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27
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/Federal Reserve Board.md
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@ -11,22 +11,26 @@ tags:
- Intelligence
summary: "Governing body of the U.S. central banking system, which approved the BCCI-backed takeover of Financial General Bankshares in 1981 on false assurances and fined BCCI 200 million dollars in July 1991."
created: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-10-26
location: "Washington, D.C."
relations:
- type: investigated
with: "[[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]]"
start: 1991-01-03
fn: 3
fn: 6
---
The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (Federal Reserve Board) is the governing body of the [[United States]] central banking system, established by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 and headquartered in [[Washington, D.C.]] The Board consists of seven members appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, serving 14-year terms. The Federal Reserve is responsible for U.S. monetary policy, banking supervision and regulation, and maintenance of the financial system's stability. As a bank regulator, the Federal Reserve holds primary supervisory authority over bank holding companies - a jurisdiction directly relevant to the [[BCCI]] scandal.[^1]
### Origins
[[Frank A. Vanderlip]] wrote of the meeting at the [[Jekyll Island]] Club, Georgia, in late 1910 that "I do not feel it is any exaggeration to speak of our secret expedition to Jekyl Island as the occasion of the actual conception of what eventually became the Federal Reserve System."[^2] The group went to help [[Nelson W. Aldrich]] prepare the report and banking bill of the [[National Monetary Commission]]. Vanderlip wrote that the men asked to go were "Henry Davison, Paul Warburg, Ben Strong, and myself," with [[A. Piatt Andrew]] coming from Washington, and that "We were told to leave our last names behind us."[^3] The [[Pritzker Military Museum & Library]] finding aid for the Davison family states: "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve."[^4]
### BCCI and First American Bankshares
The Federal Reserve Board is prominently implicated in the BCCI scandal through its regulatory approval of the acquisition of [[First American Bankshares]], the largest bank holding company in the Washington, D.C. area. In 1981-1982, a group of Middle Eastern investors fronted by [[Clark Clifford]] - the Washington super-lawyer and former Secretary of Defense - and his law partner [[Robert Altman]] sought [[Federal Reserve]] approval to purchase First American (then called Financial General Bankshares). The investors represented themselves as independent Arab investors with no connection to BCCI.
The Federal Reserve approved the acquisition. In reality, BCCI secretly controlled the purchase: the nominally independent Arab investors were BCCI nominees whose shares were financed by BCCI, and BCCI chairman [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] made the key decisions about First American's management. Clifford and Altman maintained publicly - and in sworn testimony to the Federal Reserve - that BCCI did not control First American, which congressional investigators and prosecutors subsequently concluded was false. Clifford and Altman were indicted in 1992 for fraud in connection with the deception of the Federal Reserve; Clifford was ultimately not tried due to ill health, while Altman was acquitted.[^2]
The Federal Reserve approved the acquisition. In reality, BCCI secretly controlled the purchase: the nominally independent Arab investors were BCCI nominees whose shares were financed by BCCI, and BCCI chairman [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] made the key decisions about First American's management. Clifford and Altman maintained publicly - and in sworn testimony to the Federal Reserve - that BCCI did not control First American, which congressional investigators and prosecutors subsequently concluded was false. Clifford and Altman were indicted in 1992 for fraud in connection with the deception of the Federal Reserve; Clifford was ultimately not tried due to ill health, while Altman was acquitted.[^5]
The Federal Reserve's failure to detect BCCI's secret ownership of First American - despite BCCI's known reputation in the international banking community as an institution with irregular practices - was identified by the [[Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry Committee investigation]] and the [[Bank of England]]'s [[Bingham Report]] as reflecting significant regulatory failure. The Federal Reserve paid insufficiently close attention to the backgrounds of investors seeking approval, relied on representations without adequate independent investigation, and permitted BCCI principals to escape detection for nearly a decade.
@ -36,18 +40,21 @@ Following the July 1991 closure of BCCI by international regulators, the Federal
### Iran-Contra Financial Flows
The Federal Reserve System's broader role in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] was as the institutional infrastructure through which the financial flows of the "Enterprise" - [[Oliver North]]'s off-books covert operations fund - moved through the banking system. Accounts at major U.S. banks, Swiss numbered accounts, and the network of front companies managed by [[Richard Secord]] and [[Albert Hakim]] all operated through correspondent banking relationships that passed through the Federal Reserve's payment system. The Federal Reserve itself was not involved in or aware of these operations, but its payment infrastructure was the medium through which the illegal financial transactions moved.[^2]
The Federal Reserve System's broader role in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] was as the institutional infrastructure through which the financial flows of the "Enterprise" - [[Oliver North]]'s off-books covert operations fund - moved through the banking system. Accounts at major U.S. banks, Swiss numbered accounts, and the network of front companies managed by [[Richard Secord]] and [[Albert Hakim]] all operated through correspondent banking relationships that passed through the Federal Reserve's payment system. The Federal Reserve itself was not involved in or aware of these operations, but its payment infrastructure was the medium through which the illegal financial transactions moved.[^5]
### The Kerry-Brown Findings
The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] found that when the Board approved the takeover of [[Financial General Bankshares]] by [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] in 1981 "it had substantial circumstantial evidence before it to suggest that BCCI was behind the bank's purchase," and that it "would not have approved the CCAH application but for the false statements made to it." It relied on representations from the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] and other agencies that they had no objections, and on the reputation of BCCI's lawyers, Clark Clifford and the former Federal Reserve counsel Baldwin Tuttle. Paul Volcker, who signed the approval, testified in 1991 that he "wasn't aware" of [[Kamal Adham]]'s intelligence background. The Treasury failed to pass on what the CIA told it in 1985 and 1986 about BCCI's ownership of [[First American Bank|First American]], although "[[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] agents did provide important information to the Federal Reserve on this issue in early 1989, which the Federal Reserve failed adequately to investigate at the time." The purchase of the [[National Bank of Georgia]] in 1986 was an obvious warning sign not investigated until late 1990.[^3][^4]
The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] found that when the Board approved the takeover of [[Financial General Bankshares]] by [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] in 1981 "it had substantial circumstantial evidence before it to suggest that BCCI was behind the bank's purchase," and that it "would not have approved the CCAH application but for the false statements made to it." It relied on representations from the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] and other agencies that they had no objections, and on the reputation of BCCI's lawyers, Clark Clifford and the former Federal Reserve counsel Baldwin Tuttle. Paul Volcker, who signed the approval, testified in 1991 that he "wasn't aware" of [[Kamal Adham]]'s intelligence background. The Treasury failed to pass on what the CIA told it in 1985 and 1986 about BCCI's ownership of [[First American Bank|First American]], although "[[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] agents did provide important information to the Federal Reserve on this issue in early 1989, which the Federal Reserve failed adequately to investigate at the time." The purchase of the [[National Bank of Georgia]] in 1986 was an obvious warning sign not investigated until late 1990.[^6][^7]
The Board opened a formal investigation on January 3, 1991, which the report called "aggressive and diligent." In mid-March 1991 it sent two investigators, Richard Small and Thomas Baxter, to [[Abu Dhabi]], where they were refused direct access to BCCI's files. On July 29, 1991, the day of the New York County indictments, it assessed a fine of 200 million dollars against BCCI, one of 37 million dollars against [[Ghaith R. Pharaon|Ghaith Pharaon]] and one of 20 million dollars against the BCCI official Kemal Shoaib; with the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] and District Attorney [[Robert Morgenthau]] it reached a plea agreement on December 17, 1991, under which BCCI's liquidators forfeited about 500 million dollars of BCCI's American assets. The report said that the Board's cooperation with the subcommittee "was unique among federal agencies."[^3] The [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s head of the Criminal Division, [[Robert Mueller]], told the subcommittee that the information on BCCI's secret ownership "was passed on to the Federal Reserve after the October 1988 takedown," quoting the Board's general counsel, Virgil Mattingly, that it was "the kind of allegation [that] they had heard before."[^5]
The Board opened a formal investigation on January 3, 1991, which the report called "aggressive and diligent." In mid-March 1991 it sent two investigators, Richard Small and Thomas Baxter, to [[Abu Dhabi]], where they were refused direct access to BCCI's files. On July 29, 1991, the day of the New York County indictments, it assessed a fine of 200 million dollars against BCCI, one of 37 million dollars against [[Ghaith R. Pharaon|Ghaith Pharaon]] and one of 20 million dollars against the BCCI official Kemal Shoaib; with the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] and District Attorney [[Robert Morgenthau]] it reached a plea agreement on December 17, 1991, under which BCCI's liquidators forfeited about 500 million dollars of BCCI's American assets. The report said that the Board's cooperation with the subcommittee "was unique among federal agencies."[^6] The [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s head of the Criminal Division, [[Robert Mueller]], told the subcommittee that the information on BCCI's secret ownership "was passed on to the Federal Reserve after the October 1988 takedown," quoting the Board's general counsel, Virgil Mattingly, that it was "the kind of allegation [that] they had heard before."[^8]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Kerry, John and Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992.
[^2]: Beaty, Jonathan and S.C. Gwynne. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI.* Random House, 1993.
[^3]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 12, "The Regulators." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/12reg.htm
[^4]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^5]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 8, "BCCI and Law Enforcement: The Justice Department and the U.S. Customs Service." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/08just.htm
[^2]: Frank A. Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935), p. 210. https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip
[^3]: Frank A. Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935), pp. 213 to 214. https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip
[^4]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison. https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
[^5]: Beaty, Jonathan and S.C. Gwynne. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI.* Random House, 1993.
[^6]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 12, "The Regulators." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/12reg.htm
[^7]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^8]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 8, "BCCI and Law Enforcement: The Justice Department and the U.S. Customs Service." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/08just.htm

91
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/CIAA.md
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@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ tags:
summary: "Roosevelt's wartime Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, headed by Nelson Rockefeller, the first official US government propaganda operation, which built economic, media and political infrastructure in Latin America."
location: Washington, DC
created: 2026-06-05
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-26
---
The Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA) was a wartime US government agency created on August 16, 1940, by order of the [[Council of National Defense]] and placed under the direction of [[Nelson Rockefeller]]. Its official mandate was to promote hemispheric solidarity and counter Axis influence in [[Latin America]]; in practice it functioned as the first official US propaganda operation, a vehicle for expanding American corporate dominance in the hemisphere, and a testing ground for the psychological warfare and covert operations techniques that would be institutionalized in the postwar [[CIA]].[^1]
@ -35,55 +35,55 @@ The CIAA's Inter-American Affairs Committee, as established under Executive Orde
### Personnel and Corporate Character
The CIAA's top positions were filled with corporate executives. [[John Hay Whitney]], financier and film producer, led the Motion Picture Division. [[Will Clayton]], chairman of [[Anderson, Clayton and Company]] and at one time the world's largest cotton trader, served as deputy coordinator with responsibility for commodity and raw materials programs. [[Percy Douglas]] of [[Otis Elevator]] oversaw exports management. [[Paul Nitze]], investment banker, served as finance director from 1942, then moved to the Metals and Minerals Branch of the [[Board of Economic Warfare]] in 1943, before becoming director of the Foreign Procurement and Development Branch of the [[Foreign Economic Administration]]. Wallace Harrison, the architect who had worked on [[Rockefeller Center]], was appointed director of the renamed OIAA in March 1945 at an annual salary of $10,000 per Executive Order 9532.[^8]
The CIAA's top positions were filled with corporate executives. [[John Hay Whitney]], financier and film producer, directed the Motion Picture Division in 1942 (a July 1942 issue of the trade weekly credits him with launching its film activities),[^8] working with Nelson Rockefeller on the film program; in January 1942 the trade weekly reported that the two had selected [[Walt Disney]] to make goodwill films for South America.[^9] By October 1942 [[Francis Alstock]] had succeeded him as director of the division.[^10] [[Will Clayton]], chairman of [[Anderson, Clayton and Company]] and at one time the world's largest cotton trader, served as deputy coordinator with responsibility for commodity and raw materials programs. [[Percy Douglas]] of [[Otis Elevator]] oversaw exports management. [[Paul Nitze]], investment banker, served as finance director from 1942, then moved to the Metals and Minerals Branch of the [[Board of Economic Warfare]] in 1943, before becoming director of the Foreign Procurement and Development Branch of the [[Foreign Economic Administration]]. Wallace Harrison, the architect who had worked on [[Rockefeller Center]], was appointed director of the renamed OIAA in March 1945 at an annual salary of $10,000 per Executive Order 9532.[^11]
Nelson Rockefeller's own fraternal network ran the operation: brother [[Laurance Rockefeller]]'s aviation investments and Eastern Airlines directorship dovetailed with the CIAA's aviation dominance program. The family's [[Standard Oil]] subsidiaries benefited directly from CIAA-built infrastructure (roads, airfields, rubber programs) across the hemisphere.[^9]
Nelson Rockefeller's own fraternal network ran the operation: brother [[Laurance Rockefeller]]'s aviation investments and Eastern Airlines directorship dovetailed with the CIAA's aviation dominance program. The family's [[Standard Oil]] subsidiaries benefited directly from CIAA-built infrastructure (roads, airfields, rubber programs) across the hemisphere.[^12]
Staff critics complained that CIAA coordinating committees in Brazil and elsewhere were composed of "the biggest businessmen" with "the most reactionary" policy views. [[Josephus Daniels]], the liberal former ambassador, warned Roosevelt that the war would see "the forces of privilege" return to control of government, "with monopoly strongly entrenched in business, manufacturing, finance and government."[^10]
Staff critics complained that CIAA coordinating committees in Brazil and elsewhere were composed of "the biggest businessmen" with "the most reactionary" policy views. [[Josephus Daniels]], the liberal former ambassador, warned Roosevelt that the war would see "the forces of privilege" return to control of government, "with monopoly strongly entrenched in business, manufacturing, finance and government."[^13]
The CIAA was penetrated by Soviet intelligence during the war. Venona project decrypts identified six American employees who engaged in espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union; the agency's code name in Soviet intelligence communications was "Cabaret."[^11]
The CIAA was penetrated by Soviet intelligence during the war. Venona project decrypts identified six American employees who engaged in espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union; the agency's code name in Soviet intelligence communications was "Cabaret."[^14]
### Propaganda Operations
The CIAA built or subsidized shortwave broadcasting infrastructure reaching every country in the hemisphere. Its flagship radio operation was [[La Cadena de las Américas]], founded in 1941 as a joint project with the [[Columbia Broadcasting System]] (CBS) under CBS president [[William S. Paley]] and journalists [[Paul White]] and [[Edmund Chester]]. The network consisted of 64 stations across 18 countries and broadcast in Spanish and English; after the war its supervision was gradually transferred to the State Department's [[Voice of America]]. The CIAA also produced the CBS *Viva América* program.[^12]
The CIAA built or subsidized shortwave broadcasting infrastructure reaching every country in the hemisphere. Its flagship radio operation was [[La Cadena de las Américas]], founded in 1941 as a joint project with the [[Columbia Broadcasting System]] (CBS) under CBS president [[William S. Paley]] and journalists [[Paul White]] and [[Edmund Chester]]. The network consisted of 64 stations across 18 countries and broadcast in Spanish and English; after the war its supervision was gradually transferred to the State Department's [[Voice of America]]. The CIAA also produced the CBS *Viva América* program.[^15]
The CIAA controlled Latin American press access to newsprint, a critical wartime scarcity, conditioning that access on editorial cooperation. It compiled a "Proclaimed List" of Axis-owned or Axis-sympathizing newspapers and radio stations across the hemisphere, circulated beginning July 1941 under the informal Latin American name "La Lista Negra." Some 1,800 firms and individuals were publicly declared Axis-affiliated and frozen out of US goods and credit. During the first half of 1941 alone, US exporters dropped more than 1,000 South American accounts under CIAA pressure.[^13]
The CIAA controlled Latin American press access to newsprint, a critical wartime scarcity, conditioning that access on editorial cooperation. It compiled a "Proclaimed List" of Axis-owned or Axis-sympathizing newspapers and radio stations across the hemisphere, circulated beginning July 1941 under the informal Latin American name "La Lista Negra." Some 1,800 firms and individuals were publicly declared Axis-affiliated and frozen out of US goods and credit. During the first half of 1941 alone, US exporters dropped more than 1,000 South American accounts under CIAA pressure.[^16]
Hollywood studios were pressured to deny films to theaters showing German or Italian content, and the CIAA filled the vacuum with its own newsreels and political films. In early 1941 the CIAA reached out to [[Walt Disney]], whose studio had been facing financial difficulty; Nelson Rockefeller arranged a government-underwritten goodwill tour of South America for Disney and roughly twenty composers, artists, and technicians. The tour produced *Saludos Amigos*, which premiered in Rio de Janeiro on August 24, 1942, and opened in the United States on February 6, 1943, and *The Three Caballeros* (1944). Both films were shown throughout Latin America using CIAA mobile projectors. The CIAA sponsored goodwill tours by [[Orson Welles]], [[Bing Crosby]], [[George Balanchine]], and [[John Ford]] in 1941-1943.[^14]
Hollywood studios were pressured to deny films to theaters showing German or Italian content, and the CIAA filled the vacuum with its own newsreels and political films. In early 1941 the CIAA reached out to Walt Disney, whose studio had been facing financial difficulty; Nelson Rockefeller arranged a government-underwritten goodwill tour of South America for Disney and roughly twenty composers, artists, and technicians. The tour produced *Saludos Amigos*, which premiered in Rio de Janeiro on August 24, 1942, and opened in the United States on February 6, 1943, and *The Three Caballeros* (1944). Both films were shown throughout Latin America using CIAA mobile projectors. The CIAA sponsored goodwill tours by [[Orson Welles]], [[Bing Crosby]], [[George Balanchine]], and [[John Ford]] in 1941-1943.[^17]
The CIAA's Publications and Information Division, run by [[Francis Jamieson]] (a [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning reporter and future Rockefeller campaign manager), produced the magazine *En Guardia* (registered with the US Postal Office on April 8, 1941, with the first issue in summer 1941 and the third issue circulating in October). Circulation reached 750,000 copies per issue by peak production, distributed free to politicians, journalists, and business executives. Propaganda posters and editorial cartoons were produced through contractors coordinated by Jamieson's New York office; these materials are documented in NARA Record Group 229, series "Propaganda Materials, 1941-1945" (NAID 540082) and "Status of Projects Reports, 1942-1945" (NAID 2067594).[^15]
The CIAA's Publications and Information Division, run by [[Francis Jamieson]] (a [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning reporter and future Rockefeller campaign manager), produced the magazine *En Guardia* (registered with the US Postal Office on April 8, 1941, with the first issue in summer 1941 and the third issue circulating in October). Circulation reached 750,000 copies per issue by peak production, distributed free to politicians, journalists, and business executives. Propaganda posters and editorial cartoons were produced through contractors coordinated by Jamieson's New York office; these materials are documented in NARA Record Group 229, series "Propaganda Materials, 1941-1945" (NAID 540082) and "Status of Projects Reports, 1942-1945" (NAID 2067594).[^18]
The CIAA was one of the heaviest users of the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]]. On March 5, 1942 Nelson Rockefeller wrote to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]] to thank the commission for the "invaluable aid" the service supplied to his organization. On July 29, 1942 he reported that the CIAA daily news roundup on Latin American affairs included 400 to 500 words a day drawn from the Kingsville transcripts.[^16] On July 7, 1942 [[Goodwin Watson]] wrote to Rockefeller about an offer the CIAA had made to the service's analyst John W. Gardner, and proposed that officials of the two offices settle the matter together.[^17] On January 2, 1943 [[Robert D. Leigh]] wrote to Rockefeller suggesting that the CIAA set up a system like the service's for releasing information about Latin America.[^17]
The CIAA was one of the heaviest users of the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]]. On March 5, 1942 Nelson Rockefeller wrote to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]] to thank the commission for the "invaluable aid" the service supplied to his organization. On July 29, 1942 he reported that the CIAA daily news roundup on Latin American affairs included 400 to 500 words a day drawn from the Kingsville transcripts.[^19] On July 7, 1942 [[Goodwin Watson]] wrote to Rockefeller about an offer the CIAA had made to the service's analyst John W. Gardner, and proposed that officials of the two offices settle the matter together.[^20] On January 2, 1943 [[Robert D. Leigh]] wrote to Rockefeller suggesting that the CIAA set up a system like the service's for releasing information about Latin America.[^20]
### Aviation and Infrastructure
The CIAA funded and coordinated displacement of Axis-affiliated airlines from South American routes and integrated Latin American air forces into a US-led hemispheric defense system. The Panair do Brazil operations in northeastern Brazil (a Pan American subsidiary) received War Department financing to build airfields beginning in June 1941; the Natal airbase was built in 1942. CIAA-funded airfields and trans-Andean highways served the immediate war effort while creating the infrastructure for postwar corporate penetration of the interior.[^18]
The CIAA funded and coordinated displacement of Axis-affiliated airlines from South American routes and integrated Latin American air forces into a US-led hemispheric defense system. The Panair do Brazil operations in northeastern Brazil (a Pan American subsidiary) received War Department financing to build airfields beginning in June 1941; the Natal airbase was built in 1942. CIAA-funded airfields and trans-Andean highways served the immediate war effort while creating the infrastructure for postwar corporate penetration of the interior.[^21]
The trans-Andean highway to [[Pucallpa]], Peru, funded by the CIAA, passed within fifteen miles of the [[Ganso Azul]] oil field, the Amazon basin's only proven petroleum source at the time. This highway also enabled the [[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] to establish its Amazonian base at [[Yarinacocha]] adjacent to the road.[^19]
The trans-Andean highway to [[Pucallpa]], Peru, funded by the CIAA, passed within fifteen miles of the [[Ganso Azul]] oil field, the Amazon basin's only proven petroleum source at the time. This highway also enabled the [[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] to establish its Amazonian base at [[Yarinacocha]] adjacent to the road.[^22]
Record Group 229 at NARA includes a [[Department of Transportation]] series totaling 129 linear feet, documenting CIAA aviation, ocean shipping, railway, and highway programs across the hemisphere.[^20]
Record Group 229 at NARA includes a [[Department of Transportation]] series totaling 129 linear feet, documenting CIAA aviation, ocean shipping, railway, and highway programs across the hemisphere.[^23]
### Rubber Program and the Amazon
The CIAA was assigned the task of reviving Amazon rubber production after Japanese forces overran British Far East plantations in 1942, eliminating 92 percent of the US rubber supply. The US and Brazil entered a formal rubber agreement in March 1942 under which the US committed a $5 million fund to improve raw rubber production in the Amazon and guaranteed purchase of all Brazilian exportable rubber through 1946 at fixed prices. The US paid the Brazilian government $100 for each worker delivered to the Amazon as a "rubber soldier."[^21]
The CIAA was assigned the task of reviving Amazon rubber production after Japanese forces overran British Far East plantations in 1942, eliminating 92 percent of the US rubber supply. The US and Brazil entered a formal rubber agreement in March 1942 under which the US committed a $5 million fund to improve raw rubber production in the Amazon and guaranteed purchase of all Brazilian exportable rubber through 1946 at fixed prices. The US paid the Brazilian government $100 for each worker delivered to the Amazon as a "rubber soldier."[^24]
The rubber program was administered through a network of agencies: the [[Rubber Reserve Company]] (incorporated June 28, 1940, as an RFC subsidiary), which controlled stockpiling and disposal; the [[Rubber Development Corporation]], which managed Amazon operations and was financed through special funds established under the Washington Accords governing Brazil's wartime cooperation; the Brazilian [[SEMTA]] (Serviço Especial de Mobilização de Trabalhadores para a Amazônia), which recruited labor; [[SAVA]] for labor placement; the [[Banco de Credito da Borracha]] for production financing; and the [[SESP]] health and sanitation service.[^22]
The rubber program was administered through a network of agencies: the [[Rubber Reserve Company]] (incorporated June 28, 1940, as an RFC subsidiary), which controlled stockpiling and disposal; the [[Rubber Development Corporation]], which managed Amazon operations and was financed through special funds established under the Washington Accords governing Brazil's wartime cooperation; the Brazilian [[SEMTA]] (Serviço Especial de Mobilização de Trabalhadores para a Amazônia), which recruited labor; [[SAVA]] for labor placement; the [[Banco de Credito da Borracha]] for production financing; and the [[SESP]] health and sanitation service.[^25]
Between 1943 and 1945 approximately 60,000 people were recruited to work as rubber tappers in the Amazon interior. The results were catastrophic for the workers: roughly one-third died within the first year of the program, a ratio that climbed toward one-half before the war ended. Survivors were indentured to seringal operators through permanent debts inherited across generations. CIAA-administered health and sanitation programs for rubber workers, documented in NARA Record Group 229, included the Servicio Especial de Saude Publica, with quarterly reports from 1944 and 1946-1950, and architectural and engineering plans for water supply, drainage, and sewer systems from 1937-1951.[^23]
Between 1943 and 1945 approximately 60,000 people were recruited to work as rubber tappers in the Amazon interior. The results were catastrophic for the workers: roughly one-third died within the first year of the program, a ratio that climbed toward one-half before the war ended. Survivors were indentured to seringal operators through permanent debts inherited across generations. CIAA-administered health and sanitation programs for rubber workers, documented in NARA Record Group 229, included the Servicio Especial de Saude Publica, with quarterly reports from 1944 and 1946-1950, and architectural and engineering plans for water supply, drainage, and sewer systems from 1937-1951.[^26]
The CIAA also oversaw the [[Metals Reserve Company]] (incorporated June 28, 1940, as an RFC subsidiary), which procured approximately 50 kinds of strategic metals and minerals from 51 countries; Bolivia's tin and tungsten, Chile's copper and nitrates, Colombia's platinum and mercury, and Venezuela's oil were among the primary Latin American targets of preclusive buying. By January 1941 the CIAA had been assigned the specific task of assembling data on Axis purchases of strategic materials in Latin America to support preclusive buying recommendations.[^24]
The CIAA also oversaw the [[Metals Reserve Company]] (incorporated June 28, 1940, as an RFC subsidiary), which procured approximately 50 kinds of strategic metals and minerals from 51 countries; Bolivia's tin and tungsten, Chile's copper and nitrates, Colombia's platinum and mercury, and Venezuela's oil were among the primary Latin American targets of preclusive buying. By January 1941 the CIAA had been assigned the specific task of assembling data on Axis purchases of strategic materials in Latin America to support preclusive buying recommendations.[^27]
### Health and Sanitation Programs
Beginning in spring 1942 the CIAA developed a major health and sanitation program for Latin America, operating through the [[Institute of Inter-American Affairs]] (IIAA), incorporated as a US government corporation in 1942. The IIAA established joint US-Latin American "Servicios" organizations across the hemisphere, each representing cooperative programs in public health, sanitation, agriculture, and education. Coordinating committee records for Brazil and Peru, covering 1941-1946, are held in Record Group 229; they include architectural and engineering plans for 660 health and sanitation infrastructure projects across the hemisphere.[^25]
Beginning in spring 1942 the CIAA developed a major health and sanitation program for Latin America, operating through the [[Institute of Inter-American Affairs]] (IIAA), incorporated as a US government corporation in 1942. The IIAA established joint US-Latin American "Servicios" organizations across the hemisphere, each representing cooperative programs in public health, sanitation, agriculture, and education. Coordinating committee records for Brazil and Peru, covering 1941-1946, are held in Record Group 229; they include architectural and engineering plans for 660 health and sanitation infrastructure projects across the hemisphere.[^28]
### Dissolution and Succession
Rockefeller was appointed Assistant Secretary of State for American Republic Affairs at the State Department's general reorganization on December 20, 1944, when the position was formally created. He served under both Roosevelt and Truman through 1945.[^26]
Rockefeller was appointed Assistant Secretary of State for American Republic Affairs at the State Department's general reorganization on December 20, 1944, when the position was formally created. He served under both Roosevelt and Truman through 1945.[^29]
After Rockefeller's departure, Wallace Harrison became director of the renamed Office of Inter-American Affairs under Executive Order 9532 (March 23, 1945). Executive Order 9608 (August 31, 1945) transferred OIAA informational activities to the State Department after the end of the war. Executive Order 9710 (April 10, 1946, effective May 20, 1946), signed by President [[Harry S. Truman]], abolished the office entirely; the Secretary of State received control over five subsidiary corporations: the Institute of Inter-American Affairs, the [[Inter-American Educational Foundation]], the [[Institute of Inter-American Transportation]], the [[Inter-American Navigation Corporation]], and [[Prencin-radio]], along with all records, property, funds, and remaining personnel.[^27]
After Rockefeller's departure, Wallace Harrison became director of the renamed Office of Inter-American Affairs under Executive Order 9532 (March 23, 1945). Executive Order 9608 (August 31, 1945) transferred OIAA informational activities to the State Department after the end of the war. Executive Order 9710 (April 10, 1946, effective May 20, 1946), signed by President [[Harry S. Truman]], abolished the office entirely; the Secretary of State received control over five subsidiary corporations: the Institute of Inter-American Affairs, the [[Inter-American Educational Foundation]], the [[Institute of Inter-American Transportation]], the [[Inter-American Navigation Corporation]], and [[Prencin-radio]], along with all records, property, funds, and remaining personnel.[^30]
The CIAA's personnel, techniques, and institutional relationships migrated into the State Department, the new CIA, and Rockefeller's private instruments, the [[IBEC]] and [[AIA]]. The FBI's Special Intelligence Service transferred its Latin American networks, communications systems, and personnel to the CIA during the same period. The CIAA's methods, particularly press control, radio operations, controlled newsprint, and the use of private business executives for public policy, became templates for CIA covert operations in the subsequent decade.[^28]
The CIAA's personnel, techniques, and institutional relationships migrated into the State Department, the new CIA, and Rockefeller's private instruments, the [[IBEC]] and [[AIA]]. The FBI's Special Intelligence Service transferred its Latin American networks, communications systems, and personnel to the CIA during the same period. The CIAA's methods, particularly press control, radio operations, controlled newsprint, and the use of private business executives for public policy, became templates for CIA covert operations in the subsequent decade.[^31]
### Archival Holdings
@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs are held at NARA as Record Group
- Division of Agriculture (1 linear foot)
- Department of Special Services (1 linear foot)
Audiovisual materials include 45 reels of motion picture film documenting Latin American activities and dignitaries' visits (1940-1945), 24 sound recordings of Spanish and English radio broadcasts (1941-1947), 3,386 still photographs including the Rockefeller Collection, 79 posters and drawings (1941-1945), 55 maps of South American locations, and 660 architectural and engineering plans for health and sanitation infrastructure. Records of subsidiary corporations and minutes of their meetings cover 1942-1949.[^29]
Audiovisual materials include 45 reels of motion picture film documenting Latin American activities and dignitaries' visits (1940-1945), 24 sound recordings of Spanish and English radio broadcasts (1941-1947), 3,386 still photographs including the Rockefeller Collection, 79 posters and drawings (1941-1945), 55 maps of South American locations, and 660 architectural and engineering plans for health and sanitation infrastructure. Records of subsidiary corporations and minutes of their meetings cover 1942-1949.[^32]
### Footnotes
@ -109,25 +109,28 @@ Audiovisual materials include 45 reels of motion picture film documenting Latin
[^5]: SCADTA German employee dismissals June 8, 1940; airline reorganized as Avianca June 14, 1940: Pan American Historical Foundation, panam.org; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8.
