913 ammunition accusations; the 1916 campaign; the Armenian relief committee). https://archive.org/details/sim_mid-america-an-historical-review_1961-07_43_3
[^57]: Joseph L. Grabill, *Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East: Missionary Influence on American Policy, 1810-1927* (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1971), on Cleveland H. Dodge, "vice-president of the Phelps Dodge Corporation." https://archive.org/details/protestantdiplom0000grab
[^58]: James L. Barton, *Story of Near East Relief (1915-1930)* (New York: Macmillan, 1930), caption on Cleveland H. Dodge ("in whose board room the Relief Committee was organized, September 16, 1915. A member of the Executive Committee from the first and Treasurer from July 18, 1917, to his death, June 24, 1926"), the letter of September 14, 1915, the passage calling him "the personal friend of President Woodrow Wilson," and the appendix text of "An Act To Incorporate Near East Relief," approved August 6, 1919. https://archive.org/details/storyofneareastr0001jame
[^59]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Academical Year ending in June, 1891* (New Haven: Yale University, 1891), entry for Alphonso Taft (married August 29, 1841, to Fanny, daughter of Charles Phelps of Townshend; she died June 2, 1852). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/
[^60]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930* (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entries for Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864 (mother Fanny (Phelps) Taft, daughter of Judge Charles Phelps, B.A. honorary, University of Vermont, 1812, and of Eliza (Houghton) Phelps, of Townshend, Vermont; nephews including Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18) and William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878 (children including Charles Phelps, 2d, B.A. 1918). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), class list, "Taft, Charles Phelps" in the class of 1918. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^62]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, definitive proxy statement (Schedule 14A) for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000, filed March 8, 2000, "Item 1: Election of directors," "Transactions with directors and officers." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/68100/0000891092-00-000171.txt

301
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Pillsbury family.md Normal file
View file

@ -0,0 +1,301 @@
---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
aliases:
- "Pillsbury family"
- "Pillsbury clan"
- "Pillsbury milling family"
- "Pillsbury flour family"
- "Pillsbury family of Minneapolis"
tags:
- Person
- Family
- Pillsbury
- FlourMilling
- Minneapolis
- MinnesotaSenate
- UniversityOfMinnesota
- PillsburyWashburn
- GrandMetropolitan
- Yale
- SkullAndBones
- AntonySutton
- WinstonLord
- Eisenhower
- UnitedNations
category: "Business & Finance"
summary: "Minneapolis flour-milling family that built the Pillsbury A Mill, sold its mills to a London syndicate in 1889, and produced a Minnesota governor, a state senator and the mother of diplomat Winston Lord."
location: "Minneapolis, Minnesota"
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[C. A. Pillsbury and Company]]"
start: 1871-01-01
role: "firm formed by Charles A. Pillsbury and his relatives; the A Mill nomination gives 1871, a 1898 genealogy gives 1872 for the partnership with George A. Pillsbury"
fn: 8
- type: head_of
with: "[[Governor of Minnesota]]"
start: 1876-01-07
role: "eighth governor; John S. Pillsbury"
fn: 11
- type: member_of
with: "[[Minnesota Senate]]"
start: 1879-01-01
end: 1886-12-31
role: "Charles A. Pillsbury, sessions 1879 to 1886 (Districts 26 and 29)"
fn: 7
- type: member_of
with: "[[Minnesota Senate]]"
start: 1971-01-01
end: 1982-12-31
role: "George Sturgis Pillsbury, Districts 33 and 42"
fn: 39
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1936-01-01
role: "Edmund Pennington Pillsbury, Yale class of 1936, per the class book; Sutton's index also lists John Sargent Pillsbury Jr. in the class of 1935"
fn: 37
- type: relative_of
with: "[[John S. Pillsbury]]"
role: "uncle of Charles A. Pillsbury"
fn: 3
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Mary Pillsbury Lord]]"
role: "daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and sister of Philip W. Pillsbury; mother of Winston Lord"
fn: 31
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Winston Lord]]"
role: "grandson of Charles Stinson Pillsbury through his mother, Mary Pillsbury Lord"
fn: 32
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Philip W. Pillsbury]]"
role: "president of Pillsbury Mills 1940 to 1952 and chairman of the board from 1952; Yale B.A. 1924"
fn: 30
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company]]"
start: 1889-10-29
end: 1908-08-08
role: "vendor family in the 1889 sale; Charles A. Pillsbury named managing director in the prospectus; 1908 receivership petition"
fn: 20
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Grand Metropolitan Public Ltd. v. Pillsbury Co.]]"
start: 1988-10-03
end: 1988-12-16
role: "George S. Pillsbury named among the director defendants"
fn: 35
---
The Pillsbury family is a New Hampshire and [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]] flour-milling family. Its firm, [[C. A. Pillsbury and Company]], built the [[Pillsbury A Mill|Pillsbury "A" Mill]] in 1881 and sold its milling properties to an English syndicate in 1889. The company went into receivership in 1908 and was acquired by [[Grand Metropolitan plc]] in 1989.[^1] [[Antony C. Sutton]] places the family among the new-wealth families in his chart of [[Skull and Bones]] membership.[^2]
### New Hampshire origins
The family traces its descent from William and Dorothy Pillsbury of [[Newbury, Massachusetts|Newbury]] through a branch at [[Sutton, New Hampshire|Sutton]].[^3] [[John S. Pillsbury]] was born in Sutton on July 29, 1827. His older brother [[George A. Pillsbury]] was born there on August 29, 1816.[^4][^5] George A. kept a country store at [[Warner, New Hampshire|Warner]], served as postmaster there from 1844 to 1849, and from November 1851 to July 1875 was purchasing agent for the [[Concord Railroad]].[^4] He was an alderman and then mayor of [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]] in 1876 and 1877, and he moved to Minneapolis in March 1878.[^4]
His son [[Charles A. Pillsbury]] was born at Warner. The birth date is December 3, 1842, in the 1898 genealogy and October 3, 1842, in the [[Minnesota Legislative Reference Library]] record.[^6][^7] He attended [[Dartmouth College]] and graduated in 1863.[^7] In 1866 he married Mary A. Stinson, and the couple had twin sons, John S. and Charles S.[^7]
### Hardware, the first mill, and the "A" Mill
John S. Pillsbury reached [[Minnesota]] in June 1855 and settled at St. Anthony, which is now part of Minneapolis. He opened a hardware business there with [[George F. Cross]] and his brother-in-law [[Woodbury Fisk]].[^5] A fire in 1857 caused a loss of about $38,000. The business was rebuilt and stayed in hardware until 1875, when John S. sold it to move into milling.[^5] On November 3, 1856 he had married Mahala Fisk, daughter of Captain John and Sarah (Goodhue) Fisk of Warner; their son Alfred F. Pillsbury was born on October 20, 1869.[^5]
Charles A. Pillsbury came to Minneapolis in 1869 and bought an interest in a small flour mill at the Falls. He studied the milling process closely, and the firm adopted the middlings purifier, a Minneapolis invention.[^6][^8] His purchase is dated to June 4, 1869, for $10,000, and the formation of C. A. Pillsbury and Company to 1871, when the "Alaska" mill was bought.[^8] The 1898 genealogy gives 1872 for the association of George A. Pillsbury with the business and says John S. had been interested from the start.[^6] [[Fred C. Pillsbury]], another nephew of John S., was admitted to the partnership in 1875.[^9]
The "A" Mill began operation on July 5, 1881, with a daily capacity of 4,000 barrels. A fire in December 1881 destroyed much of the older complex, and from July 1882 the West "A" ran alongside the East "A". The mill averaged about 17,500 barrels a day after 1905.[^8] The 1898 genealogy gives a capacity of 9,000 barrels a day at completion.[^10] At its completion the mill was the largest and most advanced flour mill in the world.[^8]
### Public office in Minnesota
John S. Pillsbury took office as the eighth governor of Minnesota on January 7, 1876.[^11] As a state senator he engineered the financial rescue of the [[University of Minnesota]] by streamlining its administration and retiring its debts. He is called the "Father of the University." He had completed no more than a common-school education before he became president of the university's board of regents.[^11] His administration coincided with the grasshopper invasions that followed the panic of 1873. The genealogy lists his directorships in the Minneapolis and St. Louis and the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie railroads, the First National, Union National and Commercial banks of Minneapolis, the Minneapolis Stock Yards and Packing Company and the Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company.[^5] John S. died on October 18, 1901.[^11] His son Alfred F. Pillsbury worked for the Pillsbury-Washburn company from July 1893 until his father's death, later became a director of the Pillsbury Flour Mills Company, and served as president of the [[Minneapolis Institute of Arts]].[^12]
Charles A. Pillsbury sat in the [[Minnesota Senate]] for the 1879 to 1886 sessions, first for District 26 and then for District 29.[^7] The 1898 genealogy instead places ten years of state senate service from January 1, 1877.[^6] George A. Pillsbury was elected mayor of Minneapolis in 1884 and served two years.[^4][^13]
Charles A. Pillsbury died of heart disease in Minneapolis on September 17, 1899.[^7]
### The 1889 sale to the English syndicate
In July 1889, financiers representing outside capital held an option on the C. A. Pillsbury and Company property, the Washburn mills, the East and West Side water powers and the Pillsbury elevator system, which together had a capacity of 22,000 barrels a day.[^14] In early October, [[Levy Mayer]], a Chicago lawyer, asserted that two English syndicates with combined capital of $50,000,000 had bought the Pillsbury and W. D. Washburn mills. Charles A. Pillsbury denied that any sale had been completed.[^15] A Minneapolis report of October 18 had carried a Financial Times item that the Pillsbury and Washburn mills were to be promoted as a company with capital of 2,000,000 pounds.[^16] A London report on October 25 said the deal had fallen through.[^17] By November 1 the sale of the C. A. Pillsbury and W. D. Washburn mills was described as an assured fact.[^18] On November 8 Charles A. Pillsbury was still awaiting details of the sale by steamer.[^19]
In November 1889 a London company offered shares to acquire Charles A. Pillsbury and Company; the [[Washburn Mill Company]], which owned the Palisade and Lincoln mills; the [[Minneapolis and Northern Elevator Company]]; the [[Minneapolis Mill Company]]; the [[St. Anthony Falls Water Power Company]]; and a majority of the shares of the [[Atlantic Elevator Company]].[^20] The share capital was 1,000,000 pounds, in 50,000 eight per cent preference shares and 50,000 ordinary shares of 10 pounds each, with six per cent debentures of 635,000 pounds. The purchase price was $6,250,000, of which 300,000 pounds was taken by the vendors in debentures, preference shares and ordinary shares. The shares were offered by [[Morton, Rose and Company]]. The English solicitors were [[Paine, Son and Pollock]], the bankers were [[Glyn, Mills, Currie and Company]], and the American solicitors were [[Cary and Whitridge]] of New York. The directors were [[Richard H. Glyn]], a director of the [[Bank of British North America]]; J. Flower Jackson; Sydney T. Klein of Wm. Klein and Sons; E. T. Rose; Charles A. Pillsbury as managing director; John S. Pillsbury; and [[William D. Washburn]].[^20]
To comply with Minnesota law, the properties would be conveyed to the Minneapolis Mill Company, which held a special territorial charter, and the new company would own all of its shares except five. Charles A. Pillsbury was to remain managing director for five years. John S. Pillsbury and William D. Washburn were to sit with him on the committee of management in America.[^20] Contracts dated October 29, 1889 were made between George Alfred, John Sargent, Charles Alfred and Frederick Carlton Pillsbury and the company; between William Drew Washburn, the Washburn Mill Company and the company; and between [[James J. Hill]], acting through [[George Stephen|Sir George Stephen]], and the company.[^20] A November 22 report said the Pillsbury east-side elevator and a large flour warehouse had been reserved from the sale.[^21]
On November 29 the *Weekly Northwestern Miller* reprinted London comment on the issue. A passage quoted from the *Chicago Tribune* of October 20 had said the Pillsburys desired to relinquish active business interests; the London commentator pointed to the prospectus clause keeping Charles A. Pillsbury as managing director for five years. The same comment objected that the agreements between the vendors and the promoters were not open for inspection, and noted that the director J. Flower Jackson was also a director of a London clearing bank. A later item in the same London journal reported that the public subscription was only 400,000 pounds, which left nearly 1,000,000 pounds of stock in the underwriters' hands.[^22]
The 1898 genealogy dates the sale to 1890. It says the syndicate also acquired the Washburn milling property and the water power of the Falls of St. Anthony, and it describes Charles A. Pillsbury as manager of the property and one of three American directors.[^23] The company was known as the [[Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company]].[^1] Fred C. Pillsbury kept an interest in the new company but was not active in its management.[^9]
### Receivership, 1907 and 1908
On August 8, 1908, stockholders of the [[Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Milling Company|Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Milling Company]] petitioned the federal court at Minneapolis for a receiver. A Minneapolis dispatch of that date, carried in Portland, ran under the headline "Pillsbury-Washburn Company Needs to Be Reorganized."[^24] The court named C. S. Pillsbury, son of the late Charles A. Pillsbury; [[A. C. Loring]], head of the [[North-Western Consolidated Milling Company]]; and A. C. Cobb, an attorney. The petitioners were the [[North Western National Bank]], the [[First National Bank of Minneapolis|First National Bank]], the [[Swedish-American National Bank]] and the [[Second National Bank of St. Paul]], together with J. S. Pillsbury. The company consented, and the proceeding was described as friendly.[^24]
A later secondary history dates the receivership to 1907, after a poor harvest. It names Charles S. Pillsbury, a son of Charles A., as one of three men appointed to reorganize the company, which then became the Pillsbury Flour Mills Company.[^1]
The accountants [[Marwick, Mitchell and Company]] reported on September 30, 1908 on the accounts as at August 8. They certified quick assets of $2,358,089.66 and general liabilities of $5,203,546.92, and noted that the Minneapolis and Northern Elevator Company appeared as maker or endorser on notes of $4,412,400 whose proceeds the Pillsbury-Washburn company had received. The debentures of 875,000 pounds carried a lien of about $4,335,000 on the mill and water power properties. The receivers were Albert C. Loring, Charles S. Pillsbury and Albert C. Cobb, with Henry F. Douglas as receiver for the elevator company. A tentative plan reported in the same issue of the trade paper would form a leasing company with a capitalization of about $3,000,000 to operate the mills, "with the Messrs. Pillsbury heavily interested."[^25]
On October 21 the trade paper printed the circular of a committee of British shareholders. [[Lord Avebury]] was its chairman, A. G. Pollock was among its members, and its counsel were the London firm Slaughter and May and the New York attorney [[Samuel Untermyer]]. The circular referred to "the admitted insolvency of the company, brought about by grave irregularities in the American management," and said the committee represented about two-thirds of the preference shares and about one-half of the ordinary shares held in Great Britain.[^26] An A. G. Pollock is named as secretary pro tem in the 1889 prospectus, and the solicitors were Paine, Son and Pollock.[^20] At a London meeting of debenture holders, the chairman [[George A. Touche]] stated that J. B. Niven had been appointed an additional receiver for British interests and that nearly $1,800,000 of the $5,203,546 of liabilities had been kept in a private ledger, omitted from the company's financial statements, in a practice that began about May 1905. John S. Pillsbury and Ralph Whelan attended for the American side. The company's solicitor, William Paine, objected that the chairman's account gave the English board too little credit.[^27]
At the annual meeting of November 26, 1908 at Winchester House, London, the chairman Richard H. Glyn, who had been a director in 1889, said, "The company has been brought to its present condition by a system of fraud carried on apparently for about three years." He said that the proceeds of some $1,800,000 of notes had gone into "a special and secret account with a bank in Minneapolis," that the notes were destroyed when paid, and that the manager, Mr. Little, had certified each year's accounts without them. He added that "undoubtedly a large amount has been lost in speculation in wheat" and spoke of "the conduct of certain of our own officials in whom we have hitherto placed trust and confidence." John S. Pillsbury and Ralph Whelan attended as the company's American representatives, and Paine explained the reorganization scheme.[^28] A cable of December 1 reported that the shareholders accepted the plan unanimously, and the longer account of the adjourned meeting records that the resolution passed with three dissentients.[^29][^28]
### The third generation
The twin sons of Charles A. Pillsbury were John Sargent Pillsbury and Charles Stinson Pillsbury, both born in Minneapolis on December 6, 1878.[^30][^31] John Sargent Pillsbury took a B.S. at the University of Minnesota in 1900 and entered the company that year. He was sales manager from 1906 to 1909, secretary-treasurer from 1909 to 1913, executive vice president from 1913 to 1932, chairman of the board from 1932 to 1952 and honorary chairman from 1952. His directorships included the [[Soo Line Railroad|Soo Line]] and [[Wisconsin Central Railroad|Wisconsin Central]] railroads, the [[Northwestern National Bank of Minneapolis|Northwestern National Bank]], [[Northwest Bancorporation]] and [[Munsingwear]]. He worked for the [[United States Food Administration|Food Administration]] in World War I and headed Treasury finance for Hennepin County in World War II. He married Eleanor J. Lawler of Mitchell, South Dakota, on December 5, 1911, and the couple had six children, John S. Jr., Edmund P., Ella S., Charles A., Jane L. and George S.[^30][^12] He was a trustee of the [[Pillsbury Settlement House]].[^12]
Charles Stinson Pillsbury was a vice president of the Pillsbury Flour Mills Company. On December 7, 1901 he married Helen Pendleton Winston, born October 16, 1878, a daughter of Philip Eickerton Winston and Katharine D. Stevens. He died at Rochester, Minnesota, on May 21, 1939. Their children were Philip Winston, Mary Stinson, Katharine Stevens and Helen Winston Pillsbury.[^31][^32]
### Philip W. Pillsbury
Philip Winston Pillsbury was born in Minneapolis on April 16, 1903, the son of Charles S. Pillsbury and Nelle (Pendleton) Pillsbury. He received a [[Yale University]] B.A. in 1924 and an honorary LL.D. from [[Grinnell College]] in 1948, belonged to [[Alpha Delta Phi]], and joined Pillsbury Mills in 1924. He was treasurer in 1940, president and director from 1940 to 1952 and chairman of the board from 1952.[^30][^32] He married Eleanor Bellows of Minneapolis on July 5, 1934.[^30][^31] The [[Newcomen Society in North America]] published his 28-page booklet *The Pioneering Pillsburys* in 1950.[^33] A national wheat-quality contest bore his name, and a Utah congressman inserted an editorial on two of its 1945 national winners in the *Congressional Record*.[^34] The 1958 directory lists him as a director of the First National Bank of Minneapolis, the [[Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Company]] of Chicago, [[Wayne Knitting Mills]] and the [[Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad]], a member of the Associates of [[Stanford Research Institute]], chairman of the [[Yale Corporation]] nomination committee, and president and director of the [[Minnesota Orchestral Association]].[^30]
His sister was [[Mary Pillsbury Lord]], and the genealogies list [[Winston Lord]] as her son.[^31][^32]
### The Grand Metropolitan takeover
Litigation over the takeover reached the [[Delaware Court of Chancery]] in 1988 in *[[Grand Metropolitan Public Ltd. v. Pillsbury Co.]]*, 558 A.2d 1049.[^35] Grand Metropolitan, an English company with 1987 sales of about $10.17 billion, and its subsidiary [[Wendell Investments Limited]] sued Pillsbury and its directors on October 3, 1988. Pillsbury owned the restaurant chains [[Burger King]], Bennigan's and Steak and Ale, and had adopted a Stockholder Rights Plan (the "poison pill") in January 1986 without stockholder approval.[^35] [[William H. Spoor]], then chairman, president and chief executive of Pillsbury, was quoted in June 1988 as saying, "If you want to see a hell of a cat and dog fight, just let someone make a move on us."[^35]
Pillsbury became aware of Grand Met's interest in May 1988. In the months before the bid it contacted state alcoholic beverage commissions about tied-house statutes, which restrict liquor manufacturers from owning retail outlets, and on the day the offer was announced it sued Grand Met in 14 jurisdictions.[^35] Grand Met began an all-cash tender offer for all Pillsbury common stock on October 4, 1988 at $60 a share. The opinion puts the aggregate value of the offer at about $5.5 billion, and the $63 price at about 60 percent above the roughly $39 closing price of September 30. The offer was raised to $63 on December 12, the day of oral argument. The letter delivered with the offer, from Grand Met's United States chief executive to Pillsbury chairman [[Philip L. Smith]], stated an intention to make Minneapolis the world headquarters of its International Food Group.[^35] The Pillsbury board voted on October 17 that the offer was inadequate and declined to redeem the rights. On November 6 it agreed to spin off Burger King to stockholders.[^35]
Justice Duffy, retired, sitting by assignment, wrote on December 16, 1988 that about 87 percent of the shares had been tendered, that the Pillsbury board's own plan placed the minimum value at $68 a share, and, as described at oral argument, that Grand Met had offered $65 a share in weekend negotiations. He granted preliminary injunctions against the Burger King spin-off and ordered Pillsbury to redeem the rights, conditioned on prompt settlement with tendering stockholders.[^35] The directors named as defendants in the caption included W. Michael Blumenthal, John H. Perkins, James W. McLamore, Smith, Spoor and a George S. Pillsbury. The name and middle initial are those of George Sturgis Pillsbury, the former state senator and grandson of Charles A. Pillsbury, who had been a company group vice president.[^35][^13] Among the tendering stockholders the opinion lists [[Bear Stearns]], which held 14,050,000 shares, the [[California Public Employees' Retirement System]] and Prudential-Bache Securities.[^35]
The company was acquired by Grand Metropolitan in 1989. In 2001 [[General Mills]] bought Pillsbury for $10.4 billion.[^1]
### Yale, Skull and Bones, and the Pillsbury cousins
Sutton's index of members of the Order by class year lists two Pillsburys: [[John Sargent Pillsbury Jr.]] in the class of 1935 and Edmund P. Pillsbury in the class of 1936.[^36]
The class book of 1936 describes [[Edmund P. Pillsbury]] (Edmund Pennington Pillsbury), born December 22, 1913, the son of John Sargent Pillsbury and Eleanor Jerusha (Lawler) Pillsbury. He prepared at the [[Blake School]] in Minneapolis and [[St. Paul's School]] in Concord, majored in economics, belonged to [[Davenport College]] and took part in hockey, crew, football and rugby. The entry states that he belonged to [[Chi Psi]], the [[Torch Honor Society]] and Skull and Bones, and that he expected to enter the employ of the Pillsbury Flour Mills Company. The same book names his brothers John S. Pillsbury Jr., '35, and Charles A. Pillsbury, '39.[^37] The class book lists among his fellow members of Skull and Bones [[Jonathan Brewster Bingham]], [[John Hersey]] and [[Robert Train]].[^38]
The 1958 directory records that John Sargent Pillsbury Jr., born October 28, 1912, received a Yale B.A. in 1935 and belonged to [[Psi Upsilon]]. He took an LL.B. at the University of Minnesota in 1940, was a partner of the Minneapolis law firm [[Faegre and Benson]] from 1945 to 1956, became president of the [[Northwestern National Life Insurance Company]] in 1956, and served on active duty in the U.S. Naval Reserve in World War II.[^30] He chaired the Orono school board and sat on the board of the Pillsbury Settlement House.[^30]
George Sturgis Pillsbury, a son of John Sargent Pillsbury, graduated early from Yale in December 1942.[^39][^13] He then enlisted in the [[United States Marine Corps]] and served in the Philippines as a first lieutenant during World War II.[^39] He worked for the Pillsbury Company for 24 years, rising to group vice president.[^13] He was elected to the Minnesota Senate in November 1970 and served from 1971 to 1982, first for District 33 and then for District 42.[^39] He took part in the gubernatorial campaigns of his older brother John Jr. and of his brother-in-law [[Wheelock Whitney]]. He died at his Wayzata home on October 13, 2012, at the age of 91.[^13]