[^6]: FBI Special Intelligence Service founding, June 24, 1940: FBI, "A Brief History of the FBI," fbi.gov/history/brief-history; FBI, "Special Intelligence Service," fbi.gov/history/brief-history/special-intelligence-service. OSS Western Hemisphere exclusion: CIA, "The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency." Hoover/Rockefeller coordination: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance").
[^7]: Executive Order 8840, July 30, 1941; Export-Import Bank lending authority increase: "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947.
[^8]: Paul Nitze as finance director, 1942: Truman Library, Oral History Interviews with Paul H. Nitze, August 1975. Will Clayton as deputy coordinator: Texas State Historical Association, "William Lockhart Clayton." Wallace Harrison salary: Executive Order 9532, March 23, 1945. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative").
[^9]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies").
[^10]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative").
[^11]: Venona project, "Cabaret" code name and six identified CIAA employees: CIA, "Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957"; NSA, "Venona: The Spy Messages," nsa.gov/Portals/70/documents/news-features/declassified-documents/venona/releases/1944_usciaa.pdf.
[^12]: La Cadena de las Américas, founded 1941, 64 stations in 18 countries: "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8.
[^13]: Proclaimed List, July 1941, 1,800 firms: TIME, "War Front: Blacklist"; FRUS 1941 Vol. VI, Document 313 (history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v06/d313). Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance").
[^14]: *Saludos Amigos* premiere Rio de Janeiro August 24, 1942; US release February 6, 1943; Disney goodwill tour facilitated by CIAA: Dale Adams, "Saludos Amigos: Hollywood and FDR's Good Neighbor Policy," *Quarterly Review of Film and Video* 24, no. 3 (2007); Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8.
[^15]: *En Guardia* registered April 8, 1941; first issue summer 1941; circulation 750,000: research paper, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, scholarworks.utrgv.edu/art_fac/3/. NARA RG 229, "Propaganda Materials, 1941-1945" (NAID 540082); "Status of Projects Reports, 1942-1945" (NAID 2067594): NARA blog, text-message.blogs.archives.gov, September 26, 2017. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 13 ("The Junta Regroups").
[^16]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (CIA, approved April 1969), pp. 158-159, on the letters of March 5, 1942 and July 29, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," note 24, gives the July 29, 1942 letter with the Kingsville passage. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
[^17]: Roop, Part I, pp. 218-219, on Watson's letter of July 7, 1942, and pp. 101-102, on Leigh's letter of January 2, 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^18]: Panair do Brazil airfield agreement June 1941; Natal airbase 1942: The Pan Am Historical Foundation, panam.org. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies").
[^19]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Wings over the Amazon").
[^20]: NARA RG 229 Department of Transportation series, 129 linear feet: archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/229.html.
[^21]: US-Brazil rubber agreement, March 1942; $5 million fund; $100 per worker; guaranteed purchase through 1946: Americas Quarterly, "The Amazon's Greatest Generation?"; Quintus Curtius, "Brazil's Rubber Soldiers."
[^22]: Rubber Reserve Company incorporated June 28, 1940 as RFC subsidiary: Jesse H. Jones, *Fifty Billion Dollars: My Thirteen Years with the RFC* (Macmillan, 1951), pp. 406-415. Rubber Development Corporation, SEMTA, Washington Accords: ResearchGate, "Os Soldados da Borracha." FRUS 1943, Vol. V, Document 627 (September 9, 1943, McAshan to Ambassador Caffery): history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v05/d627. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12.
[^23]: 60,000 rubber workers recruited 1943-1945; mortality estimates: Americas Quarterly, "The Amazon's Greatest Generation?"; Quintus Curtius, "Brazil's Rubber Soldiers." SESP records and health infrastructure plans: NARA RG 229; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12.
[^24]: Metals Reserve Company incorporated June 28, 1940 as RFC subsidiary (alongside Rubber Reserve Company and Defense Plant Corporation, all created the same day): Jesse H. Jones, *Fifty Billion Dollars*, pp. 389-405. Preclusive buying data assembly by January 1941: "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Strategic materials by country: Foreign Affairs, "Our Economic Warfare," April 1942.
[^25]: Institute of Inter-American Affairs incorporated 1942: NARA, "Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs." Servicios programs and 660 infrastructure plans: NARA RG 229; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8.
[^26]: Rockefeller appointed Assistant Secretary of State for American Republic Affairs, entry on duty December 20, 1944: State Department Historical Office, "List of Assistant Secretaries of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs," history.state.gov; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12-13.
[^27]: Executive Order 9532, March 23, 1945; Executive Order 9608, August 31, 1945; Executive Order 9710, April 10, 1946, effective May 20, 1946; five subsidiary corporations transferred to Secretary of State: American Presidency Project.
[^28]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8, Ch. 12-13. SIS networks transferred to CIA at CIA's founding in 1947: CIA, "The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency," cia.gov/stories/story/the-office-of-strategic-services-americas-first-intelligence-agency/.
[^29]: NARA RG 229 full description: archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/229.html; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947.
[^8]: *Motion Picture Herald*, July 4, 1942 (film activities "launched by John Hay Whitney"; Alstock "formerly Mr. Whitney's aide"). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher148unse
[^9]: "Rockefeller and Whitney Hire Disney to Make Goodwill Films," *Motion Picture Herald*, January 10, 1942 (selection of Walt Disney by Nelson Rockefeller and John Hay Whitney as first Hollywood producer of films for the goodwill program; South American cartoons to be produced at cost). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher146unse
[^10]: *Motion Picture Herald*, October 3, 1942 (staff changes at Nelson Rockefeller's Office of Inter-American Affairs: "Francis Alstock, who succeeded John Hay Whitney as director of the motion picture division"). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher1481unse
[^11]: Paul Nitze as finance director, 1942: Truman Library, Oral History Interviews with Paul H. Nitze, August 1975. Will Clayton as deputy coordinator: Texas State Historical Association, "William Lockhart Clayton." Wallace Harrison salary: Executive Order 9532, March 23, 1945. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative").
[^12]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies").
[^13]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative").
[^14]: Venona project, "Cabaret" code name and six identified CIAA employees: CIA, "Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957"; NSA, "Venona: The Spy Messages," nsa.gov/Portals/70/documents/news-features/declassified-documents/venona/releases/1944_usciaa.pdf.
[^15]: La Cadena de las Américas, founded 1941, 64 stations in 18 countries: "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8.
[^16]: Proclaimed List, July 1941, 1,800 firms: TIME, "War Front: Blacklist"; FRUS 1941 Vol. VI, Document 313 (history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v06/d313). Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance").
[^17]: *Saludos Amigos* premiere Rio de Janeiro August 24, 1942; US release February 6, 1943; Disney goodwill tour facilitated by CIAA: Dale Adams, "Saludos Amigos: Hollywood and FDR's Good Neighbor Policy," *Quarterly Review of Film and Video* 24, no. 3 (2007); Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8.
[^18]: *En Guardia* registered April 8, 1941; first issue summer 1941; circulation 750,000: research paper, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, scholarworks.utrgv.edu/art_fac/3/. NARA RG 229, "Propaganda Materials, 1941-1945" (NAID 540082); "Status of Projects Reports, 1942-1945" (NAID 2067594): NARA blog, text-message.blogs.archives.gov, September 26, 2017. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 13 ("The Junta Regroups").
[^19]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (CIA, approved April 1969), pp. 158-159, on the letters of March 5, 1942 and July 29, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," note 24, gives the July 29, 1942 letter with the Kingsville passage. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
[^20]: Roop, Part I, pp. 218-219, on Watson's letter of July 7, 1942, and pp. 101-102, on Leigh's letter of January 2, 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^21]: Panair do Brazil airfield agreement June 1941; Natal airbase 1942: The Pan Am Historical Foundation, panam.org. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies").
[^22]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Wings over the Amazon").
[^23]: NARA RG 229 Department of Transportation series, 129 linear feet: archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/229.html.
[^24]: US-Brazil rubber agreement, March 1942; $5 million fund; $100 per worker; guaranteed purchase through 1946: Americas Quarterly, "The Amazon's Greatest Generation?"; Quintus Curtius, "Brazil's Rubber Soldiers."
[^25]: Rubber Reserve Company incorporated June 28, 1940 as RFC subsidiary: Jesse H. Jones, *Fifty Billion Dollars: My Thirteen Years with the RFC* (Macmillan, 1951), pp. 406-415. Rubber Development Corporation, SEMTA, Washington Accords: ResearchGate, "Os Soldados da Borracha." FRUS 1943, Vol. V, Document 627 (September 9, 1943, McAshan to Ambassador Caffery): history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v05/d627. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12.
[^26]: 60,000 rubber workers recruited 1943-1945; mortality estimates: Americas Quarterly, "The Amazon's Greatest Generation?"; Quintus Curtius, "Brazil's Rubber Soldiers." SESP records and health infrastructure plans: NARA RG 229; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12.
[^27]: Metals Reserve Company incorporated June 28, 1940 as RFC subsidiary (alongside Rubber Reserve Company and Defense Plant Corporation, all created the same day): Jesse H. Jones, *Fifty Billion Dollars*, pp. 389-405. Preclusive buying data assembly by January 1941: "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Strategic materials by country: Foreign Affairs, "Our Economic Warfare," April 1942.
[^28]: Institute of Inter-American Affairs incorporated 1942: NARA, "Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs." Servicios programs and 660 infrastructure plans: NARA RG 229; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8.
[^29]: Rockefeller appointed Assistant Secretary of State for American Republic Affairs, entry on duty December 20, 1944: State Department Historical Office, "List of Assistant Secretaries of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs," history.state.gov; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12-13.
[^30]: Executive Order 9532, March 23, 1945; Executive Order 9608, August 31, 1945; Executive Order 9710, April 10, 1946, effective May 20, 1946; five subsidiary corporations transferred to Secretary of State: American Presidency Project.
[^31]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8, Ch. 12-13. SIS networks transferred to CIA at CIA's founding in 1947: CIA, "The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency," cia.gov/stories/story/the-office-of-strategic-services-americas-first-intelligence-agency/.
[^32]: NARA RG 229 full description: archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/229.html; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947.

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md
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@ -22,31 +22,31 @@ relations:
role: "Office of Security release of police techniques through LEAA"
start: 1970
end: 1973
fn: 14
fn: 18
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Bobby Ray Inman]]"
reverse: true
role: "deputy director"
start: 1981-02
end: 1982-04
fn: 41
fn: 45
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Psychological Strategy Board]]"
role: "Member agency; the Director of Central Intelligence chaired meeting M-8"
start: 1952-01-10
fn: 68
fn: 72
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Max Millikan]]"
reverse: true
role: "Assistant Director, Research and Reports (1951); Special Consultant (1952)"
start: 1951-01
end: 1952-03
fn: 69
fn: 73
- type: funded
with: "[[Center for International Studies]]"
role: "agency money reported to have set up the center in 1951; $300,000 reported in 1967"
start: 1951
fn: 76
fn: 80
- type: employed_by
with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]"
reverse: true
@ -59,7 +59,14 @@ relations:
reverse: true
start: 1995
role: "analyst; described as a CIA scientist (Farley, 1995) and CIA analyst (Cox Committee, 1999)"
fn: 53
fn: 57
- type: employed_by
with: "[[William Sloane Coffin]]"
reverse: true
start: 1950
end: 1953
role: "served abroad during the Korean War; three years as an agent by his own account"
fn: 14
---
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a primary intelligence-gathering organization of the United States government. In the context of psychic research, the CIA played a significant, albeit often covert, role in funding and overseeing programs aimed at exploring and utilizing psychic phenomena for intelligence purposes.[^1]
@ -69,35 +76,37 @@ The CIA, particularly through its Photographic Intelligence Division, was instru
In July 1951 an [[Associated Press]] item reported that [[F. Trubee Davison]], formerly Assistant Secretary of War for Air and president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]], would join the Agency on July 16 as a principal assistant to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he probably would do personnel work.[^3] A memorandum from Davison dated September 11, 1951 appears on a CIA routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^4] A Springfield (Ohio) Sun editorial of July 1951 reported that Davison had "been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency," and that the Agency "has been rather unfortunate in its chiefs."[^5] A memorandum of September 10, 1951 from [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]], then Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, is addressed to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)."[^6] Davison chaired the Agency's Career Service Committee: the minutes of its second meeting (October 1, 1951) record that the committee separated a Trainee Program from a Career Service Program, that "the establishment of a Career Corps, as such, had been disapproved by the DCI," and that of the first class of nineteen trainees sixteen had graduated and fourteen been placed; the minutes of its fourteenth meeting (January 1952) list him with Matthew Baird, Director of Training, and [[Sherman Kent]], Assistant Director for National Estimates.[^7] The New York Times reported in 1974 that he left the post in April 1952, "when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the C.I.A.'s personnel."[^8] CIA documents of 1968, 1969 and 1972 name [[Hugh T. Cunningham]] as the Agency's Director of Training.[^9] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990 that Cunningham served in the Agency from 1947 to 1973 and that Davison, Cunningham, [[William P. Bundy]] and [[Dino Pionzio]] (deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]] in 1970) were members of the Yale society [[Skull and Bones]].[^10] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members lists Davison under the class of 1918, Cunningham (Hugh Terry) under 1934, Bundy under 1939 and Pionzio under 1950.[^11]
[[William Sloane Coffin]], a Yale chaplain from 1958, served with the agency from 1950 to 1953, and [[Tim Weiner]] places him in Munich as a new recruit assigned to the Russian émigré program of [[Frank Wisner]]'s Eastern Europe operations, recruited by his brother-in-law [[Frank Lindsay]].[^12] In Weiner's account the program, run with the Solidarists, moved from leaflets and balloons to four-man parachute missions into the Soviet Union, and Coffin later called it "a fundamentally bad idea."[^12] A retrospective in a December 12, 1969 memorandum for the 303 Committee states that "assistance to the émigrés for the eventuality of war with or revolution within the USSR was unrealistic."[^13] In a 1967 television interview Coffin said he had been "three years an agent for the CIA."[^14] A 1987 speech by [[Robert M. Gates]], then the agency's deputy director for intelligence, lists Coffin among academics who joined the agency and says he left the [[Union Theological Seminary]] to join it for the duration of the Korean War, before becoming chaplain at Yale.[^15]
### Early Involvement in Psi Research
The CIA's interest in psi research dates back to the early 1970s, partly in response to rumors of extensive Soviet psi research. Following a number of scandals in the mid-1970s, including revelations of domestic spying, the CIA came under unprecedented scrutiny from Congress. This led to a preference for "clean" spying methods, making psychic intelligence an appealing, low-profile alternative to traditional human intelligence (HUMINT).[^1]
In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^12]
In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^16]
### The Search for Behavioral Control
Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^13]
Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^17]
### Police Technique Program Through LEAA
From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^14] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^14]
From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^18] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^18]
Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^15] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^16]
Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^19] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^20]
The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^15] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^17]
The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^19] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^21]
A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^18] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^19] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^20]
A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^22] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^23] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^24]
Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^21] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^22] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^23] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^24]
Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^25] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^26] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^27] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^28]
### The 1977 Notifications to Institutions
In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^25]
In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^29]
General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^26] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^27] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^28] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^29]
General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^30] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^31] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^32] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^33]
The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^30]
The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^34]
### Notable Operations and Impact
@ -119,103 +128,103 @@ Following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]]
### Involvement with BCCI
The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^31] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^31] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^32]
The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^35] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^35] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^36]
In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^33] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^34] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^35]
In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^37] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^38] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^39]
William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^36] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^36]
William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^40] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^40]
The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^37]
The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^41]
### Operations and Activities
The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^38] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^38]
The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^42] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^42]
In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^39] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^39]
In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^43] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^43]
### Deputy Director Bobby Ray Inman, 1981 to 1982
President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^40] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^41] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^40]
President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^44] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^45] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^44]
The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^42] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^43]
The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^46] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^47]
### Senior Review Panel
The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^44] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^44] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^45]
The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^48] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^48] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^49]
### UAP Research and Secrecy
The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^12]
The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^16]
The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^12]
The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^16]
In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^12]
In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^16]
### Dark Alliance Investigation
The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^46]
The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^50]
### Contra Drug Trafficking and the Frogman Case
Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^47]
Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^51]
Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^47] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^48]
Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^51] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^52]
### The Secret 1982 Agreement with the Justice Department
In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^49]
In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^53]
### Ilopango Obstruction
When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^50] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^51]
When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^54] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^55]
### Inspector General Investigation
CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^49]
CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^53]
### Hughes Electronics and the Pandolfi Estimate, 1995 to 1998
On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^52] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^53] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^54] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^52]
On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^56] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^57] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^58] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^56]
In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^53] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^52] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^54]
In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^57] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^56] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^58]
### Iran-Contra Indictments
Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^46]
Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^50]
### Interrogation videotapes and the 2004 to 2006 directorship
[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^55] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^56] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^57]
[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^59] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^60] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^61]
The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^58] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^58]
The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^62] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^62]
Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^59] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^60]
Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^63] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^64]
### Foreign Broadcast Information Service
The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^61] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^62] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^63]
The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^65] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^66] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^67]
Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^64]
Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^68]
The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^65]
The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^69]
### Psychological warfare liaison, 1946 to 1952
In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^66]
In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^70]
In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^67]
In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^71]
On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^68]
On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^72]
In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^69] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^70] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^71] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^72] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^73] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^74] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^75]
In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^73] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^74] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^75] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^76] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^77] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^78] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^79]
The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^76] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^77] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^78]
The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^80] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^81] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^82]
The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^79] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^80]
The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^83] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^84]
In February 1961 Allen W. Dulles wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^81]
In February 1961 Allen W. Dulles wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^85]
A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^82] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^83] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^84] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^85] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^86]
A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^86] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^87] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^88] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^89] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^90]
### Footnotes
@ -230,78 +239,82 @@ A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENI
[^9]: CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (May 15, 1969), CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (1968) and CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, 1972). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
[^10]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^11]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^12]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024.
[^13]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2.
[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5
[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053
[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041
[^17]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9
[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3
[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445
[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1
[^21]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf
[^22]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2
[^23]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0
[^24]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1
[^25]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
[^26]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95.
[^27]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
[^28]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3.
[^29]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1.
[^30]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3.
[^31]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126.
[^32]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147.
[^33]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12.
[^34]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9.
[^35]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149.
[^36]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347.
[^37]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^38]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334.
[^39]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341.
[^40]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html
[^41]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3
[^42]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7
[^43]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5
[^44]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
[^45]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1
[^46]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
[^47]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
[^48]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html
[^49]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done"
[^50]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends"
[^51]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm
[^52]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html
[^53]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
[^54]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html
[^55]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220
[^56]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/
[^57]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html
[^58]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
[^59]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750
[^60]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/
[^61]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^62]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
[^63]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^64]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
[^65]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html.
[^66]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9
[^67]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0
[^68]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6
[^69]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1
[^70]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2
[^71]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1
[^72]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3
[^73]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6
[^74]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5
[^75]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0
[^76]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
[^77]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
[^78]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
[^79]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57
[^80]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8
[^81]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9
[^82]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2
[^83]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7
[^84]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9
[^85]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055
[^86]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4
[^12]: Tim Weiner, *Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA* (Doubleday, 2007), chapter 5, section "A Fundamentally Bad Idea." https://archive.org/details/legacy-of-ashes-the-history-of-the-cia-tim-weiner
[^13]: Memorandum for the 303 Committee, "U.S. Policy on Support for Covert Action Involving Emigres Directed at the Soviet Union," December 12, 1969, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XII, document 106, p. 322. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v12/d106
[^14]: Radio TV Reports, Inc., transcript of "Rev. Coffin Interviewed," *The Today Show*, WRC-TV, July 25, 1967, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020003-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020003-0
[^15]: Robert M. Gates, "CIA and the University," address to the Association of Former Intelligence Officers, October 10, 1987, CIA-RDP89G00720R000500070019-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp89g00720r000500070019-9
[^16]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024.
[^17]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2.
[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5
[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053
[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041
[^21]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9
[^22]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3
[^23]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445
[^24]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1
[^25]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf
[^26]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2
[^27]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0
[^28]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1
[^29]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
[^30]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95.
[^31]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
[^32]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3.
[^33]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1.
[^34]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3.
[^35]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126.
[^36]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147.
[^37]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12.
[^38]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9.
[^39]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149.
[^40]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347.
[^41]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^42]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334.
[^43]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341.
[^44]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html
[^45]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3
[^46]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7
[^47]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5
[^48]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
[^49]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1
[^50]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
[^51]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
[^52]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html
[^53]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done"
[^54]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends"
[^55]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm
[^56]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html
[^57]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
[^58]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html
[^59]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220
[^60]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/
[^61]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html
[^62]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
[^63]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750
[^64]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/
[^65]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^66]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
[^67]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^68]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
[^69]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html.