[[Oswald Bates Lord]] appears in Sutton's index in the class of 1926, with the notation "Mary Pillsbury (of Pillsbury flour family)." Their son Winston Lord appears in the class of 1959.[^36] Sutton's chart labels the Lord family "1635, Cambridge, Mass." and his text places the Lords among the old-line families of the Order. The text gives the line from Thomas Lord, who left Essex in 1635 in a company led by Rev. Thomas Hooker and settled at what is now Hartford, and names George DeForest Lord (initiated 1854), who founded the New York law firm Lord, Day and Lord with his father Daniel Lord. Sutton's list of Lords in the Order runs 1854, 1898 (Franklin Atkins Lord), 1922 (William Galey Lord), 1926 (Oswald Bates Lord), 1949 (Charles Edwin Lord II) and 1959 (Winston Lord).[^40]
Sutton wrote that a future volume would trace the [[University of Chicago]], which [[Rockefeller family|Rockefeller]] funds had founded, "through [[Frederick Gates]] (of Hartford, Connecticut), and the Pillsbury family (The Order)."[^41]
### Mary Pillsbury Lord
Mary Stinson Pillsbury was born on November 14, 1904, a daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and Helen Pendleton Winston. On December 7, 1929 she married Oswald Bates Lord, born March 15, 1903, a son of Charles Edwin Lord and Lucie-Taylor (Weart) Lord of Tarrytown, New York.[^31][^32]
Mary Pillsbury Lord served as a United States representative to the [[United Nations Human Rights Commission]] from 1953 to 1961, as an alternate representative to the [[United Nations General Assembly]] from 1953 to 1959, and as a delegate to the General Assembly in 1958 and 1960. The Eisenhower Library finding aid describes her as active in the Eisenhower campaign.[^42] Her oral history, given to [[John T. Mason Jr.]] for the [[Columbia University]] Oral History Project in 1967, 1968 and 1969, runs to 429 pages. The topics of the first interview include her first meeting with Eisenhower, her service as assistant director of civil defense for New York, New Jersey and Delaware, the advisory committee for women in the army and the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services, a trip to Europe to visit the WACs, Bill Donovan ([[William J. Donovan]]), pre-convention work for Eisenhower's candidacy, Citizens for Eisenhower, [[UNICEF]], the United Nations covenants on human rights, [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and [[Marietta Tree]]. The third interview lists a trip behind the Iron Curtain in 1948 for the Army, [[Anna Pauker]], [[Planned Parenthood]], the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] and the [[Atlantic Institute]]; later interviews cover NATO parliamentarians, the Atlantic Treaty Association, and trips to Ethiopia and East Africa.[^42] In 1965 she sat on the panel of judges for the [[Federal Woman's Award]].[^43] With her husband she produced the memoir *Exit Backward, Bowing* (Macmillan, 1970).[^44]
### Winston Lord
Winston Lord, born in 1937, is the son of Oswald Bates Lord and Mary Pillsbury Lord and a grandson of Charles Stinson Pillsbury.[^45][^32] The *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on China lists him as a member of the Office of International Security Affairs in the Department of Defense until 1969, a member of the [[National Security Council]] Planning Group, and from 1971 the NSC staff member for United Nations affairs.[^46]
On April 17, 1971, Lord sent Kissinger a seven-page memorandum listing the major contacts between the United States and the People's Republic of China through Pakistan, Romania and other channels.[^47] On June 21, 1971, [[Henry A. Kissinger]], Winston Lord and the Pakistani ambassador [[Agha Hilaly]] met at the White House, where Hilaly handed over two notes in the exchange of messages that arranged Kissinger's trip to China.[^48] Lord was one of the four Americans in the party that met Premier [[Chou En-lai]] in Beijing on July 9, 1971 (Kissinger, [[John Holdridge]], Lord and [[Richard Smyser]]), and Lord, Holdridge and Smyser prepared the transcripts of that visit.[^49] On October 21, 1971, in Beijing, Kissinger told Chou En-lai that [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] agents "write long, incomprehensible reports" and added, "They are mostly from Yale and they don't have the people." Chou asked, "He is from Yale [pointing to Winston Lord]?" and Kissinger answered, "Does he look like a revolutionary?"[^50]
Lord was director of the Policy Planning Staff at the [[State Department]] from October 12, 1973 to January 20, 1977, ambassador to China from November 6, 1985 to April 23, 1989, and Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs from April 22, 1993 to February 18, 1997.[^45] Sutton's 1983 text describes Lord as chairman of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] and as a member of the Order, and its chart of the Lords carries the caption "Chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations (1983)."[^51][^40]
### Michael Pillsbury
[[Michael Pillsbury]] is described in the 1992 Senate report on [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] as a former assistant undersecretary of defense and Senate staff assistant. He had a personal and business relationship with [[Mohammed Hammoud]]. The report states that Pillsbury told subcommittee staff he had met Hammoud through a real estate developer in 1981 or 1982, and that Hammoud gave him intelligence on American hostages in Lebanon, which he passed to government agencies.[^52] A 1984 memorandum for the record in the CIA reading room describes a "Mike Pillsbury" as a professional staff member of the [[Senate Labor Committee]], for whom Senator [[Orrin Hatch]] asked that daily access to the National Intelligence Daily and to National Intelligence Estimates be provided.[^53] A January 26, 1987 *Washington Post* column on Michael Pillsbury describes a Stanford graduate with a Columbia doctorate in Chinese studies, a [[Rand Corporation]] analyst from 1973, the recipient of a 1976 letter from [[Ronald Reagan]] endorsing a military relationship with China, a Senate Budget Committee staff member from 1978, and a man fired from a Senate committee staff, passed over for a post early in the Reagan administration, and dismissed from the Defense Department.[^54]
The San Francisco law firm Pillsbury, Madison and Sutro, named in a federal court caption, carries the same surname.[^55]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Encyclopedia.com, entry "Pillsbury Company" (reference compilation drawn from business histories), sections on the 1889 sale, the 1907 receivership and reorganization, Philip W. Pillsbury's presidency in 1940, the 1989 acquisition by Grand Metropolitan and the 2001 purchase by General Mills. https://www.encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/pillsbury-company
[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," which carries the label "PILLSBURY FAMILY (Flour milling)" among the families of new wealth. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^3]: David B. Pilsbury and Emily A. Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family: Being a History of William and Dorothy Pillsbury (or Pilsbery) of Newbury in New England, and Their Descendants to the Eleventh Generation* (Everett, Mass.: Massachusetts Publishing Company, 1898), pp. 168 to 174. https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog
[^4]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 168 to 172, entry for George A. Pillsbury (birth, Warner store and postmastership, Concord Railroad post, Concord mayoralty, removal to Minneapolis in 1878, mayoralty of Minneapolis in 1884). https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog
[^5]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 172 to 177, entry for John S. Pillsbury (birth, marriage on November 3, 1856 to Mahala Fisk, children Susan, Sarah and Alfred F., June 1855 settlement at St. Anthony, hardware partnerships, 1857 fire, sale of the hardware business in 1875, election as governor, railroad, bank and milling directorships, presidency of the board of regents). https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog
[^6]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 239 to 241, entry for Charles A. Pillsbury (college and Montreal, 1869 purchase at the Falls, middlings purifier, 1872 association with his father, state senate service from January 1, 1877 for ten years, sale and manager's role). https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog
[^7]: Minnesota Legislative Reference Library, legislator record for Charles Alfred Pillsbury (birth, Dartmouth College graduation in 1863, spouse Mary A. Stinson, married September 12, 1866, twin sons John S. and Charles S., Senate sessions 1879 to 1886 in Districts 26 and 29, death on September 17, 1899, father George A. as Minneapolis mayor). https://www.lrl.mn.gov/legdb/fulldetail?id=14373
[^8]: National Register of Historic Places nomination form, Pillsbury "A" Mill, Minneapolis, Minnesota, prepared by Stephen Lissandrello, sections on history, specific dates and significance, bibliography. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/66000402_text
[^9]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 242 to 243, entry for Fred C. Pillsbury (born in Concord, admitted to the firm in 1875, interest retained in the 1889 combine, death in Minneapolis on May 15, 1892). https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog
[^10]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 240 to 241, on the "A" Mill at completion, with the 9,000 barrels a day figure. https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog
[^11]: Minnesota Legislative Reference Library, biography and summary of Governor John Pillsbury (assumed office January 7, 1876; eighth governor; state senator who restructured the University of Minnesota; "Father of the University"; president of the board of regents; died October 18, 1901). https://www.lrl.mn.gov/mngov/govbio?govid=31
[^12]: *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry: The International Business Who's Who*, Fifth International Edition (Marquis, 1947; copyright 1936, 1938, 1940, 1944, 1947), entries for Alfred Fiske Pillsbury and John Sargent Pillsbury (children John Sargent, Edmund Pennington, Ella Sturgis, Charles Alfred, Jane Lawler and George Sturgis). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.75608
[^13]: Neal St. Anthony, obituary of George Sturgis Pillsbury, *Star Tribune* (Minneapolis), October 14, 2012 (died October 13, 2012, at his Wayzata home, age 91; great-grandson of George A. Pillsbury, grandson of Charles A. Pillsbury, great-nephew of Gov. John S. Pillsbury; maternal great-grandfather Gen. Samuel Sturgis; graduated early from Yale in December 1942; Marine officer in the Pacific; group vice president of the Pillsbury Co. over 24 years; active in the gubernatorial campaigns of his older brother John Jr. and his brother-in-law Wheelock Whitney; brother Eddy deceased). Hosted by the Legislative Reference Library. https://www.lrl.mn.gov/LegDB/articles/10536STobit.pdf
[^14]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, July 12, 1889, Minneapolis and Rochester correspondence on the English syndicate's option and the properties included. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-07-12_28_2
[^15]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, October 4, 1889, report of Levy Mayer's statement and the denial attributed to C. A. Pillsbury. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-10-04_28_14
[^16]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, October 18, 1889, item quoting the Financial Times of London on the proposed 2,000,000 pounds company. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-10-18_28_16
[^17]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, October 25, 1889, report from London that the deal had fallen through. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-10-25_28_17
[^18]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, November 1, 1889, Minneapolis report that the sale of the C. A. Pillsbury and W. D. Washburn mills was an assured fact. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-11-01_28_18
[^19]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, November 8, 1889, report that C. A. Pillsbury awaited details of the sale by steamer. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-11-08_28_19
[^20]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, November 15, 1889, abridged prospectus of the London company: share capital of 1,000,000 pounds in 50,000 eight per cent preference shares and 50,000 ordinary shares of 10 pounds each, debentures of 635,000 pounds, properties, purchase price of $6,250,000 with 300,000 pounds taken by the vendors, offering by Morton, Rose and Company, directors Richard H. Glyn (Bank of British North America), J. Flower Jackson, Sydney T. Klein (Wm. Klein and Sons), E. T. Rose, Charles A. Pillsbury (managing director), John S. Pillsbury and W. D. Washburn, English solicitors Paine, Son and Pollock, bankers Glyn, Mills, Currie and Company, American solicitors Cary and Whitridge, Minnesota charter arrangement, managing director for five years, committee of management, and contracts dated October 29, 1889 (including the James J. Hill contract through Sir George Stephen). https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-11-15_28_20
[^21]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, November 22, 1889, report that the Pillsbury east-side elevator and the east-side flour warehouse were reserved from the sale. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-11-22_28_21
[^22]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, November 29, 1889, column of London press comment on the Pillsbury-Washburn prospectus, quoting the *Chicago Tribune* of October 20 and an unnamed London journal on the contract disclosures, the director J. Flower Jackson, and a public subscription of 400,000 pounds. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-11-29_28_22
[^23]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 240 to 241, account of the sale to an English syndicate, the Washburn property, the water power and Charles A. Pillsbury as manager and American director. The genealogy dates the sale to 1890; the 1889 prospectus and contracts give October 29 to November 15, 1889. https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog
[^24]: *The Morning Oregonian* (Portland), August 9, 1908, p. 3, "Receivers Take Big Flour Mills," dispatch from Minneapolis dated August 8, 1908 under the headline "Pillsbury-Washburn Company Needs to Be Reorganized." https://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn83045782/1908-08-09/ed-1/seq-3/
[^25]: *The Northwestern Miller* (Minneapolis), October 7, 1908, "Pillsbury Company: Plan for Reorganization, Auditors' Report, Receivers' Certificates Authorized": Marwick, Mitchell and Company statement of September 30, 1908 on the accounts as at August 8, 1908 (quick assets $2,358,089.66; general liabilities $5,203,546.92; notes of $4,412,400 made or endorsed by the Minneapolis and Northern Elevator Company; debentures of 875,000 pounds), the receivers' letter, the tentative leasing-company plan and the London directors Frank Spencer and George Cloutte. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1908-10-07_76_1
[^26]: *The Northwestern Miller*, October 21, 1908, "Pillsbury Company: Committee Invites Shareholders to Co-operate in Independent Action," reprinting the circular of the shareholders' committee (Lord Avebury, chairman; Sir William J. Crump; A. G. Pollock and others; counsel Slaughter and May and Samuel Untermyer). https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1908-10-21_76_3
[^27]: *The Northwestern Miller*, November 11, 1908, "Pillsbury Company: Debenture Holders Meet in London and Appoint a Committee," report of the meeting chaired by George A. Touche for the Trustees, Executors and Securities Insurance Corporation (attendance of John S. Pillsbury and Ralph Whelan; appointment of J. B. Niven as additional receiver; the private ledger of nearly $1,800,000 begun about May 1905; the solicitor William Paine's reply). https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1908-11-11_76_6
[^28]: *The Northwestern Miller*, December 16, 1908, "Pillsbury Company: Report of Proceedings in London at Meeting of Shareholders and Debenture Owners," account of the nineteenth annual general meeting of November 26 and the adjourned meeting of December 1, 1908 at Winchester House, with the chairman Richard H. Glyn's speech on the "secret ledger." https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1908-12-16_76_11
[^29]: *The Northwestern Miller*, December 9, 1908, cable of December 1 from London reporting that the shareholders of the Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Co., Ltd., unanimously accepted the plan of reorganization. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1908-12-09_76_10
[^30]: *Who's Who in Minnesota* (Seattle: Hugh L. White, 1958), Hennepin County section, pp. 196 to 197, entries for John Sargent Pillsbury, John Sargent Pillsbury Jr. and Philip Winston Pillsbury. https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinminneso00whit
[^31]: John McGill, *The Beverley Family of Virginia: Descendants of Major Robert Beverley, 1641-1687, and Allied Families* (Columbia, S.C.: R. L. Bryan Company, 1956), Winston line, p. 987 and following (Helen Pendleton Winston, born October 16, 1878, married December 7, 1901 Charles Stinson Pillsbury, born December 6, 1878, died May 21, 1939 at Rochester, Minnesota; children Philip Winston, Mary Stinson, Katharine Stevens and Helen Winston Pillsbury; Mary Stinson Pillsbury, born November 14, 1904, married December 7, 1929 Oswald Bates Lord, born March 15, 1903, son of Charles Edwin and Lucie-Taylor (Weart) Lord of Tarrytown). https://archive.org/details/beverleyfamilyof00mcgi
[^32]: William Pope Anderson, *Anderson-Overton: A Continuation of Anderson Family Records* (Cincinnati: Gibson and Perin, 1945), Winston line, entries 122, 1221 and 1222 (Helen Pendleton Winston, daughter of Philip Eickerton Winston and Katharine D. Stevens; Philip Winston Pillsbury, "Y'24"; Mary Stinson Pillsbury, married December 7, 1929 Oswald Bates Lord; issue Charles Pillsbury Lord and Winston Lord). https://archive.org/details/andersonovertonc00ande
[^33]: Library of Congress, Copyright Office, *Catalog of Copyright Entries, Third Series, Part 1A: Books, January-December 1950*, entry "Pillsbury, Philip Winston. The pioneering Pillsburys. New York, Newcomen Society in North America. 28p.," registered May 17, 1950. https://archive.org/details/catalogofcopyrig341libr
[^34]: *Congressional Record*, Appendix, April 12, 1945, extension of remarks of Rep. Walter K. Granger of Utah inserting an editorial on two Utah farmers awarded national honors in the Philip W. Pillsbury wheat award contest. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_march-23-june-08-1945_91_appendix
[^35]: *Grand Metropolitan Public Ltd. v. Pillsbury Co.*, 558 A.2d 1049 (Del. Ch. 1988) (Civ. A. Nos. 10319 and 10323; memorandum opinion of Justice Duffy, retired, sitting by assignment; submitted December 12 and decided December 16, 1988), pp. 1050 to 1062 (parties and defendants, Grand Met's business, the January 1986 Stockholder Rights Plan, the May 1988 awareness of Grand Met's interest, tied-house suits in 14 jurisdictions, the October 4, 1988 tender offer at $60 raised to $63 on December 12, the October 17 board vote, the November 6 Burger King spin-off agreement, the tender of about 87 percent of the shares, the preliminary injunction). CourtListener, https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2277114/grand-metro-public-ltd-v-pillsbury-co/
[^36]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: classes of 1926, 1935, 1936 and 1959, entries for Lord and Pillsbury, including "1926 Oswald Bates Lord ... = Mary Pillsbury (of Pillsbury flour family) ... son is Winston Lord." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^37]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Thirty-Six, Yale College* (New Haven: Class Book Committee, 1936), biographical entry for Edmund Pennington Pillsbury, pp. 355 to 356 (born December 22, 1913 in Minneapolis; son of John Sargent Pillsbury and Eleanor Jerusha (Lawler) Pillsbury; brothers John S. Pillsbury Jr., '35, and Charles A. Pillsbury, '39; Blake School and St. Paul's School; Davenport College; Chi Psi, the Torch Honor Society and Skull and Bones; expected to join the Pillsbury Flour Mills Company), with the Skull and Bones entries for Jonathan Brewster Bingham, John Richard Hersey and Robert Train. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00yale_0
[^38]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Thirty-Six, Yale College* (1936), biographical entries for Jonathan Brewster Bingham (Elizabethan Club, Phi Beta Kappa, Delta Kappa Epsilon, Skull and Bones), John Richard Hersey and Robert Train (Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00yale_0
[^39]: Minnesota Legislative Reference Library, legislator record for George Sturgis Pillsbury (Yale University, B.A. 1942; United States Marine Corps, World War II, Philippines, 1st lieutenant; Orono school board; Senate District 33 from 1971 and District 42 from 1973 to 1982; elected November 3, 1970; occupations including the Pillsbury Co.). https://www.leg.state.mn.us/legdb/fulldetail?id=10536
[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages on the Lord family (Thomas Lord, who left Essex in 1635 in a company led by Rev. Thomas Hooker and settled at what is now Hartford; George DeForest Lord, initiated 1854, and the law firm Lord, Day and Lord), the list "Past Lords In The Order" (1854, 1898, 1922, 1926, 1949, 1959) and the chart label "LORD FAMILY (1635, Cambridge, Mass.)," the chart captions for Charles Edwin Lord (Acting Comptroller of the Currency, 1981) and Winston Lord (Chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations, 1983). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the University of Chicago, Frederick Gates and the Pillsbury family, which Sutton introduces as a subject for a later volume. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^42]: Eisenhower Presidential Library, oral history finding aid OH-115, "Lord, Mary Pillsbury," 429 pages, Columbia Oral History Project, interviews by John T. Mason, Jr., 1967 to 1969 (representative and alternate representative dates; topics of Interviews #1 through #8). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa115.pdf
[^43]: Virginia Koerber, "Talented Women Win Recognition," *Washington Star*, 1965, report on the Federal Woman's Award, listing the 1965 panel of judges, including Mary Pillsbury Lord, former U.S. representative on the U.N. Commission on Human Rights. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000200460024-0
[^44]: Oswald Bates Lord, *Exit Backward, Bowing*, "with the advice and dissent of Mary Pillsbury Lord," drawings by Roy Doty (New York: Macmillan, 1970). https://archive.org/details/exitbackwardbowi00lord
[^45]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, biography of Winston Lord (born 1937; Director of the Planning and Coordination Staff, then of the Policy Planning Staff, October 12, 1973 to January 20, 1977; ambassador to China, appointed November 6, 1985, credentials November 19, 1985, left post April 23, 1989; Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, April 22, 1993 to February 18, 1997). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/lord-winston
[^46]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, list of persons (Lord, Winston: member, Office of International Security Affairs, Department of Defense, until 1969; member, National Security Council Planning Group; staff member for United Nations Affairs, National Security Council Operations Staff from 1971). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17
[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, Document 20, editorial note (Lord's seven-page memorandum to Kissinger of April 17, 1971 listing the major contacts between the United States and the People's Republic of China through Pakistan, Romania and other channels). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d20
[^48]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, Document 135, editorial note on the June 21, 1971 meeting at the White House of Kissinger, Winston Lord and Ambassador Agha Hilaly. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d135
[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, Document 139, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, July 9, 1971, 4:35 to 11:20 p.m. (participants: Chou En-lai, Yeh Chien-ying, Huang Hua, Chang Wen-chin; Henry A. Kissinger, John Holdridge, Winston Lord and Richard Smyser; the source note records that Holdridge, Smyser and Lord prepared the transcripts, as stated in Lord's memoranda to Kissinger of July 29, August 6 and August 12). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d139
[^50]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, Document 162, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, October 21, 1971, 10:30 a.m. to 1:45 p.m. (participants include Chou En-lai, Chi P'eng-fei, Kissinger, Jonathan Howe and Winston Lord). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d162
[^51]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section "The Role Of The Order," stating that David Rockefeller, a former chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations, is not a member of the Order but that "the present CFR chairman, Winston Lord, is." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^52]: John Kerry and Hank Brown, *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate* (1992), chapter 15, "Mohammed Hammoud: BCCI's Flexible Front-Man," on Michael Pillsbury's status, his account of meeting Hammoud and the intelligence he says he received. https://fas.org/irp/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/15hammoud.htm
[^53]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record, March 6, 1984, "Meeting with Mike Pillsbury," from the Chief, Legislation Division, Office of Legislative Liaison, on a meeting on March 2, 1984 with a professional staff member of the Senate Labor Committee and Senator Orrin Hatch's request for access to the National Intelligence Daily and National Intelligence Estimates. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90B01370R001101540047-9
[^54]: "The Agonies of Victory In Government's Substratum," *Washington Post*, January 26, 1987, on Michael Pillsbury (Stanford graduate, Columbia doctorate in Chinese studies, Rand analyst from 1973, 1976 letter from Ronald Reagan, Senate Budget Committee staff from 1978, dismissals), reproduced in the CIA reading room. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00561r000100130017-9