[^70]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9
[^71]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0
[^72]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6
[^73]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1
[^74]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2
[^75]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1
[^76]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3
[^77]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6
[^78]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5
[^79]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0
[^80]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
[^81]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
[^82]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
[^83]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57
[^84]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8
[^85]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9
[^86]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2
[^87]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7
[^88]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9
[^89]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055
[^90]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.md
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@ -33,14 +33,39 @@ relations:
reverse: true
role: "597,717 dollars over two years for AI governance research led by Matt Sheehan"
start: 2022-03
fn: 6
fn: 15
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Matt Sheehan]]"
reverse: true
role: "senior fellow, Asia Program; co-director, China AI Initiative"
fn: 7
fn: 16
- type: head_of
with: "[[Alger Hiss]]"
reverse: true
start: 1947-02-01
end: 1949-05
role: "president; elected December 1946, in office from February 1, 1947; on leave from December 1948, until the annual meeting of May 5, 1949"
fn: 9
- type: head_of
with: "[[Harvey H. Bundy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1952-12-08
role: "chairman of the board of trustees; vice chairman by December 1951"
fn: 13
- type: head_of
with: "[[John Foster Dulles]]"
reverse: true
end: 1952-12-08
role: "chairman of the board of trustees until his designation as Secretary of State"
fn: 13
- type: head_of
with: "[[Joseph E. Johnson]]"
reverse: true
start: 1950-07-01
role: "president; elected May 11, 1950, in office from July 1, 1950"
fn: 11
created: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-10-26
---
The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace is a foreign-policy research institution headquartered at 1779 Massachusetts Avenue NW in [[Washington, D.C.]], which describes itself as the oldest international-affairs think tank in the [[United States]].[^1][^2] It was founded in 1910 with a gift of 10 million dollars from [[Andrew Carnegie]], then, in its words, "one of the richest people in the world after the sale of Carnegie Steel to J.P. Morgan," who sought to "hasten the abolition of war, the foulest blot upon our civilization."[^1]
@ -55,19 +80,50 @@ Besides its Washington and California offices it runs centers in Asia, [[Beirut]
[[William Burns]], who had retired from the Foreign Service in 2014 after serving as deputy secretary of state, was president from 2015 to 2021.[^2] [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]], a former justice of the [[Supreme Court of California]] who had served on the [[President's Intelligence Advisory Board]], was president from November 2021 to June 2026. His Carnegie biography lists him as a director of [[Inflection AI]], [[Harvard University]] and [[LawZero]] and as a trustee of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]], which he joined in January 2026 while still president. On August 4, 2026, Anthropic announced that he would join it as its first chief global affairs officer.[^3][^4][^5]
[[Alger Hiss]] became the endowment's president. He testified before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]] in 1948 that the board had elected him in December 1946 and that he assumed office on February 1, 1947; asked whether John Foster Dulles, chairman of the board of trustees, was the first to approach him, he answered "He first approached me."[^6] Hiss was at the same time a trustee of the [[World Peace Foundation]], whose president was [[Harvey H. Bundy]].[^7] The Cox Committee report on tax-exempt foundations stated that Hiss's "nomination and election came about through the efforts of men of proven loyalty and broad experience in public affairs" and that "during his term as president of the Carnegie Endowment, Hiss took no official action to further the Communist cause."[^8]
After [[Whittaker Chambers]]'s August 1948 testimony Hiss offered his resignation. The trustees, meeting on December 12 and 13, 1948 under [[John W. Davis]] (Dulles was abroad), tabled it and granted a leave of absence at full pay, which the executive committee extended on February 17, 1949 to the annual meeting of May 5, 1949. James T. Shotwell acted as president from September 1948. According to Shotwell, [[William C. Bullitt]] asked Hiss at the December dinner whether he had checked with [[James F. Byrnes]] before taking the post.[^9]
In 1950 a nominating committee of Dulles (chairman), Bundy, [[David Rockefeller]], Earl Harrison and James T. Shotwell chose [[Joseph E. Johnson]], who was elected president on May 11, 1950; Shotwell told Federal Bureau of Investigation agents in 1951 that Johnson "was backed by Harvey H. Bundy" and that Bundy "was able to influence Dulles."[^10][^11] Bundy was vice chairman of the board by December 1951. On December 8, 1952, after Dulles resigned the chairmanship on his designation as Secretary of State, the board elected Bundy chairman to fill the unexpired term; he was elected chairman again on May 7, 1953 and May 6, 1954, and the rosters printed in *International Conciliation* list him as chairman in November 1957. By March 1961 he is listed among the honorary trustees and [[Whitney North Seymour]] as chairman.[^12][^13][^14]
### AI Governance
In March 2022 [[Open Philanthropy]] recommended 597,717 dollars over two years to the endowment "to support a research project on international AI governance led by Matt Sheehan," under its focus area "Potential Risks from Advanced AI." The same grant page listed another Open Philanthropy grant of 613,380 dollars over three years to the endowment for a project on "Chinese and Indian Perspectives on Biotech Security Risks."[^6] [[Matt Sheehan]], a senior fellow in the Asia Program and co-director of the China AI Initiative, lived and worked in China from 2010 to 2016 and was previously a fellow at MacroPolo, the think tank of the [[Paulson Institute]].[^7]
In March 2022 [[Open Philanthropy]] recommended 597,717 dollars over two years to the endowment "to support a research project on international AI governance led by Matt Sheehan," under its focus area "Potential Risks from Advanced AI." The same grant page listed another Open Philanthropy grant of 613,380 dollars over three years to the endowment for a project on "Chinese and Indian Perspectives on Biotech Security Risks."[^15] [[Matt Sheehan]], a senior fellow in the Asia Program and co-director of the China AI Initiative, lived and worked in China from 2010 to 2016 and was previously a fellow at MacroPolo, the think tank of the [[Paulson Institute]].[^16]
On April 29, 2024, [[Holden Karnofsky]] announced that he had left Open Philanthropy to join Carnegie as a visiting scholar and would "analyze and write about topics relevant to AI risk reduction," while continuing to serve on Open Philanthropy's board. He wrote that Cuéllar "has been an advocate for taking (what I see as) the biggest risks from AI seriously," that "Carnegie is looking to increase its attention to AI risk," and that its scholars on the subject included Sheehan, "who specializes in China's AI ecosystem." He cited among his reasons for leaving Open Philanthropy "the fact that I'm married to the President of a major AI company," [[Daniela Amodei]] of Anthropic.[^4] He joined Anthropic in January 2025.[^8]
On April 29, 2024, [[Holden Karnofsky]] announced that he had left Open Philanthropy to join Carnegie as a visiting scholar and would "analyze and write about topics relevant to AI risk reduction," while continuing to serve on Open Philanthropy's board. He wrote that Cuéllar "has been an advocate for taking (what I see as) the biggest risks from AI seriously," that "Carnegie is looking to increase its attention to AI risk," and that its scholars on the subject included Sheehan, "who specializes in China's AI ecosystem." He cited among his reasons for leaving Open Philanthropy "the fact that I'm married to the President of a major AI company," [[Daniela Amodei]] of Anthropic.[^4] He joined Anthropic in January 2025.[^17]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Our Story," retrieved September 23, 2026. https://carnegieendowment.org/our-story
[^2]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "William J. Burns," former president (2015 to 2021), biography, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/william-j-burns
[^3]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuéllar," former president (2021 to 2026), biography, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
[^4]: Karnofsky, Holden. "Joining the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace." EA Forum, April 29, 2024. https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/7gzgwgwefwBku2cnL/joining-the-carnegie-endowment-for-international-peace ; Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023, with later updates. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
[^5]: Anthropic, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuéllar to join Anthropic as Chief Global Affairs Officer," August 4, 2026. https://www.anthropic.com/news/tino-cuellar
[^6]: Open Philanthropy, "Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, AI Governance Research," March 2022, archived July 8, 2022. http://web.archive.org/web/20220708131413/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/carnegie-endowment-for-international-peace-ai-governance-research/
[^7]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Matt Sheehan," biography, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/matt-sheehan
[^8]: Mathews, Jessica. "Anthropic hired president Daniela Amodei's husband to work on the company's AI safety strategy." *Fortune,* February 13, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/02/13/anthropic-hired-president-daniela-amodei-husband-ai-safety-responsible-scaling/
[^6]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government*, House Committee on Un-American Activities, 80th Congress, 2d session, 1948, testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 645-646, https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit
[^7]: *American Foundations and Their Fields*, vol. 6 (1948), entry "World Peace Foundation," https://archive.org/details/americanfoundati0000wilm
[^8]: Report of the Select Committee to Investigate Foundations and Other Comparable Organizations, as filed in the Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46
[^9]: *United States of America against Alger Hiss: Transcript of Record*, second trial, vol. V, testimony of James T. Shotwell, trial transcript pp. 4100-4114, and of John Foster Dulles, pp. 4474-4493. https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss
[^10]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, answers to the questionnaire of the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations, 1952, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42
[^11]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Joseph Esrey Johnson file, New York memorandum of October 30, 1951, FOIA release 1368175-0, https://archive.org/details/JosephEsreyJohnson
[^12]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Board of Trustees minutes of December 10, 1951, and annual meeting of May 8, 1952 (Vice-Chairman Bundy presiding), Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46
[^13]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Board of Trustees minutes of December 8, 1952, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42
[^14]: *International Conciliation*, no. 515 (November 1957) and no. 532 (March 1961), https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1957-11_515 and https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1961-03_532
[^15]: Open Philanthropy, "Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, AI Governance Research," March 2022, archived July 8, 2022. http://web.archive.org/web/20220708131413/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/carnegie-endowment-for-international-peace-ai-governance-research/
[^16]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Matt Sheehan," biography, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/matt-sheehan
[^17]: Mathews, Jessica. "Anthropic hired president Daniela Amodei's husband to work on the company's AI safety strategy." *Fortune,* February 13, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/02/13/anthropic-hired-president-daniela-amodei-husband-ai-safety-responsible-scaling/

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md
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@ -86,37 +86,37 @@ relations:
reverse: true
end: 2023-06-30
role: "president, 1,868,393 dollars reportable compensation in the return for the year to June 2023"
fn: 35
fn: 36
- type: head_of
with: "[[David Rubenstein]]"
reverse: true
role: "chairman in the return for the year to June 2023"
fn: 35
fn: 36
- type: funded
with: "[[Bernard L. Schwartz]]"
reverse: true
start: 2002
role: "Bernard L. Schwartz Senior Fellowship in Business and Foreign Policy, first holder Bennett Freeman"
fn: 29
fn: 30
- type: director_of
with: "[[Cyrus Vance]]"
reverse: true
role: "director, term expiring 1987; Executive Committee; Vice Chairman of the Board"
fn: 28
fn: 29
- type: director_of
with: "[[William P. Bundy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1964
end: 1972
role: "board of directors"
fn: 33
fn: 34
- type: employed_by
with: "[[William P. Bundy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1972
end: 1984
role: "editor of Foreign Affairs"
fn: 34
fn: 35
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-26
---
@ -191,6 +191,8 @@ A memorandum of July 26, 1976 from the National Intelligence Officer for China,
The annual report for July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 records 2,376 members, of whom 38 percent lived in the New York area, 24 percent in the Washington area and 6 percent in the Boston area. By profession 27 percent were business executives, 21 percent scholars or academic administrators, 15 percent administrators of nonprofit institutions, 11 percent government officials, 11 percent journalists and communications executives and 10 percent lawyers; women, admitted from 1970, numbered 250. Members are elected by the Board of Directors on nomination of the Membership Committee, and by tradition participants do not attribute statements made at meetings to speakers in public media.[^1]
[[Winston Lord]], of the [[Lord family]], was president of the Council from 1977 to 1985. The annual report lists "Winston Lord, President, 1977-1985" on its staff page and records that he left the presidency on June 30, 1985.[^28] In a letter dated August 19, 1985, David Rockefeller wished "Winston and Bette well as they embark on their challenging new career," and linked that career to Lord's role as "the President's emissary to the People's Republic of China."[^28]
The report's membership roster, which includes people invited at the Board's June 1985 meeting who had accepted by press time, lists among the names Richard M. Bissell Jr., [[William J. Casey]], [[William Colby]], [[Richard Helms]], Stansfield Turner, [[Robert M. Gates]], [[R. James Woolsey]], [[John Deutch]], [[Ray S. Cline]], [[Cord Meyer]], [[Frank G. Wisner II]], William J. Barnds and Rolland Bushner, together with [[Katharine Graham]], [[Hedley Donovan]], [[Dan Rather]], [[Jim Lehrer]], [[Flora Lewis]], [[James Reston]], William S. Paley and [[Roone Arledge]].[^1]
Corporate Program subscriptions exceeded one million dollars for the fourth consecutive year, at 1,060,800 dollars net, and Foreign Affairs income was 2,095,300. Subscribers were offered a black-tie dinner for chairmen and presidents with an address by a prominent statesman, seminars, executive luncheons, a library of about 40,000 volumes with a clipping service, and the chance to nominate young executives for the International Affairs Fellowship.[^1] The Board approved a 14.5 million dollar Campaign for the Council in February 1983, with David Rockefeller and C. Douglas Dillon as co-chairmen and [[C. Peter McColough]] of [[Xerox]] as campaign chairman; in early August 1985, 14.1 million dollars in gifts and pledges had been received. The report's partial list of donors of 10,000 dollars or more to the Campaign names these corporations: Agip Petroleum, American Can, [[American Express]], the Arabian American Oil Company, AT&T, Atlantic Richfield, [[Bankers Trust]], Barclays Bank, the [[Bechtel Group]], Bristol-Myers, CBS, [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], Chemical Bank, [[Citibank]], Dillon Read, Dow Chemical, Dow Jones, Du Pont, [[Exxon]], Ford Motor, General Electric, General Motors, [[Goldman Sachs]], IBM, [[Lazard Freres]], [[Manufacturers Hanover]], [[Mobil]], [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]], Morgan Stanley, [[Northrop]], PaineWebber, Peat Marwick Mitchell, PepsiCo, [[Price Waterhouse]], Procter and Gamble, RCA, the Rockefeller Group, [[Salomon Brothers]], United Technologies and Xerox, among others. Foundation donors included the Ford Foundation, the German Marshall Fund, the Rockefeller Foundation, the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]], the [[Andrew W. Mellon Foundation]], the Starr Foundation and the Schlumberger Foundation.[^1]
@ -201,69 +203,108 @@ General fund expenditures were 6,778,300 dollars against total funding of 6,718,
The report lists as directors, at press time, Harold Brown, Stanley Hoffmann, Nicholas Katzenbach, Lane Kirkland, Juanita Kreps, Robert Scalapino, [[Brent Scowcroft]], Stephen Stamas, Philip Geyelin, McColough, Donald McHenry, Peterson, William D. Rogers, Vance, Marina Whitman, Walter Wriston, Graham Allison, Warren Christopher, Richard Gelb, Alan Greenspan, [[Bobby Ray Inman]], Jeane Kirkpatrick, Lewis Preston and Clifton Wharton. Of these twenty-four, Brown, Allison, Christopher, Kirkland, Greenspan, Kreps and Whitman appear in the Trilateral Commission's North American roster of July 1981.[^1][^25] A letter from McCloy dated June 27, 1985, printed in the report, refers to David Rockefeller's "44 years of close and active association with the Council" and to his "relinquishment of his leadership on the Board."[^1]
In the report's Officers and Directors table Cyrus Vance appears in the column of directors with terms expiring in 1987. He is listed on the Executive Committee chaired by David Rockefeller (with Warren Christopher, [[Theodore Hesburgh]], Lane Kirkland, McColough, Peterson and [[Lewis T. Preston]]), among the members of the Campaign Executive Committee, and, in the report's historical roll of officers, among the Vice Chairmen of the Board with Grayson Kirk. He chaired the advisory group of the Studies Program's European-American Project ([[Robert D. Hormats]], vice chairman), presided over a September 13, 1984 conference held with the Dayan Center of [[Tel Aviv University]] and wrote the foreword to its printed transcript, and chaired a March 1985 conference on "Central America as a European-American Issue."[^28]
In the report's Officers and Directors table Cyrus Vance appears in the column of directors with terms expiring in 1987. He is listed on the Executive Committee chaired by David Rockefeller (with Warren Christopher, [[Theodore Hesburgh]], Lane Kirkland, McColough, Peterson and [[Lewis T. Preston]]), among the members of the Campaign Executive Committee, and, in the report's historical roll of officers, among the Vice Chairmen of the Board with Grayson Kirk. He chaired the advisory group of the Studies Program's European-American Project ([[Robert D. Hormats]], vice chairman), presided over a September 13, 1984 conference held with the Dayan Center of [[Tel Aviv University]] and wrote the foreword to its printed transcript, and chaired a March 1985 conference on "Central America as a European-American Issue."[^29]
### The Bernard L. Schwartz fellowship and the Greenberg Center, 2002
On March 20, 2002, the council announced that [[Bennett Freeman]] had been named the first Bernard L. Schwartz Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy. The fellowship was placed in the council's new [[Maurice R. Greenberg Center for Geoeconomic Studies]]. The release states: "This fellowship is funded by Bernard L. Schwartz, Chairman and CEO of Loral Space & Communications Ltd."[^29]
On March 20, 2002, the council announced that [[Bennett Freeman]] had been named the first Bernard L. Schwartz Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy. The fellowship was placed in the council's new [[Maurice R. Greenberg Center for Geoeconomic Studies]]. The release states: "This fellowship is funded by Bernard L. Schwartz, Chairman and CEO of Loral Space & Communications Ltd."[^30]
Two months earlier, on January 9, 2002, [[Space Systems/Loral]] had signed a consent agreement with the State Department's Office of Defense Trade Controls. The agreement set a civil penalty of $20,000,000, of which $14,000,000 was payable and $6,000,000 was suspended, and recorded that the company neither admitted nor denied the allegations in a draft charging letter.[^30] The draft charging letter, addressed to the president of Loral Space & Communications, alleged "Sixty-four (64) violations" in connection with the aftermath of the February 1996 Long March 3B failure.[^31]
Two months earlier, on January 9, 2002, [[Space Systems/Loral]] had signed a consent agreement with the State Department's Office of Defense Trade Controls. The agreement set a civil penalty of $20,000,000, of which $14,000,000 was payable and $6,000,000 was suspended, and recorded that the company neither admitted nor denied the allegations in a draft charging letter.[^31] The draft charging letter, addressed to the president of Loral Space & Communications, alleged "Sixty-four (64) violations" in connection with the aftermath of the February 1996 Long March 3B failure.[^32]
### Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs published "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in July 1947 over the signature "X," credited by the journal to George F. Kennan; the article called for "a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[^32]
Foreign Affairs published "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in July 1947 over the signature "X," credited by the journal to George F. Kennan; the article called for "a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[^33]
William P. Bundy served on the Council's board of directors from 1964 to 1972.[^33] A 1972 press item reported that he would succeed Hamilton Fish Armstrong, who had edited the quarterly for 43 years, as editor of Foreign Affairs in the fall of 1972.[^34] The Princeton finding aid gives his editorship as 1972 to 1984.[^33] He also served as a trustee of the [[American Assembly]] from 1964 to 1984.[^33]
William P. Bundy served on the Council's board of directors from 1964 to 1972.[^34] A 1972 press item reported that he would succeed Hamilton Fish Armstrong, who had edited the quarterly for 43 years, as editor of Foreign Affairs in the fall of 1972.[^35] The Princeton finding aid gives his editorship as 1972 to 1984.[^34] He also served as a trustee of the [[American Assembly]] from 1964 to 1984.[^34]
### Recent filings
The Council's Form 990 for the year ended June 30, 2023 reports revenue of 106,930,600 dollars, expenses of 83,166,400 dollars and year-end assets of 719,707,600 dollars; the same series of returns on the [[ProPublica]] Nonprofit Explorer shows revenue of 59,633,100 dollars and assets of 438,237,900 dollars for the year to June 2011.[^2] The 2023 return lists contributions of 63,113,857 dollars, Foreign Affairs revenue of 11,709,500, individual membership revenue of 9,036,200 and corporate membership revenue of 1,103,843, with 711 employees and 34 voting members of the governing body. It describes the membership as "over 5,000," states that the members elect all voting directors, and gives the year of founding as 1921.[^35]
The Council's Form 990 for the year ended June 30, 2023 reports revenue of 106,930,600 dollars, expenses of 83,166,400 dollars and year-end assets of 719,707,600 dollars; the same series of returns on the [[ProPublica]] Nonprofit Explorer shows revenue of 59,633,100 dollars and assets of 438,237,900 dollars for the year to June 2011.[^2] The 2023 return lists contributions of 63,113,857 dollars, Foreign Affairs revenue of 11,709,500, individual membership revenue of 9,036,200 and corporate membership revenue of 1,103,843, with 711 employees and 34 voting members of the governing body. It describes the membership as "over 5,000," states that the members elect all voting directors, and gives the year of founding as 1921.[^36]
[[Richard Haass]] is shown as president through June 30, 2023 with reportable compensation of 1,868,393 dollars and 59,851 dollars of other compensation; [[Michael Froman]] is named as principal officer. Other reported compensation includes 524,534 dollars to the chief investment officer, [[Giovanna Ban]], 519,740 to the executive vice president and chief financial officer, Keith Olson, 459,793 to the director of studies, [[James M. Lindsay]], 330,419 to the editor of Foreign Affairs, [[Daniel Kurtz-Phelan]], and 280,205 to the distinguished fellow [[Martin Indyk]]. [[David Rubenstein]] is chairman, [[Blair Effron]] and [[Jami Miscik]] vice-chairmen, and the directors include [[Thad Allen]], [[Ashton B. Carter]] (through October 2022), [[Kenneth I. Chenault]], [[Laurence D. Fink]] (through June 30, 2023), [[Timothy F. Geithner]] (through June 30, 2023), [[James P. Gorman]], [[Stephen J. Hadley]], [[Jeh Johnson]], [[William H. McRaven]], [[Janet Napolitano]], [[Meghan O'Sullivan]], [[Ruth Porat]], [[Laurene Powell Jobs]], [[Frances F. Townsend]], [[Daniel H. Yergin]] and [[Fareed Zakaria]]. Schedule O reports business relationships between Haass and directors Effron, [[Stephen C. Freidheim]] and [[Nicholas Beim]]; between Rubenstein and Carter and Yergin; between Miscik and Gorman; and between directors [[James Manyika]] and Porat. Schedule I lists fellowship payments including 596,458 dollars for nine International Affairs Fellows, 288,750 dollars for four fellows in national security, 119,350 dollars for six in Japan, 100,000 dollars for one Edward R. Murrow press fellow and 80,000 dollars for one Stanton nuclear security fellow. The donor schedule is redacted in the public copy.[^35]
[[Richard Haass]] is shown as president through June 30, 2023 with reportable compensation of 1,868,393 dollars and 59,851 dollars of other compensation; [[Michael Froman]] is named as principal officer. Other reported compensation includes 524,534 dollars to the chief investment officer, [[Giovanna Ban]], 519,740 to the executive vice president and chief financial officer, Keith Olson, 459,793 to the director of studies, [[James M. Lindsay]], 330,419 to the editor of Foreign Affairs, [[Daniel Kurtz-Phelan]], and 280,205 to the distinguished fellow [[Martin Indyk]]. [[David Rubenstein]] is chairman, [[Blair Effron]] and [[Jami Miscik]] vice-chairmen, and the directors include [[Thad Allen]], [[Ashton B. Carter]] (through October 2022), [[Kenneth I. Chenault]], [[Laurence D. Fink]] (through June 30, 2023), [[Timothy F. Geithner]] (through June 30, 2023), [[James P. Gorman]], [[Stephen J. Hadley]], [[Jeh Johnson]], [[William H. McRaven]], [[Janet Napolitano]], [[Meghan O'Sullivan]], [[Ruth Porat]], [[Laurene Powell Jobs]], [[Frances F. Townsend]], [[Daniel H. Yergin]] and [[Fareed Zakaria]]. Schedule O reports business relationships between Haass and directors Effron, [[Stephen C. Freidheim]] and [[Nicholas Beim]]; between Rubenstein and Carter and Yergin; between Miscik and Gorman; and between directors [[James Manyika]] and Porat. Schedule I lists fellowship payments including 596,458 dollars for nine International Affairs Fellows, 288,750 dollars for four fellows in national security, 119,350 dollars for six in Japan, 100,000 dollars for one Edward R. Murrow press fellow and 80,000 dollars for one Stanton nuclear security fellow. The donor schedule is redacted in the public copy.[^36]
Five of the directors named in the 2023 return (Rubenstein, Manyika, O'Sullivan, Townsend and Yergin) are members of the North American group in the Trilateral Commission's list of September 6, 2024, on which five Council fellows also appear.[^36]
Five of the directors named in the 2023 return (Rubenstein, Manyika, O'Sullivan, Townsend and Yergin) are members of the North American group in the Trilateral Commission's list of September 6, 2024, on which five Council fellows also appear.[^37]
### Jeffrey Epstein
Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|Epstein Library]], one headed "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein" and one "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," neither dated on its face, describe [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as "a former member of the Trilateral Commission and a former member of the Council on Foreign Relations." No Council membership roll appears in the documents examined.[^37] An exchange of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Epstein and the Council's director of events concerns travel and a weekend event.[^38]
Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|Epstein Library]], one headed "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein" and one "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," neither dated on its face, describe [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as "a former member of the Trilateral Commission and a former member of the Council on Foreign Relations." No Council membership roll appears in the documents examined.[^38] An exchange of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Epstein and the Council's director of events concerns travel and a weekend event.[^39]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985): Summary Description, pp. 5 to 6; Staff, p. 7; Membership, p. 94; Corporate Program, p. 111; Development Activities, pp. 112 to 124 (The Campaign for the Council, pp. 119 to 123); Finances, pp. 133 to 135; Officers and Directors, pp. 2 and 148; Historical Roster, pp. 150 to 152; Membership Roster, pp. 154 ff.; letter of John J. McCloy, June 27, 1985; Foreign Affairs editors, Council Publications. Sanitized copy released by the Central Intelligence Agency, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^2]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Council on Foreign Relations Inc, EIN 13-1628168, API record of filings for tax years 2011 to 2023 (ruling date 1927-01), https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/131628168
[^3]: The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1939 (New York, 1940): Social Sciences, International Relations, pp. 273 to 274, and appropriations table (RF 39110), https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1939
[^4]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952): Officers and Standing Committees (front matter); Summary, p. 4; Committees on Foreign Relations, pp. 41 to 43; Foreign Affairs, pp. 42 to 43; Membership, pp. 45 to 46; Financial, pp. 48 to 49. Sanitized copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3
[^5]: The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1943 (New York, 1944): The Social Sciences, International Studies, section Council on Foreign Relations, pp. 178 to 179, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1943
[^6]: The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1945 (New York, 1946): The Social Sciences, section Council on Foreign Relations, pp. 190 to 191, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1945
[^7]: The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1946 (New York, 1947): The Social Sciences, sections Council on Foreign Relations and Council on Foreign Relations, History of World War II, pp. 186 to 189, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1946
[^8]: Letter, Council on Foreign Relations (catalogued as from Walter H. Mallory, Executive Director) to Allen W. Dulles, December 17, 1954, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200030019-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200030019-0
[^9]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, 8 pages, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^10]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965," grant tables, entry for Council on Foreign Relations, $1,000,000, under the heading American education in world affairs. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf
[^11]: John J. McCloy to Allen W. Dulles, April 29, 1953, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020045-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020045-2
[^12]: Rockefeller Archive Center, The Trilateral Commission (North America) Records, finding aid by Robert Battaly, April 2011, Institutional History, p. 2, https://dimes.rockarch.org/collections/2KaqPEr3JRZv5WBQsf9mKn (text read from the copy at https://archive.org/download/one-world-order-new-world-order/Trilateral%20Commission%20records%20%28Rockefeller%20Archives%29.pdf)
[^13]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7
[^14]: Letter, Alan G. Kirk (Department of State) to Allen W. Dulles, January 2, 1951, with note of January 11, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170026-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170026-8
[^15]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Gordon Dean, February 13, 1952, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010035-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200010035-4
[^16]: Letters, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, November 24, 1952 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010002-0), January 27, 1953 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020051-5) and June 19, 1953 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020027-2), https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200010002-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020051-5 and https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020027-2
[^17]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to the Membership Committee, Council on Foreign Relations, distribution notation 20 Apr 55 (ER 6-9539/A), CIA-RDP80R01731R001200030009-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200030009-1
[^18]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Walter H. Mallory, March 4, 1956 (ER 7-9374/A), with letter of Hamilton Fish Armstrong to Dulles, February 16, 1956, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060049-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060049-1
[^19]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to Allen W. Dulles, April 25, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060009-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060009-5
[^20]: Letter, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, May 2, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060012-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060012-1
[^21]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Ferdinand Lathrop Mayer, August 20, 1959, CIA-RDP80R01731R000300010083-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000300010083-1
[^22]: Letter, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, May 6, 1960; reply of Allen W. Dulles to Franklin, May 1960; memorandum for Mr. Dulles, May 16, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R004100010066-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004100010066-6
[^23]: Minutes of the third meeting of the Discussion Group on Intelligence and Foreign Policy, Council on Foreign Relations, Harold Pratt House, January 8, 1968 (reproduced by Public Intelligence as "Minutes of the 1968 Bissell Meeting at the Council on Foreign Relations"), https://info.publicintelligence.net/CFR-BissellMeeting.pdf
[^24]: Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence (Dell paperback ed., 1975), "Covert-Action Theory," pp. 55 to 56, and "Controlling the CIA," pp. 332 to 333 (note on p. 332), https://archive.org/details/ciacultofintelli00marc_1
[^25]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, The Trilateral Commission, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981), https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf
[^26]: Memoranda, National Intelligence Officer for China to Deputy Director of Central Intelligence for National Intelligence, July 26, 1976 (NIO 1215-76) and September 7, 1976 (NIO 1426-76), CIA-RDP83B00100R000100130019-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00100r000100130019-2
[^27]: Letter, Stansfield Turner to Alton Frye, Director, International Affairs Fellowships, Council on Foreign Relations, September 12, 1979, CIA-RDP80B01554R003300220008-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01554r003300220008-8
[^28]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985): Officers and Directors; committee lists; Campaign Executive Committee; historical officers; Studies Program and European-American Project (advisory group list); Meetings; Publications. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^29]: Council on Foreign Relations, "Bennett Freeman Named First Bernard L. Schwartz Senior Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy," press release dated March 20, 2002, https://www.cfr.org/articles/bennett-freeman-named-first-bernard-l-schwartz-senior-fellow-business-and-foreign
[^30]: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, Office of Defense Trade Controls, consent agreement with Space Systems/Loral, Inc., January 9, 2002, Exhibit 10.1 to Loral Space & Communications Ltd. Form 8-K, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001006269/000095012302000193/y56456ex10-1.txt
[^31]: U.S. Department of State, Office of Defense Trade Controls, Draft Charging Letter to Space Systems/Loral, Inc. (undated), https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/sys_attachment.do?sys_id=032ef245db15df00d0a370131f96192b
[^32]: "X" (George F. Kennan), "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," Foreign Affairs, vol. 25, no. 4, July 1947, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/1947-07-01/sources-soviet-conduct
[^33]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189
[^34]: "William Bundy to Head Foreign Affairs Journal," press item, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000100540012-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100540012-3
[^35]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of Council on Foreign Relations Inc for the year ended June 30, 2023 (tax year 2022), Parts I, III, VI, VII, VIII, Schedules B, I and O, IRS e-file XML object 202430169349300598, https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_01A.zip (member 2024_TEOS_XML_01A/202430169349300598_public.xml)
[^36]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "Last updated September 6, 2024," North American Group, https://archive.org/details/tc-membership-list-sept-6-2024-1
[^37]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725190, and "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725191, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725190.pdf and https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725191.pdf
[^38]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, emails of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Jeffrey Epstein and the Council on Foreign Relations director of events, EFTA00751793, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00751793.pdf
[^28]: Council on Foreign Relations, *Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985* (New York, 1985), President's Office staff page; the President's Report (departure on June 30, 1985); the letter of David Rockefeller of August 19, 1985. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^29]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985): Officers and Directors; committee lists; Campaign Executive Committee; historical officers; Studies Program and European-American Project (advisory group list); Meetings; Publications. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^30]: Council on Foreign Relations, "Bennett Freeman Named First Bernard L. Schwartz Senior Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy," press release dated March 20, 2002, https://www.cfr.org/articles/bennett-freeman-named-first-bernard-l-schwartz-senior-fellow-business-and-foreign
[^31]: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, Office of Defense Trade Controls, consent agreement with Space Systems/Loral, Inc., January 9, 2002, Exhibit 10.1 to Loral Space & Communications Ltd. Form 8-K, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001006269/000095012302000193/y56456ex10-1.txt
[^32]: U.S. Department of State, Office of Defense Trade Controls, Draft Charging Letter to Space Systems/Loral, Inc. (undated), https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/sys_attachment.do?sys_id=032ef245db15df00d0a370131f96192b
[^33]: "X" (George F. Kennan), "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," Foreign Affairs, vol. 25, no. 4, July 1947, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/1947-07-01/sources-soviet-conduct
[^34]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189
[^35]: "William Bundy to Head Foreign Affairs Journal," press item, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000100540012-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100540012-3
[^36]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of Council on Foreign Relations Inc for the year ended June 30, 2023 (tax year 2022), Parts I, III, VI, VII, VIII, Schedules B, I and O, IRS e-file XML object 202430169349300598, https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_01A.zip (member 2024_TEOS_XML_01A/202430169349300598_public.xml)
[^37]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "Last updated September 6, 2024," North American Group, https://archive.org/details/tc-membership-list-sept-6-2024-1
[^38]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725190, and "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725191, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725190.pdf and https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725191.pdf
[^39]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, emails of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Jeffrey Epstein and the Council on Foreign Relations director of events, EFTA00751793, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00751793.pdf

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---
title: Dresser Industries
aliases:
- Dresser Industries
- Dresser Industries, Inc.
- Dresser Industries Inc
- Dresser Industries Inc /DE/
- S. R. Dresser Manufacturing Company
- S.R. Dresser Manufacturing Company
- S. R. Dresser and Company
- Dresser Manufacturing Company
- DresserIndustries
- DII Industries
- DII Industries, LLC
- Dresser France
- Dresser (France) S.A.
category: "Private Organization"
tags:
- Organization
- Oilfield
- Dallas
- SkullAndBones
- Halliburton
- Harriman
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
- SovietUnion
- AsbestosLitigation
- ColdWarTrade
- ExportControls
- SiberianPipeline
- GeorgeHWBush
- PrescottBush
- NeilMallon
- DickCheney
summary: "Oilfield equipment maker founded in 1880, run by Skull and Bones member Neil Mallon from 1928 to 1962, licensed in 1978 to build a Soviet drill bit plant, and merged into Halliburton in 1998."
start: 1880
end: 1998
location: "Dallas, Texas"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Solomon R. Dresser]]"
reverse: true
start: 1880
role: "founder, Bradford, Pennsylvania; patent dated May 11, 1880"
fn: 3
- type: owned
with: "[[W. A. Harriman & Company]]"
reverse: true
start: 1928
role: "purchaser of the Dresser family business; intended to make it a public company"
fn: 10
- type: head_of
with: "[[Neil Mallon]]"
reverse: true
start: 1928
end: 1962
role: "president and chief executive officer; later chairman of the board"
fn: 9
- type: head_of
with: "[[John Lawrence]]"
reverse: true
start: 1962
end: 1970
role: "president"
fn: 9
- type: head_of
with: "[[John V. James]]"
reverse: true
start: 1970
end: 1982
role: "president and chief executive officer from 1970; chairman through 1982"
fn: 37
- type: head_of
with: "[[John J. Murphy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1983
role: "successor to James as chairman"
fn: 37
- type: director_of
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
reverse: true
role: "director for twenty-two years after the 1928 purchase"
fn: 13
- type: employed_by
with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]"
reverse: true
start: 1948
end: 1951
role: "oil field supply salesman, Midland, Texas"
fn: 31
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[Manhattan Project]]"
role: "wartime manufacturing assignment"
fn: 18
- type: owned
with: "[[Lane-Wells]]"
start: 1955
end: 1958
role: "sole stockholder from 1955; liquidated into a Dresser division on April 30, 1958"
fn: 21
- type: owned
with: "[[Harbison-Walker Refractories Company]]"
start: 1967
end: 1992
role: "merged into Dresser on October 26, 1967; refractories business spun off to INDRESCO in 1992"
fn: 24
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Halliburton]]"
start: 1986
role: "joint venture M-I Drilling Fluids Company"
fn: 37
- type: investigated
with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
reverse: true
start: 1976
end: 1980
role: "investigation of questionable foreign payments, parallel to a Department of Justice grand jury"
fn: 39
- type: subject_of
with: "[[United States Department of Commerce]]"
reverse: true
start: 1978
role: "export license for a drill bit plant approved in August 1978; temporary denial order against Dresser (France) S.A. on August 26, 1982"
fn: 57
- type: owned
with: "[[Halliburton]]"
reverse: true
start: 1998
end: 1998
role: "merger completed September 29, 1998"
fn: 65
---
Dresser Industries was an oilfield equipment and engineering company that began in 1880 as a rubber packer business in [[Bradford, Pennsylvania]]. It was headquartered in [[Dallas, Texas]] from 1950. From 1928 to 1962 it was run by [[Neil Mallon]], a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the [[Yale University]] class of 1917, after an investment-banking firm bought the family business. Its subsidiaries supplied the oil industry and wartime production, and its Soviet business appears in [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and [[United States Department of Commerce]] records for 1948, 1959, 1978 and 1982. In 1998 the company merged into [[Halliburton]], then led by [[Dick Cheney]].[^1][^2]
### Solomon R. Dresser and the Bradford packer, 1880 to 1905
[[Solomon R. Dresser]] took out U.S. Patent No. 227,419, "Packing for Artesian Wells," on May 11, 1880. The specification describes a rubber seal that expands against the borehole wall when the tubing is pulled and contracts when it is lowered.[^3] The Handbook of Texas entry describes the product as the Dresser Cap Packer, sold from a frame building in Bradford, in the heart of the oilfields.[^1] The company history gives the same year and says Dresser opened the business in 1880 as S. R. Dresser and Company.[^4]
The packer was not the product that made the company national. Dresser devised a rubber-sealed pipe coupling in 1885, perfected it two years later, and used it to join gas pipelines so that they would not leak. The company history says that a [[Standard Oil]] superintendent placed an experimental order for nine of Dresser's sleeves in 1894, and that orders from other companies followed.[^5] Dresser incorporated the business in December 1905. The charter financial statement gave company resources of $550,000, of which fourteen patents accounted for almost $180,000.[^6]
The corporate lineage is recorded differently in later filings. The 1993 annual report to the Securities and Exchange Commission says the company was incorporated in Delaware in 1956 as a successor to a Pennsylvania corporation organized in 1938 by the consolidation of S. R. Dresser Manufacturing Company and Clark Bros. Company, and that both predecessors were "carrying on businesses founded in 1880."[^7] The 1997 annual report repeats the 1956 Delaware date.[^8] The Handbook entry and the 1979 corporate history by [[Darwin Payne]] both date the founding to 1880.[^1][^9]
### The Harriman purchase and Mallon's presidency, 1928 to 1962
In 1928 the Dresser family sold the business to [[W. A. Harriman & Company]], an investment-banking firm that intended to make the company a public corporation with separate ownership and management. The number of shares rose from 5,000 to 300,000. Of these, 100,000 Class A shares were offered at $48 each, and the Class B shares were held back until 1931. The aging [[Fred Miller]], who had run the business, stayed on as chairman of the board in a consultative capacity. Mallon became president at the age of thirty-three.[^10] The Handbook entry states that Mallon "was selected as president and chief executive officer" and held that position until his retirement in 1962.[^11]
The dates are not uniform. Payne's 1979 history lists the presidents as Solomon R. Dresser from 1880 to 1911, Fred A. Miller from 1911 to 1929, H. Neil Mallon from 1929 to 1962 and [[John Lawrence]] from 1962 to 1970.[^9] Prescott Bush, quoted by [[Garry Wills]] in 1992, dated the purchase to 1929: "In 1929 we bought Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars, and we sold securities against that company and refinanced it, you see, so that we retained a substantial measure of control."[^12] The company histories give 1928, and the recollection gives 1929.
The W. A. Harriman people named in the Dresser histories include [[E. Roland Harriman]], whom Payne describes as a son of the railroad magnate E. H. Harriman, and [[Prescott Bush]]. The Handbook entry says that Bush "had been a W. A. Harriman and Company executive who had been involved in the conversion of Dresser to a public company, and he served on the board of directors for twenty-two years."[^13] Wills quoted Bush's statement that he was "Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years."[^12] The 1917 Yale class history lists Bush, Mallon, E. Roland Harriman and [[Knight Woolley]] as members of Skull and Bones, and Payne says the same four men had been fellow members of the society.[^14][^15]
The W. A. Harriman firm had a Soviet connection before it bought Dresser. A manganese concession that the Soviet government granted to a Harriman company in 1925 is documented in the papers of [[W. Averell Harriman]].[^16]
### Acquisitions and the Liechtenstein subsidiary, 1930 to 1967
Dresser expanded after 1930 because welding was threatening its coupling business. The company bought makers of valves, heaters, pumps and engines, opened a Toronto subsidiary in 1931 after Canada limited imports, and acquired [[Bryant Heater Company]] in 1933 for $65,000.[^10][^17] In 1937 it acquired [[Clark Brothers Company]] of [[Olean, New York]], a maker of gas engines and compressors, and the two were consolidated in 1938.[^10][^7]
Dresser's wartime production included aircraft landing gear, wing flaps and bomb doors, engines for freighters, and pipeline components. The company history says that one of its most urgent assignments was at the [[Manhattan Project]], which was engaged in research to develop the atomic bomb, and that sales for 1944 were just under $55 million.[^18] Payne's history states that [[International Derrick and Equipment Company]] (IDECO), a maker of derricks and drilling rigs, was acquired by Dresser in 1944.[^9] In October 1944 the company changed its name to Dresser Industries, and the headquarters moved to [[Cleveland, Ohio]], where the new offices opened on March 19, 1945.[^9]
In November 1945 Dresser acquired [[Security Engineering]] of [[Whittier, California]], a maker of drilling bits.[^9] In November 1949 it bought the [[Magnet Cove Barium Corporation]] of [[Houston]] for $2.8 million. The company history says that Magnet Cove was later known as Magcobar.[^19] The headquarters moved to Dallas in 1950, which the company history describes as moving the company to "the epicenter of the U.S. oil business."[^19]
The company history states that in 1952 Dresser set up a Liechtenstein subsidiary, Dresser Vaduz, charged with executing and monitoring all foreign license agreements, and that the subsidiary "also funneled profits between the different countries, thus saving the parent company huge U.S. taxes by keeping profits overseas."[^20]
In 1955 Dresser Industries became the owner of all the stock of [[Lane-Wells]] Company, the Los Angeles well-logging and perforating firm, and on April 30, 1958 it liquidated Lane-Wells into a Dresser division, according to the statement of facts in a patent case that reached the Supreme Court.[^21] A Lane-Wells advertisement of July 1955 described the company as "one of the Dresser Industries."[^22] A July 1955 issue of the magazine of the [[Dallas Chamber of Commerce]] counted nine affiliated Dresser companies. Ideco and the Security Engineering Division were in Dallas, and Lane-Wells was among the units named elsewhere, with Clark, Dresser-Ideco, Dresser Manufacturing, Magcobar, Pacific and Roots-Connersville.[^23]
John Lawrence succeeded Mallon in 1962 and aimed acquisition offers at companies ancillary to the oil and gas supply business. [[Harbison-Walker Refractories Company]], a maker of heat-resistant brick and other materials for industrial furnaces, was merged into Dresser on October 26, 1967; its chairman, A. B. Wilson, was named to that office on that date, according to the annual report of its Canadian affiliate. The company history describes Harbison-Walker as a $125 million company that cost Dresser about $150 million.[^24][^25] The asbestos claims discussed below concern mainly refractory products of that kind.
### Soviet business, 1948 to 1959
The company history credits [[John O'Connor]], an executive vice president of Dresser known throughout the company as "the world's most travelled executive," with persuading the [[Soviet Union]] to build a $6 million natural gas liquefaction plant outside [[Moscow]]. The entry states that the plant was slated for completion in 1949, "fell victim to a Commerce Department trade ban early in 1948," and was unfinished until 1954.[^26]
A memorandum of January 14, 1959 by [[Lawrence R. Houston]], General Counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency, records a telephone call from a Department of Commerce official about a proposal by an American company to export technical data on petroleum engineering to Russia. Houston wrote that "this is connected with the Dresser Industries matter in which we had been involved about a year ago. Dresser had purchased a number of rotary drills from the Russians and had promised in return to give information or equipment to the Russians if permission to do so were granted. The Department of Commerce refused such permission to Dresser, and we were involved in the consideration of the case." The new application, covering petroleum engineering information including certain drill parts and their manufacture, "was turned down in the first instance on the advice of representatives of the Bureau of Mines and the Gas and Oil Division of Interior." Houston recorded that "the drills obtained from the Russians are now being manufactured by Dresser, and the American Petroleum Industry has benefited considerably thereby," that Dresser was appealing, and that it contended "anyone in the Soviet Bloc could buy their equipment in third countries." Houston arranged for a specialist in the Petroleum Division of the Office of Research and Reports to sit with the Commerce panel. The memorandum carries a copy line to the Director of Central Intelligence.[^27]
### The Dallas Council on World Affairs, 1951
The World Affairs Council of Dallas/Fort Worth states that it was founded in 1951 when Dresser Industries' chairman and president Henry Neil Mallon saw the need for a local institution to encourage citizen understanding of international affairs. Mallon gathered seventeen founders from the corporate and civic communities to create the Dallas Council on World Affairs, which became affiliated with the World Affairs Councils of America, an organization founded in 1918 in conjunction with the [[Foreign Policy Association]].[^28]
### Anthony Kimery and the CIA cover claim
The Central Intelligence Agency enters the Dresser record through Mallon's contacts. [[Anthony L. Kimery]] wrote in the CovertAction Information Bulletin in 1992 that Mallon "was a friend to numerous ranking Cold War era intelligence officials, including [[Allen Dulles]]," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^29] Kimery wrote that Dresser "had routinely served as a CIA cover" and gave as his basis for that statement interviews in 1990 and 1991 with two former Operations Directorate field officers, one of whom claimed to have worked for Dresser as his cover.[^29] He also wrote that [[George H.W. Bush]] began his career as a salesman for IDECO, a Dresser subsidiary.[^29]
Kimery wrote that Mallon introduced the Russian-born petroleum geologist [[George de Mohrenschildt]] to Bush at about the time Mallon gave Bush responsibility for negotiating deals with East-bloc oil officials, and that when a Yugoslav oil industry official came to the United States in 1948 to talk to Dresser, he went directly to Bush in Midland. Kimery quoted [[Victor Marchetti]], a former CIA officer: "It's inconceivable then that the CIA didn't debrief Bush after each and every meeting [he had with the East's representatives]." A retired CIA operative who said he had worked for Dresser as a cover told Kimery that "Bush had all the characteristics of being a spook."[^30]
### George H.W. Bush at Ideco, 1948 to 1951
A CIA biographical sheet on Bush lists him as an "Oil field supply salesman, Dresser Industries, Midland, Texas, 1948-51," and records that he formed Bush-Overbey Oil Development, Inc., in 1951.[^31] Bush's own account in *All the Best* says that he "accepted the job from Neil Mallon and drove our 1947 Studebaker (a graduation gift from my parents) to Odessa, Texas."[^32] In *Looking Forward*, written with [[Victor Gold]], Bush wrote that Mallon was "a friend and a mentor second only to my father," and that he became "a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits."[^33] An illustration in Payne's company history carries a caption identifying George Bush as an oil-field-supply salesman for Ideco, and Payne's index lists Bush at pages 232 and 233 and Prescott S. Bush at pages 111 to 115.[^34]
Two 1988 accounts in the CIA file tie the job to Mallon. [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Walter Pincus]] reported that Mallon, "another member" of the society, "gave Bush his first job out of Yale."[^35] [[Randall Rothenberg]] reported that Mallon offered Bush "a bottom-of-the-ladder job in Midland, Tex., at Dresser Industries."[^36] Bush's April 12, 1951 letter to "Mr. H.N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas, Texas" begins "Dear Neil, This will let you know that we are in business."[^32] The Bushes named their third son for Mallon. [[Neil Bush]] was born in Midland on January 22, 1955.[^32]
### John V. James and the Dresser leadership, 1967 to 1982
[[John V. James]] was an executive vice president of Dresser Industries in Dallas in 1968, when he joined the board of the Canadian affiliate of Harbison-Walker.[^24] Dresser's president and chief executive from 1970 was James. The company history describes him as a man "whose talents lay in planning," who had gained experience in an army intelligence unit during the Second World War.[^37] Under James the company acquired [[Lodge-Cottrell]] in 1972 and [[Jeffrey Galion]] in 1974, and it introduced multiproduct plants.[^37] James was chairman in 1982, the company history says, and was succeeded in 1983 by [[John J. Murphy]]. A 1986 joint venture with Halliburton created M-I Drilling Fluids Company, and in 1987 a 50-50 venture with [[Ingersoll-Rand]] created [[Dresser-Rand]].[^37]
The Business Council, a Washington association of corporate chief executives, listed "John V. James, Chairman & President, Dresser Industries, Inc." among its members in 1977, on a roster that also named [[Malcolm Baldrige]]. [[Stansfield Turner]], the Director of Central Intelligence, attended the council's session at The Homestead in May 1977, and a council officer invited him back for the session of October 13 to 15, 1977. In a letter of October 18, 1977 Turner thanked a council member for the hospitality and for "the reports on the Soviet and Chinese oil production."[^38]
### Questionable foreign payments, 1976 to 1980
On January 27, 1976 Dresser representatives met the staff of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] and agreed to conduct an internal inquiry into questionable foreign payments under the Commission's Voluntary Disclosure Program. Dresser filed Forms 8-K reporting one questionable foreign payment on January 28, 1976, the results of its inquiry on November 11, 1976, and a further payment on February 10, 1977.[^39] On July 15, 1977 Dresser refused the SEC staff access to the documents underlying its report, arguing that disclosure could endanger certain of its employees working abroad. The Department of Justice, which had a task force on transnational payments to which two SEC attorneys were assigned, received the SEC files on the roughly 400 participating companies, Dresser among them, in August 1977, and presented Dresser's case to a grand jury in the District of Columbia on January 25, 1978.[^39]
Dresser sued the SEC and Justice in Houston to stop the investigations. The grand jury subpoenaed its documents on April 21, 1978, the SEC issued a formal order of investigation and a subpoena, and on June 30, 1978 [[Thomas A. Flannery]] of the District Court for the District of Columbia ordered Dresser to comply, in an opinion reported at 453 F. Supp. 573.[^39] The Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, sitting en banc with Chief Judge J. Skelly Wright writing, affirmed on July 16, 1980 in *Securities and Exchange Commission v. Dresser Industries, Inc.*, 628 F.2d 1368, and the Supreme Court denied review. The opinion records that the District Court had rejected an attempt by Edward R. Luter, a senior vice president of Dresser, to intervene on behalf of himself and other employees.[^39][^40]
A press clipping in a CIA file of September and October 1978 on the Justice Department's overseas-corruption task force reported that Dresser's chairman, John V. James, "resisted testifying before the grand jury on grounds that he was exonerated by a prior agreement with another government agency in regard to a $1.4 million payment to a foreign official to consummate a $40 million deal."[^41]
### Cold War exports and the 1978 drill bit contract
In June 1978 Soviet trade organizations awarded Dresser two contracts totaling $180 million. One supplied equipment and technology for manufacturing drill bits for oil and gas wells.[^42] The license was issued on August 9, 1978, according to a dispatch by Bernard Gwertzman in the Washington Star of August 30, 1978, and the Foreign Relations of the United States volume cites a State Department telegram of August 11 reporting that the Carter administration approved the export license in August.[^43][^42] The same volume states that [[Juanita Kreps]], the Secretary of Commerce, approved a $140 million drill bit deal in August, and that [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]] learned of the approval from the newspaper.[^44]
The Washington Star reported that Dresser issued a statement denying that the $144 million sale of advanced oil drilling technology would enhance Soviet military potential. In it Dresser accused Brzezinski, Energy Secretary [[James R. Schlesinger]] and Senator [[Henry M. Jackson]] of being "willing to go to any lengths to question the president's decision and kill the Dresser transaction as a symbol of their hard line attitude." Dresser called a report by J. Fred Bucy, president of Texas Instruments, prepared for the Pentagon's Science Advisory Board, "pre-ordained," and said the Pentagon had already judged that the drill bits "would not significantly enhance Soviet military capability." The Star reported that Brzezinski had convened a Cabinet-level meeting to seek approval for suspending the license and had failed to win the backing of the State and Commerce representatives.[^43]
On August 17, 1978, at a meeting of Secretary of State [[Cyrus Vance]] with representatives of the National Conference on Soviet Jewry, Eugene Gold, the conference's chairman, "questioned whether enough spade work had been done before the Dresser (drill bit) plant decision had been taken" and said that "First the President had said the entire license was under review, then 'bang' it was approved." Vance told him that the letter authorizing Dresser to sell the equipment had already been transmitted. Later in the meeting Yehuda Hellman, executive director of the Conference of Presidents, asked whether trade might be used as a better carrot with the Soviets. According to the memorandum of conversation, Vance replied that "the problem was that other countries had the same carrot. In the case of the Dresser license, for example, some thought that Dresser was the sole source of (drill bit) technology, but that was simply not true. Others could sell this (drill bit) technology to the Soviets as well."[^42]
Brzezinski's memorandum to [[Jimmy Carter]] of August 29, 1978 recommended a suspension of the Dresser licenses rather than revocation. It summarized a [[Defense Science Board]] report that called deep-well drilling technology "a critical technology, which is wholly concentrated in the U.S.," and rock drill bit manufacture critical as well, and it listed tungsten carbide as militarily significant, "easily diverted" and "not foreign-sourced, at this scale of manufacture." Bucy, a board member, wrote in his letter of transmittal that "a decision regarding the export of a turnkey factory for the manufacturing of drill bits for the exploration of oil is one of those" decisions that can change the course of history. Brzezinski wrote that to ignore the report "would be to play into Senator Jackson's hands," and he described the State and Commerce decision as "clearly hasty."[^45] Carter's marginal note beside the first conclusion of the report reads "We knew this."[^46]
Jackson wanted to prevent the deal by launching an investigation into its military and political ramifications, as [[Rowland Evans]] and [[Robert Novak]] wrote in the [[Washington Post]] of August 16, 1978.[^47] The FRUS editors' note records that Schlesinger opposed the technology deal, believing that national security would be compromised, and that Brzezinski questioned whether it was still appropriate to continue with it.[^44]
### The Kuybyshev plant and the tungsten carbide assessment, 1982 to 1984
The plant was built at Kuybyshev. A research paper of the CIA Directorate of Intelligence dated September 1984 states that it was designed to produce 100,000 bits annually, 86,000 of them with tungsten-carbide inserts and sealed-journal bearings, that production reached an annual rate of 100,000 as of early 1984, and that quality problems persisted, some aspects of which "probably stem from the inability of Dresser to have provided all of the necessary technical training." Bits from the plant lasted 50 to 60 hours, about one-third the life of comparable bits made in the United States.[^48] A CIA table of foreign availability of petroleum equipment states that "the Dresser drill bit plant would substantially improve Soviet bit productivity, which is poor by international standards" and that foreign competitors could not build a plant as quickly as American companies.[^49]
In February 1982 [[William J. Casey]], the Director of Central Intelligence, wrote to Commerce Secretary Malcolm Baldrige: "As the result of our analysis of recently acquired intelligence information the CIA now believes that the tungsten carbide production technology transferred as part of the Dresser drill bit plant sold to the USSR will be used in improving the armor-penetrating performance of anti-tank ammunition." Casey wrote that the Soviets still desired the hands-on assistance by American technicians called for in the Dresser contract, that denial of it "could stretch out the time required to assimilate the technology to produce improved anti-tank penetrators," and that the attached assessment was sent "because of your current review of this case." The enclosed assessment stated that "we believe this effort derives from Dresser Industries sales to the USSR" and that the know-how "probably was supplied as part of the drill bit turnkey plant built by Dresser Industries in Kuybyshev," adding that the specifications Dresser provided in 1978 and 1979 "included the know-how to vary precisely the composition of tungsten-carbide powders used to make sintered drill bit cones."[^50][^51]
A CIA memorandum for the record on a meeting of February 11, 1982 with two staff members of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence states that they "were not impressed with the new information or our analysis commenting that they had come to that conclusion some three years ago," and that the CIA officers "pointed out that we also had hypothesized this conclusion in 1978 but had no intelligence that confirmed the likelihood." One staff member observed that "they perhaps had focused on the wrong questions in 1978," the concern being whether the technology had been transferred to another plant where military production takes place. The memorandum's author wrote that the staffers wanted the new information used "to prove that they (Senator Jackson's Staff) had been right in their earlier assessment," and that he expected "continuing pressure to break out this material for this purpose."[^52]
The Los Angeles Times reported on May 4, 1982 that a senior military official, speaking on condition of anonymity, said intelligence information showed the Soviets had made at least indirect use of the plant's manufacturing technology, and that the plant had been prepared for conversion to weapons production. The newspaper reported that a Dresser senior vice president for finance said the company had not previously heard the assertion and could not respond to it. The article states that the license was granted for a factory at Kuibyshev, that a Senate investigation of the deal took place in October 1978, and that Army officials had warned in 1978 that the sale would enhance Soviet production of anti-tank weapons.[^53]
### Siberian pipeline sanctions, 1982
The United States imposed controls on oil and gas equipment and technology for the Soviet Union on December 30, 1981 and extended them on June 22, 1982. On August 19, 1982 the General Counsel of the Treasury, [[Peter J. Wallison]], wrote to Secretary [[Donald Regan]] that the State Department had been notified the previous afternoon that the French government was about to order Dresser/France, "a wholly-owned subsidiary of Dresser Industries," to deliver three compressors to a Soviet ship in [[Le Havre]] for use in the Soviet gas pipeline. He wrote that "we may have an opportunity to enjoin Dresser Industries from permitting its subsidiary to violate U.S. export controls" by a temporary restraining order, and that acting against the American parent would answer European concerns about extraterritoriality. He wrote that seeking a restraining order "would send a strong signal that the President intends to enforce the gas pipeline regulations by whatever means available," and that "if there is to be a challenge in the U.S. courts to the validity of the regulations ... the case against Dresser might well be our strongest litigating position."[^54]
A memorandum of August 23, 1982 to the Senior Interdepartmental Group on International Economic Policy, from the legal offices of the Departments of State, Defense, Treasury, Justice and Commerce and the Trade Representative, described the company: "Dresser/France has a contract to produce over twenty compressors for the pipeline. As a wholly-owned French subsidiary of a U.S. company which has been told by the French Government that the French will take action to force the shipment of the compressors, Dresser/France is in the middle of a difficult French-U.S. jurisdictional tug-of-war." It stated that Dresser Industries "has apparently ordered the subsidiary to obey the export controls and not to ship," that Dresser/France "has reportedly told its freight forwarder not to ship," and that "neither an injunction to force them to do what they have already done nor issuance of a denial order to punish them for what they are trying to prevent appears reasonable." The memorandum continued that "should the French Government seize Dresser/France to force the shipment or should Dresser change its position, consideration should be given to issuing a denial order against Dresser/France."[^55]
On August 23, 1982 Dresser Industries and its French subsidiary, [[Dresser France]] (Dresser (France) S.A.), sued in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia to restrain Baldrige, the Secretary of Commerce, and other Commerce officials from imposing sanctions on the subsidiary. The court's opinion describes the regulations at issue as prohibiting the export of certain goods and technology to the Soviet Union, particularly goods sought for the construction of the gas pipeline between the Soviet Union and Western Europe, and as promulgated as part of a major foreign policy exercise.[^56] Flannery, who had ordered Dresser to comply with the SEC subpoena in 1978, denied a temporary restraining order on August 24, 1982, with a written order the next day.[^56]
On August 26, 1982 Commerce Hearing Commissioner Thomas W. Hoya issued an order temporarily denying all export privileges to Dresser (France) S.A., which the Federal Register published on August 30. The order recites the Department's statement that Dresser-France was "almost entirely owned by Dresser A.G. (Vaduz), a Liechtenstein corporation which is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Dresser Industries, a United States corporation," and that its investigation gave it reason to believe that Dresser-France "has manufactured compressors using United States-origin technology for use in, for, or by the Soviet Union" and "has exported, or has placed beyond its control to prevent the export of, these compressors from France to the Soviet Union contrary to the Regulations." The Hearing Commissioner found the order "required in the public interest to facilitate enforcement of the Export Administration Act of 1979" and "to permit completion of the Department's investigation."[^57] A Commerce briefing prepared for Casey's use stated that Dresser (France), of Le Havre, was "a second tier subsidiary of Dresser Industries, Inc. in Dallas, Texas," held through a Liechtenstein parent at Vaduz, that it had received its compressor technology from the Dresser Clark Division in Olean before December 30, 1981, and that it was subcontracted to [[Creusot-Loire]] to provide 21 centrifugal compressor units, against 42 for Creusot-Loire, 57 for Nuovo Pignone and 5 for Demag.[^58]
Dresser appealed the denial order on September 2. The Hearing Commissioner modified it by an order dated September 7, published September 9, to limit its scope to commodities and technical data relating to oil and gas exploration, production, transmission or refinement.[^59] On September 9 [[Joyce Hens Green]] set a schedule under which discovery requests would be served by September 9, responses would be provided by September 14, and a hearing on the motion to vacate the denial order would be held before the Hearing Commissioner by September 17. She denied the restraining order without prejudice to renewal if that hearing did not take place.[^56] The reported decision is *Dresser Industries, Inc. v. Baldridge*, 549 F. Supp. 108 (D.D.C. 1982).[^60]