[^55]: Federal court caption, *Spellman v. Pillsbury, Madison & Sutro Group Long Term Disability Plan*, E.D. Cal. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.caed.171869

29
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Richard Nixon.md
View file

@ -11,27 +11,36 @@ summary: "Richard Milhous Nixon was the 37th President of the United States, ser
born: 1913-01-09
died: 1994-04-22
location: "Yorba Linda, California"
relations:
- type: investigated
with: "[[Alger Hiss]]"
role: "questioned Hiss and Chambers, House Committee on Un-American Activities, 1948"
fn: 2
---
Richard Milhous Nixon was the 37th President of the [[United States]], serving from 1969 to 1974. His presidency was marked by significant foreign policy initiatives, including opening relations with [[China]] and pursuing détente with the [[Soviet Union]].[^1]
### House Committee on Un-American Activities, 1948
As a member of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]], Nixon questioned both [[Alger Hiss]] and [[Whittaker Chambers]] during the 1948 hearings. During an exchange over Chambers's dental history, Nixon interrupted: "Since some repartee goes on between these two people, I think Mr. Chambers should be sworn." He then asked Hiss whether he would have to have the dentist explain the work on his teeth "before you could tell anything about this man." Hiss answered: "I would like a few more questions asked."[^2]
### Pre-Presidential Activities
Prior to his presidency, Nixon cultivated relationships with influential figures. He was often seen at [[Clint Murchison, Sr.]]'s Hotel Del Charro in La Jolla, California, during the 1950s, alongside [[J. Edgar Hoover]] and Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]].[^3] In 1961, after losing the presidential election to [[John F. Kennedy|JFK]], [[Clint Murchison, Sr.]] sold Nixon a lot in Beverly Hills for $35,000, a transaction financed through a [[Jimmy Hoffa|Hoffa]] loan. Nixon subsequently sold this lot two years later for $86,000.[^3]
Prior to his presidency, Nixon cultivated relationships with influential figures. He was often seen at [[Clint Murchison, Sr.]]'s Hotel Del Charro in La Jolla, California, during the 1950s, alongside [[J. Edgar Hoover]] and Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]].[^3] In 1961, after losing the presidential election to [[John F. Kennedy|JFK]], Clint Murchison, Sr. sold Nixon a lot in Beverly Hills for $35,000, a transaction financed through a [[Jimmy Hoffa|Hoffa]] loan. Nixon subsequently sold this lot two years later for $86,000.[^3]
As Vice President in 1960, Nixon served as the [[White House]]'s liaison to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s Cuban operations, a period during which the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] initiated a series of assassination attempts against [[Fidel Castro]].[^3] [[Bebe Rebozo]] was also identified as a close associate of Nixon.[^3]
As Vice President in 1960, Nixon served as the [[White House]]'s liaison to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s Cuban operations, a period during which the CIA initiated a series of assassination attempts against [[Fidel Castro]].[^3] [[Bebe Rebozo]] was also identified as a close associate of Nixon.[^3]
### Nuclear Policy and Israel
During his presidency, [[Israel]] received warmer treatment and support compared to the later [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration.[^2] Nixon and [[Henry A. Kissinger]] approached inauguration day on January 20, 1969, convinced that [[Israel]]'s nuclear ambitions were justified and understandable. Once in office, they endorsed [[Israel]]'s nuclear ambitions. They also shared a contempt for the 1968 [[Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty|Nonproliferation Treaty]]. Nixon, midway in his campaign against [[Hubert H. Humphrey]], urged the Senate to delay ratification of the NPT until after the election, expressing concern about its failure to permit the transfer of "defensive nuclear weapons" to non-nuclear powers.[^2]
During his presidency, [[Israel]] received warmer treatment and support compared to the later [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration.[^4] Nixon and [[Henry A. Kissinger]] approached inauguration day on January 20, 1969, convinced that Israel's nuclear ambitions were justified and understandable. Once in office, they endorsed Israel's nuclear ambitions. They also shared a contempt for the 1968 [[Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty|Nonproliferation Treaty]]. Nixon, midway in his campaign against [[Hubert H. Humphrey]], urged the Senate to delay ratification of the NPT until after the election, expressing concern about its failure to permit the transfer of "defensive nuclear weapons" to non-nuclear powers.[^4]
In the secrecy of their offices, Nixon and Kissinger simultaneously issued a presidential order (National Security Decision Memorandum No. 6) undercutting their public statements. This document stated that there should be no efforts by the [[United States]] government to pressure other nations, particularly [[West Germany]], to ratify the NPT. The government's public posture was to reflect optimism that other countries would sign or ratify, while privately disassociating itself from any plan to bring pressure on these countries.[^2]
In the secrecy of their offices, Nixon and Kissinger simultaneously issued a presidential order (National Security Decision Memorandum No. 6) undercutting their public statements. This document stated that there should be no efforts by the United States government to pressure other nations, particularly [[West Germany]], to ratify the NPT. The government's public posture was to reflect optimism that other countries would sign or ratify, while privately disassociating itself from any plan to bring pressure on these countries.[^4]
This new policy led to the end of the [[Floyd L. Culler, Jr.|Floyd Culler]] inspections of [[Dimona]] in 1969. The Nixon administration made a judgment that would become American policy for the next two decades: [[Israel]] had gone nuclear, and there was nothing the [[United States]] could - or wanted to - do about it.[^2]
This new policy led to the end of the [[Floyd L. Culler, Jr.|Floyd Culler]] inspections of [[Dimona]] in 1969. The Nixon administration made a judgment that would become American policy for the next two decades: Israel had gone nuclear, and there was nothing the United States could - or wanted to - do about it.[^4]
### Unusual Intelligence Incidents
Nixon's administration also saw the continuation of covert intelligence programs. In the early 1970s, he made a strange complaint to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], as testified by [[Sidney Gottlieb]], claiming that he and his staff experienced "inappropriate tears and crying" during a visit to a "potentially hostile country." [^1]
Nixon's administration also saw the continuation of covert intelligence programs. In the early 1970s, he made a strange complaint to the CIA, as testified by [[Sidney Gottlieb]], claiming that he and his staff experienced "inappropriate tears and crying" during a visit to a "potentially hostile country." [^1]
### Later Connections
@ -40,5 +49,9 @@ Later, [[Alan Michael May]], who had served as a former Northern California fiel
### Footnotes
[^1]: Schnabel, Jim. _Remote Viewers_. Dell, 1997.
[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. _The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy_. Random House, 1991. Chapter 16.
[^3]: Seymour, Cheri. _The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal_. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010.
[^2]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government* (1948), House Committee on Un-American Activities, pp. 978-979. https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit
[^3]: Seymour, Cheri. _The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal_. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010.
[^4]: Hersh, Seymour M. _The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy_. Random House, 1991. Chapter 16.

288
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Samuel Russell.md Normal file
View file

@ -0,0 +1,288 @@
---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Samuel Russell
aliases:
- Samuel Russell
- Samuel Wadsworth Russell
- Samuel W. Russell
tags:
- Person
- SamuelRussell
- RussellAndCompany
- RussellManufacturingCompany
- ChinaTrade
- OpiumTrade
- Canton
- MiddletownConnecticut
- RussellHouse
- RussellLibrary
- SkullAndBones
- WilliamHuntingtonRussell
- PhilipAmmidon
- Houqua
- AmericanColonizationSociety
category: "Business & Finance"
summary: "Middletown, Connecticut merchant who founded the Canton commission house Russell and Company, returned to Middletown in 1831, and built the Greek Revival house now owned by Wesleyan University."
born: 1789-08-25
died: 1862-05-05
location: "Middletown, Connecticut"
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Russell and Company]]"
start: 1819-01-01
role: "founder at Canton; the Library of Congress dates the house to 1819, Hunter to a Samuel Russell and Company from December 26, 1818"
fn: 10
- type: founded
with: "[[Russell Manufacturing Company]]"
start: 1834-06-01
role: "co-founder with Samuel D. Hubbard; incorporated June 1834 according to the National Register nomination for the Upper Mill"
fn: 12
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Philip Ammidon]]"
start: 1824-01-01
end: 1830-06-30
role: "partners at Canton; Hunter lists them as the sole partners of the house until the middle of 1830"
fn: 11
- type: relative_of
with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]"
role: "second cousin through the Rev. William Russell (born 1690); Hamlin genealogy"
fn: 7
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Frances Ann Osborn]]"
start: 1827-01-01
role: "second wife, sister of his first wife Mary Cotton Osborn"
fn: 18
- type: funded
with: "[[American Colonization Society]]"
start: 1839-02-25
end: 1839-03-31
role: "donation printed among Middletown contributions to the society"
fn: 36
---
Samuel Russell (August 25, 1789 to 1862) was a merchant of [[Middletown, Connecticut]] who founded the commission house [[Russell and Company]] at [[Canton]], [[China]], in 1819, according to the account of the [[National Park Service]] nomination for his Middletown house. The nomination calls the firm "the largest and most successful American firm involved in the China trade throughout the nineteenth century."[^1] He returned to Middletown in 1831, withdrew from the Canton house in 1836, and reinvested his profits in the [[Russell Manufacturing Company]], in banking, and in western railroad stock.[^2] The house he commissioned from [[Ithiel Town]] between 1827 and 1830 is now the [[Samuel Russell House]], part of [[Wesleyan University]].
### Birth and the death of his father
Samuel Russell was born in Middletown on August 25, 1789, the eldest child of Capt. [[John Russell]] and Abigail Warner.[^3] John Russell, born August 19, 1765, married Abigail Warner at Middletown on June 29, 1788, and died there on December 7, 1801.[^3] The nomination says that he died insolvent.[^4] Abigail Russell outlived her husband by more than forty years and died at Middletown on July 11, 1846, at age 87.[^3] The Hamlin genealogy records three younger children: Lucy Warner Russell, born December 29, 1791; Julia Russell, born June 23, 1794; and Augustus Edward Russell, born June 10, 1797.[^3] The Library of Congress finding aid for the Canton records calls the last of these "Edward Augustus Russell," a New York businessman "involved in real estate investments and the East India trade."[^5]
The nomination traces the line from William Russell (1612 to 1664), one of the founders of the Saybrook and New Haven colonies, through the Rev. [[Noadiah Russell]] (1659 to 1713), second pastor of the Congregational church at Middletown from 1698 and one of the founders of [[Yale University]], to the Rev. William Russell (born 1690) and then to Capt. Samuel Russell (born July 7, 1727), who was Samuel Russell's grandfather.[^6] The Hamlin genealogy gives the same line and records Capt. Samuel Russell as a Middletown merchant who died on March 14, 1794.[^7] The Yale sketch of the Rev. William Russell gives his birth as November 20, 1690, names him the eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin, and records four sons and five daughters.[^8]
His middle name came from his great uncle, [[Jeremiah Wadsworth]] of Hartford, who had married the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable. The nomination describes Wadsworth as Commissary General of the Continental Army and says that he died when Samuel was fifteen.[^4]
### Apprenticeship and the New York years
The nomination says that Russell and Wadsworth were both "orphaned at an early age," and that Russell was twelve when his father died.[^4] After his marriage in 1815 he lived with his widowed mother in the old family house on High Street.[^9] He was apprenticed as a clerk to [[Whittlesey and Alsop]], Middletown merchants in the maritime trade, and the apprenticeship ended in 1810 when he came of age. The nomination spells the firm "Whittlesley & Alsop." In the same year [[Samuel Wetmore]], a relative on his mother's side, was appointed guardian of the younger children.[^4]
Russell then went to New York and joined [[Hull and Griswold]], a merchant house founded by Connecticut men that handled a range of goods. In 1812 the house sent him as supercargo on a ship bound for Spain, carrying flour worth $25,000. He was instructed to convert the proceeds into Spanish silver dollars, since the war with [[Great Britain]] was expected to cut foreign trade and leave the country short of hard currency.[^4] The voyage ended in 1813. Afterward he bought and sold goods on commission for Hull and Griswold in Middletown, and the first Russell and Company was founded in a building he had leased there before he sailed.[^4]
Russell married Mary Cotton Osborn in New York in 1815. The nomination describes her as the daughter of a respectable Hartford family, with no dowry and no connection to the merchant trade.[^9] The Hamlin genealogy gives her parents as David Osborn and Polly (Cotton) Osborn, "of Middletown and Stratford, Ct."[^3] The couple returned to Middletown and lived in his mother's house, and by 1816 they had a son.[^9] Samuel Wetmore, who held an interest in the Providence firms [[Hoppins and Company]] and [[Edward Carrington and Company]], recommended Russell as supercargo on a ship owned by both houses. The ship carried Chinese tea and dishware to Savannah, exchanged them there for rice, tobacco and cotton, and went on to Hamburg.[^9]
### The Providence contract and the first Canton venture
[[Edward Carrington]] had been the American consul at Canton in 1802 to 1804, and by the nomination's account he carried on a commission business there until he left in 1811.[^9] The contract the Providence partners drew up for Russell in 1819 put $20,000 of capital into the venture. They paid his living costs in China and $500 a year to his family, and allowed him a commission of two percent on the import and export business of their vessels. At the end of the five-year contract he was to receive an equal share of the profits.[^10]
Russell sailed in the ship Fame, carrying Indian cotton for sale at Le Havre or Amsterdam before going on to China around the Cape of Good Hope. The Fame left Gibraltar in late June 1819 and reached Macao in September. She anchored at [[Whampoa]], and Russell went upriver in a Chinese riverboat to the foreign compound at Canton.[^10]
Hunter dates the earlier firm to the period "from December 26, 1818, to December 26, 1823," as Samuel Russell and Company.[^11] The Library of Congress describes the house as "founded in 1819 by Samuel Russell."[^5] The National Register nomination for the Upper Mill says that Russell "established his own trading station in Canton in 1818."[^12]
The first venture returned about $15,000 to each of its five partners in 1823.[^13] The partners had little faith in his management and refused to increase the trading fund. The nomination says there is no evidence that Russell took part in the opium trade during this venture. His letters to the Providence partners, which the nomination quotes, describe opium as "the only article" which "of late can be said to have a profit."[^13] The nomination places the "Emily Affair" of 1821, when the Hong merchants found opium on an American ship and sent vessels off in ballast, in the background of the partners' caution. Its citation for the firm's position is a letter of June 30, 1821, from Russell and Company to Carrington and Company in the [[Library of Congress]] collection.[^14]
Three friendships from this period mattered to the later house, according to the nomination. The first was with [[John Perkins Cushing]], also orphaned young and a cousin of the Boston brothers [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]] and [[James Perkins]], who had left him in charge of the Canton office at sixteen. The second was with [[Philip Ammidon]], agent for [[Brown and Ives]] of Providence, who shared Russell's office and quarters. The third was with [[Houqua]], the leading Hong merchant, who remained a lifelong friend.[^15]
### Samuel Russell and Company, and the partnership with Philip Ammidon
Hunter gives the house's constitution as January 1, 1824, in succession to Samuel Russell and Company. "It is known amongst the Chinese as 'Kee-Chang-Hong.' It confined itself strictly to agency business." Hunter also records that the sole partners from January 1, 1824, to the middle of 1830 were Russell and Ammidon.[^11] Forbes gives the same succession in his own memoir, saying that the house "was first formed by Messrs. Samuel Russell and Philip Ammidon, and after a few years was changed to the present firm of Russell & Co."[^16]
The nomination says that Cushing proposed a partnership with Ammidon and Russell, whom he regarded as "one of the best men in the country." Ammidon left for India with letters from Cushing and Houqua and made profitable deals with the Parsi opium growers there. The partnership was renewed in November 1826 for another four years, from January 1, 1828, which gave Russell time to return home.[^17] Russell was back at Canton by October 1827, after a spring and summer in Middletown in which he married Frances Ann Osborn. The nomination also says that he gained the commission business of the only two merchant houses in Manila and bought out smaller competitors in Canton.[^18]
Ammidon did not return to Canton, and the nomination says that he sent William H. Low, "a very capable replacement with business connections in Philadelphia and Salem," who arrived in September 1829. In 1830 Augustine Heard of Boston was recommended as a further replacement. Russell and Low accepted him, and Ammidon was then terminated from the partnership.[^11][^18] The nomination describes Ammidon's dealings in India as having "made Russell & Company one of the most important American sellers of the opium in Canton, second or third in the trade behind the British firms of Jardine Matheson & Company and Dent & Company."[^19]
### Houqua, the Perkins merger and the return from Canton
[[Thomas Tunno Forbes]], a cousin of the Perkins brothers, drowned in a typhoon on August 9, 1829, with S. H. Monson, the bookkeeper of Russell and Company. Among his papers was a sealed letter asking the firm, in case of accident, to take charge of his local business and that of J. and T. H. Perkins.[^20] Cushing returned to Canton in August 1830, and the arrangement was then concluded: "Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up, while the important foreign business of Houqua was then also definitely secured to them."[^20]
The nomination gives a different chronology. It dates Forbes's death to 1827 and says that Cushing, eager to retire and lacking a suitable heir, arranged to dissolve Perkins and Company, with Russell delaying his own departure to set up the management of the combined houses.[^18] The Library of Congress says that in 1831 the China trading operations of John P. Cushing, William Perkins and Company of Boston, and Houqua "merged with Russell & Company."[^5]
The nomination describes the two houses as complementary. Perkins and Company had been primarily a buyer and shipper of China cargoes, while Russell and Company was "exclusively a commission house" that did not necessarily own the goods it handled.[^21] Under Cushing's direction, [[Augustine Heard]] became the representative of the Perkins houses, [[Robert Bennet Forbes]] took charge of the storeship business at the Lintin station, and [[John Murray Forbes]] joined the firm as an assistant in line for partnership.[^18] Russell and Cushing left Canton together in the ship Bashaw on February 27, 1831.[^22] The nomination says that both returned to America after completing their work in March 1831.[^18]
Houqua wrote to Russell after hearing of his retirement. The nomination quotes Houqua's letter of January 14, 1837, in the Library of Congress collection, which says that Russell's name had been associated with the house "during the whole course of its existence," and expresses Houqua's "sincere wish that you may live long to enjoy the fruit of your industry."[^19] The nomination adds that Houqua acknowledged Russell's "competent fortune," and that the Middletown mansion, known as the "China palace," held gifts from Houqua.[^19] In 1836 Russell had asked the manager to close his China affairs and to invest his profits "in teas or bills of exchange on London."[^19]
### Opium
In letters to his Providence partners, Samuel Russell wrote that opium "is the only article" which "of late can be said to have a profit" in the depressed China market. The nomination for his house says that during the first venture (1819 to 1823) there is no evidence that he took part in the trade, that he "was quite conversant with all the details of the opium trade," and that "with single drug cargoes selling for as much as $50,000, smuggling would have solved his cash problems."[^23][^24]
From January 1, 1824, the house was Russell and Company, which Hunter describes as having "confined itself strictly to agency business."[^11] The nomination says that the firm's services included "marketing of imports (including opium which it sold for Perkins & Company on their storeship)," that John Perkins Cushing had begun to turn his commission business over to Russell and Company and other Canton houses in 1818 and "This included Cushing's opium shipments," and that Ammidon "made some successful deals with the Parsi opium growers in India" on the trip that preceded the 1826 renewal of the partnership.[^17][^18][^21] On his visit to Middletown in 1827 Russell solicited consignment business in the United States, "including most notably the sale of opium for John Jacob Astor."[^25] By the time Ammidon left the firm, the nomination says, his dealings "had made Russell & Company one of the most important American sellers of the opium in Canton, second or third in the trade behind the British firms of Jardine Matheson & Company and Dent & Company."[^19] Forbes wrote that Russell and Company "had for some time done business at Canton previous to Mr. Cushing's leaving, and, in fact, had transacted a part of his business."[^26]
The Library of Congress finding aid says that the house's correspondence after 1818 "contains much information on the daily operation of the Canton trading company, the Turkish opium trade," and that an account book for 1816 to 1829 carries the manuscript "Notes on the Chinese Method of Preparing Opium for Smoking."[^5] The nomination says that Americans, largely excluded from the Indian and Persian markets, were for a time restricted to Turkish opium, transshipped through American ports, and that the Perkins brothers of Boston, in the Turkish trade since the 1780s, organized a Smyrna house in 1816.[^27] Robert Bennet Forbes wrote that in March 1828 the ship Danube was fitted out at New York by Sturgis and Perkins for Smyrna, with a credit on the Barings of about 60,000 pounds, "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China." He wrote that at Gibraltar in 1829 he "waited for sundry shipments of drug" before taking command of the Bashaw.[^28][^29] Hunter, who lived at Canton from 1825, set the agent's commission on opium sales at five, afterward three, per cent.[^30]
The memorial of the American merchants at Canton, printed as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress, gives sales of opium at Canton by season: 5,822 chests for $7,988,930 in 1822 to 1823, 9,535 chests for $10,425,075 in 1827 to 1828, and 23,670 chests for $15,332,759 in 1832 to 1833. It says that the receiving vessels moved from Whampoa to Lintin about 1821, and that officials took "a fee or duty varying from twenty to seventy dollars per chest."[^31] Forbes wrote that the officials encouraged the drug's introduction "from India and Turkey, not only by levying a duty on it for their own benefit, but by consuming it."[^32]
After Russell left, the nomination says that the house "continued to prosper as a major marketer of opium," that its Indian trade was at first about half its Turkish trade, and that the firm held its position in the Turkish trade and became the third largest purveyor from India.[^33] At the surrender of the opium at Canton in 1839 Hunter writes that the Americans "had not delivered any American-owned opium, of which we held at the time of surrender about fifty cases of Turkey." He adds that the English "placed theirs in charge of the American houses," and that "A large share of it fell under the control of Russell & Co."[^34]
The memorial, dated at Canton on May 25, 1839, was signed by Russell Sturgis, A. A. Low, W. Delano, Jr., Edward King, Gideon Nye, Jr., S. B. Rawle, R. B. Forbes and James Ryan. It states, "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade," and says that the drug "has been productive of much evil and of scarcely a single good to the Chinese."[^31] Russell left Canton on February 27, 1831, and withdrew from the house in 1836.[^19][^22]
Forbes wrote that the price of the surrendered drug was disputed, with one side arguing that it had cost $400 or $500 a chest and the other that it had sold for $250 or $300 at the time of seizure. He wrote that "most of the smaller holders of scrip were great losers, and that the large agents, who sold mostly on commission, turned their attention to speculation in scrip and in the drug itself, and made large fortunes."[^35] The firm's handling of Houqua's shipments in 1840 is set out on the Russell and Company page.