A Commerce memorandum of October 6, 1982 on the sanctions stated that Creusot-Loire "served as the conduit of payment by Machinoimport to Dresser France," and that Creusot "signed a Declaration of Conformity subsequent to the June 22, 1982 U.S. export controls which stated that the Dresser France compressors conformed to the technical specifications of the September 28, 1981 supply contract between Creusot-Loire, Dresser France and Machinoimport."[^61] On November 16, 1982, after the amendment of the regulations to rescind the controls of December 30, 1981 and June 22, 1982, the Hearing Commissioner vacated the order against Dresser (France) on the Department's motion, noting that "the administrative proceeding against Dresser-France was based on the now-rescinded controls" and that the Department "will take no further action to enforce those controls." The order was published on November 22, 1982.[^62]
### Harbison-Walker and the asbestos claims
Dresser's annual report for fiscal 1993 states that the company had approximately 42,800 pending asbestos claims, about 12,000 of them filed in 1993. The company states that it "has never been a miner or processor of asbestos," but it produced refractory products that contained some asbestos, and about half the pending claims alleged exposure to those products.[^63] Since 1976 the company had tried, settled or disposed of about 13,000 claims for $29 million including legal fees, with insurance covering 60 to 67 percent of legal fees and settlements. About 80 percent of the settled claims related to refractory products.[^63]
The refractories business was separated from Dresser in a spin-off to INDRESCO, Inc. Under the agreement made at the spin-off, INDRESCO assumed liability for asbestos claims filed after July 31, 1992 relating to refractory products of the Harbison-Walker Refractories Division. The report for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1995 names the successor as Harbison-Walker Refractories Company, "formerly INDRESCO Inc."[^64] The 1999 report of Halliburton states that Global Industrial Technologies, Inc., formerly INDRESCO, now disputes that it assumed responsibility for any of those claims based on negligence. It also reports that about 183,000 claims had been filed against Dresser and its former divisions over twenty years, with 29,400 new claims in 1998.[^65]
### Baroid and the 1990s
In fiscal 1993 Dresser reported consolidated sales and service revenues of $4,216 million, divided into three segments: Oilfield Services, Hydrocarbon Processing Industry and Engineering Services.[^66] The company acquired Bredero Price Holding B.V., a Netherlands pipe-coating business, on February 1, 1993, and TK Valve & Manufacturing, Inc., a Texas maker of ball valves, on April 1, 1993.[^66] The Baroid merger, effective January 21, 1994, combined Dresser with [[Baroid Corporation]], a Houston drilling-fluids and offshore services company. Baroid's shareholders received approximately 37.3 million Dresser shares. The Antitrust Division of the [[Department of Justice]] required Dresser to dispose of either its 64 percent interest in [[M-I Drilling Fluids Company]] or Baroid's drilling fluids business, and to divest the United States diamond drill bit business of DB Stratabit, Inc. The 1993 report names Halliburton as the minority partner in M-I, whose consent the sale of that interest required.[^66] The Handbook of Texas entry states that upon completion of the Baroid merger Dresser became "the third-largest oil-services company in the world."[^67]
### Halliburton merger, 1998
The merger was negotiated between Dick Cheney, then chief executive of Halliburton, and [[William E. Bradford]], chairman and chief executive of Dresser. The registration statement on Form S-4 that Halliburton filed on May 18, 1998 recounts that the two companies' predecessors had discussed a combination in 1994 under a confidentiality agreement, and that those talks ended without agreement on essential terms.[^68]
According to the S-4, Cheney and Bradford met briefly on August 25, 1997 concerning Halliburton's pending acquisition of [[NUMAR Corporation]], and met again in Dallas on October 2, 1997. On January 17, 1998, during a customer's quail hunt in South Texas, they agreed to discuss the matter further in Dallas.[^69] At the Dallas meeting on January 27, 1998, Bradford "clearly stated that Dresser was not for sale."[^70] Cheney proposed a merger of Dresser into a Halliburton subsidiary with an exchange ratio of 0.95 Halliburton share for each Dresser share. He proposed that Bradford become chairman of the combined company, that [[Donald C. Vaughn]], Dresser's president and chief executive, become vice chairman, and that Cheney and [[David J. Lesar]] keep their Halliburton posts.[^68] Bradford said he would expect an improved ratio. The final exchange ratio was one Halliburton share for each Dresser share.[^68][^71]
Halliburton had engaged [[SBC Warburg Dillon Read]] and [[Goldman Sachs]] as financial advisers on November 1, 1997. The definitive merger agreement was executed on February 25, 1998.[^71] The merger brought approximately 175 million Halliburton shares to Dresser's holders, and it was completed on September 29, 1998 under pooling of interests accounting.[^65][^71]
### DII Industries and the Chapter 11 filings, 2002 to 2005
In the second quarter of 2002 the former Dresser Industries, Inc. became a limited liability company and was renamed DII Industries, LLC, as part of a reorganization in which Halliburton placed the entities of its Engineering and Construction Group under the former Dresser entity.[^72] A bankruptcy court temporary restraining order entered on February 14, 2002 stayed more than 200,000 pending asbestos claims against DII Industries.[^72] In April 2001 Halliburton had sold the Dresser Equipment Group, which was renamed Dresser, Inc., retaining a 5.1 percent equity interest.[^73]
Halliburton's 2002 annual report describes a proposed global settlement of up to $2.775 billion in cash, 59.5 million Halliburton shares and notes with a net present value expected to be less than $100 million, payable to a trust for current and future asbestos and silica claimants. DII Industries and [[Kellogg, Brown & Root]] would retain the first $2.3 billion of insurance proceeds, and the settlement was to be implemented through a pre-packaged Chapter 11 filing.[^72] The same report describes the disclosure statement to be mailed to the more than 347,000 current claimants.[^74]
According to Halliburton's 2003 annual report, DII Industries, Kellogg, Brown & Root and some of their subsidiaries filed Chapter 11 proceedings on December 16, 2003, in bankruptcy court in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[^75] The order confirming the plan of reorganization became final and nonappealable on December 31, 2004, and the plan became effective in January 2005, when Halliburton contributed approximately $2.345 billion in cash, 59.5 million shares of its common stock and notes to the trusts.[^76]
If the settlement had failed, Halliburton's 2002 report stated, asbestos claims would have been resolved in the tort system or, for Harbison-Walker claims, possibly through the Harbison-Walker bankruptcy proceedings.[^77] In a statement filed on December 3, 2004, Halliburton said that a Third Circuit decision in the [[Combustion Engineering]] bankruptcy had no impact on the DII and Kellogg, Brown & Root bankruptcy, because in the DII case no asbestos liabilities were channeled to a trust other than liabilities of the debtors.[^78]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*, Texas State Historical Association: the Dresser Cap Packer and the May 11, 1880 patent; the 1885 coupling; the 1928 conversion by W. A. Harriman and Company; the move to Dallas in 1950. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries
[^2]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc." (St. James Press), reproduced on Encyclopedia.com: the 1880 start in Bradford, the 1928 sale to W. A. Harriman and Company, the 1948 trade ban, the move to Dallas in 1950, the 1986 joint venture with Halliburton. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^3]: Solomon R. Dresser, "Packing for Artesian Wells," U.S. Patent No. 227,419, dated May 11, 1880, Bradford, Pennsylvania. https://patents.google.com/patent/US227419A
[^4]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": Solomon Dresser opened S. R. Dresser and Company in Bradford in 1880 and designed an expanding india-rubber packer. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^5]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the leakproof coupling of 1885, perfected two years later, and the experimental order of nine sleeves from a Standard Oil superintendent in 1894. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^6]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the charter signed in December 1905, capital stock of $500,000, resources of $550,000 and fourteen patents accounting for almost $180,000. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^7]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1993, filed January 28, 1994 (accession 0000950131-94-000055), Item 1 (incorporation in Delaware in 1956 as successor to the Pennsylvania corporation organized in 1938; businesses founded in 1880). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/0000950131-94-000055.txt
[^8]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1997, filed January 27, 1998 (accession 0001047469-98-002199), Item 1. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/0001047469-98-002199.txt
[^9]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979): the list of presidents (Solomon R. Dresser 1880 to 1911; Fred A. Miller 1911 to 1929; H. Neil Mallon 1929 to 1962; John Lawrence 1962 to 1970; John V. James 1970 to the present of publication); the principals of the Harriman firm, among them E. Roland Harriman, described as sons of the railroad magnate E. H. Harriman; the caption "Ideco was acquired by Dresser in 1944"; Security Engineering Company of Whittier, California, joining Dresser on November 1, 1945; the name change of October 1944; the opening of the Cleveland offices on March 19, 1945. https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
[^10]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the 1928 share structure, the Class A and Class B shares and Fred Miller's chairmanship; Mallon as president at thirty-three; the Toronto subsidiary of 1931; the Bryant Heater purchase of 1933 for $65,000; the Clark Brothers acquisition of 1937 and merger of 1938. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^11]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*: Mallon "was selected as president and chief executive officer" and served until his retirement in 1962. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries
[^12]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992: Prescott Bush's recollection of buying Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania in 1929 for four million dollars; his statement "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^13]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*: Bush "had been a W. A. Harriman and Company executive who had been involved in the conversion of Dresser to a public company, and he served on the board of directors for twenty-two years." https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries
[^14]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman (member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones), Knight Woolley, Prescott Sheldon Bush and Henry Neil Mallon. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^15]: Payne, *Initiative in Energy* (1979), chapter "New Command in a Troubled Era," on the Harriman firm's purchase and the Skull and Bones membership shared by Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon. https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
[^16]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp
[^17]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*: the acquisitions between 1930 and the entry of the United States into the war. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries
[^18]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the wartime production of landing gear, wing flaps, bomb doors and freighter engines; "One of the company's most urgent assignments was at the secret Manhattan Project"; sales for 1944 of just under $55 million. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^19]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the Magnet Cove Barium Corporation of Houston, November 1949, $2.8 million, later Magcobar; the move to Dallas in 1950 as "the epicenter of the U.S. oil business." https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^20]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the Liechtenstein subsidiary Dresser Vaduz set up in 1952 to execute and monitor all foreign license agreements and to funnel profits between countries. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^21]: Supreme Court of the United States, October Term 1965, No. 366, *McCullough Tool Co. v. Well Surveys, Inc.*, 383 U.S. 933 (petition for certiorari), statement of facts in the appendix: "In the year 1955 Dresser Industries, Inc., became the owner of all of the stock of Lane-Wells Company and of WSI. On April 30, 1958, Dresser Industries, Inc., liquidated Lane-Wells Company." https://archive.org/details/micro_IA40385602_1172
[^22]: *California Oil World*, vol. 48, no. 14 (July 1955), advertisement of Lane-Wells Co., Los Angeles, "one of the Dresser Industries." https://archive.org/details/sim_pacific-oil-and-gas-world_1955-07_48_14
[^23]: *Dallas* (magazine of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce), vol. 34, no. 7 (July 1955): the passage naming the nine affiliated Dresser Industries companies, including Lane-Wells, Magcobar and Roots-Connersville, with Ideco and the Security Engineering Division in Dallas. https://archive.org/details/sim_dallas_1955-07_34_7
[^24]: Canadian Refractories Limited, annual report for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1968: directors elected in fiscal 1968 including "John V. James, Executive Vice President of Dresser Industries, Inc., Dallas, Texas"; A. B. Wilson "named to the position of Chairman on October 26, 1967, upon the merger of Harbison-Walker Refractories Company into Dresser Industries, Inc." https://archive.org/details/Cana2029_1968
[^25]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the Lawrence-era acquisitions; Harbison-Walker as a $125 million company that cost Dresser about $150 million. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^26]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": John O'Connor, "the world's most travelled executive," and the $6 million natural gas liquefaction plant outside Moscow, slated for completion in 1949, which "fell victim to a Commerce Department trade ban early in 1948" and was unfinished until 1954. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^27]: Central Intelligence Agency, Lawrence R. Houston, General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "Dresser Industries," January 14, 1959, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R000100160032-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000100160032-3
[^28]: World Affairs Council of Dallas/Fort Worth, "Our History": founding in 1951 by Dresser Industries' chairman and president Henry Neil Mallon, the seventeen founders, and the affiliation with the World Affairs Councils of America. https://support.dfwworld.org/oldsite/who-we-are/our-history
[^29]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," *CovertAction Information Bulletin*, no. 41 (Summer 1992), p. 61 and notes 8 to 10: the statements on Mallon's contacts with Allen Dulles and on the CIA cover; the note on the interviews in 1990 and 1991 with two former Operations Directorate field officers; the passage on Bush's IDECO job. CIA reading room copy, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
[^30]: Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," *CovertAction Information Bulletin*, no. 41 (Summer 1992), pp. 61 to 62 and notes 13 to 16: Mallon's introduction of George de Mohrenschildt to Bush; the Yugoslav oil official of 1948; the statement of Victor Marchetti; the statement of the retired operative who said he worked for Dresser as a cover. https://archive.org/details/CovertActionInformationBulletinNo41Summer1992
[^31]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Biographical Information on George H. W. Bush," undated sheet, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401590001-9, listing "Oil field supply salesman, Dresser Industries, Midland, Texas, 1948-51" and Bush-Overbey Oil Development, Inc., formed 1951. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401590001-9
[^32]: George Bush, *All the Best, George Bush: My Life in Letters and Other Writings* (New York: Scribner, 1999): the biographical note on Neil Mallon; the account of accepting the job and driving to Odessa; the letter of April 12, 1951 to H. N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas; the passage on naming the third son for Neil Mallon; the chronology entry for Neil Mallon Bush. https://archive.org/details/allbestgeorgebus0000bush
[^33]: George Bush with Victor Gold, *Looking Forward* (New York: Doubleday, 1987): "Neil Mallon was a friend and a mentor second only to my father"; "I became a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits." https://archive.org/details/lookingforward00bush
[^34]: Payne, *Initiative in Energy* (1979), illustration caption "George Bush, center, an oil-field-supply salesman for Ideco," and the index entries for Bush, George (232 to 233) and Bush, Prescott S. (111, 113, 114, 115). https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener0000payn
[^35]: Bob Woodward and Walter Pincus, "Bush Opened Up To Secret Yale Society: Turning Points in a Life Built on Alliances," dated August 7, 1988 in the CIA reading room record, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580058-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580058-8
[^36]: Randall Rothenberg, "In Search of George Bush," dated March 6, 1988, newspaper clipping in the CIA file, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580078-6, quoting Bucky Bush on Neil Mallon's offer of a job in Midland, Texas. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580078-6
[^37]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the 1970 appointment of John V. James as president and chief executive officer, his army intelligence service in the Second World War, the 1972 Lodge-Cottrell acquisition, the 1974 Jeffrey Galion acquisition, James's chairmanship through 1982, the 1983 succession of John J. Murphy, the 1986 M-I joint venture with Halliburton and the 1987 Dresser-Rand venture with Ingersoll-Rand. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^38]: The Business Council, member rosters and correspondence, October 13 to 15, 1977 and May 13 to 14, 1977 sessions (CIA reading room documents CIA-RDP05S00620R000401140001-1 and CIA-RDP05S00620R000401180002-6): the member lists naming John V. James, Chairman & President, Dresser Industries, Inc., and Malcolm Baldrige; the invitation to Admiral Stansfield Turner; Turner's letter of October 18, 1977. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP05S00620R000401140001-1
[^39]: *Securities and Exchange Commission v. Dresser Industries, Inc.*, 628 F.2d 1368 (D.C. Cir. 1980) (en banc), Wright, C.J.: Part I.B, "The Dresser Investigations" (Form 8-K filings of January 28, 1976, November 11, 1976 and February 10, 1977; the refusal of July 15, 1977; the Department of Justice task force and the files transmitted in August 1977; the grand jury presentation of January 25, 1978; the subpoenas of April 21, 1978; the order of Judge Flannery of June 30, 1978, 453 F. Supp. 573; the intervention of Edward R. Luter). https://static.case.law/f2d/628/cases/1368-01.json
[^40]: *Dresser Industries, Inc. v. Securities and Exchange Commission*, 449 U.S. 993 (1980) (No. 80-354), order denying certiorari. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA40385007_0373
[^41]: Newspaper article on the Justice Department task force on overseas corruption, in the CIA press clippings file of September and October 1978, CIA-RDP05S00620R000501250001-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP05S00620R000501250001-8
[^42]: Department of State, Memorandum of Conversation, "Soviet Jewry and Related Events," Washington, August 17, 1978, 3:30 p.m., drafted August 18, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, Soviet Union, document 140, with note 2 (citing "Company Roundup: Soviet Awards Dresser $180 Million Contracts," *The New York Times*, June 2, 1978, p. D5, and Telegram 203480 to Moscow, August 11, 1978, National Archives, RG 59, Central Foreign Policy File, D780329-0069). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d140
[^43]: Bernard Gwertzman, "Firm Denies Oil Tools Sale Could Aid Soviet Military," *The Washington Star*, August 30, 1978, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP81M00980R000600060005-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r000600060005-5
[^44]: Brzezinski to Carter, August 29, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 141, editors' note 2: Kreps's August approval of the $140 million drill bit deal; Brzezinski's reading of it in the newspaper; Schlesinger's opposition; Brzezinski's question on continuing with the deal; citing Zbigniew Brzezinski, *Power and Principle*, pp. 322 to 325. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141
[^45]: Brzezinski to Carter, August 29, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 141: the Defense Science Board conclusions; the letter of transmittal by J. Fred Bucy; the recommendation of a suspension on national security and foreign policy grounds. Carter Library, National Security Affairs, Brzezinski Material, Box 89. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141
[^46]: Brzezinski to Carter, August 29, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 141, editors' note 5, recording Carter's marginal notation in the right-hand margin beside the Defense Science Board's first conclusion. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141
[^47]: Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, "Confusing Signals on Trade with Russia," *The Washington Post*, August 16, 1978, p. A15, as cited in the footnote to Brzezinski's memorandum of August 29, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 141. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141
[^48]: Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, *The Role of Western Equipment in Soviet Oil and Gas Development*, research paper SOV 84-10153X, September 1984, CIA-RDP85T00313R000300010001-9, on the Dresser drill bit plant at Kuybyshev. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp85t00313r000300010001-9
[^49]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Foreign Availability of Petroleum Equipment," table of rock bits, CIA-RDP84B00049R000601570019-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000601570019-8
[^50]: William J. Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary of Commerce, February 1982, CIA-RDP83M00914R001200090040-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r001200090040-0
[^51]: Central Intelligence Agency, "The Transfer of U.S. Tungsten Carbide Technology to the USSR and its Military Application," enclosure to the letter of February 1982, CIA-RDP83M00914R001200090041-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r001200090041-9
[^52]: Central Intelligence Agency, Chief, Technology Transfer Assessment Center, memorandum for the record, "Meeting With Senate Select Committee Staffers on Dresser Drill Bit Case," meeting of February 11, 1982, CIA-RDP83M00914R001200090039-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r001200090039-2
[^53]: "Drill-Bit Deal Seen Helping Soviet Arms," *Los Angeles Times*, May 4, 1982, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100370022-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100370022-6
[^54]: Peter J. Wallison, General Counsel of the Treasury, memorandum to Secretary Regan, "Soviet Gas Pipeline Controls," August 19, 1982, CIA-RDP83M00914R000600030061-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r000600030061-0
[^55]: Legal offices of the Departments of State, Defense, Treasury, Justice and Commerce and the Trade Representative, memorandum to the Senior Interdepartmental Group on International Economic Policy (bearing the name of Peter J. Wallison), "Options For Dealing With Imminent Shipments in Violation of Oil and Gas Export Controls," August 23, 1982, section "E. Dresser/France," CIA-RDP83M00914R000600030058-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r000600030058-4
[^56]: *Dresser Industries, Inc. and Dresser (France) S.A. v. Baldridge*, 549 F. Supp. 108 (D.D.C. 1982) (Green, J.), order of September 9, 1982, reporting the filing on August 23, the restraining-order denial by Judge Thomas A. Flannery on August 24, the temporary denial order of August 26, the appeal of September 2 and the schedule for the hearing. https://static.case.law/f-supp/549/cases/0108-01.json
[^57]: "Dresser (France) S.A.; Order Temporarily Denying Export Privileges," Case No. 632, order of August 26, 1982 by Hearing Commissioner Thomas W. Hoya, 47 Fed. Reg. 38170 (August 30, 1982). https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1982-08-30_47_168
[^58]: Malcolm Baldrige, note to William Casey with guideline questions and answers on the President's oil and gas sanctions, 1982, answers on Dresser (France) S.A. and the table of compressor orders, CIA-RDP84B00049R000501350004-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000501350004-9
[^59]: "Dresser (France) S.A.; Order Modifying Temporary Denial of Export Privileges," Case No. 632, order of September 7, 1982, 47 Fed. Reg. 39708 (September 9, 1982). https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1982-09-09_47_175
[^60]: *Dresser Industries, Inc. and Dresser (France) S.A. v. Baldridge*, 549 F. Supp. 108 (D.D.C. 1982) (Green, J.), reporter citation and caption, with the date of the order of September 9, 1982. https://static.case.law/f-supp/549/cases/0108-01.json
[^61]: Lionel H. Olmer, Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade, memorandum "U.S. Sanctions on Creusot-Loire and Mannesmann Anlagenbau," October 6, 1982, with the attached summary of the temporary denial orders, CIA-RDP84T00109R000100100002-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84t00109r000100100002-8
[^62]: "Dresser (France) S.A.; Order Vacating Temporary Denial of Export Privileges," Case No. 632, order of November 16, 1982 by Hearing Commissioner Thomas W. Hoya, 47 Fed. Reg. (November 22, 1982), FR Doc. 82-31900. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1982-11-22_47_225
[^63]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1993 (accession 0000950131-94-000055), Note L, "Asbestosis Litigation." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/0000950131-94-000055.txt
[^64]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1995, filed January 29, 1996 (accession 0000912057-96-000951), notes on asbestosis litigation (refractory claims after July 31, 1992 are the responsibility of Harbison-Walker Refractories Company, formerly INDRESCO Inc.). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/000091205796000951/0000912057-96-000951.txt
[^65]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for fiscal 1998, filed March 23, 1999 (accession 0000045012-99-000005): the note on the Halliburton/Dresser merger (completed September 29, 1998; pooling of interests) and the note on asbestosis litigation (about 183,000 claims over twenty years, 29,400 new claims in 1998, Global Industrial Technologies, formerly INDRESCO, Inc., disputing its assumption of Harbison-Walker Refractories Division claims). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000045012-99-000005.txt
[^66]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1993, Item 1: fiscal 1993 revenues of $4,216 million and the three segments; the Bredero Price (February 1, 1993) and TK Valve (April 1, 1993) acquisitions; the Baroid merger effective January 21, 1994, with 37,286,662 shares to the Baroid shareholders; the Antitrust Division divestiture requirements covering the 64 percent interest in M-I Drilling Fluids Company and the DB Stratabit diamond drill bit business; the consent of the minority partner, Halliburton Company, to the M-I sale. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/0000950131-94-000055.txt
[^67]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*, section on the Baroid merger and the company's position after it. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries
[^68]: Halliburton Company, Registration Statement on Form S-4, filed May 18, 1998 (accession 0000930661-98-001212), "Background of the Merger": the 1994 discussions; the August 25, 1997 meeting concerning NUMAR; the October 2, 1997 meeting in Dallas; the proposed 0.95 exchange ratio and management roles; the exchange ratio of one share of Halliburton common stock for each Dresser share. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000930661-98-001212.txt
[^69]: Halliburton Company, Form S-4, filed May 18, 1998, "Background of the Merger," paragraph on the meeting of January 17, 1998 during a customer's quail hunt in South Texas. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000930661-98-001212.txt
[^70]: Halliburton Company, Form S-4, filed May 18, 1998, "Background of the Merger," paragraph on the meeting of January 27, 1998 in Dallas: Bradford's statement that Dresser "was not for sale" and his expectation of an improved exchange ratio. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000930661-98-001212.txt
[^71]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-Q for the quarter ended June 30, 1998 (accession 0000045012-98-000034), Note 10, "Halliburton / Dresser Merger" (definitive agreement executed February 25, 1998; one-for-one exchange ratio; approximately 175 million shares of common stock to be issued). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000045012-98-000034.txt
[^72]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2002, filed March 28, 2003 (accession 0000045012-03-000018): the renaming of Dresser Industries, Inc. as DII Industries, LLC in the second quarter of 2002; the temporary restraining order of February 14, 2002; the proposed global settlement of up to $2.775 billion. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501203000018/0000045012-03-000018-index.htm
[^73]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2002 (accession 0000045012-03-000018), discussion of the sale of the Dresser Equipment Group in April 2001, renamed Dresser, Inc., and the retained 5.1 percent equity interest. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501203000018/0000045012-03-000018-index.htm
[^74]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2002 (accession 0000045012-03-000018), description of the disclosure statement to be mailed to the more than 347,000 current claimants. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501203000018/0000045012-03-000018-index.htm
[^75]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for fiscal 2003, filed March 8, 2004 (accession 0000045012-04-000086): the Chapter 11 proceedings of DII Industries, LLC, Kellogg, Brown & Root and some of their subsidiaries, "Chapter 11 proceedings on December 16, 2003 in bankruptcy court in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501204000086/ed10k2003.txt
[^76]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for fiscal 2004, filed March 1, 2005 (accession 0000045012-05-000055): the order confirming the plan of reorganization, final and nonappealable on December 31, 2004; the plan effective in January 2005; the January 2005 contributions of approximately $2.345 billion in cash, 59.5 million shares and notes to the trusts. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501205000055/ed10k2004_final.htm
[^77]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2002 (accession 0000045012-03-000018), discussion of the resolution of asbestos claims in the tort system or the Harbison-Walker bankruptcy proceedings if the settlement failed. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501203000018/0000045012-03-000018-index.htm
[^78]: Halliburton Company, Form 8-K dated December 3, 2004 (accession 0000045012-04-000343), "Hal Says Court Order Makes Final Asbestos Settlement Imminent," statement on the Third Circuit decision in the Combustion Engineering bankruptcy and its bearing on the DII and Kellogg, Brown & Root bankruptcy. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501204000343/0000045012-04-000343-index.htm

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---
title: J. P. Morgan & Co.
aliases:
- J.P. Morgan & Co.