### Return to Middletown and his investments
The Library of Congress finding aid says that after Russell's return to Middletown in 1831 he founded the Russell Manufacturing Company for the manufacture of elastic webbing, and that as his interests in the China company diminished he "became increasingly active in real estate speculation in Chicago and Milwaukee as well as in Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, and New Jersey."[^5] The finding aid's subject index adds Wisconsin.
The National Register nomination for the company's Upper Mill gives a different founding date. It says that the company was "founded in 1834 by Samuel T. Russell and Samuel D. Hubbard." The Library of Congress finding aid credits Samuel Russell of the Canton house with founding the company. The nomination says that the company was incorporated in June 1834, capitalized at $200,000, after a letter of understanding that February.[^12] The company bought the machinery of the defunct Spaulding and Collins factory, took Spaulding in as treasurer, and within two years built a brick mill on a site owned by Hubbard. [[Henry G. Hubbard]], Samuel D. Hubbard's nephew, was brought in as manager.[^12] The nomination says that Russell's China profits went into "Simeon North's fledgling arms factory" and later into land speculation in the West, and it credits him with giving land for the first Roman Catholic church in Middletown.[^12]
Company records cited in the same nomination show a bank loan of $12,000 from the Middletown Savings Bank in October 1840, "secured by Samuel Russell," at the time the company was preparing to make elastic suspenders.[^12] The National Historic Landmark nomination says that after his 1836 retirement Russell "reinvested his enormous profits in industry, banking, and Western railroad stock."[^2]
The Library of Congress finding aid says that some letters for 1838 and 1839 concern his "financial support" of the [[American Colonization Society]].[^5] The society's monthly, [[The African Repository]], printed the Middletown contributions for February 25 to March 31, 1839. Richard Hubbard of Middletown is followed by "Samuel Russell, do.," with the same amount.[^36]
### The Samuel Russell House
Ithiel Town designed the house, and the New Haven firm of [[Hoadley and Curtis]] built it. Russell wrote from Canton on October 26, 1827, to his friend [[Samuel Hubbard]] in Middletown, who was to buy the lot and supervise construction. The instructions described "a brick house, 44 feet square," with unadorned plaster walls and fireproof construction, and called for a separate bathhouse. The nomination says that Russell "was sure that 'a Mason and Carpenter could build the house for $5000.'"[^37]
The Canton correspondence confirms that Town's design was complete before [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] became his partner on February 1, 1829. The plans went to Hubbard on June 26, 1828, and Hoadley and Curtis's estimate of $7,000, including $1,000 for the west portico, was recommended in Town's letter of September 1828.[^38] The nomination calls the house "the premier domestic example of the Corinthian Greek Revival style in the Northeast." Painted panels in the parlors frame portraits of Samuel Russell and his wife, Frances, on the chimney breasts.[^39]
Russell lived in the house until his death in 1862. It passed to his son, Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr., and remained in the family until 1937, when Thomas MacDonough Russell Jr., his great-grandson, deeded it to Wesleyan University.[^40] The university's finding aid for the Honors College and Russell House records gives the 1828 construction date, the 1937 gift, the Honors College years until 1996, the National Register listing in 1970 and the National Historic Landmark designation in 2001.[^41]
### Family
Mary Cotton Osborn died in childbirth soon after Russell first sailed for Canton, leaving two sons in the care of her sister, Frances Ann Osborn.[^18] Russell married Frances Ann Osborn during his visit to Middletown in 1827, and she became the mother of his third son, Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr.[^18] The Hamlin genealogy lists George Osborn Russell and John Augustus Russell as the children of the first marriage, and Samuel Wadsworth Russell as the child of the second.[^7]
The Hamlin genealogy records George Osborn Russell as married twice, first to Augusta Harriet Mather and then to her sister Amelia Charlotte Mather. It records John Augustus Russell as the husband of Helena E. Webster and as an officer of the United States Navy.[^42] Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr. married Clara Alsop Casey, according to the same entry. The entry says he had died some years earlier and that his widow remarried, and it lists three children: William Wadsworth, Mary and Cornelia.[^42]
The Library of Congress family correspondence includes letters from George O. Russell for 1837 to 1845 and from John A. Russell for 1838 to 1846. A separate group of letters concerns the health of a son named John Russell and illustrates nineteenth-century medical practice in the control of epilepsy.[^5]
The nomination calls Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr. his "sole surviving son" and says that the estate went to his widow and to him.[^43] The Hamlin genealogy lists George Osborn and John Augustus among the sons of the first marriage.[^3]
Frances Ann Russell, the widow, established the Russell Library in Middletown in memory of her husband. The Hamlin genealogy says that she "founded the Russell Library, Middletown."[^3] The library's own history says that she bought the Episcopal Church of the Holy Trinity at the corner of Broad and Court Streets in 1873, remodeled it as a library, and opened it as Middletown's public library on April 5, 1876.[^44]
### Kinship with William Huntington Russell
[[William Huntington Russell]], the Yale graduate of 1833 and co-founder of [[Skull and Bones]], was Samuel Russell's second cousin. Their common great-grandfather was the Rev. William Russell (born 1690), eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin. The Hamlin genealogy traces Samuel's line through Capt. John Russell and Capt. Samuel Russell (1727), and William Huntington Russell's through Matthew Talcott Russell and the Rev. Noadiah Russell of Thompson, Connecticut.[^7] John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were therefore first cousins, and their sons were second cousins.
Kris Millegan gives three relationships in his book on the society. The opening article describes "His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise." A China-trade passage calls William Huntington Russell "Samuel's cousin," and a later essay gives "Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H."[^45] A third passage refers to Samuel Russell as the "uncle" of the society's founder.[^46] The Hamlin genealogy gives the second-cousin relationship.
### Skull and Bones and the Russell name
The Connecticut act of 1856 that incorporated the Russell Trust Association, the body through which the society conducts its corporate affairs, names William H. Russell first among its incorporators, followed by [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel Coit Gilman|Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]].[^47]
In "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," an account of a conversation with his father, Millegan writes that William Huntington Russell "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell."[^48]
A letter to the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015 from Bruce L. Reynolds attributed the money for the society's 1856 building to Russell and Company, citing James Bradley's book on the China trade.[^49]
### Death and estate
The New York Society Library's City Readers entry gives Samuel Wadsworth Russell's dates as August 25, 1789 to May 5, 1862, and describes him as a Middletown-born trader and the founder of Russell and Company.[^50] The Library of Congress gives his dates as "1789-approximately 1862."[^5] The Hamlin genealogy describes him as a merchant "for many years in the China trade" and member of the firm of Russell and Company who "left a large estate."[^3] The nomination says that at the time of his death in 1862 his estate was valued at $630,000, and that he left it to his widow and his sole surviving son, with large bequests to grandchildren and other relatives. The nomination adds that much of his fortune went to philanthropies during his lifetime.[^43]
### The papers
The records of Russell and Company are held by the Library of Congress Manuscript Division as MSS38562, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," with inclusive dates of 1812 to 1894 and bulk dates of 1819 to 1840. The collection occupies 12 containers and 4 oversize boxes, about 3,900 items, and 10 microfilm reels. Thomas Macdonough Russell gave it to the library in 1931, it was processed in 1980, and the finding aid was revised in 2024. The index includes the entry "Russell, Samuel, 1789-approximately 1862. Samuel Russell papers."[^5]
The finding aid arranges the records in four series: family correspondence (1816 to 1848), general correspondence (1827 to 1881), business records (1812 to 1894), and oversize letterbooks and invoice books (1819 to 1827). The general correspondence includes letters on the construction of the Middletown house from 1827 to 1830 and letters from Ithiel Town. The business records include partnership agreements dated 1813 to 1843 and 1874, and wills of business associates dated 1832 to 1840.[^5] The nomination's author worked from typed transcriptions of the house correspondence held in the Russell Library in Middletown, made from the Library of Congress originals.[^51] The nomination also cites a 1973 Wesleyan honors thesis by Alain Munkittrick, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell (1789-1862): A Study in Ordered Investment," as the basis for its account of the business records.[^52]
After Russell's departure the house's partners included [[Warren Delano Jr.]], who was admitted for the term beginning in 1840. Hunter says that Delano was formerly of Russell, Sturgis and Company at Canton and Manila.[^11] Members of the [[Forbes family]] were partners in the house in the same decades.[^11]
### Footnotes
[^1]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 8. Statement of Significance, calling the firm "the largest and most successful American firm involved in the China trade throughout the nineteenth century." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^2]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 8 and 15. The 1836 retirement from the Canton house and the reinvestment of profits "in industry, banking, and Western railroad stock" (p. 15). The 1831 return is in the Library of Congress finding aid. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^3]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entry [302] for Capt. John Russell (pp. 118-119: the marriage to Abigail Warner on June 29, 1788, the children, and Abigail's death on July 11, 1846, at 87) and entry [638] for Samuel Russell, born Middletown August 25, 1789 (p. 166: first marriage to Mary, daughter of David and Polly (Cotton) Osborn, "of Middletown and Stratford, Ct."; second marriage to Frances Ann Osborn; "his widow, Frances, founded the Russell Library, Middletown"; "he left a large estate"). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^4]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 9. The father's death in 1801 and insolvency; the boys "orphaned at an early age"; Wadsworth as Commissary General and his death when Samuel was fifteen; apprenticeship to Whittlesley & Alsop; Samuel Wetmore as guardian in 1810; Hull & Griswold and the 1812 supercargo voyage with proceeds in Spanish silver dollars; the first Russell & Company in Middletown. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^5]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," MSS38562, finding aid revised February 2024 (collection summary, scope and content note, subject and name index, series and container list). https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^6]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 8 to 9. Ancestry from William Russell (1612 to 1664) through the Rev. Noadiah Russell (1659 to 1713) and the Rev. William Russell (born 1690) to Capt. Samuel Russell (born 1727). https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^7]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [97] (Rev. William Russell), [98] (Capt. Samuel Russell, b. Middletown July 7, 1727, merchant, d. March 14, 1794, p. 88), [99] (Rev. Noadiah Russell, of Thompson), [302] (Capt. John Russell, pp. 118-119), [307] (Matthew Talcott Russell, p. 119) and [638] (Samuel Russell, p. 166). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^8]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. I (1701-1745), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, class of 1709, p. 90. https://archive.org/details/biographicalske01dextuoft
[^9]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 10. Carrington as American consul at Canton, 1802 to 1804, and his commission business until 1811; the 1815 marriage to Mary Cotton Osborn; the widowed mother's house on High Street; the son of 1816; the Savannah ship recommended by Samuel Wetmore. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^10]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 12. Terms of the Providence contract of 1819 ($20,000 capital, two percent commission, $500 a year to the family, equal share after five years); the Fame, Gibraltar in late June 1819, Macao in September, Whampoa and the riverboat to the factories. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^11]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 156-157 (the constitution of Russell & Co. on January 1, 1824, succeeding Samuel Russell & Co., which "had existed from December 26, 1818, to December 26, 1823"; "Kee-Chang-Hong"; "confined itself strictly to agency business"; the sole partners Russell and Ammidon to 1830; Low, Heard, Forbes and Delano admitted; Delano "formerly of the house of Russell, Sturgis, & Co."). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^12]: National Register of Historic Places nomination, "Russell Company Upper Mill," Middletown, Connecticut (1986), "History" section. https://www.middletownct.gov/DocumentCenter/View/5448 Cited for the 1818 Canton station ("established his own trading station in Canton in 1818"), the June 1834 incorporation, the October 1840 bank loan, and the Simeon North investment.
[^13]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 13. The first venture returned about $15,000 to each of five partners in 1823; no evidence of Russell's participation in the opium trade in that venture; Russell's letters to the Providence partners on opium as "the only article" that "of late can be said to have a profit." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^14]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 13, notes 16 and 17. The 1821 Emily affair; "Russell & Company to Carrington & Company, June 30, 1821, Russell & Company Collection, Library of Congress." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^15]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 13. Cushing as an orphan and cousin of the Perkins brothers; Ammidon as agent for Brown and Ives; Houqua as a lifelong friend. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^16]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), addenda, p. 386 ("which was first formed by Messrs. Samuel Russell and Philip Ammidon, and after a few years was changed to the present firm of Russell & Co."). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^17]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 13 to 14. Cushing's proposal of a partnership with Ammidon and Russell, "one of the best men in the country"; Ammidon's trip to India with letters from Cushing and Houqua; the November 1826 renewal for four years from January 1, 1828, to allow Russell to return home. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^18]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 14. Russell back at Canton by October 1827; the Manila commission business and the Canton competitors; Ammidon replaced by William H. Low and Augustine Heard, and Ammidon terminated; Cushing's direction of the merger, the storeship business and John Murray Forbes; Forbes's death dated to 1827; Mary Cotton Osborn's death in childbirth and the two sons left with her sister; the 1827 marriage to Frances Ann Osborn; Russell and Cushing's return in March 1831. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^19]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 15. "Made Russell & Company one of the most important American sellers of the opium in Canton"; Houqua's letter of January 14, 1837, in the Library of Congress, with "during the whole course of its existence" and "sincere wish that you may live long to enjoy the fruit of your industry"; the "competent fortune" and the "China palace"; the 1836 withdrawal and the instruction to invest profits "in teas or bills of exchange on London"; the Canton house's later decades. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^20]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118-119 (the death of Thomas T. Forbes and S. H. Monson on August 9, 1829; the sealed letter; Cushing's return in August 1830; "Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house", p. 119). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^21]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 14 to 15. Perkins and Company as buyer and shipper; Russell and Company as "exclusively a commission house" that did not necessarily own the goods it handled. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^22]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 122 (Mr. Russell and Mr. Cushing take their final leave of Canton in the Bashaw on February 27, 1831). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^23]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 11. "The Hong merchants of Canton only occasionally enforced the ban on opium." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^24]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 13. "Russell was quite conversant with all the details of the opium trade"; "smuggling would have solved his cash problems," with single drug cargoes selling for as much as $50,000. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^25]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 14. The 1827 visit to Middletown and the solicitation of consignment business "including most notably the sale of opium for John Jacob Astor." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^26]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), p. 134 (Russell & Co. "had for some time done business at Canton previous to Mr. Cushing's leaving, and, in fact, had transacted a part of his business"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^27]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 12. Americans restricted to Turkish opium; the Perkins brothers' Turkish trade from the 1780s and their Smyrna house of 1816. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^28]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), pp. 123-124 (the Danube voyage to Smyrna; "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^29]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), pp. 123-126 (the Danube "fitted out at New York, by Messrs. Sturgis & Perkins," destined for Smyrna, March 1828; at Gibraltar "I waited for sundry shipments of drug, and the arrival of the ship Bashaw"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^30]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 65 ("The Canton agent received five, afterwards reduced to three, per cent, commission on sales"). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^31]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," January 9, 1840, referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs (Serial Set vol. 364), pp. 1-4 (dated Canton, May 25, 1839; signatures; sales by season; the Lintin receiving vessels and the fees; "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade"). https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000
[^32]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), p. 144 (the officials' encouragement of opium "from India and Turkey, not only by levying a duty on it for their own benefit, but by consuming it"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^33]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 15. "Russell & Company continued to prosper as a major marketer of opium"; the Indian trade at first about half the Turkish trade; the third largest purveyor of the drug from India. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^34]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 146 ("about fifty cases of Turkey"; the English "placed theirs in charge of the American houses"; "A large share of it fell under the control of Russell & Co."). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^35]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), pp. 160-161 (the dispute over the price of the surrendered opium; "most of the smaller holders of scrip were great losers"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^36]: *The African Repository*, vol. XV (Washington, 1839), "Contributions to the American Colonization Society from Feb. 25 to March 31, 1839," Donations, Middletown, Conn. (Richard Hubbard, then "Samuel Russell, do."). https://archive.org/details/africanreposito44socigoog
[^37]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 16. Russell to Hubbard, October 26, 1827 (Russell House Correspondence); instructions for a brick house 44 feet square; "a Mason and Carpenter could build the house for $5000." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^38]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 17 to 18. Plans transmitted to Hubbard on June 26, 1828; Hoadley and Curtis estimate of $7,000 including $1,000 for the west portico, recommended in Town's letter of September 1828; Davis partner from February 1, 1829. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^39]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 6 and 8. Painted panels with portraits of Samuel Russell and his wife Frances (p. 6); "the premier domestic example of the Corinthian Greek Revival style in the Northeast" (p. 8). https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^40]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 15. The house inherited by Samuel W. Russell Jr., which remained in the family until 1937 and was deeded to Wesleyan University by Thomas MacDonough Russell, Jr., described as the great-grandson. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^41]: Wesleyan University Honors College and Russell House records, 2000-025, Special Collections and Archives, Wesleyan University, biographical note (house built 1828; given to Wesleyan 1937; Honors College until 1996; National Register 1970; National Historic Landmark 2001). https://archives.wesleyan.edu/repositories/2/resources/205
[^42]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [1141] (George Osborn Russell, married first Augusta Harriet Mather and second Amelia Charlotte Mather), [1142] (John Augustus Russell, married Helena E. Webster, "An officer U.S. Navy") and [1143] (Samuel Wadsworth Russell, married Clara Alsop Casey; he died and his widow remarried; children William Wadsworth, Mary and Cornelia). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^43]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 8. Estate valued at $630,000 at the time of death in 1862, left to the widow and "sole surviving son Samuel Wadsworth Russell, Jr." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^44]: Russell Library, "Russell Library History" (Frances Russell's purchase of the Episcopal Church of the Holy Trinity at Broad and Court Streets in 1873; opening as Middletown's public library on April 5, 1876). https://russelllibrary.org/history/
[^45]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), opening article ("His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise"); pp. 151-152 ("Samuel's cousin"); p. 313 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H."). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^46]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), p. 52 ("drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^47]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856). The act names William H. Russell first among the body corporate, with John S. Beach, Henry B. Harrison, Daniel C. Gilman, Henry T. Blake and Henry D. White.