- J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated
- J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated
- J.P. Morgan & Company
- JP Morgan & Co.
- Drexel, Morgan & Co.
- House of Morgan
category: "Private Organization"
tags:
- Organization
- Banking
- JPMorgan
- DrexelMorgan
- HouseOfMorgan
- PujoCommittee
- InterlockingDirectorates
- PurchasingAgency
- PecoraHearings
- GlassSteagall
- MorganStanley
- MorganGuaranty
- ForeignLoans
- ChinaConsortium
- NyeCommittee
- WallStreetBombing
summary: "A banking partnership with 63 directorships in 39 corporations in 1912, whose 1933 Senate examination named its 1929 Alleghany allottees and whose investment bankers left in 1935 to form Morgan Stanley."
location: "New York, New York"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[J. P. Morgan]]"
reverse: true
start: 1895
role: "senior member of the New York house; Morgan confirmed the seniority in Pujo testimony of December 1912"
fn: 4
- type: member_of
with: "[[Charles Steele]]"
reverse: true
role: "partner in the New York house; confirmed in Pujo testimony of December 1912"
fn: 5
- type: member_of
with: "[[Thomas W. Lamont]]"
reverse: true
start: 1911
role: "partner; Morgan told the Pujo subcommittee on December 19, 1912 that Lamont was a partner; chairman of the American Group of the China Consortium"
fn: 63
- type: member_of
with: "[[Henry P. Davison]]"
reverse: true
start: 1909-01-01
end: 1922
role: "partner from January 1, 1909, by his own Pujo testimony; his death in 1922 is recorded in the Keyes testimony on partnership accounts"
fn: 7
- type: member_of
with: "[[George Whitney]]"
reverse: true
start: 1920
role: "partner; testified before the Senate Banking and Currency Committee in 1933 on the Alleghany stock allotments"
fn: 62
- type: member_of
with: "[[Dwight W. Morrow]]"
reverse: true
start: 1914
end: 1927-09-30
role: "partner until his resignation to become Ambassador to Mexico"
fn: 57
- type: member_of
with: "[[Russell C. Leffingwell]]"
reverse: true
start: 1923-07
role: "partner after serving as Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, 1917 to 1920"
fn: 60
- type: member_of
with: "[[S. Parker Gilbert]]"
reverse: true
start: 1931-01-02
role: "admitted to the firm on January 2, 1931 after serving as Under Secretary of the Treasury and Agent General for Reparation Payments"
fn: 61
- type: member_of
with: "[[Edward R. Stettinius Sr.]]"
reverse: true
end: 1925
role: "partner whose death in 1925 is recorded in the Keyes testimony on partnership accounts"
fn: 11
- type: member_of
with: "[[Thomas S. Gates Sr.]]"
reverse: true
start: 1921
end: 1931-12-31
role: "partner of J. P. Morgan & Co. from 1921 and of Drexel & Co. from 1918; listed as retired in the list of partners read into the Pecora record"
fn: 10
- type: member_of
with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]"
reverse: true
start: 1929
role: "partner from 1929; vice president and director in 1940, per the Davison Family Collection finding aid"
fn: 68
- type: represented
with: "[[Italian Government]]"
start: 1925-11-18
role: "contracted a $100,000,000 stabilization loan with the Italian government, executed November 18, 1925"
fn: 38
- type: represented
with: "[[Imperial Japanese Government]]"
start: 1924-02
role: "syndicate manager of the $150,000,000 Imperial Japanese Government External Loan of 1924"
fn: 35
- type: represented
with: "[[British Government]]"
start: 1915
end: 1917
role: "purchasing agent in the United States for the British government, per du Pont and Hawkins testimony"
fn: 28
- type: represented
with: "[[French Government]]"
start: 1915-03
role: "arranged $50,000,000 of one-year French Treasury notes with the National City Bank and the First National Bank, as reported to the Secretary of State on March 25, 1915"
fn: 24
- type: owned
with: "[[Morgan Guaranty Trust]]"
start: 1959-04-24
role: "parent holding company of the bank, which the firm held entirely after the 1959 merger with Guaranty Trust Company of New York"
fn: 73
- type: investigated
with: "[[Pujo Committee]]"
reverse: true
start: 1912-12
role: "House subcommittee on the concentration of control of money and credit"
fn: 12
- type: investigated
with: "[[Senate Banking and Currency Committee]]"
reverse: true
start: 1933
role: "examined the partners and the firm's stock allotments in the Stock Exchange Practices hearings"
fn: 52
- type: investigated
with: "[[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry]]"
reverse: true
start: 1934
role: "examined the firm's agency for the British and French governments in the Munitions Industry hearings"
fn: 28
---
J. P. Morgan & Co. was the New York banking partnership of the [[J. P. Morgan]] family, which underwrote, lent to and advised corporations and governments until it merged into [[Chase Manhattan Corporation]] on December 31, 2000. The name Drexel, Morgan & Co. appears in an 1886 Supreme Court caption for the New York house.[^1] In 1912 Mr. Scudder testified to the House subcommittee that the New York firm was "identical with Drexel & Co., of Philadelphia, in firm members."[^2] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 chart of old-line and new-wealth families places [[Henry P. Davison]] among the new-wealth families beside "J. P. Morgan & Co."[^3]
### Partners and the partnership
The senior member of the firm was J. P. Morgan. In December 1912 the [[Pujo Committee|Pujo subcommittee]] asked him whether he was the senior member of the partnership, and he answered "I am, sir."[^4] The partners he named included [[Charles Steele]], who confirmed his membership before the subcommittee, and [[Thomas W. Lamont]], whom Morgan identified as a partner.[^5][^6] Davison testified on January 23, 1913 that he had been a member of the firm "Since the 1st of January, 1909."[^7] [[Walter E. Frew]], a director of [[Bankers Trust Company]] from about 1905, was asked in December 1912 whether Davison was a member of J. P. Morgan & Co. Frew answered "Of the First National Bank at that time," and then said that Davison "is now" a member of the firm.[^8]
The membership was read into the record again in 1933. Before the [[Senate Banking and Currency Committee]], [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]] gave the date on which the firm had been constituted as it then stood as March 31, 1916, and read a list of the partners of J. P. Morgan & Co. at the end of 1931. It opened "Myself, E. T. Stotesbury, Charles Steele, Thomas W. Lamont, Horatio G. Lloyd," and then named Dwight W. Morrow ("no, he retired") and, after [[Thomas Cochran]], Julius S. Morgan and [[George Whitney]], Thomas S. Gates ("no, he has retired"). The list went on with [[Russell C. Leffingwell]], Francis D. Bartow, [[Arthur M. Anderson]], [[William Ewing]], [[Harold Stanley]], H. S. Morgan, Thomas S. Lamont, H. P. Davison, Thomas Newhall, Edward Hopkinson Jr., [[S. Parker Gilbert]] and, from January 2, 1932, [[Charles D. Dickey]].[^9] The Thomas S. Gates of that list is [[Thomas S. Gates Sr.]], listed as president of the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in the 1930 to 1931 Who's Who, whose entry gives "partner Drexel & Co. since 1918, J. P. Morgan & Co. since 1921."[^10]
Keyes listed separate accounting periods marked by the deaths of partners: [[Arthur E. Newbold]] in 1920, Davison in 1922, Bacon in 1924, [[Edward R. Stettinius Sr.]] in 1925 and Porter in 1926. He also said "We had a change in 1927 by the retirement of the late Mr. Dwight W. Morrow, which occurred in September 1927."[^11]
### Directorships and the Pujo subcommittee
The Pujo subcommittee tabulated the directorships of a group of individuals in Exhibit 134-C of December 18, 1912. Its explanation of the table treated 180 individuals who were firm members or directors of eighteen financial institutions, and stated that "In the aggregate they hold 385 directorships in 41 banks and trust companies" and, "in all, 746 directorships in 134 corporations having total resources or capitalization of $25,325,000,000."[^12][^13]
The exhibit then gave the figures for J. P. Morgan & Co. separately: "J. P. Morgan & Co. of New York (identical with Drexel & Co. of Philadelphia) have 23 directorships in 13 banks and trust companies." Three of those were at the [[Guaranty Trust Company of New York]], the bank whose 1959 merger with the firm produced [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]]; the list also shows three each at the Astor Trust, Bankers Trust and the [[First National Bank of New York]], and one each at the Fourth Street National Bank, the Franklin National Bank, the [[Girard Trust Company]] and the [[Philadelphia National Bank]]. The same section lists 4 directorships in 4 insurance companies and "a controlling stock interest in another, the Equitable Life Assurance Society of New York"; 20 directorships in 12 transportation systems; 12 in 7 producing and trading corporations, among them 4 in the [[United States Steel Corporation]] and 2 each in the General Electric Company and the International Harvester Company; and 4 in 3 public utility corporations. It closes the Morgan summary: "In all, 63 directorships in 39 corporations having total resources or capitalization of $10,036,000,000."[^12]
The exhibit also records that J. P. Morgan & Co. held "2 of the 3 voting trustees of the Guaranty Trust Co. of New York and 1 of the 3 voting trustees of the Bankers Trust Co. of New York."[^12] A supplemental table in the same exhibit combined the affiliations of J. P. Morgan & Co., the First National Bank, the National City Bank, the Guaranty Trust Company and the Bankers Trust Company. It states that the five together had "118 directorships in 34 banks and trust companies," 30 in 10 insurance companies, 105 in 32 transportation systems, 63 in 24 producing and trading corporations and 25 in 12 public utility corporations: "In all, 341 directorships in 112 corporations having aggregate resources or capitalization of $22,245,000,000."[^14]
Asked about the control of credit, J. P. Morgan told the subcommittee, "I want to control nothing," and "I do not want any control."[^15]
### Early transactions, 1861 to 1907
In 1861 the House committee on government contracts reported, of the sale of Hall carbines to the government, that the arms "were placed under the control of J. Pierpont Morgan to secure him the payment of $20,000 he had advanced to Stevens."[^16]
In February 1895 the Treasury's gold contract was taken by a syndicate that the firm managed with [[August Belmont]]. The contract stipulated that the syndicate would "exert all financial influence and will make all legitimate efforts to protect the Treasury of the United States against the withdrawals of gold."[^17]
The firm was a syndicate manager for the 1901 offering that organized the United States Steel Corporation. The prospectus dated March 2, 1901, issued from the firm's office, described a $200,000,000 syndicate with "Syndicate Managers" named in the text.[^18] In the House inquiry into the steel corporation, [[Andrew Carnegie]] was asked why Morgan had "send word to me that he would like to buy me out."[^19] Treasury Secretary [[George B. Cortelyou]] testified that a conference was held at the [[Hotel Manhattan]] on October 22, 1907, and that members of the firm attended it.[^20]
### The purchasing agency, 1914 to 1917
On August 10, 1914 Secretary of State [[William Jennings Bryan]] wrote to President [[Woodrow Wilson]]: "Morgan Company of New York have asked whether there would be any objection to their making a loan to the French Government and also the Rothschilds." Bryan wrote that he had suggested the Department take the position that it would not approve of any loan to a belligerent nation, and that "Money is the worst of all contrabands because it commands everything else."[^21] On August 21, 1914 J. P. Morgan wrote to Wilson on British objections to the purchase of German ships, quoting cablegrams from "my London firm, which is at the moment in very close touch with the British Government."[^22]
On January 23, 1915 Davison returned from London and told the press that the firm had been appointed the sole commercial agent for Great Britain in the United States, so that "all purchases in this country for Great Britain would be made through J. P. Morgan & Co."[^23] By March 25, 1915 the firm wrote to the Secretary of State, jointly with the [[National City Bank]] and the First National Bank of New York, that it was arranging to place for the French Government "some $50,000,000. One-Year Treasury Notes, the proceeds of which are to be expended in this country."[^24]
On September 6, 1915 Secretary of State [[Robert Lansing]] wrote to Wilson on the need for loans to the belligerents. He gave the American export surplus as nearly a billion dollars from December 1, 1914 to June 30, 1915, wrote that if the European countries could not find means to pay "they will have to stop buying and our present export trade will shrink proportionately," and concluded that "there is only one means of avoiding this situation": "the flotation of large bond issues by the belligerent governments."[^25] On September 28, 1915 the Anglo-French financial commission announced a $500,000,000 credit at the [[Hotel Biltmore]], with Davison reading a statement for the firm.[^26]
On July 3, 1915 Frank Holt, a former instructor in German at Cornell University, shot J. P. Morgan Jr. at his home at Glen Cove, New York. The New York Times reported on July 4 that Holt had confessed to setting the bomb that wrecked the Senate reception room at the Capitol on the night of July 2, and that he described to the police how he had practised for months the making of a bomb; the paper's subheading called the explosion "a protest against shipments of war munitions."[^27]
After the war began in Europe, J. P. Morgan & Co. was the principal fiscal and purchasing agent in the United States for the British and French governments. The [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry]] (the [[Nye Committee]]) examined the arrangement in 1934 and 1935. [[Pierre S. du Pont]] testified that "a great many of the contracts were made through Morgan & Co." and that these were "for the British and French Governments." He said the firm had negotiated with the du Pont company "as agents for the British Government."[^28] The du Pont company's letter of December 18, 1934 put the total sales value of its contracts with the two governments at $490,573,806, of which "J. P. Morgan & Co. acted as agent, under sales contracts aggregating $351,259,813.28."[^28]
Senator Clark asked whether money was owing to the du Pont company "from the allied and associated nations or their fiscal and purchasing agents in this country, such as Morgan."[^29] [[Col. Hawkins|Colonel Hawkins]] testified that the British purchasing commission had worked "in connection with Mr. Stettinius," and that the commission had been organized by J. P. Morgan & Co., "who were the fiscal agents for the British in this country."[^30] Hawkins also said that [[Lt. Col. Black]], who had been connected with that commission before American entry into the war, came to Washington in January 1918 and had since returned to his engineering firm.[^30]
The Senate report on the government manufacture of munitions (1936) recorded the contracts of the [[United States Steel Products Company]]. It gave the British contracts "through J. P. Morgan & Co., of $62,514,546 from 1915 to 1917" and the French contracts as "$52,781,486."[^31]
In January 1936 the committee questioned J. P. Morgan Jr., Thomas W. Lamont and George Whitney. The United States News reported that Morgan produced a copy of his 1915 speech to the bond houses that were to sell the Anglo-French loan, in which he said: "this is not a pro-Ally affair or an anti-German affair, or anything else; it is a pro-American affair, and that only." The same report quoted Morgan before the committee: "Increased exports helped this country and I don't think they lead us into war."[^32]
### Foreign loans, the Consortium and the State Department, 1924 to 1927
The firm was the American banker for the French, Italian and Japanese governments in the 1920s, and its partners were in regular contact with the State Department on each issue. On November 11, 1924 Secretary of State [[Charles Evans Hughes]] telegraphed the Ambassador in France that the Department had "just been consulted by J. P. Morgan and Company on the proposed French $100,000,000 loan which the firm is considering bringing out shortly if the Department sees no objection to it," and that the bankers' negotiations "have been awaiting consummation of the German loan." Hughes wrote that he "should certainly oppose flotation of a French loan in the United States were there any doubt of France's support" for the American claim to participate in the Dawes Plan annuities, and authorized the Ambassador to seek French assurances, "for the bankers will await the Department's answer."[^33] The same volume identifies Lamont in an editorial note as "member of the banking firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., New York City."[^34]
The February 1924 Japanese loan was a Morgan syndicate issue. The advertisement in the Commercial and Financial Chronicle of February 16, 1924 described a $150,000,000 Imperial Japanese Government External Loan of 1924, thirty-year sinking fund 6 1/2 per cent gold bonds due February 1, 1954. It stated that the proceeds were to retire the outstanding 4 1/2 per cent sterling loans and to purchase materials for reconstruction after "the earthquake and fire of September, 1923," and that subscription books would open "at the office of J. P. Morgan & Co." on February 15, 1924. The managers' notice listed J. P. Morgan & Co., Kuhn, Loeb & Co., the Guaranty Company of New York, Harris, Forbes & Co. and Lee, Higginson & Co. among others; a second notice carried the names of the National City Company and the First National Bank. In London the issue of sterling bonds was made by a group that included Morgan Grenfell & Co.[^35]
The American Group of the China Consortium also operated from the firm. On June 12, 1924 J. P. Morgan & Co. wrote to the Secretary of State "For the American Group," enclosing material for the Consortium Council meeting in London on July 14, which Lamont, "Chairman of the American Group," was to attend, and on July 29 forwarded the minutes of that meeting.[^36]
The Italian loan of 1925 followed the same pattern. On May 26, 1925 Lamont wrote to the Secretary of State that the [[Bank of Italy]], together with the [[Bank of Naples]] and the [[Bank of Sicily]], was arranging a $50,000,000 banking credit with American correspondents, which the Italian government would guarantee. Lamont wrote that "as explained to you, Mr. Mellon and Mr. Hoover, we regard this as a banking matter and so very different from any foreign government loan issued in this market." [[Andrew W. Mellon]] was then Secretary of the Treasury and [[Herbert Hoover]] was Secretary of Commerce. The Department replied on May 29 that, while it expressed no opinion on the transaction, it could not withhold objection to a public flotation of Italian bonds unless Italy had taken steps toward settling its debt to the United States.[^37]
The $100,000,000 issue followed. On November 18, 1925 the firm wrote that it had been "carrying on discussions with Count Volpi, the Italian Minister of Finance," on a loan "to be used for stabilization purposes," and that the contract had been executed that day. The firm noted that the Italian debt settlement had been reached at Washington on November 14.[^38] The Department answered on November 23 that it offered "no objection to the flotation of this issue in the American market," and that the Department "does not pass upon the merits of foreign loans as business propositions."[^39]
Lamont's 1927 trip to Japan was the subject of State Department telegrams. On November 19, 1927 Secretary of State [[Frank B. Kellogg]] telegraphed the Ambassador in Japan that the Department had received "an informal inquiry from Mr. Thomas W. Lamont as to whether any objection would be made to loan by American bankers of $30,000,000 to the South Manchuria Railway, the loan to be guaranteed by the Japanese Government," and that to pass such a loan "would apparently involve reversing previous decisions." The Department thought the Chinese "would very likely conclude" that the American government "has lined up behind Japan in her penetration of South Manchuria." The Ambassador, [[Charles MacVeagh]], answered on November 21 that Lamont's conversations had been "almost all with men who represent important financial interests," that near the end of the visit Lamont and Jeremiah Smith "gave a clear-cut and sweeping criticism of Japanese industrial and financial methods," and that if J. P. Morgan & Company was willing to make the advance and was deterred solely by the Department's attitude, the Japanese would ascribe it to "distrust and suspicion of Japan."[^40]
On November 19, 1927 the American representative at Peking reported that General Dzau of [[Zhang Zuolin]]'s headquarters had called to learn "whether I knew the object of the recent trip to Japan by Thomas W. Lamont." The representative also relayed a report from the commander of the [[Asiatic Fleet]] that Kuomintang leaders expected such loans to strengthen Japan's position in Manchuria.[^41] On December 9, 1927 the Tokyo mission reported that "J. P. Morgan & Company has refused to make loan to South Manchuria Railway," and that Dr. [[Takuma Dan]], president of the Mitsui company, attributed the refusal to the Department's unwillingness to pass the loan in the face of Chinese protests.[^42]
The Reparation Commission, jointly with the German government, named [[Owen D. Young]] and J. P. Morgan as the American members of its 1929 committee of experts, each with the right to name an alternate, and [[Thomas Nelson Perkins]] was named as an alternate.[^43] The report of June 7, 1929 carries the signatures of Young, J. P. Morgan, Thomas N. Perkins and T. W. Lamont.[^44] On April 28, 1930 [[Louis T. McFadden]], chairman of the House Committee on Banking and Currency, told the House that the State Department's statement of May 16, 1929 had turned America's participation in the [[Bank for International Settlements]] over to a group of bankers headed and dominated by J. P. Morgan & Co.[^45]
### The Wall Street explosion of 1920
On September 16, 1920 a bomb exploded at noon at Broad and Wall Streets, beside the firm's offices at [[23 Wall Street]]. The [[New York Times]] reported the next day under the headline "Wall Street Explosion: Morgan Office Hit" that the explosion had killed thirty persons and injured probably 300 others.[^46] J. P. Morgan was in England at the time. The paper reported that he had received private reports that were reassuring, and its London dispatch named [[C. F. Whigham]], a director of the affiliated London house of [[Morgan, Grenfell & Co.]].[^46]
### The Pecora examination, 1933
The Senate Banking and Currency Committee, with [[Ferdinand Pecora]] as counsel, examined the firm's partners and the allotments of its securities in 1933. J. P. Morgan Jr. opened his testimony with a statement on private bankers. He said that a private banker, unlike an incorporated bank, "has none of these privileges" of a charter and so "has a somewhat greater freedom of action," that the private banker was one for whom "none of the aids provided by the Government for incorporated banks, such as the Federal Reserve System or the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, are at his disposal," and that in his experience of over forty years "I cannot remember any partner of the house taking a directorship except at the earnest request of the board of directors of the company in question."[^47]
Pecora later put to him that, when he read the list of corporations on whose boards the partners sat, "I tallied the number and reached the total of 167 directorships; 167 directorships held by members of your firm." Morgan answered, "If that corresponds with the list that is right. I do not know the number."[^48] The partners' directorships read into the record included Lamont's at the United States Steel Corporation and the Northern Pacific Railway, and Whitney's at General Motors, the Kennecott Copper Corporation and the Consolidated Gas Company.[^49]
Pecora then asked whether the firm had paid income tax. Morgan answered for himself: "My 'No' means that I did not pay any income tax," for 1931 and 1932. Asked whether the aggregate paid by the members of J. P. Morgan & Co. and Drexel & Co. for 1931 "was zero," Morgan answered, "I believe it to be true, but I do not know. I don't see their income-tax returns."[^50]
An exhibit marked "Committee Exhibit No. 10" listed the distribution of 1,250,000 shares of Alleghany Corporation common stock issued February 15, 1929 at $20 a share, "at a price equivalent to our cost," in the words of George Whitney. The list includes J. P. Morgan (40,000 shares), Lamont (18,000), Leffingwell (13,500), [[Charles E. Mitchell]] (10,000), [[John J. Raskob]] (2,000), [[William Gibbs McAdoo]] (500), [[John J. Pershing]] (500), [[Frank L. Polk]] (800), Owen D. Young, [[Newton D. Baker]], [[John W. Davis]] (400), [[Charles A. Lindbergh]] (500), Harold Stanley, [[Henry S. Morgan]] (2,500), C. F. Whigham and [[William H. Woodin]], and shows 50,000 shares to Drexel & Co. and 175,000 shares to "J. P. Morgan & Co. stock A/C." Whitney testified that the firm had arranged with the Guaranty Company of New York to underwrite the sale of 500,000 of the shares.[^51]
Pecora asked Whitney whether those named were "persons who also could be characterized as among the close friends of J. P. Morgan & Co." Whitney answered: "I should assume that the great majority; yes." He said of Woodin, identified in the testimony as "Secretary of the Treasury," that "I have already testified that for many years Mr. Woodin has been a personal friend of many of the partners," and said of the $20 price that "we did not desire to make any profit out of the sale."[^52] On the following day, resuming, Whitney was asked whether there was "a standing list or record in the office of J. P. Morgan & Co., or in the possession of any of its partners, which gives or shows the names of the close friends of J. P. Morgan & Co. who were invited from time to time to subscribe." He answered "No, sir."[^53]
### The Banking Act of 1933 and Morgan Stanley
The [[Banking Act of 1933]], approved June 16, 1933 as Public No. 66 of the 73d Congress, bears the short title "Banking Act of 1933" and was enacted as an act "to provide for the safer and more effective use of the assets of banks, to regulate interbank control, to prevent the undue diversion of funds into speculative operations."[^54] In the 1953 antitrust opinion of Judge Harold R. Medina, the Act is described as requiring commercial banks and their security affiliates to go out of the investment banking business if the banks wished to continue taking deposits, with a deadline of June 16, 1934.[^55]
According to that opinion, J. P. Morgan & Co. "elected to cease engaging in the investment banking business, and chose to remain a bank of deposit," and discontinued its investment banking activities on or about June 16, 1933. The opinion finds that the first discussions within the firm about a new investment banking organization took place in June and July 1935, that the final decision to organize [[Morgan Stanley]] & Co. Incorporated was made around the middle or the 20th of August 1935, and that "There was some thought of using the Drexel name, but difficulty arose with the heirs of the Drexel Estate." The corporation was organized on September 6, 1935 under New York law and commenced business on September 16, 1935. Of the then seventeen partners of J. P. Morgan & Co., Harold Stanley, Henry S. Morgan and William Ewing resigned to form it, together with John M. Young, head of the firm's bond department, Allen Northey Jones, head of its statistical department, and Perry E. Hall and Edward H. York Jr., who held the authority of partners in Drexel & Co. Stanley was president, Ewing executive vice president and Henry S. Morgan treasurer and secretary. On September 18, 1935 the corporation issued $7,000,000 of non-voting preferred stock, of which $6,600,000 "was purchased by nine partners of J. P. Morgan & Co." The opinion states that Morgan Stanley "set up an entirely new office at No. 2 Wall Street."[^56]
### Partners in government
[[Dwight W. Morrow]] was a lawyer with Simpson, Thacher & Bartlett until 1914 and a member of J. P. Morgan & Co. from 1914 to September 30, 1927, when he resigned to become Ambassador to Mexico. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal in 1919 by General Pershing for services in connection with military shipping and the Military Board of Allied Supply, and was adviser to the Allied Maritime Transport Council in 1918.[^57] The Office of the Historian records his appointment as Ambassador to Mexico on September 21, 1927, his presentation of credentials on October 29, 1927 and his departure on September 17, 1930.[^58] The Biographical Directory of the American Congress lists him among the Senators of New Jersey, with the entry for his successor reading "Appointed to fill vacancy caused by death of Dwight W. Morrow" and giving his death as October 5, 1931.[^59]
Russell C. Leffingwell was a special assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury in the flotation of the Liberty Loan in May 1917 and Assistant Secretary of the Treasury from October 30, 1917 until 1920; he was a member of Cravath, Henderson, Leffingwell & de Gersdorff from October 1920 to July 1923 and a member of J. P. Morgan & Co. from July 1923.[^60] Seymour Parker Gilbert, known as S. Parker Gilbert, was Assistant Secretary of the Treasury in charge of fiscal affairs from June 1920 and Under Secretary from July 1, 1921 to November 17, 1923, and Agent General for Reparation Payments from 1924. Pecora put to Keyes that January 2, 1931 "was advisedly fixed as the date of the admission of Mr. Gilbert into the firm," and Keyes answered "Yes, sir"; the 1931 list of partners names him.[^61]