[^48]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," p. 52. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^49]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article, citing James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
[^50]: New York Society Library, City Readers, entity record "Samuel Wadsworth Russell" (dates "8/25/1789 - 5/5/1862"; "founder of Russell & Company"). https://cityreaders.nysoclib.org/Detail/entities/1013
[^51]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 16. Typed transcriptions in the Russell Library, Middletown, made from the Library of Congress originals, relied on by the nomination's author. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^52]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 8, note 2. Alain Munkittrick, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell (1789-1862): A Study in Ordered Investment," Wesleyan University honors thesis, 1973, cited as the basis of the nomination's account of the firm's business records. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text

11
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Stuart Symington.md
View file

@ -1,5 +1,10 @@
---
category: "Political Figure"
relations:
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Wadsworth family|Evelyn Wadsworth]]"
start: 1924
fn: 2
tags:
- Person
- Nuclear
@ -12,8 +17,12 @@ location: "Amherst, Massachusetts"
Stuart Symington was a Democratic Senator from [[Missouri]]. He was a strong backer of [[Adlai E. Stevenson]] for the Democratic presidential nomination. Paradoxically, Symington later emerged as an ardent supporter of a nuclear-armed [[Israel]] while also authoring key Senate legislation to limit the spread of such weapons.[^1]
In 1924 Symington married Evelyn Wadsworth (1903-1972), daughter of Senator [[Wadsworth family|James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.]] of New York and Alice Hay Wadsworth, a daughter of the Secretary of State [[John Hay]]; her brother James Jeremiah Wadsworth was later United States Representative to the United Nations.[^2]
In April 1963, [[Shimon Peres]] discussed nuclear weapons with Senator Symington, who was then a ranking member of the Senate Armed Services Committee. Symington reportedly told Peres, "Don't be a bunch of fools. Don't stop making atomic bombs. And don't listen to the administration. Do whatever you think best."[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 8, 9.
[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 8, 9.
[^2]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 14, 1926-1927 (Chicago: A. N. Marquis, 1926), entry "Wadsworth, Alice Hay (Mrs. James Wolcott Wadsworth, Jr.)" (children Evelyn (Mrs. Stuart Symington), James Jeremiah, Reverdy), https://archive.org/details/whoswho141926 ; Livingston County Historian's Office, "Wadsworth Family: A Subject Finding Aid" (2019, rev. 2022), section II (marriage 1924).

286
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Thomas Nelson Perkins.md Normal file
View file

@ -0,0 +1,286 @@
---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
aliases:
- Thomas Nelson Perkins
- Thomas N. Perkins
- Thos. N. Perkins
- T. N. Perkins
category: "Business & Finance"
tags:
- Person
- Perkins
- PerkinsFamily
- HarvardUniversity
- RopesGray
- WarIndustriesBoard
- ReparationCommission
- DawesPlan
- YoungPlan
- TribunalOfInterpretation
- BankForInternationalSettlements
- CommercialRadioInternationalCommittee
- BostonAndMaine
- AmericanTelephoneAndTelegraph
- CopperMining
- StoneAndWebster
- Boston
summary: "Boston lawyer and Harvard fellow who sat on the War Industries Board priorities committee, chaired the Dawes Plan tribunal of interpretation, signed the 1929 Young Plan report and directed AT&T and the Boston and Maine."
location: "Boston, Massachusetts"
born: 1870-05-06
died: 1937-10-07
relations:
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Edward Cranch Perkins]]"
role: "father"
fn: 4
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Charles Elliott Perkins]]"
role: "paternal uncle"
fn: 5
- type: relative_of
with: "[[John Murray Forbes]]"
role: "mother's uncle"
fn: 6
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Louisa Catherine Adams]]"
start: 1900-06-06
role: "married at Lincoln, Massachusetts"
fn: 8
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Charles Francis Adams Jr.]]"
role: "father-in-law"
fn: 9
- type: director_of
with: "[[Harvard University]]"
start: 1905-01-01
end: 1924-01-01
role: "Fellow of Harvard College (President and Fellows), first term"
fn: 59
- type: director_of
with: "[[Harvard University]]"
start: 1926-10-01
end: 1937-10-07
role: "Fellow of Harvard College, re-elected October 1926"
fn: 59
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins]]"
start: 1899-01-01
end: 1937-10-07
role: "member of Ropes, Gray & Gorham from 1899; later Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins"
fn: 8
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Roland W. Boyden]]"
start: 1899-01-01
role: "fellow member of Ropes, Gray & Gorham"
fn: 8
- type: participant_in
with: "[[War Industries Board]]"
start: 1917-09-01
end: 1918-12-31
role: "member of the priorities committee; studies in England and France in fall 1917"
fn: 20
- type: head_of
with: "[[Commercial Radio International Committee]]"
start: 1922-04-01
role: "chairman of the nine trustees"
fn: 3
- type: head_of
with: "[[Arbitral Tribunal of Interpretation]]"
start: 1926-01-01
role: "president, succeeding Walter P. Cooke; Awards II (1927) and III (1928)"
fn: 27
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Young Plan]]"
start: 1929-02-09
end: 1929-06-07
role: "alternate American expert; chairman of the third subcommittee on deliveries in kind"
fn: 40
- type: director_of
with: "[[Boston and Maine Railroad]]"
start: 1924-04-09
end: 1937-10-07
role: "director; chairman of the executive committee from 1928-03-07; acting president; chairman of the board until 1933-04-25"
fn: 49
- type: director_of
with: "[[American Telephone and Telegraph Company]]"
start: 1929-01-01
end: 1936-12-31
role: "director in the annual reports for 1929 through 1936"
fn: 56
- type: director_of
with: "[[Puget Sound Power and Light Company]]"
role: "chairman of the executive committee"
fn: 2
- type: director_of
with: "[[Stone and Webster]]"
role: "executive committee"
fn: 2
- type: director_of
with: "[[Old Colony Trust Company]]"
role: "executive committee"
fn: 2
- type: director_of
with: "[[Lee, Higginson Trust Company]]"
role: "executive committee"
fn: 2
- type: director_of
with: "[[General Foods Corporation]]"
role: "director"
fn: 2
- type: director_of
with: "[[Walter Baker and Company]]"
start: 1906-01-01
role: "director"
fn: 53
- type: director_of
with: "[[Russian Student Fund]]"
start: 1929-01-01
end: 1931-12-31
role: "board of directors"
fn: 57
---
Thomas Nelson Perkins (born at [[Milton, Massachusetts]] on May 6, 1870; died October 7, 1937) was a [[Boston]] lawyer in the firm of [[Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins]], a fellow of [[Harvard University]], and a director of railway, utility, copper, banking and telephone companies, among them the [[Boston and Maine Railroad]] and the [[American Telephone and Telegraph Company]].[^1][^2] In 1917 he sat on the priorities committee of the [[War Industries Board]]. In 1922 he was chosen chairman of the [[Commercial Radio International Committee]], the body through which [[Radio Corporation of America]], the English [[Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company]], the French [[Compagnie Générale de Télégraphie sans Fil]] and the German [[Telefunken]] arranged their South American and trans-Atlantic radio traffic.[^3] From 1926 he presided over the arbitral tribunal of interpretation for the [[Dawes Plan]], and in 1929 he was an American alternate on the Committee of Experts that drafted the [[Young Plan]] for reparations owed by [[Germany]], signing the committee's report at Paris on June 7, 1929. He belonged to the [[Perkins family]] of Boston.
### Descent and early years
Perkins was born at Milton, the son of [[Edward Cranch Perkins]] and Jane S. Watson ([[Jane Watson]]).[^4] His father was a son of [[James Handasyd Perkins]] and [[Sarah Elliott Perkins]] of the [[Owls Nest]] house near [[Cincinnati]], and a brother of [[Charles Elliott Perkins]], later president of the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]].[^5] The 1907 family memoir by [[Edith Perkins Cunningham]] lists four children of Edward Cranch Perkins: Thomas Nelson (1870), Elliott (1873 to 1885), James Handasyd (1876) and John Forbes (1878).[^5] It describes John Forbes, "the President" of the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad, bringing "his niece, Jenny Watson" through Cincinnati in 1858 on a western trip while he was buying the line; this is [[John Murray Forbes]], whom Charles Elliott Perkins succeeded in running the Burlington.[^6]
Perkins took the A.B. at [[Harvard College]] in 1891, was admitted to the bar in 1893, and took the LL.B. in 1894.[^4] His classmates in 1891 included [[Nicholas Longworth]], then a member of the United States House of Representatives, who married [[Alice Roosevelt Longworth|Alice Roosevelt]] on February 17, 1906. In the class report for that year Perkins wrote that "much the most prominent position that I have filled was that of best man to our classmate Longworth at his recent marriage."[^7]
On June 6, 1900 he married Louisa Catherine Adams at [[Lincoln, Massachusetts]]; the class report gives her as "daughter of Charles Francis Adams."[^8] She was born on December 28, 1871, a daughter of [[Charles Francis Adams Jr.]] and Mary Hone Ogden ([[Mary Hone Ogden]]), who had married on November 8, 1865.[^9][^4] Adams, a brother of [[Brooks Adams]] and [[Henry Adams]], was a member of the Massachusetts railroad commission from 1869 to 1879, a government director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] from 1877 to 1890 and its president from 1884 to 1890.[^4] The 1926 history of Quincy lists the children of Charles Francis Adams as Mary Ogden, Louisa Catherine, Elizabeth Ogden, Henry and John, states that "Louisa married Thomas Nelson Perkins," and dates his death at Washington on March 20, 1915.[^10] Perkins moved to [[Westwood, Massachusetts]] in 1899, and his firm practiced from 60 [[State Street]] in Boston.[^8]
### Ropes, Gray and the Boston bar
In October 1894 [[Arthur Dehon Hill]] entered the office of John D. Bryant at 53 State Street, and a year later formed a partnership for the general practice of law with Perkins and [[Lawrence M. Stockton]]. In May 1897 that firm broke up, Perkins joining [[Ropes, Gray & Loring]] and Stockton the firm of [[Lowell, Stimson & Stockton]].[^11] In 1899, after the death of [[John C. Ropes]] and the appointment of [[William Caleb Loring]] to the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, the firm became [[Ropes, Gray & Gorham]], whose members were [[John C. Gray]], [[Robert S. Gorham]], [[Roland W. Boyden]] and Perkins. [[Roland Gray]] joined in 1902. Perkins described his practice as "almost entirely an office practice," most of his time "spent on corporation work and the management of trust properties."[^8] Who's Who gives the firm name as Ropes, Gray & Gorham in 1916 and as Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins in 1920, and the 1928 entry gives the office as 50 Federal Street.[^12][^13][^14] The Business Historical Society's obituary dates his partnership from 1899 and describes his work for [[Stone and Webster]]: "He won his spurs in 1899 when, as representative of Stone & Webster, he unraveled the tangled traction problems of Seattle."[^15]
Roland W. Boyden, his partner, is identified in the Foreign Relations series as American unofficial representative on the [[Reparation Commission]] as of April 30, 1922, and the Congressional Digest of November 1924 introduced him as "Former United States Delegate on the Reparation Commission."[^16][^17] Boyden wrote "The Priority Question" for *Foreign Affairs* in April 1928.[^18]
### The War Industries Board
Who's Who lists Perkins during the First World War as a member of the Priorities Committee and chief counsel of the War Industries Board, a member of the American commission to the Inter-Allied War Conference at Paris, an assistant to the Secretary of War and an assistant director of munitions.[^14] The Associated Press obituary of October 7, 1937 repeats these posts, and the Business Historical Society calls him "Assistant Secretary of War in charge of purchase and supply" and a member of "the House Commission to the inter-allied conference in Paris."[^19][^15]
The Board's report, published in 1921 under [[Bernard Baruch]], records the structure. [[Robert S. Lovett]] was priorities commissioner from the fall of 1917, and [[Edwin B. Parker]] was designated by "Judge Lovett" as chairman of the new priorities committee, taking charge on August 23, 1917 and succeeding Lovett as commissioner on the reorganization of March 4, 1918. The other members of the committee were Charles K. Foster as vice chairman, [[J. B. Aleshire]], [[George Armsby]], [[H. H. Barbour]], [[C. P. Rowland]], [[F. H. Macpherson]], [[N. E. Mason]], [[C. A. McKenney]], [[Everett Morss]], [[Lucius P. Ordway]], Perkins, [[T. C. Powell]] and [[A. V. Zane]]. "During the fall of 1917, studies on behalf of the priorities committee were being made in England and France by Thomas Nelson Perkins, a member of the committee. He observed the various control systems in use there and prepared daily reports and comments for the committee." Priorities Circular No. 1 was issued on September 21, 1917, the day the price of copper was fixed.[^20]
[[Daniel R. Beaver]], in his study of Secretary of War [[Newton D. Baker]], writes of the arrival in Washington of a report from Perkins as the Board's representative at the Inter-Allied conference.[^21] In the Army's history of its own organization, [[James E. Hewes]] calls Perkins "a Boston corporation lawyer" serving with the Board and "Mr. Baker's nemesis," and writes that the Board "loaned" him to the War Department in April.[^22] The Library of Congress register of the papers of [[Felix Frankfurter]] lists two folders of correspondence with Perkins from 1918 to 1934.[^23]
### Radio: the Commercial Radio International Committee
In April 1922 *The Wireless Age* reported that [[Owen D. Young]], vice president of [[General Electric]], was on his way to Cannes with Thomas N. Perkins of Boston "on a mission in connection with the activities of the Radio Corporation of America for the development of trans-Atlantic wireless communications." Young described a meeting he had called at Paris the previous October, at which the English Marconi company, the French Compagnie de Télégraphie sans Fil and the German Telefunken agreed with RCA to build one station in Argentina for all four. Control was placed in nine trustees, two named by each of the four companies and a ninth, "acting as Chairman," appointed by RCA: "Thomas N. Perkins was chosen to fill the post of Chairman."[^3] Who's Who in 1930 gives him as chairman of the board of the Commercial Radio International Committee, and the Boston and New York press of March 1928 gave the same title when he was elected to the Boston and Maine post.[^2][^24]
### The Reparation Commission and the Dawes tribunal
Who's Who in 1928 lists him as "U.S. citizen member Reparation Commn. (Paris), 1924-26," and a Reuter dispatch printed in October 1937 calls him "United States citizen member of the Reparation Commission in Paris from 1924 to 1926."[^14][^25] The Reparation Commission's own papers show a narrower record for those years. The Regulations for Deliveries in Kind, drafted in the winter of 1924 to 1925 by a special committee created under the [[London Agreement of 1924]], gave the American Citizen Member of the Reparation Commission the decision on contracts that the Allied and German offices could not agree on, with power to nominate a substitute if prevented from acting. The committee's covering letter of March 9, 1925 reports: "By letter of February 19, 1925 Mr. Thomas N. Perkins has accepted the task which the Committee proposed to entrust to him, under certain reserves which, in the opinion of the Committee, should in no way endanger the proper working of the Regulations."[^26] In the Commission's report for 1926 the American Citizen Member is [[Walter P. Cooke]], who resigned as president of the Arbitral Tribunal "to become the American Citizen Member of the Reparation Commission," with "Mr. Thomas Nelson Perkins" appointed president of the tribunal "in his stead."[^27] A family history of the Cutcheon line records that [[Franklin W. M. Cutcheon]] was appointed United States Citizen Member in December 1927.[^28] The German edition of the tribunal's decisions, published in 1927, calls Perkins Cooke's successor and "früherer Delegierter der Vereinigten Staaten zur Reparationskommission," a former delegate of the United States to the Reparation Commission.[^29]
The Foreign Relations series names other Americans in the unofficial seat: [[James A. Logan Jr.]] in February 1924 and [[Ralph Waldo Snowden Hill]] in May 1926.[^30][^31] In July 1924, during the London negotiations, Ambassador [[Myron T. Herrick]] reported that the British and French prime ministers had settled that the decision on a German default would be left "to an American, presumably the Agent General, and Owen Young's name was mentioned."[^32]
The tribunal arose under the agreement between the Reparation Commission and the German government signed at London on August 9, 1924. [[Sir John Fischer Williams]], British legal representative on the Commission, wrote in 1928 that it began with three arbitrators and was enlarged in June 1925, before any sitting, by two neutral members, and that "the chairman or president of the tribunal was to be an American citizen."[^33] Its first award, of March 24, 1926, was signed by Cooke as president, with [[Marcus Wallenberg]], [[A. G. Kröller]], [[Charles Rist]] and [[Albrecht Mendelssohn Bartholdy]] as the other members; the Commission's report records that it decided questions I, III and IV in favor of Germany and VII and VIII in favor of the Commission.[^34][^27]
Award No. II, delivered at [[The Hague]] on January 29, 1927 with Perkins as president, answered a question submitted by terms of submission dated at Paris on March 25, 1926: whether the annuities payable to the Agent General for Reparation Payments comprised compensation paid by the German Reich to German nationals for the retention, liquidation or transfer of their property, rights and interests. The tribunal found it "impossible to place upon the Experts' Plan a construction according to which the annuities were intended by the Experts to comprise" such compensation. The award is signed "Thomas N. Perkins, President" and "E. N. van Kleffens, Secretary," and its English text is authoritative.[^35] Award No. III, delivered at The Hague on May 29, 1928 after a session of May 7 to 14, concerned three questions on whether the net proceeds of German private property liquidated by the Allied powers under the Treaty of Versailles were to be reckoned against the annuities. The tribunal answered all three in the negative, and the *American Journal of International Law* recorded it as an award "against German contention."[^36][^37] In the summer of 1927 [[Josiah Stamp]], one of the authors of the Dawes Plan, and Mendelssohn Bartholdy were named honorary doctors of laws of Harvard "unter den Auspizien des Präsidenten des Schiedsgerichts," Perkins, according to the German editors' foreword.[^36]
### The Young Committee, 1929
The Reparation Commission, jointly with the German government, appointed Owen D. Young and J. P. Morgan as the American members of the Committee of Experts, each with power to name an alternate. On January 18, 1929 Secretary of State [[Frank B. Kellogg]] telegraphed the American chargé in Paris that the British Ambassador was going to New York "to offer the appointment to Young and Morgan and to Perkins as an alternate," and that the American government had no objection.[^38] On January 19 Herrick reported the Commission's appointment of "Messrs. Young and Morgan as members of the Committee of Experts each with power to appoint his alternate," and that the committee would hold its first meeting at the Bank of France on February 9.[^39] On January 21 the membership was telegraphed in final form: "American Experts: Mr. Owen D. Young, Mr. J. P. Morgan; alternates: Mr. Thos. N. Perkins, Mr. T. W. Lamont."[^40] The member named only as J. P. Morgan is [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]], the son of the elder [[J. P. Morgan]], who died on March 31, 1913; the alternate [[Thomas W. Lamont]] was a partner of the Morgan firm.
On March 3, 1929 the embassy in Paris cabled Washington a message from Young: "The third subcommittee, of which Perkins is the chairman, is working on deliveries in kind in endeavor to see to what extent they can be used, say over a period of ten years, to facilitate transfers from Germany." For the first year it was thought that deliveries might run as high as 750 million marks, diminishing year by year.[^41] The Communist *Daily Worker* reported on March 2, 1929 that the experts were considering "an international trust, incorporated under the laws of neutral power, to act as a general sales agent for all future deliveries in kind," that "the Thomas N. Perkins Committee on deliveries in kind has evolved the idea at the suggestion of Perkins," and that Perkins "is a director of a dozen chemical, power, traction and machinery companies."[^42]
[[Denys P. Myers]] wrote in 1930 that Perkins, American, "was the chairman of the Tribunal of Interpretation between the Reparation Commission and the German Government," and that five members of the 1924 committee sat again in 1929.[^43] The report, signed at Paris on June 7, 1929, closes: "We regard our report as an indivisible whole." The signatures include Owen D. Young, J. P. Morgan, Thomas N. Perkins and T. W. Lamont.[^44] An annex prints a letter of June 4, 1929 to Lamont at the [[Hôtel Ritz]], "confirming my conversation of this morning with you and Mr. Perkins."[^45] Annex I of the report recommended that the Interpretation Tribunal "set up under the London Agreement of August 30, 1924" should "be retained in existence" to decide disputes between Germany and the creditor governments or the Bank on the extent of Germany's liabilities or the interpretation of the Plan.[^45]
### The Young Plan tribunal and the Bank for International Settlements
The tribunal under the Young Plan was to have five members sitting for five years, the incumbents named in the plan: Perkins as president, Wallenberg and Kröller as neutrals, Rist as creditor member and Mendelssohn Bartholdy as debtor member. Myers added that "Mr. Perkins, however, resigned before the New Plan came into effect."[^46]
The Young Plan placed the intergovernmental payments in the [[Bank for International Settlements]]. The bank's Organization Committee met at the [[Hotel Stephanie]] in [[Baden-Baden]] from October 3 to November 13, 1929. It had two members appointed by the governors of the central banks of Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy and Japan, and two American delegates, [[Jackson E. Reynolds]] of the [[First National Bank of New York]] and [[Melvin A. Traylor]] of the [[First National Bank of Chicago]]; it produced the bank's charter, statutes and trust agreement.[^47] The statutes provide that a dispute between the bank and a central bank or shareholder on the interpretation of the statutes go "for final decision to the Tribunal provided for by The Hague Agreement of January, 1930."[^45]
On April 28, 1930 Representative [[Louis T. McFadden]], chairman of the House Committee on Banking and Currency, told the House that the State Department's statement of May 16, 1929 had turned America's participation in the bank over "to a group of bankers headed and dominated by J. P. Morgan & Company," and added that "closely associated with the dominating influence, Mr. Owen D. Young, in the organization of the Bank for International Settlements, were J. P. Morgan, Thomas W. Lamont and Thomas N. Perkins, who with Mr. Young composed United States representatives of the committee which brought forth the Young plan." *The United States Daily* printed the speech on April 30, 1930.[^48]
### Boston and Maine
Perkins was elected a director of the Boston and Maine on April 9, 1924.[^49] On March 7, 1928 he was elected chairman of the executive committee, succeeding Homer Loring; he made it clear that the committee would continue to exercise the same functions as in the past and that President George Hannauer would remain the executive head.[^50][^24] The report for 1929, signed by Perkins as "Acting President" on March 11, 1930, lists him as "Chairman Executive Committee and Acting President."[^51] A newspaper photograph of January 1930 identified him as "Acting president of Boston & Maine," about to address the Traffic Club of New England.[^52] He resigned as chairman of the board on April 25, 1933 and remained a director and member of the executive committee. The directors' minute on his death records that "for the 5 years preceding April 25, 1933 ... he was the dominating influence in your company's policies."[^49]
### Directorships
The *Directory of Directors in the City of Boston and Vicinity* shows the accumulation in order. In the 1906 edition Perkins was a member of the board of managers and executive committee of the [[Children's Hospital]], a director of the [[National Bank of Commerce]], vice president and director of the [[Railway and Light Securities Company]], trustee of the [[Seattle Electric Company]], director of the [[State Street Trust Company]], trustee of the [[Suffolk Savings Bank for Seamen and Others]], and a director of [[Walter Baker and Company]].[^53] By 1908 he was also a Fellow of Harvard College and a director of the [[Puget Sound International Railway and Power Company]] and the [[St. Mary's Mineral Land Company]], and he sat on the boards of the [[Houghton County Electric Light Company]], where his co-directors included [[Charles A. Stone]] and [[Edwin S. Webster]] of Stone and Webster, and the Houghton County Street Railway.[^54] The 1911 edition adds the Michigan copper companies [[Ahmeek Mining Company]], [[Allouez Mining Company]], [[La Salle Copper Company]], [[Osceola Consolidated Mining Company]] and [[Tamarack Mining Company]], whose boards included [[Rodolphe L. Agassiz]]; the [[Tacoma Railway and Power Company]]; and the [[Boston Opera Company]].[^55]
Who's Who in 1916 adds the [[Merrimac Chemical Company]] and the [[Puget Sound Traction, Light and Power Company]], and the 1920 entry adds the [[Sullivan Machinery Company]].[^12][^13] The 1928 entry lists the [[Puget Sound Power and Light Company]], the [[George H. Morrill Company]], the Boston and Maine, the [[Postum Company]] and the [[Champion Copper Company]].[^14] The 1930 entry gives him as chairman of the executive committee of Puget Sound Power and Light and of the Boston and Maine, and as a director of the [[General Foods Corporation]], Champion Copper, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and the [[Engineers Public Service Company]], with seats on the executive committees of Stone and Webster, the [[Lee, Higginson Trust Company]] and the [[Old Colony Trust Company]].[^2] The Associated Press obituary adds the executive committee of the [[First National Bank of Boston]].[^19]
The annual reports of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company list Perkins among the directors from the report for 1929 through the report for 1936. The board in the report for 1929 also included [[George F. Baker]] and [[George F. Baker Jr.]], [[John W. Davis]], [[W. Cameron Forbes]], [[Walter S. Gifford]], [[Owen J. Roberts]], [[Myron C. Taylor]] and [[Daniel Willard]]; the report for 1930 added [[Winthrop W. Aldrich]] and [[Hale Holden]].[^56]
From 1929 to 1931 he sat on the board of directors of the Russian Student Fund, Inc., with [[Norman H. Davis]], [[Frank L. Polk]], [[Ogden L. Mills]], [[John R. Mott]], [[Cornelius W. Wickersham]] and [[Allen Wardwell]].[^57] The Business Historical Society's obituary records that in 1932 he was named to the Boston committee formed to aid the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]] and the Federal Reserve System in promoting wider use of credit, and that [[Dartmouth College]] conferred a doctorate of letters on him under President Hopkins.[^15]
### Harvard Corporation
Perkins was appointed a Fellow of Harvard College in 1905 "to fill the vacancy caused by the death of the late Samuel Hoar"; the 1915 quinquennial catalogue lists "Thomas Nelson Perkins, (see A.B. 1891); Fellow 1905-" and gives [[Samuel Hoar]]'s service as 1894 to 1904.[^8][^58] *The Christian Science Monitor* wrote in 1926 that at 35 he was "the youngest Fellow ever to be elected."[^59] The same notice records that "in 1924 he resigned, after 19 years of loyal service, in order to serve on the Reparations Commission in Europe," his place taken by [[Charles P. Curtis Jr.]] of the class of 1914, and that in October 1926 he was re-elected to the seat vacated on October 11 by [[James Byrne]] of New York. He had been chosen president of the Harvard Alumni Association and had received the honorary Doctor of Laws from Harvard the previous June. The Corporation then consisted of President [[A. Lawrence Lowell]], Charles F. Adams as treasurer, [[Henry P. Walcott]], Bishop [[William Lawrence]], [[John F. Moors]], Perkins and Curtis.[^59] The Business Historical Society's obituary states that "from the age of 35 until his death" he was a Fellow of the Corporation.[^15]
[[Henry Aaron Yeomans]]'s biography of Lowell lists Perkins among the Fellows at the time of Lowell's election as president and prints a letter from Lowell to Perkins dated November 1, 1932.[^60]
### Family, clubs and death
The class report of 1906 names two sons, born March 16, 1901 and November 17, 1903; the 1907 family memoir lists a third child born in 1907, and the Associated Press obituary names three surviving sons.[^8][^5][^19] His clubs in the 1910 entry were the Somerset, Exchange, Norfolk Hunt (Boston), University and Harvard (New York) clubs; the 1928 entry adds the Knickerbocker and the Metropolitan (Washington).[^4][^14] He is listed at Westwood in the entries of 1910, 1916 and 1928.[^4][^12][^14]
He died on October 7, 1937. The Associated Press dispatch is datelined Westwood and says he died "after a long illness"; the Sedgwick genealogy and a 1975 genealogy of presidential descendants also place the death at Westwood, and a Reuter dispatch printed in the *North China Daily News* is datelined [[Dedham, Massachusetts]].[^19][^1][^61][^25] The Business Historical Society's bulletin of November 1937 records that he "remained partner until he passed away in October 1937," and the directors of the Boston and Maine recorded his death in their report for 1937.[^15][^49]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Hubert M. Sedgwick, *A Sedgwick Genealogy: Descendants of Deacon Benjamin Sedgwick* (New Haven: New Haven Colony Historical Society, 1961), entry for Thomas Nelson Perkins, who "was born May 6, 1870, at Milton, Mass., and died October 7, 1937, at Westwood, Mass." https://archive.org/details/sedgwickgenealog00sedg
[^2]: *Who's Who in America*, 1930-1931, vol. 16, entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson, lawyer: born Milton, Mass., 1870; A.B. Harvard 1891, LL.B. 1894, LL.D. 1926; member of Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins; vice president of Railway & Light Securities; directorships and executive committee seats; chairman of the board of the Commercial Radio International Committee; president of the Arbitral Tribunal of Interpretation. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1930-1931_16
[^3]: "World Wide Wireless: Big Four-Nation Radio Station," *The Wireless Age*, vol. 9, no. 7 (April 1922), on Owen D. Young's account of the Paris meeting of October 1921, the single South American station, the nine trustees and the election of Thomas N. Perkins as chairman. https://archive.org/details/sim_wireless-age_1922-04_9_7
[^4]: *Who's Who in America*, 1910-1911, vol. 6, entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson: born Milton, Mass., 1870, son of Edward C. and Jane S. (Watson) Perkins; A.B. Harvard 1891, LL.B. 1894; admitted to the bar 1893; married Louisa C. Adams of Lincoln, Mass., June 6, 1900; member of Ropes, Gray & Gorham; directorships, trusteeships and clubs; home at Westwood. Also the entry for Adams, Charles Francis, historical writer: married Mary Hone Ogden of Newport, R.I., November 8, 1865; Massachusetts railroad commissioner 1869-79; government director 1877-90 and president 1884-90 of the Union Pacific; brother of Brooks and Henry Adams. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1910-1911_6
[^5]: Edith Perkins Cunningham, *Owls Nest: A Tribute to Sarah Elliott Perkins* (privately printed, 1907), genealogical tables of the children of Charles Elliott Perkins and of Edward Cranch Perkins (Thomas Nelson 1870, Elliott 1873-1885, James Handasyd 1876, John Forbes 1878) and of the children of Thomas N. Perkins (born 1901, 1903 and 1907). https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog
[^6]: Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), the narrative of the summer of 1858, in which "Uncle John Forbes" brought "his daughter Ellen and his niece, Jenny Watson," through Cincinnati while buying the Burlington and Missouri River line, "of which Uncle John Forbes was the President," and the index entry "Perkins, Mrs. Edward C. (Jane Watson)." https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog
[^7]: *Harvard College Class of 1891, Secretary's Report, Number IV* (Boston, 1906), entry for Thomas Nelson Perkins (best man to Longworth) and entry for Nicholas Longworth (Ohio legislature 1899 to 1901, Congress from 1902, "married on February 17, 1906, to Miss Alice Roosevelt"). https://archive.org/details/secretarysreport41891harvuoft
[^8]: *Harvard College Class of 1891, Secretary's Report, Number IV* (Boston, 1906), entry for Thomas Nelson Perkins: the firms Ropes, Gray & Loring and Ropes, Gray & Gorham, the admission of Roland Gray in 1902, the office at 60 State Street, the marriage at Lincoln on June 6, 1900 to Louisa Catherine Adams, "daughter of Charles Francis Adams," the sons born March 16, 1901 and November 17, 1903, the move to Westwood in 1899, and the appointment as Fellow of Harvard College "to fill the vacancy caused by the death of the late Samuel Hoar." https://archive.org/details/secretarysreport41891harvuoft
[^9]: Frederick Wallace Pyne, *Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence* (Camden, Me.: Picton Press, 1997), entries for the children of Charles Francis Adams and Mary Hone Ogden (Louisa Catherine Adams, born December 28, 1871) and for the children of Louisa Catherine Adams and Thomas Nelson Perkins. https://archive.org/details/descendantsofsig0003pyne
[^10]: Daniel Munro Wilson, *Three Hundred Years of Quincy, 1625-1925* (Quincy, 1926), chapter "Right Sons of the Great Ambassador," pp. 202 to 207, on Charles Francis Adams (death at Washington March 20, 1915; rode "over to Lincoln" in November 1893; "Mrs. Adams continues to reside at Lincoln"; children Mary Ogden, Louisa Catherine, Elizabeth Ogden, Henry and John; "Louisa married Thomas Nelson Perkins"). https://archive.org/details/threehundredyear00wils
[^11]: *Harvard College Class of 1891, Secretary's Report, Number IV* (Boston, 1906), entry for Arthur Dehon Hill, on his partnership with Thomas Nelson Perkins and Lawrence M. Stockton, formed in 1895 and broken up in May 1897 when Perkins joined Ropes, Gray & Loring and Stockton joined Lowell, Stimson & Stockton. https://archive.org/details/secretarysreport41891harvuoft
[^12]: *Who's Who in America*, 1916-1917, vol. 9, entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson: member of Ropes, Gray & Gorham; directors of Merrimac Chemical, State Street Trust, Puget Sound International Railway & Power, Walter Baker, St. Mary's Mineral Land, Houghton County Electric Light, Houghton County Traction, Ahmeek, Allouez, La Salle Copper, Tacoma Railway & Power and Puget Sound Traction, Light & Power; home at Westwood. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1916-1917_9
[^13]: *Who's Who in America*, 1920-1921, vol. 11, entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson: member of Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins; director of Sullivan Machinery Company among others. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1920-1921_11
[^14]: *Who's Who in America*, 1928-1929, vol. 15, entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson: Priorities Committee, chief counsel War Industries Board, member American commission to the Inter-Allied War Conference (Paris), assistant to the Secretary of War and assistant director of munitions; "U.S. citizen member Reparation Commn. (Paris), 1924-26"; directorships including Puget Sound Power & Light, Sullivan Machinery, George H. Morrill Company, Boston & Maine (executive committee), Postum Company and Champion Copper; clubs; office at 50 Federal Street. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1928-1929_15
[^15]: "Obituary: Thomas Nelson Perkins," *Bulletin of the Business Historical Society*, vol. 11, no. 5 (November 1937), on his partnership from 1899, the Stone & Webster work in Seattle, the Boston and Maine, the Harvard Corporation, the War Industries Board, the Reparations Commission, the Commercial Radio committee, the 1932 Boston credit committee and the Dartmouth degree. https://archive.org/details/sim_business-history-review_1937-11_11_5
[^16]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1923*, vol. II, note identifying Roland W. Boyden as American unofficial representative on the Reparation Commission as of April 30, 1922. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1923v02
[^17]: *The Congressional Digest*, vol. 4, no. 2 (November 1924), author line for Roland W. Boyden, "Former United States Delegate on the Reparation Commission." https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-digest_1924-11_4_2
[^18]: *Foreign Affairs*, vol. 6, no. 3 (April 1928), table of contents, Roland W. Boyden, "The Priority Question," p. 368. https://archive.org/details/sim_foreign-affairs_1928-04_6_3
[^19]: "Thomas Nelson Perkins, War Industries Counsel, Dies," Associated Press dispatch dated Westwood, Mass., October 7, 1937, *St. Louis Post-Dispatch*, October 7, 1937, p. 4A: former member of the Reparations Commission and of the American commission to the Inter-Allied War Conference, chief counsel of the War Industries Board, chairman of the Commercial Radio International Committee, executive committees of Lee Higginson Trust, Old Colony Trust and First National Bank of Boston; the widow and three sons survive. https://archive.org/details/per_st-louis-post-dispatch_1937-10-07_90_32
[^20]: Bernard M. Baruch, *American Industry in the War: A Report of the War Industries Board* (Washington, 1921), pp. 47 to 49, on Robert S. Lovett as priorities commissioner, Edwin B. Parker's designation as chairman of the priorities committee on August 23, 1917, the reorganization of March 4, 1918, the members of the committee including Thomas Nelson Perkins, his studies in England and France in the fall of 1917, and Priorities Circular No. 1 of September 21, 1917. https://archive.org/details/americanindustry00unit
[^21]: Daniel R. Beaver, *Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917-1919* (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966), on the arrival in Washington from abroad of a report from Thomas N. Perkins, representative of the War Industries Board at the Inter-Allied conference. https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-BAD-357
[^22]: James E. Hewes Jr., *From Root to McNamara: Army Organization and Administration, 1900-1963* (Washington: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1975), on Thomas N. Perkins, "a Boston corporation lawyer serving with" the War Industries Board, "Mr. Baker's nemesis," whom the Board "loaned" to the War Department in April. https://archive.org/details/fromroottomcnama0000hewe
[^23]: *Felix Frankfurter: A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress* (Washington: Library of Congress, 1984), listing "Perkins, Thomas Nelson, 1918-34 (2 folders)." https://archive.org/details/felixfrankfurter0000libr
[^24]: "Perkins B. & M. Board Head," *The New York Times*, March 8, 1928 (Boston, March 7): elected chairman of the executive committee of the Boston & Maine, succeeding Homer Loring; president of the interpretations tribunal of the Reparation Commission; chairman of the Commercial Radio International Committee. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1928-03-08_77_25611
[^25]: "Mr. Thomas Nelson Perkins," Reuter obituary dated Dedham, Mass., October 7, *North China Daily News*, October 11, 1937: "United States citizen member of the Reparation Commission in Paris from 1924 to 1926." https://archive.org/details/unl_ncdn_1937101101
[^26]: Reparation Commission, *Official Documents*, volume for 1925, Annex 2385, Regulations for Deliveries in Kind and the covering letter of March 9, 1925 from the chairman of the Special Committee created under the London Agreement, paragraphs 8 and following (the role of the American Citizen Member of the Reparation Commission; the acceptance by letter of February 19, 1925 of Thomas N. Perkins). https://archive.org/details/per_reparation-papers-reparation-commission_official-documents_1925_0
[^27]: Reparation Commission, *Official Documents*, volume for 1926, report on the Arbitral Tribunal: the award of March 24, 1926 (questions I, III and IV decided in favor of Germany; VII and VIII in favor of the Reparation Commission) and the statement that "Mr. Walter P. Cooke having resigned as President, to become the American Citizen Member of the Reparation Commission. Mr. Thomas Nelson Perkins was appointed as President of the Tribunal in his stead." https://archive.org/details/per_reparation-papers-reparation-commission_official-documents_1926_1
[^28]: Florence McCutcheon McKee, *The McCutcheon (Cutcheon) Family Records* (1931), entry for Franklin Warner M. Cutcheon, p. 114: appointed United States Citizen Member of the Reparation Commission in December 1927 and remaining until the Hague Protocol of 1929. https://archive.org/details/mccutcheoncutche00mcke_0
[^29]: *Die Entscheidungen des Internationalen Schiedsgerichts zur Auslegung des Dawes-plans, Zweite Session* (Hamburg), the introduction on the composition of the tribunal: "An die Stelle des Vorsitzenden der ersten Session Mr. Walter P. Cooke ist Mr. Thomas N. Perkins, früherer Delegierter der Vereinigten Staaten zur Reparationskommission, getreten." https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge02arbi
[^30]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1924*, vol. II, telegram of February 23, 1924 to James A. Logan Jr., identifying him as American unofficial representative on the Reparation Commission. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1924v02
[^31]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1926*, vol. II, telegram of May 12, 1926 identifying Ralph Waldo Snowden Hill as American unofficial representative on the Reparation Commission. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1926v02
[^32]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1924*, vol. II, telegram no. 336 of July 9, 1924 from Ambassador Herrick (file 462.00 R 296/410): "Finally settled that they would leave it to an American, presumably the Agent General, and Owen Young's name was mentioned." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1924v02
[^33]: Sir John Fischer Williams, "The Tribunal for the Interpretation of the Dawes Plan," *American Journal of International Law*, vol. 22, no. 4 (October 1928), pp. 797 to 801, on the agreement of August 9, 1924, the enlargement of June 1925, and the succession of Perkins to Cooke. https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-international-law_1928-10_22_4
[^34]: *Die Entscheidungen des Internationalen Schiedsgerichts zur Auslegung des Dawes-plans, Erste Session* (Heft I), Award No. I of March 24, 1926, signed "Walter P. Cooke, President," with Marc Wallenberg, A. G. Kröller, Charles Rist and A. Mendelssohn Bartholdy. https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge01arbi
[^35]: *Die Entscheidungen des Internationalen Schiedsgerichts zur Auslegung des Dawes-plans, Zweite Session*, Award No. II ("Schiedsspruch Nr. II"), delivered January 29, 1927, in English, French and German, with the terms of submission of March 25, 1926 and the signatures "Thomas N. Perkins, President" and "E. N. van Kleffens, Secretary." https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge02arbi
[^36]: *Die Entscheidungen des Internationalen Schiedsgerichts zur Auslegung des Dawes-plans, Dritte Session* (Politische Wissenschaft, Heft 9), the foreword on the third session of May 7 to 14, 1928, Award No. III of May 29, 1928, the terms of submission of September 1927, the three questions on net proceeds of liquidated German property, the signature of Perkins as president, and the editors' reference to the 1927 Harvard honorary degrees of Josiah Stamp and Mendelssohn Bartholdy. https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge00arbi
[^37]: *American Journal of International Law*, vol. 22, no. 4 (October 1928), chronicle of international events, entry "Arbitral Tribunal of Interpretation of the Dawes Plan," delivered "award against German contention that net proceeds of German private property, rights and interests should be included as part of Dawes annuities." https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-international-law_1928-10_22_4
[^38]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1929*, vol. II, document 1039, telegram of January 18, 1929 from the Secretary of State to the chargé in France (file 462.00R296/2622). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02
[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1929*, vol. II, document 1040, telegram of January 19, 1929 from Ambassador Herrick (file 462.00R296/2630). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02
[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1929*, vol. II, document 1041, telegram of January 21, 1929 from the Secretary of State to Herrick (file 462.00R296/2630), with the bracketed membership of the Committee of Experts. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02
[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1929*, vol. II, document 1043, telegram of March 3, 1929 from Herrick (file 462.00R296/2768), paraphrasing Owen D. Young's message. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02