George Whitney, who gave the firm's testimony on the Alleghany allotments, was a partner of J. P. Morgan & Co. from 1920 after beginning with Kidder, Peabody & Co. in Boston in 1907, and a director of the Guaranty Trust Company, General Motors and Kennecott Copper among other companies.[^62] Lamont had been a member of the firm since 1911 and a director of the Guaranty Trust Company and United States Steel, and was chairman of the American group of the International Consortium for Assistance of China and chairman of the International Committee of Bankers for the adjustment of the Mexican foreign debt.[^63]
Edward R. Stettinius Sr. is the partner whose death in 1925 Keyes recorded, and Colonel Hawkins's remark about the purchasing commission names "Mr. Stettinius."[^64] His son, [[Edward R. Stettinius Jr.]], was Director of Lend-Lease and Special Assistant to the President from 1941, Under Secretary of State from October 4, 1943 and Secretary of State from December 1, 1944 to June 27, 1945, according to the Office of the Historian, and the first American Ambassador to the United Nations.[^65] The Historical Dictionary of the New Deal describes Stettinius Sr. as "a business partner of J. P. Morgan."[^66]
His son, [[Thomas S. Gates Jr.]], born in 1906, began in investment banking with Drexel & Co., where he became a full partner in 1940. He served as Under Secretary of the Navy from 1953, Secretary of the Navy from 1957, Deputy Secretary of Defense and from 1959 Secretary of Defense until January 1961, and then returned to investment banking at the Morgan Guaranty Trust Company; President [[Gerald Ford]] nominated him in 1976 as Chief of the United States Liaison Office in Beijing.[^67]
[[F. Trubee Davison]], the son of Henry P. Davison, became a partner in 1929 and a vice president and director of the firm in 1940.[^68]
[[R. Gordon Wasson]], who wrote a study of the 1861 Hall carbine transaction in which J. P. Morgan lent [[Simon Stevens]] $20,000 on the arms, is described by [[Annie Jacobsen]] as a vice president of the firm.[^69][^70]
### Morgan Guaranty and the 2000 merger
The 1959 merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York formed Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, which the firm held entirely. The Commercial and Financial Chronicle of April 30, 1959 announced that the bank "began operation April 27, 1959 as the banking institution formed by the merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York," with [[Henry C. Alexander]] as chairman of the board, Thomas S. Lamont as vice chairman and Dale E. Sharp as president.[^71] The International Year Book listed the bank as the result of a merger on 24 April 1959 in its 1974, 1975 and 1983 editions.[^72]
A Senate staff study of interlocking directorates (January 1978) recorded that J. P. Morgan held 100 percent control of the bank and described it as the parent of the nation's largest institutional investor.[^73]
On September 13, 2000 Chase and J. P. Morgan announced that they had entered into an Agreement and Plan of Merger dated September 12, 2000, under which "each outstanding share of common stock of J.P. Morgan" would be "converted into 3.7 shares of common stock of Chase," with reciprocal stock options for 19.9 percent of each company.[^74] On December 31, 2000 the firm "merged with and into The Chase Manhattan Corporation," which was renamed J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. A merger charge of $1.25 billion was recorded that day, and the bank was succeeded by [[JPMorgan Chase]] Bank.[^75]
### Footnotes
[^1]: *Drexel v. Berney*, No. 305, Supreme Court of the United States, October Term 1886, on appeal from the Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York (appellants Francis A. Drexel, Anthony J. Drexel and others, as the firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co.). https://archive.org/details/per_scotus_1886_305
[^2]: *Money Trust Investigation: Investigation of Financial and Monetary Conditions in the United States under House Resolutions Nos. 429 and 504*, Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, Part 14 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), testimony of Mr. Scudder, p. 985 (J. P. Morgan & Co., "who are identical with Drexel & Co., of Philadelphia, in firm members"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu
[^3]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," new-wealth tier (Davison family beside "J. P. Morgan & Co."). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^4]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 14, p. 1003 (Untermyer: "Are you senior member of the partnership or firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., bankers, of New York City?" Morgan: "I am, sir."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu
[^5]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 6, testimony of Charles Steele, p. 455 (Untermyer: "You are a partner in the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., are you not?" Steele: "I am."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0006.001.umich.edu
[^6]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, p. 1044 (Untermyer: "Is Mr. Thomas W. Lamont a partner in your firm?" Morgan: "He is."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu
[^7]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, hearing of January 23, 1913, testimony of Henry P. Davison, pp. 1808 to 1809 ("I am a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co."; "Since the 1st of January, 1909"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu
[^8]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 8, testimony of Walter E. Frew, December 10, 1912, p. 596 ("Mr. H. P. Davison, of J. P. Morgan & Co.?" "Of the First National Bank at that time."; "He is now; yes, sir."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0008.001.umich.edu
[^9]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Hearings before the Senate Committee on Banking and Currency, 73d Cong., 1st sess., on S. Res. 84 and S. Res. 56 (1933), Part 1, testimony of J. P. Morgan, pp. 7 to 9 (the firm constituted "1916, I believe, the 31st of March"; "Myself, E. T. Stotesbury, Charles Steele, Thomas W. Lamont, Horatio G. Lloyd, Dwight W. Morrow, no, he retired. Thomas Cochran, Julius S. Morgan, George Whitney, Thomas S. Gates, no, he has retired. Russell C. Leffingwell, Francis D. Bartow, Arthur M. Anderson, William Ewing, Harold Stanley, H. S. Morgan, Thomas S. Lamont, H. P. Davison, Thomas Newhall, Edward Hopkinson, Jr., S. Parker Gilbert, and Charles D. Dickey"; Dickey became a partner January 2, 1932). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit
[^10]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 16, 1930 to 1931, entry "Gates, Thomas Sovereign, banker" (born Germantown, Philadelphia, March 21, 1873; "partner Drexel & Co. since 1918, J. P. Morgan & Co. since 1921"; "now pres. U. of Pa."); same entry in vol. 15, 1928 to 1929. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1930-1931_16 ; https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1928-1929_15
[^11]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of Keyes on partnership accounting periods, pp. 87 to 89 ("in 1925 by the death of Mr. Stettinius"; "in 1922 by the death of Mr. Davison"; "in 1920 by the death of Mr. Newbold"; "We had a change in 1927 by the retirement of the late Mr. Dwight W. Morrow, which occurred in September 1927"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit
[^12]: *Money Trust Investigation: Interlocking Directorates* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), Exhibit 134-C, December 18, 1912, "Explanation of Table of Interlocking Directorates," pp. 2 to 7 (the 18 institutions; 180 individuals; 385 directorships in 41 banks and trust companies; 746 directorships in 134 corporations with total resources or capitalization of $25,325,000,000; "J. P. Morgan & Co. of New York (identical with Drexel & Co. of Philadelphia) have 23 directorships in 13 banks and trust companies"; "In all, 63 directorships in 39 corporations having total resources or capitalization of $10,036,000,000"; the voting trustees). https://archive.org/details/moneytrustinves00mcmogoog
[^13]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 14, testimony of Mr. Scudder, pp. 983 to 985 ("The total number of individual names of firm members or directors of the 18 institutions is 180; that is, eliminating all duplications"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu
[^14]: *Money Trust Investigation: Interlocking Directorates*, Exhibit 134-C, "Explanation of Supplemental Table," pp. 27 to 28 (affiliations of J. P. Morgan & Co., First National Bank, National City Bank, Guaranty Trust Co. and Bankers' Trust Co.: "One hundred and eighteen directorships in 34 banks and trust companies"; "In all, 341 directorships in 112 corporations having aggregate resources or capitalization of $22,245,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/moneytrustinves00mcmogoog
[^15]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, pp. 1050 to 1051 (testimony of J. P. Morgan on the control of credit: "I want to control nothing"; "I do not want any control"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu
[^16]: U.S. House of Representatives, 37th Cong., 2d sess., House Report No. 2, "Government Contracts," p. 43 ("The arms were placed under the control of J. Pierpont Morgan to secure him the payment of $20,000 he had advanced to Stevens"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1
[^17]: Contract of February 8, 1895 between the Secretary of the Treasury and August Belmont & Co., J. P. Morgan & Co. and associates, as printed in *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 60, no. 1547 (February 16, 1895), p. 283 ("exert all financial influence and will make all legitimate efforts to protect the Treasury of the United States against the withdrawals of gold"); U.S. Department of the Treasury, *Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances for the Year 1895* (1896), p. lxx. https://archive.org/details/1895bondcontract
[^18]: U.S. Industrial Commission, *Reports of the Industrial Commission*, vol. 13, *Industrial Combinations* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901), Exhibit 1 (prospectus of March 2, 1901, from the office of J. P. Morgan & Co., "Syndicate Managers"), pp. 475 to 477; testimony of Charles M. Schwab, p. 467. https://archive.org/details/report141commgoog
[^19]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 4, testimony of Andrew Carnegie, p. 2513 ("Why did Morgan send word to me that he would like to buy me out?"); pp. 2535 to 2536.
[^20]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 6, pp. 430 to 431 (testimony of George B. Cortelyou, Secretary of the Treasury from March 5, 1907 to March 18, 1909, on the conference at the Hotel Manhattan on October 22, 1907).
[^21]: U.S. Department of State, *Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: The Lansing Papers, 1914–1920*, vol. I (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1939), Secretary Bryan to President Wilson, August 10, 1914, p. 131 ("Morgan Company of New York have asked whether there would be any objection to their making a loan to the French Government and also the Rothschilds"; "Money is the worst of all contrabands because it commands everything else"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1914-20v01
[^22]: *The Lansing Papers, 1914–1920*, vol. I, document 90, J. P. Morgan to President Wilson, New York, August 21, 1914, p. 100 (cablegrams from "my London firm, which is at the moment in very close touch with the British Government"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1914-20v01
[^23]: *New York Times*, January 24, 1915, "Commercial Agent Only" (Davison "explained that his firm had been appointed the sole commercial agents for Great Britain in the United States"; "all purchases in this country for Great Britain would be made through J. P. Morgan & Co."). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-01-24_64_20819
[^24]: *The Lansing Papers, 1914–1920*, vol. I, document 142, J. P. Morgan and Company, the National City Bank and the First National Bank of New York to the Secretary of State, March 25, 1915, p. 141 (file 851.51/30: "we are arranging to place for them some $50,000,000. One-Year Treasury Notes, the proceeds of which are to be expended in this country"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1914-20v01
[^25]: *The Lansing Papers, 1914–1920*, vol. I, Secretary of State Lansing to President Wilson, September 6, 1915, pp. 144 to 147 (file 811.51/2624a: "they will have to stop buying and our present export trade will shrink proportionately"; "there is only one means of avoiding this situation"; "the flotation of large bond issues by the belligerent governments"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1914-20v01
[^26]: *New York Times*, September 29, 1915, "Success of Credit Assured" (Anglo-French credit announced at the Hotel Biltmore; $500,000,000 five-year 5 per cent bonds "to be issued to the public at 98"; "Henry P. Davison of J. P. Morgan & Co. read a statement on behalf of that firm"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-09-29_64_21067
[^27]: *New York Times*, July 4, 1915, p. 1 ("By his own confession, Frank Holt, the former Cornell Instructor in German, who shot J. P. Morgan yesterday, was the man who set the bomb that wrecked the Senate reception room in the Capitol"; the explosion "a protest against shipments of war munitions"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-07-04_64_20980
[^28]: U.S. Senate, *Munitions Industry: Hearings before the Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry*, 73d and 74th Congresses, pursuant to S. Res. 206, testimony of Pierre S. du Pont, Parts 11 to 14, p. 3209 and footnote (the du Pont company's letter of December 18, 1934: contracts with the British and French governments of $490,573,806, of which J. P. Morgan & Co. acted as agent under contracts aggregating $351,259,813.28; "a great many of the contracts were made through Morgan & Co."; "for the British and French Governments"; "as agents for the British Government"). https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1114unit
[^29]: *Munitions Industry*, Parts 11 to 14, questions of Senator Clark to Mr. du Pont, p. 2709 ("fiscal and purchasing agents in this country, such as Morgan"). https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1114unit
[^30]: *Munitions Industry*, hearings, Parts 15 to 19, testimony of Col. Hawkins ("in connection with Mr. Stettinius"; "who were the fiscal agents for the British in this country"; Lieut. Col. Black "came in in January of 1918"; "He has gone back to his engineering firm"). https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1519unit
[^31]: U.S. Senate, Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry, *Report on Government Manufacture of Munitions*, S. Rept. 944, 74th Cong., 2d sess. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1936), section on the United States Steel Products Company. https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr36unit
[^32]: *The United States News*, January 20, 1936, pp. 8 to 9 (the Munitions Committee's questioning of J. P. Morgan, Thomas W. Lamont and George Whitney; Morgan's 1915 speech to the bond houses: "this is not a pro-Ally affair or an anti-German affair, or anything else; it is a pro-American affair, and that only"; Morgan: "Increased exports helped this country and I don't think they lead us into war"). https://archive.org/details/sim_us-news-weekly-special-issues_the-united-states-news_1936-01-20_4_3
[^33]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1924, vol. II, telegram no. 386, Secretary of State Hughes to the Ambassador in France (Herrick), Washington, November 11, 1924, 5 p.m., p. 72 (file 462.00 R 296/694a: "The Department has just been consulted by J. P. Morgan and Company on the proposed French $100,000,000 loan"; "have been awaiting consummation of the German loan"; "I should certainly oppose flotation of a French loan in the United States were there any doubt of France's support"; "for the bankers will await the Department's answer"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1924v02
[^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1924, vol. II, editorial note identifying "Thomas W. Lamont, member of the banking firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., New York City." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1924v02
[^35]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 118, no. 3060 (February 16, 1924), advertisements "$150,000,000 Imperial Japanese Government External Loan of 1924" (statement prepared by Mr. Kengo Mori, Special Finance Delegate of the Imperial Japanese Government; purpose of issue; "Subscription books will be opened at the office of J. P. Morgan & Co."; managers J. P. Morgan & Co., Kuhn, Loeb & Co., Guaranty Company of New York, Harris, Forbes & Co., Lee, Higginson & Co. and others; the National City Company and First National Bank group; the English issue by a group including Morgan Grenfell & Co.). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1924-02-16_118_3060
[^36]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1924, vol. I, pp. 544 and 550 (The American Group, by J. P. Morgan & Co., to the Secretary of State, New York, June 12, 1924, file 893.51/4628, on the Consortium Council meeting in London on July 14, "which will be attended by Mr. Lamont, Chairman of the American Group"; the American Group to the Secretary of State, July 29, 1924, file 893.51/4668, enclosing the minutes). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1924v01
[^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1925, vol. II, pp. 358 to 359 (Thomas W. Lamont of J. P. Morgan & Co. to the Secretary of State, New York, May 26, 1925, file 865.51/446; the Secretary of State to Lamont, May 29, 1925). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1925v02
[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1925, vol. II, p. 362 (J. P. Morgan & Co. to the Secretary of State, New York, November 18, 1925, file 865.51/471: "carrying on discussions with Count Volpi, the Italian Minister of Finance"; "to be used for stabilization purposes"; "The agreement for settlement of the Italian debt was reached at Washington, Nov. 14, 1925"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1925v02
[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1925, vol. II, p. 363 (The Secretary of State to J. P. Morgan & Co., Washington, November 23, 1925: "no objection to the flotation of this issue in the American market"; "does not pass upon the merits of foreign loans as business propositions"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1925v02
[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1927, vol. II, pp. 483 to 486 (telegram no. 84, Secretary of State Kellogg to the Ambassador in Japan, November 19, 1927, 4 p.m.; telegram no. 128, Ambassador MacVeagh to the Secretary of State, Tokyo, November 21, 1927, 5 p.m., file 894.51 So 8/2). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1927v02
[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1927, vol. II, telegram no. 1008 from Peking, received November 19, 1927, p. 482 (General Dzau's visit; "whether I knew the object of the recent trip to Japan by Thomas W. Lamont"; the report from the commander in chief of the Asiatic Fleet on Kuomintang expectations). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1927v02
[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1927, vol. II, telegram no. 132 from Tokyo, December 9, 1927, 5 p.m., file 894.51 So 8/20 ("J. P. Morgan & Company has refused to make loan to South Manchuria Railway"; Dr. Dan, president of the Mitsui Co., on the Department's position). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1927v02
[^43]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1929, vol. II, document 1039, telegram of January 18, 1929 from the Secretary of State to the chargé in France (file 462.00R296/2622: the British Ambassador "to offer the appointment to Young and Morgan and to Perkins as an alternate"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02
[^44]: *International Conciliation*, no. 253 (October 1929), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, report of the Committee of Experts, closing paragraph and signature page, p. 56. https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1929-10_253
[^45]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Congressional Record*, 71st Cong., 2d sess., April 28, 1930, remarks of Louis T. McFadden, chairman of the Committee on Banking and Currency, on the State Department statement of May 16, 1929.
[^46]: *New York Times*, September 17, 1920, p. 1 ("Wall Street Explosion: Morgan Office Hit"; the explosion at Broad and Wall Streets at noon on September 16; first reports of thirty killed and about 300 injured; J. P. Morgan in England with reassuring private reports; C. F. Whigham, director of the affiliated Morgan, Grenfell & Co. of London). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1920-09-17_69_22882
[^47]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of J. P. Morgan, pp. 3 to 5 (preliminary statement on private bankers: "has none of these privileges"; "a somewhat greater freedom of action"; "none of the aids provided by the Government for incorporated banks, such as the Federal Reserve System or the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, are at his disposal"; "I cannot remember any partner of the house taking a directorship except at the earnest request of the board of directors of the company in question"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit
[^48]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of J. P. Morgan, pp. 52 to 54 (Pecora: "I tallied the number and reached the total of 167 directorships; 167 directorships held by members of your firm"; Morgan: "If that corresponds with the list that is right. I do not know the number."). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit
[^49]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of J. P. Morgan reading the directorships of the partners, pp. 29 to 30 (Lamont: United States Steel Corporation, Northern Pacific Railway Co.; George Whitney: General Motors Corporation, Kennecott Copper Corporation, Consolidated Gas Co. of New York). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit
[^50]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of J. P. Morgan, pp. 53 to 54 ("My 'No' means that I did not pay any income tax"; Pecora: "was zero?" Morgan: "I believe it to be true, but I do not know. I don't see their income-tax returns."). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit
[^51]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of George Whitney, p. 136 ("an arrangement with the Guaranty Co. of New York to underwrite the sale of 500,000 shares of common stock") and "Committee Exhibit No. 10," "Alleghany corporation common stock issued Feb. 15, 1929," pp. 138 to 140 (the list; 1,250,000 shares in all; "At a price equivalent to our cost, namely, $20 a share"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit
[^52]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of George Whitney on the letter to Woodin ("Committee Exhibit 11-A," February 25, 1929), p. 146 ("I should assume that the great majority; yes"; "I have already testified that for many years Mr. Woodin has been a personal friend of many of the partners"; "we did not desire to make any profit out of the sale"), and p. 142 (Woodin identified as "Secretary of the Treasury"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit
[^53]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of George Whitney, resumed, p. 154 ("Mr. Whitney, is there a standing list or record in the office of J. P. Morgan & Co."; "No, sir"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit
[^54]: Banking Act of June 16, 1933, ch. 89, 48 Stat. 162 (Public, No. 66, 73d Cong.; short title; "To provide for the safer and more effective use of the assets of banks, to regulate interbank control, to prevent the undue diversion of funds into speculative operations"). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-48/pdf/STATUTE-48-Pg162.pdf
[^55]: *United States v. Henry S. Morgan et al.*, 118 F. Supp. 621 (S.D.N.Y. 1953) (Medina, J.), Part I and Part III, "Further Developments 1933-1949" (the Glass-Steagall Act; "The deadline was June 16, 1934"). https://static.case.law/f-supp/118/cases/0621-01.json
[^56]: *United States v. Henry S. Morgan et al.*, 118 F. Supp. 621 (S.D.N.Y. 1953), findings on J. P. Morgan & Co. and the formation of Morgan Stanley & Co. Incorporated (organized September 6, 1935, commenced business September 16, 1935; resignation of Harold Stanley, Henry S. Morgan and William Ewing from "the then seventeen partners"; John M. Young and Allen Northey Jones; Perry E. Hall and Edward H. York Jr. of Drexel & Co.; preferred stock issued September 18, 1935, $6,600,000 "purchased by nine partners of J. P. Morgan & Co."; "an entirely new office at No. 2 Wall Street"). https://static.case.law/f-supp/118/cases/0621-01.json
[^57]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 15, 1928 to 1929, entry "Morrow, Dwight Whitney" ("mem. J. P. Morgan & Co., 1914-27: resigned Sept. 30, 1927, to accept apptmt. as A.E. and P. to Mexico"; Distinguished Service Medal, 1919; adviser to the Allied Maritime Transport Council, February to December 1918). https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1928-1929_15
[^58]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Dwight Whitney Morrow," Principal Officers and Chiefs of Mission (Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, Mexico; appointed September 21, 1927; presentation of credentials October 29, 1927; left post September 17, 1930). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/morrow-dwight-whitney
[^59]: *Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-1989* (Bicentennial Edition, 1989), table of Senators from New Jersey ("Died October 5, 1931"; successor "Appointed to fill vacancy caused by death of Dwight W. Morrow"). https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152637_0892
[^60]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 15, 1928 to 1929, and vol. 11, 1920 to 1921, entries "Leffingwell, Russell Cornell" (special assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, Liberty Loan, May 1917; assistant secretary of the Treasury since October 30, 1917; "mem. J. P. Morgan & Co., July 1923"). https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1928-1929_15 ; https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1920-1921_11
[^61]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 16, 1930 to 1931, entry "Gilbert, Seymour Parker" (assistant secretary of the Treasury in charge of fiscal affairs, June 1920 to March 1921; under secretary, July 1, 1921 to November 17, 1923; agent general for reparation payments of Germany since 1924); *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of Keyes, pp. 87 to 90 (Pecora: "the date of January 2, 1931, was advisedly fixed as the date of the admission of Mr. Gilbert into the firm"; Keyes: "Yes, sir") and list of partners at the end of 1931. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1930-1931_16 ; https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit
[^62]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 15, 1928 to 1929, entry "Whitney, George, banking" (born Boston, October 9, 1885; Harvard 1907; Kidder, Peabody & Co., 1907; "partner J. P. Morgan & Co. since 1920"; director of the Guaranty Trust Co. of New York, General Motors Corporation and Kennecott Copper Corporation). https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1928-1929_15
[^63]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 16, 1930 to 1931, entry "Lamont, Thomas William, banker" ("mem. firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., bankers, since 1911"; chairman of the American group of the International Consortium for Assistance of China; chairman of the International Committee of Bankers for the adjustment of the Mexican foreign debt). https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1930-1931_16
[^64]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of Keyes, pp. 87 to 89 ("in 1925 by the death of Mr. Stettinius"); *Munitions Industry*, Parts 15 to 19, testimony of Col. Hawkins ("in connection with Mr. Stettinius"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit ; https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1519unit
[^65]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Edward Reilly Stettinius Jr.," Biographies of the Secretaries of State (Director of Lend-Lease and Special Assistant to the President, 1941; Under Secretary of State from October 4, 1943; Secretary of State from December 1, 1944 until June 27, 1945; first U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly
[^66]: *Historical Dictionary of the New Deal: From Inauguration to Preparation for War* (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1985), entry for Edward R. Stettinius Jr. ("Edward R. Stettinius, Sr., a business partner of J. P. Morgan"). https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000unse_j5g3
[^67]: University of Pennsylvania, Kislak Center, finding aid for the papers of Thomas Sovereign Gates Jr., biographical note (born April 10, 1906; Drexel and Company, full partner in 1940; Under Secretary of the Navy 1953, Secretary of the Navy 1957 to 1959, Secretary of Defense 1959 to 1961; "returned to investment banking, working for the Morgan Guaranty Trust Company"); Gerald R. Ford Library, nomination of Thomas S. Gates as Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office, Beijing, 1976. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/legacy/upenn_rbml_PUSpMsColl1135
[^68]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, finding aid for Henry Pomeroy Davison and Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr., biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr. (partner at J. P. Morgan & Company 1929; vice president and director 1940).
[^69]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown and Company, 2017), on R. Gordon Wasson's position at the firm.
[^70]: R. Gordon Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair: A Study in Contemporary Folklore* (revised edition, 1948), title page, copyright page and preface. https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp
[^71]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 189, no. 5842 (April 30, 1959), "Morgan Guaranty Trust Formed by Merger." https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle-thursday_1959-04-30_189_5842
[^72]: *The International Year Book and Statesmen's Who's Who* (1974, 1975 and 1983 editions), entry for the bank ("through the merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York on 24 April 1959"); 1963 edition ("Chairman, Henry C. Alexander"). https://archive.org/details/internationalyea0000john
[^73]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on Reports, Accounting and Management, *Interlocking Directorates Among the Major U.S. Corporations: A Staff Study*, Committee Print, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (January 1978), summary of findings. https://archive.org/details/interlockingdire00unit
[^74]: The Chase Manhattan Corporation, Form 8-K (date of earliest event reported September 12, 2000; filed September 18, 2000), Item 5 (Agreement and Plan of Merger dated as of September 12, 2000; conversion into 3.7 shares; stock option agreements for 19.9 percent of each company's common stock at $208.13 and $56.25 per share). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012300008649/y40434e8-k.txt
[^75]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001 (filed March 22, 2002), Item 1, Item 14 Exhibit 4.1, and Management's Discussion (the December 31, 2000 merger with The Chase Manhattan Corporation; merger charge of $1.25 billion). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Morgan Guaranty Trust.md
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@ -31,11 +31,11 @@ relations:
- type: represented
with: "[[Wickliffe Draper]]"
role: "private banker; executor of his estate after 1972"
fn: 8
fn: 9
- type: represented
with: "[[Pioneer Fund]]"
role: "asset manager under the terms of Draper's will for about two decades; account closed after The Bell Curve"
fn: 8
fn: 9
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Thomas S. Gates Jr.]]"
reverse: true
@ -46,36 +46,36 @@ relations:
reverse: true
start: 1990
role: "chairman of the boards of Morgan and the bank from January 1995"
fn: 11
fn: 12
- type: director_of
with: "[[Hanna H. Gray]]"
reverse: true
start: 1976
role: "director of Morgan; President of the University of Chicago 1978 to 1993"
fn: 11
fn: 12
- type: director_of
with: "[[Lee R. Raymond]]"
reverse: true
start: 1987
role: "chairman and chief executive of Exxon Mobil Corporation"
fn: 11
fn: 12
- type: director_of
with: "[[Riley P. Bechtel]]"
reverse: true
start: 1995
role: "chairman and chief executive of Bechtel Group"
fn: 11
fn: 12
- type: director_of
with: "[[Martin Feldstein]]"
reverse: true
start: 1993
role: "president of the National Bureau of Economic Research; director of American International Group"
fn: 11
fn: 12
- type: subject_of
with: "[[Sumitomo Corporation v. J.P. Morgan & Co.]]"
start: 1999-08
role: "defendant with J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and a former employee in a copper trading suit in the Southern District of New York"
fn: 12
fn: 13
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-26
---
@ -96,25 +96,27 @@ On November 24, 1934 the committee's statement said that it had "no evidence bef
According to the international year books, the bank resulted "through the merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York on 24 April 1959," with [[Henry C. Alexander]] as chairman in the early 1960s. [[Thomas S. Gates Jr.]], [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] from 1957 and Deputy Secretary and then Secretary of Defense under [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] until January 1961, "returned to investment banking, working for the Morgan Guaranty Trust Company," before President [[Gerald Ford]] named him in 1976 Chief of the United States Liaison Office in [[Beijing]].[^1][^7]
The Commercial and Financial Chronicle reported on April 30, 1959 that the bank "began operation April 27, 1959 as the banking institution formed by the merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York," with Henry C. Alexander as chairman of the board, [[Thomas S. Lamont]] as vice chairman and [[Dale E. Sharp]] as president.[^8]
### Draper's Accounts
[[Wickliffe Draper]] had been a client of Guaranty Trust since the 1930s. In 1940 the [[Pioneer Fund]] offered to establish annuities for the education of any child born that year to an officer of the [[United States Army Air Corps]] who had already fathered at least three children; according to the records of the fund's director [[John Marshall Harlan II]], Draper arranged for an annuity to be established for each of the twelve children at Guaranty Trust.[^8]
[[Wickliffe Draper]] had been a client of Guaranty Trust since the 1930s. In 1940 the [[Pioneer Fund]] offered to establish annuities for the education of any child born that year to an officer of the [[United States Army Air Corps]] who had already fathered at least three children; according to the records of the fund's director [[John Marshall Harlan II]], Draper arranged for an annuity to be established for each of the twelve children at Guaranty Trust.[^9]
### Mississippi, 1963 and 1964
After President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s civil rights address of June 1963 the lawyer [[John C. Satterfield]] of [[Yazoo City]], a past president of the [[American Bar Association]], organized the [[Coordinating Committee for Fundamental American Freedoms]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]; the [[Mississippi]] State [[Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission|Sovereignty Commission]], according to the state archives, "participated in the national campaign to prevent the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, establishing and providing funds for" it.[^9] On July 22, 1963 Satterfield received the first private contribution, a 10,000 dollar Morgan Guaranty cashier's check drawn on Draper's accounts, which was deposited in a special account in the state treasury and logged in the commission's records as "Morgan Guaranty Trust Co." Contributions from Mississippi residents never exceeded 30,000 dollars. A surviving partner of Satterfield's firm said Satterfield referred obliquely to the source of the large money as "the Wall Street gang."[^8]
After President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s civil rights address of June 1963 the lawyer [[John C. Satterfield]] of [[Yazoo City]], a past president of the [[American Bar Association]], organized the [[Coordinating Committee for Fundamental American Freedoms]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]; the [[Mississippi]] State [[Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission|Sovereignty Commission]], according to the state archives, "participated in the national campaign to prevent the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, establishing and providing funds for" it.[^10] On July 22, 1963 Satterfield received the first private contribution, a 10,000 dollar Morgan Guaranty cashier's check drawn on Draper's accounts, which was deposited in a special account in the state treasury and logged in the commission's records as "Morgan Guaranty Trust Co." Contributions from Mississippi residents never exceeded 30,000 dollars. A surviving partner of Satterfield's firm said Satterfield referred obliquely to the source of the large money as "the Wall Street gang."[^9]
On September 12, 1963 the bank's vice president [[Arthur W. Rossiter Jr.]] telegraphed Governor [[Ross Barnett]] that a client was "setting aside as an anonymous gift" stock valued at 100,000 dollars on the condition that "the fact and amount of the gift to be kept confidential." Barnett agreed the same day. After the shares were sold the gift totaled 98,612 dollars and was entered in the commission's records as "Donation from Morgan Guaranty Trust Company." Four months later Rossiter sent a second telegram announcing an additional 105,000 dollars. The money came from Draper's shares of [[R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company|Reynolds Tobacco]], [[General Motors]], [[Standard Oil|Standard Oil of New Jersey]] and [[Addressograph-Multigraph]]; the bank sold the stock at Draper's direction, collected commissions on the sales and held the proceeds in what it called a temporary Sovereignty Commission account at Morgan Guaranty. In one letter Rossiter wrote: "This represents an anonymous gift to your Commission and the donor has specifically requested that the fact and the amount of the gift be kept strictly confidential."[^8]
On September 12, 1963 the bank's vice president [[Arthur W. Rossiter Jr.]] telegraphed Governor [[Ross Barnett]] that a client was "setting aside as an anonymous gift" stock valued at 100,000 dollars on the condition that "the fact and amount of the gift to be kept confidential." Barnett agreed the same day. After the shares were sold the gift totaled 98,612 dollars and was entered in the commission's records as "Donation from Morgan Guaranty Trust Company." Four months later Rossiter sent a second telegram announcing an additional 105,000 dollars. The money came from Draper's shares of [[R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company|Reynolds Tobacco]], [[General Motors]], [[Standard Oil|Standard Oil of New Jersey]] and [[Addressograph-Multigraph]]; the bank sold the stock at Draper's direction, collected commissions on the sales and held the proceeds in what it called a temporary Sovereignty Commission account at Morgan Guaranty. In one letter Rossiter wrote: "This represents an anonymous gift to your Commission and the donor has specifically requested that the fact and the amount of the gift be kept strictly confidential."[^9]
Nearly 215,000 dollars of the campaign's budget of about 300,000 dollars came through the bank. The committee bought advertisements in 500 daily and weekly newspapers and by April 1964 had distributed 1.4 million pamphlets and mailings. An internal memorandum by Satterfield said Americans had to be shown that the conditions of Black people in the United States resulted from "heredity . . . not discrimination," and named "the intelligence, criminality and immorality of the Negro."[^8] On June 2, 1964 a further 50,000 dollars from Draper arrived through the bank for a proposed permanent national organization. After the murders of [[James Chaney]], [[Andrew Goodman]] and [[Michael Schwerner]] that summer the plan was dropped and the 50,000 dollars was returned to Draper's lawyer [[Harry Weyher]], who deposited it in his firm's escrow account.[^8]
Nearly 215,000 dollars of the campaign's budget of about 300,000 dollars came through the bank. The committee bought advertisements in 500 daily and weekly newspapers and by April 1964 had distributed 1.4 million pamphlets and mailings. An internal memorandum by Satterfield said Americans had to be shown that the conditions of Black people in the United States resulted from "heredity . . . not discrimination," and named "the intelligence, criminality and immorality of the Negro."[^9] On June 2, 1964 a further 50,000 dollars from Draper arrived through the bank for a proposed permanent national organization. After the murders of [[James Chaney]], [[Andrew Goodman]] and [[Michael Schwerner]] that summer the plan was dropped and the 50,000 dollars was returned to Draper's lawyer [[Harry Weyher]], who deposited it in his firm's escrow account.[^9]
The state treasurer at the time, [[William F. Winter]], said that Wall Street firms charged higher interest rates on Mississippi bonds because of the state's reputation, and that a bond issue was canceled in 1965 for lack of bids on Wall Street.[^8]
The state treasurer at the time, [[William F. Winter]], said that Wall Street firms charged higher interest rates on Mississippi bonds because of the state's reputation, and that a bond issue was canceled in 1965 for lack of bids on Wall Street.[^9]
### The Estate and the Pioneer Fund
When Draper died in 1972 the bank continued to manage his holdings while the will was sorted out, and five years later the assets were distributed: about 1 million dollars to family members, 3.3 million dollars to the Pioneer Fund and 1.7 million dollars to the [[Puritan Foundation]], which listed Satterfield's law firm as its address. In 1978 the Puritan Foundation was merged into the [[Council School Foundation]], which supported private schools for white students. In the late 1960s and 1970s Draper had sent dozens of checks to private academies opened for white families after public school integration. His will instructed the fund to use the bank for financial advice, and it did so for two decades. [[Douglas A. Blackmon]] reported in 1999, citing people familiar with the situation, that the bank closed the Pioneer Fund's asset management account after the controversy over *[[The Bell Curve]]* in 1994; the bank would not give details of why.[^8]
When Draper died in 1972 the bank continued to manage his holdings while the will was sorted out, and five years later the assets were distributed: about 1 million dollars to family members, 3.3 million dollars to the Pioneer Fund and 1.7 million dollars to the [[Puritan Foundation]], which listed Satterfield's law firm as its address. In 1978 the Puritan Foundation was merged into the [[Council School Foundation]], which supported private schools for white students. In the late 1960s and 1970s Draper had sent dozens of checks to private academies opened for white families after public school integration. His will instructed the fund to use the bank for financial advice, and it did so for two decades. [[Douglas A. Blackmon]] reported in 1999, citing people familiar with the situation, that the bank closed the Pioneer Fund's asset management account after the controversy over *[[The Bell Curve]]* in 1994; the bank would not give details of why.[^9]
The bank said that "racism is deplorable," that it did not "support institutions that further racist causes," and that it had given more than 3.3 million dollars of its own money to civil rights groups since the late 1960s. Its spokesman [[Joe Evangelisti]] said: "A thousand times a day, somebody sends money to an organization that 30 years later looks really terrible. We can't tell our customers how to spend their money." The managing director [[Hildy J. Simmons]] said: "As long as the receiving party is legal, we have no discretion," and, of Draper: "You can spend your money the way you want to." The files of the commission, sealed by the 1977 abolition act, were opened by a federal court order, most of them becoming available in the state archives' search room on March 17, 1998, and the [[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]] reported the transfers on June 11, 1999.[^8][^9]
The bank said that "racism is deplorable," that it did not "support institutions that further racist causes," and that it had given more than 3.3 million dollars of its own money to civil rights groups since the late 1960s. Its spokesman [[Joe Evangelisti]] said: "A thousand times a day, somebody sends money to an organization that 30 years later looks really terrible. We can't tell our customers how to spend their money." The managing director [[Hildy J. Simmons]] said: "As long as the receiving party is legal, we have no discretion," and, of Draper: "You can spend your money the way you want to." The files of the commission, sealed by the 1977 abolition act, were opened by a federal court order, most of them becoming available in the state archives' search room on March 17, 1998, and the [[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]] reported the transfers on June 11, 1999.[^9][^10]
### Holdings and Interlocks in 1978
@ -122,38 +124,58 @@ The Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs staff study, *Interlocking Director
### J.P. Morgan in 1994
In its annual report for 1994 J.P. Morgan stated that it was "a primary dealer in government securities of the United States and all other [[Group of Seven]] industrial nations," that its sales and trading clients and counterparties included "corporations, central banks, governments and their agencies," and that the assets it managed had grown in 1994 to 150 billion dollars. Its equity portfolio "exceeds $1 billion in value and includes securities of 90 companies"; the largest gain came from [[Columbia/HCA]] stock acquired in 1989 "in connection with our role in the leveraged acquisition of [[Hospital Corporation of America]] by its management."[^10]
In its annual report for 1994 J.P. Morgan stated that it was "a primary dealer in government securities of the United States and all other [[Group of Seven]] industrial nations," that its sales and trading clients and counterparties included "corporations, central banks, governments and their agencies," and that the assets it managed had grown in 1994 to 150 billion dollars. Its equity portfolio "exceeds $1 billion in value and includes securities of 90 companies"; the largest gain came from [[Columbia/HCA]] stock acquired in 1989 "in connection with our role in the leveraged acquisition of [[Hospital Corporation of America]] by its management."[^11]
### The Board in 2000
The proxy statement for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000 nominated 15 directors of J.P. Morgan & Co., each "also a director of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York." They included the chairman [[Douglas A. Warner III]], a director of [[General Electric]] and [[Anheuser-Busch]] and a member of the Board of Counselors of [[Bechtel Group]]; [[Riley P. Bechtel]], chairman and chief executive of Bechtel Group and a member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; [[John A. Krol]], retired chairman of [[E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company]] and a member of the advisory board of [[Bechtel Corporation]]; [[Lee R. Raymond]], chairman of [[Exxon Mobil Corporation]], a member of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] and the Trilateral Commission, director since 1987; [[James R. Houghton]] of [[Corning Incorporated|Corning]] and a director of Exxon Mobil and [[Metropolitan Life Insurance Company]]; [[Martin Feldstein]], also a director of Columbia/HCA, and [[Ellen V. Futter]], who with Feldstein sat on the board of [[American International Group]] and was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations; [[Hanna H. Gray]], a director since 1976; and [[Paul A. Allaire]] of [[Xerox]], also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. The proxy listed Corning, DuPont, Exxon Mobil, [[Honeywell]], [[Maytag]], [[Phelps Dodge]] and Xerox as organizations whose officers sat on the board and with which J.P. Morgan had transactions in the ordinary course.[^11]
The proxy statement for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000 nominated 15 directors of J.P. Morgan & Co., each "also a director of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York." They included the chairman [[Douglas A. Warner III]], a director of [[General Electric]] and [[Anheuser-Busch]] and a member of the Board of Counselors of [[Bechtel Group]]; [[Riley P. Bechtel]], chairman and chief executive of Bechtel Group and a member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; [[John A. Krol]], retired chairman of [[E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company]] and a member of the advisory board of [[Bechtel Corporation]]; [[Lee R. Raymond]], chairman of [[Exxon Mobil Corporation]], a member of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] and the Trilateral Commission, director since 1987; [[James R. Houghton]] of [[Corning Incorporated|Corning]] and a director of Exxon Mobil and [[Metropolitan Life Insurance Company]]; [[Martin Feldstein]], also a director of Columbia/HCA, and [[Ellen V. Futter]], who with Feldstein sat on the board of [[American International Group]] and was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations; [[Hanna H. Gray]], a director since 1976; and [[Paul A. Allaire]] of [[Xerox]], also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. The proxy listed Corning, DuPont, Exxon Mobil, [[Honeywell]], [[Maytag]], [[Phelps Dodge]] and Xerox as organizations whose officers sat on the board and with which J.P. Morgan had transactions in the ordinary course.[^12]
### Sumitomo Copper Litigation
In August 1999 [[Sumitomo Corporation]] sued J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York "and a former J.P. Morgan employee" in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], alleging that from 1993 to 1996 Morgan had assisted a Sumitomo employee in copper trading.[^12]
In August 1999 [[Sumitomo Corporation]] sued J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York "and a former J.P. Morgan employee" in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], alleging that from 1993 to 1996 Morgan had assisted a Sumitomo employee in copper trading.[^13]
### The Chase Merger
On September 13, 2000 [[The Chase Manhattan Corporation]] and J.P. Morgan announced an Agreement and Plan of Merger dated September 12, 2000 under which each share of J.P. Morgan common stock would be converted into 3.7 shares of Chase common stock, with reciprocal stock options for 19.9 percent of each company's common stock, at $208.13 per J.P. Morgan share and $56.25 per Chase share.[^14]
On December 31, 2000 J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated "merged with and into The Chase Manhattan Corporation," which was renamed J.P. Morgan Chase & Co.; a merger charge of 1.25 billion dollars was recorded that day. The bank itself was succeeded by JPMorgan Chase Bank.[^3]
### The Financial Trust Company Account
Monthly "Asset Account Portfolio" statements of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, 345 Park Avenue, were issued to [[Financial Trust Company]], Inc., the [[United States Virgin Islands]] company of [[Jeffrey Epstein]], addressed "C/O American Yacht Harbor, 6100 Red Hook, Quarters #2, St Thomas." The statements released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] run from August 1999 to October 2001, past the merger; the August 1999 statement carries the legend "Confidential Treatment Requested by JPMorgan" and the production number JPM-SDNY-00036858, marking it as part of the bank's production to the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]].[^13][^14][^15]
Monthly "Asset Account Portfolio" statements of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, 345 Park Avenue, were issued to [[Financial Trust Company]], Inc., the [[United States Virgin Islands]] company of [[Jeffrey Epstein]], addressed "C/O American Yacht Harbor, 6100 Red Hook, Quarters #2, St Thomas." The statements released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] run from August 1999 to October 2001, past the merger; the August 1999 statement carries the legend "Confidential Treatment Requested by JPMorgan" and the production number JPM-SDNY-00036858, marking it as part of the bank's production to the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]].[^15][^16][^17]
### Footnotes
[^1]: *The International Year Book and Statesmen's Who's Who* (1974, 1975 and 1983 editions), entry for the bank ("through the merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York on 24 April 1959"); 1963 edition ("Chairman, Henry C. Alexander"). https://archive.org/details/internationalyea0000john
[^2]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on Reports, Accounting and Management, *Interlocking Directorates Among the Major U.S. Corporations: A Staff Study,* Committee Print, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (January 1978), summary of findings. https://archive.org/details/interlockingdire00unit
[^3]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001 (filed March 22, 2002), Item 1, Item 14 Exhibit 4.1, and Management's Discussion. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm
[^4]: *Guaranty Trust Co. of New York v. United States,* 304 U.S. 126 (1938) (No. 566, argued March 28 and 29, decided April 25, 1938; opinion of Stone, J.). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/304/126
[^5]: House Special Committee on Un-American Activities (McCormack-Dickstein Committee), *Investigation of Un-American Activities,* statement of November 24, 1934 and testimony of Smedley D. Butler, Paul Comly French and Gerald P. MacGuire, November 20 to 22, 1934, as reproduced in "The Plot to Overthrow FDR." https://archive.org/details/McCormackDicksteinCommittee ; Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and FDR* (Arlington House, 1975), ch. 10, "FDR: Man on the White Horse," pp. 145, 147 (Murphy as director; the bank book passage at p. 145). https://archive.org/details/wall-street-and-fdr-1975
[^6]: *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry* (1936), entry "Murphy, Grayson Mallet-Prevost" ("Senior Vice-Pres., Guaranty Trust Co., 1915-17"; "Resumed position with Guaranty Trust Co., 1919-20"; "Treas., American Liberty League"). https://archive.org/details/whoswhoincommerc00unse_0
[^7]: University of Pennsylvania, Kislak Center, finding aid for the Thomas Sovereign Gates, Jr. papers, biographical note; Gerald R. Ford Library, nomination of Thomas S. Gates as Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office, Beijing, 1976. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/legacy/upenn_rbml_PUSpMsColl1135
[^8]: Douglas A. Blackmon, "Silent Partner: How the South's Fight To Uphold Segregation Was Funded Up North," *The Wall Street Journal,* June 11, 1999, p. A1, reproduced at https://slaverybyanothername.com/other-writings/silent-partner-how-the-souths-fight-to-uphold-segregation-was-funded-up-north/
[^9]: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Sovereignty Commission Online, "Agency History." https://da.mdah.ms.gov/sovcom/scagencycasehistory
[^10]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Form 10-K405 for 1994 (filed March 22, 1995), letter to stockholders and "Description of business." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/68100/0000068100-95-000274.txt
[^11]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, definitive proxy statement (Schedule 14A) for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000, filed March 8, 2000, "Item 1: Election of directors," "Transactions with directors and officers." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/68100/0000891092-00-000171.txt
[^12]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001, Item 3, "Legal proceedings" (Sumitomo Corporation v. J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, S.D.N.Y., filed August 1999). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm
[^13]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01511044, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., August 1 to August 31, 1999, production number JPM-SDNY-00036858. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01511044.pdf
[^14]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01557200, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., October 1 to October 31, 2000. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01557200.pdf
[^15]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01557398, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., October 1 to October 31, 2001. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01557398.pdf
[^8]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 189, no. 5842 (April 30, 1959), "Morgan Guaranty Trust Formed by Merger." https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle-thursday_1959-04-30_189_5842
[^9]: Douglas A. Blackmon, "Silent Partner: How the South's Fight To Uphold Segregation Was Funded Up North," *The Wall Street Journal,* June 11, 1999, p. A1, reproduced at https://slaverybyanothername.com/other-writings/silent-partner-how-the-souths-fight-to-uphold-segregation-was-funded-up-north/
[^10]: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Sovereignty Commission Online, "Agency History." https://da.mdah.ms.gov/sovcom/scagencycasehistory
[^11]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Form 10-K405 for 1994 (filed March 22, 1995), letter to stockholders and "Description of business." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/68100/0000068100-95-000274.txt
[^12]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, definitive proxy statement (Schedule 14A) for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000, filed March 8, 2000, "Item 1: Election of directors," "Transactions with directors and officers." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/68100/0000891092-00-000171.txt
[^13]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001, Item 3, "Legal proceedings" (Sumitomo Corporation v. J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, S.D.N.Y., filed August 1999). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm
[^14]: The Chase Manhattan Corporation, Form 8-K (date of earliest event reported September 12, 2000; filed September 18, 2000), Item 5. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012300008649/y40434e8-k.txt
[^15]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01511044, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., August 1 to August 31, 1999, production number JPM-SDNY-00036858. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01511044.pdf
[^16]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01557200, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., October 1 to October 31, 2000. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01557200.pdf
[^17]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01557398, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., October 1 to October 31, 2001. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01557398.pdf

96
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/New York Times.md
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@ -19,13 +19,13 @@ tags:
- AATIP
summary: "New York newspaper that CIA files and Carl Bernstein name as a cover provider (1950 to 1966), which published Hersh's 1974 CHAOS story, the 1996 Dark Alliance rebuttals and the 2017 AATIP report."
created: 2026-10-05
updated: 2026-10-05
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Seymour Hersh]]"
reverse: true
role: "reporter"
fn: 12
fn: 13
- type: head_of
with: "[[Arthur Hays Sulzberger]]"
reverse: true
@ -35,17 +35,17 @@ relations:
with: "[[Project Azorian]]"
role: "published the March 19, 1975 account of the Glomar Explorer recovery"
start: 1975-03-19
fn: 14
fn: 15
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Dark Alliance]]"
role: "published the October 20 and 21, 1996 rebuttals and the July 17, 1998 report on the CIA Inspector General's second volume"
start: 1996-10-20
fn: 18
fn: 19
- type: participant_in
with: "[[December 2017 New York Times AATIP Report]]"
role: "publisher of the article"
start: 2017-12-16
fn: 24
fn: 25
---
The [[New York Times]] appears in the record of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in four capacities: as a provider of press credentials to Agency employees abroad between 1950 and 1966, as the paper in which [[Seymour Hersh]] published the first account of [[Operation CHAOS]] on December 22, 1974, as one of the three national papers that answered the [[San Jose Mercury News]] "[[Dark Alliance]]" series in October 1996, and as the publisher of the December 16, 2017 article that disclosed the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]].
@ -57,66 +57,96 @@ The [[Church Committee]] reported in 1976 that until February 1976 the CIA maint
Bernstein reported that Arthur Hays Sulzberger signed a secrecy agreement with the CIA in the 1950s, a fact confirmed by his nephew [[C. L. Sulzberger]], who said it was a pledge not to disclose classified information given to the publisher; other Agency officials, Bernstein wrote, said it covered the Times's dealings with the CIA, including cover. Bernstein described C. L. Sulzberger, then a Times foreign-affairs columnist, as one of a dozen or so "known assets" whose CIA files "contain reports of specific tasks," and quoted a senior CIA official on his access in Europe: "He was very eager, he loved to cooperate." [[Turner Catledge]], managing editor from 1951 to 1964, had written in 1974 to the reporter [[Stuart Loory]] that "the CIA and other hush-hush agencies sought to make arrangements for 'cooperation' even with Times management" and "we always resisted." Bernstein also reported that [[Allen Dulles]] and Sulzberger were close and that the arrangements were left to subordinates so that the principals had "plausible deniability."[^3]
A clipping of a Times article by [[John M. Crewdson]] dated January 30 carried the headline "C.I.A. Tried in 50's to Recruit Times Man." It reported, from CIA documents the Times had obtained, that in 1952 a CIA representative named [[Richard S. Suter]] approached the Times reporter [[Wayne Phillips]], then also a student at the Russian Institute of [[Columbia University]], about serving as an undercover operative abroad; Phillips, who said he never worked for the Agency, said the contact was broken off in the summer of 1953 after he wrote to [[Allen Dulles]] asking about Suter's credentials, and that Suter then told him he had "gone in the front door" by writing to Dulles "when they were trying to get me in the back door." The article also quoted an unnamed former Times correspondent who said he had been advised before going abroad in the late 1940s by Arthur Hays Sulzberger that the CIA might ask him to supply Times credentials to individuals going abroad for other purposes, that he was not "under any obligation" to agree, and that the publisher would be "happier" if he refused; the correspondent said he rebuffed every request.[^4]
A clipping of a Times article by [[John M. Crewdson]] dated January 30 carried the headline "C.I.A. Tried in 50's to Recruit Times Man." It reported, from CIA documents the Times had obtained, that in 1952 a CIA representative named [[Richard S. Suter]] approached the Times reporter [[Wayne Phillips]], then also a student at the Russian Institute of [[Columbia University]], about serving as an undercover operative abroad; Phillips, who said he never worked for the Agency, said the contact was broken off in the summer of 1953 after he wrote to Allen Dulles asking about Suter's credentials, and that Suter then told him he had "gone in the front door" by writing to Dulles "when they were trying to get me in the back door." The article also quoted an unnamed former Times correspondent who said he had been advised before going abroad in the late 1940s by Arthur Hays Sulzberger that the CIA might ask him to supply Times credentials to individuals going abroad for other purposes, that he was not "under any obligation" to agree, and that the publisher would be "happier" if he refused; the correspondent said he rebuffed every request.[^4]
On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that CIA Director [[George H.W. Bush|George Bush]] had met the previous week with Times publisher [[Arthur Ochs Sulzberger]], editorial page editor [[John Oakes]] and vice president [[Sydney Gruson]], and separately with executives of CBS, to ask for support in keeping secret the names of journalists who had worked for the Agency. The Star, citing the [[Washington Post]], reported that officials of both organizations had offered general support; Sulzberger said the subject of disclosing names to the Senate committee "never arose," and managing editor [[A. M. Rosenthal]] said that he and the Times supported "complete disclosure" of the names of any of its own correspondents who had cooperated with the CIA.[^5] After Bernstein's article, the Star reported that the Times said it had "absolutely no information" to add to a statement Arthur Ochs Sulzberger had issued the previous year, in which he said he had never heard of the Times being approached.[^6]
The Times published its own survey in December 1977. Crewdson and [[Joseph B. Treaster]], in an article dated December 26, 1977 that the Times called the first of a series, wrote that a three-month inquiry by a team of Times reporters indicated that the CIA had counted a number of American journalists among its paid agents but that, "with a few notable exceptions," they did not appear to have been part of its propaganda campaign, which instead ran through a network of news organizations that the Agency owned, subsidized or influenced, most of them overseas.[^7] Earlier, on May 3, 1966, a CIA memorandum had commented paragraph by paragraph on the articles of April 25 and 26, 1966 in a Times series on the Agency, describing one passage on a 1950s appropriation request as "totally incorrect in its implications."[^8]
### The Pentagon Papers, 1971
[[Time]] reported on August 2, 1971 that [[Lord, Day and Lord]], a law firm of the [[Lord family]], had been corporate counsel to the Times for twenty-three years and "played no part" when the paper fought the Pentagon Papers case to the Supreme Court. The firm's partner Louis Loeb had repeatedly advised that publication would be improper and might be illegal; the Times's general counsel [[James Goodale]] disagreed, and when the paper went ahead the firm said it could not act because of a conflict of interest attributed to its partner [[Herbert Brownell]]. The Times gave its litigation to Cahill, Gordon, Sonnett, Reindel and Ohl.[^9]
### Hersh and the Agency, 1972 to 1975
CIA records place Hersh in contact with the Agency's congressional liaison two years before the CHAOS story. On July 5, 1972 the [[Senate Armed Services Committee]] staff told the Agency's legislative counsel that Hersh's July 3 Times article confirming cloud seeding over Indochina would draw formal inquiry.[^9] On November 30, 1972 a memorandum recorded that Representative [[Lucien Nedzi]] had told the Agency that Hersh had raised allegations of narcotics moving from Indochina on [[Continental Airlines]] flights and of Agency pressure on an American traveling to China. A second Agency document of the same period, "Comments on Allegations made to Chairman