[^42]: "Perkins Plans German Sales Trust," *Daily Worker*, March 2, 1929, p. 1. https://archive.org/details/per_daily-worker_daily-worker_1929-03-02_5_363
[^43]: Denys P. Myers, *The Reparation Settlement, 1930* (Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1930), on the Committee of Experts of 1929, naming Thomas N. Perkins, American, as chairman of the Tribunal of Interpretation, and the list of experts and alternates. https://archive.org/details/reparationsettle0000deny
[^44]: *International Conciliation*, no. 253 (October 1929), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, report of the Committee of Experts, closing paragraph and signature page, p. 56. https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1929-10_253
[^45]: *Bank for International Settlements: Documents*, introductory note and an address by Melvin A. Traylor (Chicago: First National Bank of Chicago and First Union Trust and Savings Bank, 1930), the Young Plan report with the list of experts and alternates, Annex I on the Interpretation Tribunal, the letter of June 4, 1929 to Thomas W. Lamont, and Article 59 of the Statutes on the Tribunal "provided for by The Hague Agreement of January, 1930." https://archive.org/details/bankforinteratio0000tray
[^46]: Myers, *The Reparation Settlement, 1930*, footnote on the Young Plan tribunal: for five years, the incumbents being Perkins as president, Wallenberg and Kröller as neutrals, Rist as creditor member and Mendelssohn Bartholdy as debtor member; "Mr. Perkins, however, resigned before the New Plan came into" effect. https://archive.org/details/reparationsettle0000deny
[^47]: Myers, *The Reparation Settlement, 1930*, on the Organization Committee of the Bank for International Settlements at Baden-Baden, October 3 to November 13, 1929, its American delegates, and the Committee on delivery in kind. https://archive.org/details/reparationsettle0000deny
[^48]: "Federal Reserve Bank of New York Accused of Part in World Bank," *The United States Daily*, April 30, 1930, reporting Representative McFadden's speech in the House of April 28, 1930. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-daily_1930-04-30_5_50
[^49]: Boston and Maine Railroad, *Annual Report* for 1937 (March 1, 1938), directors' minute on the death on October 7, 1937 of Thomas Nelson Perkins, "elected to the Board on April 9, 1924," and his resignation as Chairman of the Board on April 25, 1933. https://archive.org/details/bostonandmainerailroadannualreports
[^50]: "Perkins Heads B. & M. Board," *Boston American*, March 7, 1928, p. 1. https://archive.org/details/bostonamerican19280307
[^51]: Boston and Maine Railroad, *Annual Report* for 1929, list of officers ("Chairman Executive Committee and Acting President . Thomas N. Perkins") and the report signed "Thomas N. Perkins, March 11, 1930, Acting President." https://archive.org/details/bostonandmainerailroadannualreports
[^52]: *Boston American*, January 18, 1930, photograph captioned "Speaker Thomas N. Perkins, Acting president of Boston & Maine, who will speak Tuesday before the Traffic Club of New England." https://archive.org/details/bostonamerican19300118
[^53]: *The Directory of Directors in the City of Boston and Vicinity* (Boston: Bankers' Service Company, 1906, second edition), entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson. https://archive.org/details/directorydirect01unkngoog
[^54]: *The Directory of Directors in the City of Boston and Vicinity* (Boston: Ernest S. Woodaman, 1908, fourth annual edition), entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson, and the entries for the Houghton County Electric Light Company, the Houghton County Street Railway and the Puget Sound International Railway & Power Company. https://archive.org/details/directorydirect02unkngoog
[^55]: *The Directory of Directors in the City of Boston and Vicinity* (Boston: Ernest S. Woodaman, 1911, seventh annual edition), entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson, attorney-at-law, 60 State Street. https://archive.org/details/directorydirect03unkngoog
[^56]: American Telephone and Telegraph Company, *Annual Report* for 1928 (no Perkins), 1929, 1930 and 1936, lists of directors. https://archive.org/details/americantelephoneandtelegraphannualreports
[^57]: *The Russian Student*, vol. 5 (January 1929), masthead, Russian Student Fund, Inc., Board of Directors. https://archive.org/details/the-russian-student-v.-5.5-7.8-1929-1931
[^58]: *Quinquennial Catalogue of the Officers and Graduates of Harvard University, 1636-1915* (Cambridge, 1915), list of the Fellows of Harvard College, "Thomas Nelson Perkins, (see A.B. 1891); Fellow 1905-," and Samuel Hoar, 1894 to 1904. https://archive.org/details/quinquennialcat00univgoog
[^59]: "Thomas N. Perkins a Harvard Fellow," *The Christian Science Monitor*, October 26, 1926. https://archive.org/details/per_christian-science-monitor_1926-10-26_18_281
[^60]: Henry Aaron Yeomans, *Abbott Lawrence Lowell, 1856-1943* (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1948), on the members of the Corporation, with the Treasurer Charles Francis Adams, and the letter "To Thomas Nelson Perkins, November 1, 1932." https://archive.org/details/abbottlawrencelo0000yeom
[^61]: Robert Whitney Tucker, *The Descendants of the Presidents* (1975), entry for Louisa Catherine Adams: "Married, June 6, 1900, Thomas Nelson Perkins (born in Milton, Mass., May 6, 1870; died at Westwood, Mass." https://archive.org/details/descendantsofpre0000robe

130
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/William Huntington Russell.md
View file

@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ relations:
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
role: "president of the Russell Trust Association"
start: 1856
fn: 23
fn: 24
- type: founded
with: "[[Collegiate and Commercial Institute]]"
role: "family school for boys in New Haven, later the Collegiate and Commercial Institute"
@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ relations:
role: "head of the school until his death"
start: 1836
end: 1885-05-19
fn: 53
fn: 57
- type: member_of
with: "[[Phi Beta Kappa]]"
role: "Yale chapter (Connecticut Alpha), class of 1833; corresponding secretary 1837-1838"
@ -59,13 +59,13 @@ relations:
role: "representative for New Haven"
start: 1846
end: 1847
fn: 31
fn: 32
- type: appointed
with: "[[William A. Buckingham]]"
role: "major general of the Connecticut militia, commissioned July 31, 1862"
start: 1862-07-31
end: 1870
fn: 33
fn: 34
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Princeton University]]"
role: "taught at Princeton, New Jersey"
@ -82,17 +82,17 @@ relations:
with: "[[Internal Revenue Service]]"
role: "collector of internal revenue, Connecticut, second district"
start: 1868-12
fn: 38
fn: 39
- type: participant_in
with: "[[National Kansas Committee]]"
role: "listed member of the committee"
start: 1857
fn: 39
fn: 40
- type: participant_in
with: "[[John Brown]]"
role: "named trustee of the Kansas Free-State funds under Brown's will of April 13, 1857"
start: 1857-04-13
fn: 41
fn: 42
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Matthew Talcott Russell]]"
role: "father"
@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ relations:
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Samuel Russell]]"
role: "second cousin (Hamlin genealogy); Millegan calls him cousin, second cousin and uncle in different essays"
fn: 48
fn: 49
---
William Huntington Russell (August 12, 1809 to May 19, 1885) was a [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] schoolmaster, a member of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]], a major general of the Connecticut militia and a collector of internal revenue. [[Lyman Bagg]] wrote in 1871 that the [[Yale University]] senior society [[Skull and Bones]] was "originated in 1832" and that "General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder"; later accounts name him as its co-founder with [[Alphonso Taft]], and the 1856 act that incorporated the society's trust names him first among the incorporators.[^1][^2][^3] He founded the [[Collegiate and Commercial Institute]] in New Haven and headed it until his death.[^4]
@ -144,63 +144,65 @@ Bagg described the hall, erected in 1856, as "a grim-looking, windowless, tomb-l
### The 1856 Charter
The society held its property through a corporation chartered by the Connecticut General Assembly at its May 1856 session. The act, a certified copy of which the [[Connecticut Secretary of the State]] issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] were constituted a body corporate under the name of the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." It capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars and fixed the first meeting at New Haven for the last Wednesday in July 1856.[^3] Bagg listed the same names with their class years ("William H. Russell of '33, John S. Beach of '39, Henry B. Harrison of '46, Henry T. Blake of '48, Henry D. White of '51, and Daniel C. Gilman of '52") and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next to the last as treasurer, of the association."[^1] The member named next to last is White, while Sutton wrote that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President."[^23] Millegan gives the same arrangement: Gilman "incorporated Skull and Bones as the Russell Trust in 1856, with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President."[^24] In the same passage Millegan places Gilman with [[Timothy Dwight]] and [[Andrew Dickinson White]] in a group of three Bonesmen who "formed a troika which still influences American life today."[^24]
The society held its property through a corporation chartered by the Connecticut General Assembly at its May 1856 session. The act, a certified copy of which the [[Connecticut Secretary of the State]] issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] were constituted a body corporate under the name of the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." It capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars and fixed the first meeting at New Haven for the last Wednesday in July 1856.[^3] Gilman's papers at Yale University, catalogued as MS 582, include correspondence from Russell dated 1855, a year before the act.[^23] Bagg listed the same names with their class years ("William H. Russell of '33, John S. Beach of '39, Henry B. Harrison of '46, Henry T. Blake of '48, Henry D. White of '51, and Daniel C. Gilman of '52") and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next the last as treasurer, of the association."[^1] In Bagg's list the name next to the last is Henry D. White ('51), while Sutton wrote that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President."[^24] Millegan gives the same arrangement: Gilman "incorporated Skull and Bones as the Russell Trust in 1856, with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President."[^25] In the same passage Millegan places Gilman with [[Timothy Dwight]] and [[Andrew Dickinson White]] in a group of three Bonesmen who "formed a troika which still influences American life today."[^25]
Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization of the Order, as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, "is essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^25]
Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization of the Order, as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, "is essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^26]
A resolution of July 1870 raised the ceiling on the association's property to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there, six months after Russell's death. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars, and the members accepted it at New Haven on November 12, 1943, with [[Morris Hadley]] sworn as president.[^26]
A resolution of July 1870 raised the ceiling on the association's property to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there, six months after Russell's death. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars, and the members accepted it at New Haven on November 12, 1943, with [[Morris Hadley]] sworn as president.[^27]
### The Collegiate and Commercial Institute
Russell opened a family school for boys in New Haven in 1836. The school, in the words of Yale's obituary notice, "developed into 'The Collegiate and Commercial Institute,' having at times as many as 160 pupils, and educating in the aggregate some four thousand young men." The notice adds that "As early as 1853, it assumed the character of a military school," and that during the Civil War the school "was able ... to furnish about three hundred officers to the Union army, as well as many drill-masters to the volunteer companies in southern Connecticut."[^4]
Bagg's glossary of Yale slang defines a "Russellite" as "a member of Gen. Russell's military school."[^27] Yale graduates taught at the school after college, and the Yale obituary records for 1870 to 1890 carry their entries. One taught there for a year before beginning theological study, another was "fitted for college" there, and a third taught in the school until he entered a tutorship in the college in January 1865.[^28]
Bagg's glossary of Yale slang defines a "Russellite" as "a member of Gen. Russell's military school."[^28] Yale graduates taught at the school after college, and the Yale obituary records for 1870 to 1890 carry their entries. One taught there for a year before beginning theological study, another was "fitted for college" there, and a third taught in the school until he entered a tutorship in the college in January 1865.[^29]
The state armed the school. The Quartermaster General's report of April 1, 1862 lists among the property issued to militia organizations "Wm. H. Russell's Military School, New Haven": one 6-pounder rifled bronze gun, its carriage and implements, and a caisson.[^29] The state's return of arms issued for 1871 lists "William H. Russell, New Haven Military School" with 107 cadet muskets and bayonets and 150 cavalry cartridge boxes and plates.[^30]
The state armed the school. The Quartermaster General's report of April 1, 1862 lists among the property issued to militia organizations "Wm. H. Russell's Military School, New Haven": one 6-pounder rifled bronze gun, its carriage and implements, and a caisson.[^30] The state's return of arms issued for 1871 lists "William H. Russell, New Haven Military School" with 107 cadet muskets and bayonets and 150 cavalry cartridge boxes and plates.[^31]
### Connecticut General Assembly and Militia
He "represented the town in the State Legislature" in 1846 and 1847.[^5] The [[Connecticut Register]] for 1847 lists the New Haven representatives as "William W. Boardman, William H. Russell," and lists a "Russell of New Haven" on the joint standing committee on education.[^31] The same register lists "Ebenezer Jackson, Samuel Russell" as the representatives for Middletown, the town to which [[Samuel Russell]] of [[Russell and Company]] had returned in 1831.[^31][^32]
He "represented the town in the State Legislature" in 1846 and 1847.[^5] The [[Connecticut Register]] for 1847 lists the New Haven representatives as "William W. Boardman, William H. Russell," and lists a "Russell of New Haven" on the joint standing committee on education.[^32] The same register lists "Ebenezer Jackson, Samuel Russell" as the representatives for Middletown, the town to which [[Samuel Russell]] of [[Russell and Company]] had returned in 1831.[^32][^33]
Sutton wrote that "William Russell was a member of the Connecticut State Legislature in 1846-47, a General in the Connecticut National Guard from 1862-70, and founded the Collegiate and Commercial Institute in New Haven, Connecticut."[^19] Yale's obituary notice states that "Gov. Buckingham appointed him in 1862 Major-General of the Militia of the State, and this position he held for eight years."[^5] The governor was [[William A. Buckingham]]. The Adjutant-General's reports list "William H. Russell, New Haven" as major general commanding the division of the Connecticut National Guard, commissioned July 31, 1862, with Lieutenant Colonel Francis Wayland of New Haven (commissioned July 30, 1864) as assistant adjutant general of the division and Lieutenant Colonel [[F. St. John Lockwood]] of [[Norwalk, Connecticut|Norwalk]] (commissioned September 16, 1862) as division inspector.[^33][^34] The report for the year ending March 1869 prints the commission date as July 31, 1866 and corrects it in its errata to July 31, 1862.[^35]
Sutton wrote that "William Russell was a member of the Connecticut State Legislature in 1846-47, a General in the Connecticut National Guard from 1862-70, and founded the Collegiate and Commercial Institute in New Haven, Connecticut."[^19] Yale's obituary notice states that "Gov. Buckingham appointed him in 1862 Major-General of the Militia of the State, and this position he held for eight years."[^5] The governor was [[William A. Buckingham]]. The Adjutant-General's reports list "William H. Russell, New Haven" as major general commanding the division of the Connecticut National Guard, commissioned July 31, 1862, with Lieutenant Colonel Francis Wayland of New Haven (commissioned July 30, 1864) as assistant adjutant general of the division and Lieutenant Colonel [[F. St. John Lockwood]] of [[Norwalk, Connecticut|Norwalk]] (commissioned September 16, 1862) as division inspector.[^34][^35] The report for the year ending March 1869 prints the commission date as July 31, 1866 and corrects it in its errata to July 31, 1862.[^36]
On September 12, 1866 Russell's headquarters at [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] issued the special order, signed by Major [[Edward W. Bacon]] as acting assistant adjutant general, directing Lockwood to make "a minute inspection" of the First Brigade, Brig. Gen. Prentice commanding, at the camp near Hartford on September 13 and 14; Lockwood reported to Russell on October 6, 1866 and to the Adjutant General, [[Charles T. Stanton Jr.]], on March 4, 1867.[^33] At the annual state military institute held near Hartford, where militia officers below the rank of colonel were instructed for five days, an educational visitor found Russell in charge: "General Russell, who has charge of the Institute, and commands the militia of the State."[^36] Adjutant General [[Colin M. Ingersoll]] quoted Russell's report to the governor of the previous year in his own report for the year ending March 31, 1871: "Our system is certainly the best we know of."[^37]
On September 12, 1866 Russell's headquarters at [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] issued the special order, signed by Major [[Edward W. Bacon]] as acting assistant adjutant general, directing Lockwood to make "a minute inspection" of the First Brigade, Brig. Gen. Prentice commanding, at the camp near Hartford on September 13 and 14; Lockwood reported to Russell on October 6, 1866 and to the Adjutant General, [[Charles T. Stanton Jr.]], on March 4, 1867.[^34] At the annual state military institute held near Hartford, where militia officers below the rank of colonel were instructed for five days, an educational visitor found Russell in charge: "General Russell, who has charge of the Institute, and commands the militia of the State."[^37] Adjutant General [[Colin M. Ingersoll]] quoted Russell's report to the governor of the previous year in his own report for the year ending March 31, 1871: "Our system is certainly the best we know of."[^38]
### Collector of Internal Revenue
Russell "held the office of Collector of Internal Revenue for five years from December, 1868."[^5] The [[Official Register of the United States]] for September 30, 1869 lists "William H. Russell" of New Haven as collector for the second district of Connecticut.[^38]
Russell "held the office of Collector of Internal Revenue for five years from December, 1868."[^5] The [[Official Register of the United States]] for September 30, 1869 lists "William H. Russell" of New Haven as collector for the second district of Connecticut.[^39]
### Kansas and John Brown
The [[National Kansas Committee]] reported on January 25, 1857, through its assistant secretary [[Horace White]]. The report counted about two thousand emigrants forwarded to [[Kansas]] by the land route through Iowa and Nebraska, and money receipts by state, with $3,182.13 from Connecticut. [[Franklin Benjamin Sanborn]] printed the committee's membership in *The Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885). The list includes "W. H. Russell, New Haven, Conn." beside [[Samuel Cabot Jr.]], [[Thaddeus Hyatt]] and [[W. W. Hoppin]].[^39] When the [[United States Senate]] select committee on the [[Harpers Ferry]] raid examined [[William F. M. Arny]] on January 16, 1860 and asked who sat on the committee for Connecticut, the answer was "W. H. Russell, of New Haven."[^40]
The [[National Kansas Committee]] reported on January 25, 1857, through its assistant secretary [[Horace White]]. The report counted about two thousand emigrants forwarded to [[Kansas]] by the land route through Iowa and Nebraska, and money receipts by state, with $3,182.13 from Connecticut. [[Franklin Benjamin Sanborn]] printed the committee's membership in *The Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885). The list includes "W. H. Russell, New Haven, Conn." beside [[Samuel Cabot Jr.]], [[Thaddeus Hyatt]] and [[W. W. Hoppin]].[^40] When the [[United States Senate]] select committee on the [[Harpers Ferry]] raid examined [[William F. M. Arny]] on January 16, 1860 and asked who sat on the committee for Connecticut, the answer was "W. H. Russell, of New Haven."[^41]
On April 13, 1857, at [[Boston]], [[John Brown]] signed a will that gave "all trust funds and personal property for the aid of the Free-State cause in Kansas" to [[George L. Stearns]], Samuel Cabot Jr. and "William H. Russell, of New Haven, Conn.," in trust, "to them and the survivor or survivors and their assigns forever." The trustees were to administer the funds "entirely at their discretion."[^41]
On April 13, 1857, at [[Boston]], [[John Brown]] signed a will that gave "all trust funds and personal property for the aid of the Free-State cause in Kansas" to [[George L. Stearns]], Samuel Cabot Jr. and "William H. Russell, of New Haven, Conn.," in trust, "to them and the survivor or survivors and their assigns forever." The trustees were to administer the funds "entirely at their discretion."[^42]
On March 18, 1858, [[John Brown Jr.]] met his father at [[Philadelphia]], with [[Frederick Douglass]] and other men, and the two went on to New York and to New Haven, "where they called (March 18) at the house of Mr. W. H. Russell," before traveling on to [[North Elba]].[^42]
On March 18, 1858, [[John Brown Jr.]] met his father at [[Philadelphia]], with [[Frederick Douglass]] and other men, and the two went on to New York and to New Haven, "where they called (March 18) at the house of Mr. W. H. Russell," before traveling on to [[North Elba]].[^43]
In a letter written on the Missouri line on the Kansas side, dated July 20, 1858, and addressed to Sanborn and friends at Boston and Worcester, Brown wrote: "Mr. Russell and other friends at New Haven assured me before I left, that if the Lecompton abomination should pass through Congress something could be done there to relieve me from a difficulty I am in, and which they understand." In a footnote, Sanborn explains the difficulty. Brown had contracted with [[Charles Blair]] to make a thousand pikes, had not completed the payment for lack of money, and feared the contract would be forfeited. "He therefore communicated the facts to Mr. Russell, who was then the head of a military school at New Haven, and had some assurance from him of money to be raised in Connecticut to meet this contract."[^43]
In a letter written on the Missouri line on the Kansas side, dated July 20, 1858, and addressed to Sanborn and friends at Boston and Worcester, Brown wrote: "Mr. Russell and other friends at New Haven assured me before I left, that if the Lecompton abomination should pass through Congress something could be done there to relieve me from a difficulty I am in, and which they understand." In a footnote, Sanborn explains the difficulty. Brown had contracted with [[Charles Blair]] to make a thousand pikes, had not completed the payment for lack of money, and feared the contract would be forfeited. "He therefore communicated the facts to Mr. Russell, who was then the head of a military school at New Haven, and had some assurance from him of money to be raised in Connecticut to meet this contract."[^44]
Blair, a blacksmith of [[Collinsville, Connecticut|Collinsville]], testified before the Senate committee in 1860 about the contract. Asked whether the whole weapon, including the screw that connects the handle and the blade, was furnished by the handle maker or by himself, he answered: "We furnished them all, although the ferules and the screw were made at New Haven. The malleable iron was made by a firm in New Haven."[^44]
Blair, a blacksmith of [[Collinsville, Connecticut|Collinsville]], testified before the Senate committee in 1860 about the contract. Asked whether the whole weapon, including the screw that connects the handle and the blade, was furnished by the handle maker or by himself, he answered: "We furnished them all, although the ferules and the screw were made at New Haven. The malleable iron was made by a firm in New Haven."[^45]
Other Russells appear in the same records. Sanborn places Brown at the house of "Judge Russell" in Boston in 1859, a judge whom the same volume names as the Hon. Thomas Russell, and Thomas Russell witnessed Brown's will of 1857.[^45] Dr. [[Samuel Gridley Howe]] told the Senate committee that George R. Russell of Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, was "one of our wealthy, liberal men."[^46] The committee's narrative of the raid names Israel Russell, a justice of the peace at Harpers Ferry taken hostage by Brown's party, and Major Russell of the [[United States Marine Corps]], who reached the town with the marine detachment.[^47] These are different men from William H. Russell of New Haven.
Other Russells appear in the same records. Sanborn places Brown at the house of "Judge Russell" in Boston in 1859, a judge whom the same volume names as the Hon. Thomas Russell, and Thomas Russell witnessed Brown's will of 1857.[^46] Dr. [[Samuel Gridley Howe]] told the Senate committee that George R. Russell of Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, was "one of our wealthy, liberal men."[^47] The committee's narrative of the raid names Israel Russell, a justice of the peace at Harpers Ferry taken hostage by Brown's party, and Major Russell of the [[United States Marine Corps]], who reached the town with the marine detachment.[^48] These are different men from William H. Russell of New Haven.
### The Russell Family and Samuel Russell
Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, was the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765; married Abigail Warner at Middletown on June 29, 1788; died there December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell, the Middletown merchant who was a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were therefore first cousins, and their sons Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder, as their common great-grandfather.[^9][^48] Samuel Russell married first Mary Osborn and then her sister Frances Ann Osborn; he was a merchant "for many years in the China trade" and a member of the firm of Russell and Company; his children were George Osborn, John Augustus and Samuel Wadsworth Russell, and his widow Frances founded the [[Russell Library]] in Middletown.[^48]
Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, was the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765; married Abigail Warner at Middletown on June 29, 1788; died there December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell, the Middletown merchant who was a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were therefore first cousins, and their sons Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder, as their common great-grandfather.[^9][^49] Samuel Russell married first Mary Osborn and then her sister Frances Ann Osborn; he was a merchant "for many years in the China trade" and a member of the firm of Russell and Company; his children were George Osborn, John Augustus and Samuel Wadsworth Russell, and his widow Frances founded the [[Russell Library]] in Middletown.[^49]
Samuel Russell lived from 1789 to about 1862. The [[Library of Congress]] holds the firm's papers, which date Russell and Company from 1819 at [[Canton]]. After his return to Middletown in 1831 he founded the Russell Manufacturing Company for elastic webbing and speculated in real estate at Chicago and Milwaukee and in Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky and New Jersey; the papers include correspondence on the Turkish opium trade.[^32]
Samuel Russell lived from 1789 to about 1862. The [[Library of Congress]] holds the firm's papers, which date Russell and Company from 1819 at [[Canton]]. After his return to Middletown in 1831 he founded the Russell Manufacturing Company for elastic webbing and speculated in real estate at Chicago and Milwaukee and in Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky and New Jersey; the papers include correspondence on the Turkish opium trade.[^33]
Millegan describes the firm's origins. He wrote that "In 1823, Samuel Russell established Russell and Company for the purpose of acquiring opium in Turkey and smuggling it to China," and that the firm "merged with the Perkins (Boston) syndicate in 1830 and became the primary American opium smuggler." He named [[Warren Delano Jr.]] as one of the firm's chief operators at Canton, "grandfather of Franklin D. Roosevelt."[^49] Millegan also listed other partners of the firm. In his account they included "John Cleve Green (who financed Princeton), Abiel Low (who financed construction of Columbia), Joseph Coolidge and the Perkins, Sturgis and Forbes families."[^49]
Millegan describes the firm's origins. He wrote that "In 1823, Samuel Russell established Russell and Company for the purpose of acquiring opium in Turkey and smuggling it to China," and that the firm "merged with the Perkins (Boston) syndicate in 1830 and became the primary American opium smuggler." He named [[Warren Delano Jr.]] as one of the firm's chief operators at Canton, "grandfather of Franklin D. Roosevelt."[^50] Millegan also listed other partners of the firm. In his account they included "John Cleve Green (who financed Princeton), Abiel Low (who financed construction of Columbia), Joseph Coolidge and the Perkins, Sturgis and Forbes families."[^50]
Millegan states the relationship three ways in the same book. The opening article refers to "His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise," and the China-trade passage reads "William Huntington Russell (S&B 1833), Samuel's cousin, studied in Germany from 1831-32." An essay on the Connecticut families reads "Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H., established Russell and Company in 1823." In "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," written as an account of a conversation with his father, he writes that Russell, "valedictorian of the Yale class of 1832," "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell."[^12][^50][^51] A chart in the book describes Samuel Russell as "undisputed king of Middletown" during the formative years of Skull and Bones and names Governor Henry W. Edwards as "Protector of Samuel Russell's opium-financed enterprises, patron of William Huntington Russell's new secret society Skull and Bones."[^52] The essay on the Connecticut families lists the Russell, Pierpont, Edwards, Burr, Griswold, Day, Alsop and Hubbard families as the "multiply-intermarried grouping of families then ruling Connecticut."[^50]
The Canton records date the arrangement with the [[Perkins family]] of Boston by events. After Thomas T. Forbes, agent of Perkins & Co., drowned at Canton on August 9, 1829, Russell & Co. took charge of his business, and in August 1830 they "were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up."[^51] The Library of Congress finding aid dates the merger of John P. Cushing's operations with Russell & Company to 1831.[^52] An advertisement of the Canton house signed by [[Philip Ammidon]] and Samuel Russell on November 23, 1823 names Perkins & Co. at Canton and J. and T. H. Perkins & Sons and S. G. Perkins & Co. of Boston as its references.[^53]
Millegan states the relationship three ways in the same book. The opening article refers to "His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise," and the China-trade passage reads "William Huntington Russell (S&B 1833), Samuel's cousin, studied in Germany from 1831-32." An essay on the Connecticut families reads "Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H., established Russell and Company in 1823." In "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," written as an account of a conversation with his father, he writes that Russell, "valedictorian of the Yale class of 1832," "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell."[^12][^54][^55] A chart in the book describes Samuel Russell as "undisputed king of Middletown" during the formative years of Skull and Bones and names Governor Henry W. Edwards as "Protector of Samuel Russell's opium-financed enterprises, patron of William Huntington Russell's new secret society Skull and Bones."[^56] The essay on the Connecticut families lists the Russell, Pierpont, Edwards, Burr, Griswold, Day, Alsop and Hubbard families as the "multiply-intermarried grouping of families then ruling Connecticut."[^54] The Hamlin genealogy gives the relationship as second cousin: Samuel Russell was a grandson of Capt. Samuel Russell (born 1727), a son of the Rev. William Russell (born 1690), and William Huntington Russell a grandson of the Rev. Noadiah Russell of Thompson, also a son of the Rev. William Russell, so that their fathers, Capt. John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell, were first cousins.[^6][^9][^49]
### Death
Russell was stricken by apoplexy at New Haven on May 10, 1885, and the stroke "proved fatal on the 19th of the same month." "General Russell retained his place at the head of his school, and his powers remained almost untouched by age, until his last brief illness." His wife survived him, "with six of their ten children, two daughters and four sons," and the sons were all graduates of Yale.[^53]
Russell was stricken by apoplexy at New Haven on May 10, 1885, and the stroke "proved fatal on the 19th of the same month." "General Russell retained his place at the head of his school, and his powers remained almost untouched by age, until his last brief illness." His wife survived him, "with six of their ten children, two daughters and four sons," and the sons were all graduates of Yale.[^57]
### Later Members
Sutton places Taft's later offices beside Russell's career. He lists Taft as Secretary of War in 1876, Attorney General in 1876 to 1877, minister to Austria from 1882 to 1884 and ambassador to Russia in 1884 to 1885.[^19] Later members of the society include [[Henry L. Stimson]] (class of 1888), [[W. Averell Harriman]] (class of 1913) and [[Prescott Bush]] (class of 1917).[^54][^55]
Sutton places Taft's later offices beside Russell's career. He lists Taft as Secretary of War in 1876, Attorney General in 1876 to 1877, minister to Austria from 1882 to 1884 and ambassador to Russia in 1884 to 1885.[^19] Later members of the society include [[Henry L. Stimson]] (class of 1888), [[W. Averell Harriman]] (class of 1913) and [[Prescott Bush]] (class of 1917).[^58][^59]
### Footnotes
@ -226,36 +228,40 @@ Sutton places Taft's later offices beside Russell's career. He lists Taft as Sec
[^20]: Anonymous pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the society's hall, as quoted in Sutton (1983), Memorandum Two, including "General R[...] (Russell), its founder, was in Germany before Senior Year," and Sutton's comment that Skull & Bones "is not American at all. It is a branch of a FOREIGN secret society." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^21]: Millegan (2003), reprint of the 1876 pamphlet on the break-in at the hall. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^22]: Bagg (1871), p. 145, description of the hall erected in 1856 "on High street, near the corner of Chapel." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^23]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chapter on Daniel C. Gilman, stating that "The Order was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^24]: Millegan (2003), chapter on Daniel Coit Gilman, passage reading "with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^25]: Sutton (1983), passages on the Russell Trust Association, "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and the organization of the Order "essentially geared towards the post graduation world." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^26]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the resolution amending the charter (July 1870), the resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887), the act of July 9, 1943 and the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943, as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 694 to 695. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^27]: Bagg (1871), p. 47, glossary entry for "Russellite." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^28]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College, deceased from June, 1870, to June, 1880*, entries on pp. 270 and 369, and *Obituary Record* for 1880 to 1890, p. 524. https://archive.org/details/1870t80obituary00yaleuoft ; https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^29]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1862, report of the Quartermaster General (John M. Hatheway), April 1, 1862, statement [I], p. 58. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1862conn
[^30]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, statement [G] of arms and equipment issued ("William H. Russell, New Haven Military School"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn
[^31]: *The Connecticut Register and Official State Calendar for 1847* (Hartford, 1847), House of Representatives by town (New Haven and Middletown) and the joint standing committee on education ("Russell of New Haven"). https://archive.org/details/connecticutregis1847hart
[^32]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," finding aid (MSS38562), on Samuel Russell (1789 to about 1862), the firm, his return to Middletown in 1831, the Russell Manufacturing Company, his real estate holdings and the Turkish opium correspondence. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^33]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1867, Adjutant-General's report of April 1, 1867, p. 16 (staff of the division: "William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"; Francis Wayland, assistant adjutant general; F. St. John Lockwood, division inspector) and pp. 39 to 40 (special order of September 12, 1866 and the inspection of the First Brigade). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18671conn
[^34]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1870, Adjutant-General's report, p. 9, division staff ("William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18701conn
[^35]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1869 and errata ("Page 8. Maj. Gen. William H. Russell, commissioned July 31, 1866, read July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn
[^36]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, educational report, passage on a visit to the state military institute at Hartford and a conversation with General Russell. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn
[^37]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1871 (Colin M. Ingersoll), p. 6, quoting Russell's report to the governor of the previous year. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn
[^38]: *Official Register of the United States*, September 30, 1869, list of collectors of internal revenue, Connecticut, second district: William H. Russell, New Haven. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-official-register-of-the-united-states_1869-09-30
[^39]: Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, *The Life and Letters of John Brown: Liberator of Kansas, and Martyr of Virginia* (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1885), p. 352, the report of the National Kansas Committee dated January 25, 1857, its receipts by state and its list of members. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^40]: United States Senate, *Report of the Select Committee of the Senate Appointed to Inquire into the Late Invasion and Seizure of the Public Property at Harper's Ferry*, 36th Cong., 1st Sess., S. Rep. No. 278 (June 15, 1860), testimony of William F. M. Arny, January 16, 1860, p. 76. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^41]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386, text of John Brown's will dated Boston, April 13, 1857. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^42]: Sanborn (1885), p. 451, account of the travels of John Brown Jr. and his father, March 1858. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^43]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 475 to 476, letter of John Brown to F. B. Sanborn, Missouri line, July 20, 1858, and Sanborn's footnote on the contract with Charles Blair. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^44]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Charles Blair, p. 127. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^45]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386 (witnesses to the will of April 13, 1857, including Thomas Russell) and p. 508 (Brown at "Judge Russell's house" in Boston in 1859, and "the Hon. Thomas Russell's address"). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^46]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Samuel G. Howe, pp. 166 to 167, on the direction to the house of George R. Russell at Jamaica Plain. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^47]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), report of the committee, narrative of the invasion, on the hostages (Israel Russell, justice of the peace) and the marine detachment accompanied by "Major Russell, of that corps." https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^48]: *The Hamlin Family* (1900), entry [302] for Capt. John Russell (son of Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles), pp. 118 to 119, and entry [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, "for many years in the China trade" and member of the firm of Russell & Co., p. 166. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^49]: Millegan (2003), passages on Russell and Company, its 1823 founding for the opium trade, its 1830 merger with the Perkins syndicate and Warren Delano Jr. at Canton. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^50]: Millegan (2003), essay on the Connecticut families and the origins of the Order, pp. 313 to 314 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^51]: Millegan, "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), p. 52, passage recounting the author's conversation with his father and the words "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^52]: Millegan (2003), chart and notes on the Russell family of Middletown and the Connecticut families, pp. 321 to 325 (notes 10, 14 and 15). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^53]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, pp. 241 to 242, on his place at the head of his school, the stroke of May 10, 1885, his death on May 19 and his survivors. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^54]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis) and class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^55]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries including Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^23]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Guide to the Daniel Coit Gilman Papers, MS 582, compiled by Ann Ronberg (February 1971), Series I, box 2, folder 123 ("Russell, William H., 1855"). https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/4054.pdf
[^24]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chapter on Daniel C. Gilman, stating that "The Order was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^25]: Millegan (2003), chapter on Daniel Coit Gilman, passage reading "with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^26]: Sutton (1983), passages on the Russell Trust Association, "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and the organization of the Order "essentially geared towards the post graduation world." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^27]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the resolution amending the charter (July 1870), the resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887), the act of July 9, 1943 and the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943, as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 694 to 695. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^28]: Bagg (1871), p. 47, glossary entry for "Russellite." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^29]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College, deceased from June, 1870, to June, 1880*, entries on pp. 270 and 369, and *Obituary Record* for 1880 to 1890, p. 524. https://archive.org/details/1870t80obituary00yaleuoft ; https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^30]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1862, report of the Quartermaster General (John M. Hatheway), April 1, 1862, statement [I], p. 58. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1862conn
[^31]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, statement [G] of arms and equipment issued ("William H. Russell, New Haven Military School"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn
[^32]: *The Connecticut Register and Official State Calendar for 1847* (Hartford, 1847), House of Representatives by town (New Haven and Middletown) and the joint standing committee on education ("Russell of New Haven"). https://archive.org/details/connecticutregis1847hart
[^33]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," finding aid (MSS38562), on Samuel Russell (1789 to about 1862), the firm, his return to Middletown in 1831, the Russell Manufacturing Company, his real estate holdings and the Turkish opium correspondence. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^34]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1867, Adjutant-General's report of April 1, 1867, p. 16 (staff of the division: "William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"; Francis Wayland, assistant adjutant general; F. St. John Lockwood, division inspector) and pp. 39 to 40 (special order of September 12, 1866 and the inspection of the First Brigade). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18671conn
[^35]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1870, Adjutant-General's report, p. 9, division staff ("William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18701conn
[^36]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1869 and errata ("Page 8. Maj. Gen. William H. Russell, commissioned July 31, 1866, read July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn
[^37]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, educational report, passage on a visit to the state military institute at Hartford and a conversation with General Russell. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn
[^38]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1871 (Colin M. Ingersoll), p. 6, quoting Russell's report to the governor of the previous year. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn
[^39]: *Official Register of the United States*, September 30, 1869, list of collectors of internal revenue, Connecticut, second district: William H. Russell, New Haven. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-official-register-of-the-united-states_1869-09-30
[^40]: Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, *The Life and Letters of John Brown: Liberator of Kansas, and Martyr of Virginia* (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1885), p. 352, the report of the National Kansas Committee dated January 25, 1857, its receipts by state and its list of members. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^41]: United States Senate, *Report of the Select Committee of the Senate Appointed to Inquire into the Late Invasion and Seizure of the Public Property at Harper's Ferry*, 36th Cong., 1st Sess., S. Rep. No. 278 (June 15, 1860), testimony of William F. M. Arny, January 16, 1860, p. 76. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^42]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386, text of John Brown's will dated Boston, April 13, 1857. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^43]: Sanborn (1885), p. 451, account of the travels of John Brown Jr. and his father, March 1858. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^44]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 475 to 476, letter of John Brown to F. B. Sanborn, Missouri line, July 20, 1858, and Sanborn's footnote on the contract with Charles Blair. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^45]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Charles Blair, p. 127. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^46]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386 (witnesses to the will of April 13, 1857, including Thomas Russell) and p. 508 (Brown at "Judge Russell's house" in Boston in 1859, and "the Hon. Thomas Russell's address"). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^47]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Samuel G. Howe, pp. 166 to 167, on the direction to the house of George R. Russell at Jamaica Plain. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^48]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), report of the committee, narrative of the invasion, on the hostages (Israel Russell, justice of the peace) and the marine detachment accompanied by "Major Russell, of that corps." https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^49]: *The Hamlin Family* (1900), entry [302] for Capt. John Russell (son of Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles), pp. 118 to 119, and entry [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, "for many years in the China trade" and member of the firm of Russell & Co., p. 166. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^50]: Millegan (2003), passages on Russell and Company, its 1823 founding for the opium trade, its 1830 merger with the Perkins syndicate and Warren Delano Jr. at Canton. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^51]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118 to 119. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^52]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," MSS38562. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^53]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), addenda, pp. 333 to 336. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^54]: Millegan (2003), essay on the Connecticut families and the origins of the Order, pp. 313 to 314 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^55]: Millegan, "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), p. 52, passage recounting the author's conversation with his father and the words "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^56]: Millegan (2003), chart and notes on the Russell family of Middletown and the Connecticut families, pp. 321 to 325 (notes 10, 14 and 15). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^57]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, pp. 241 to 242, on his place at the head of his school, the stroke of May 10, 1885, his death on May 19 and his survivors. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^58]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis) and class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^59]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries including Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr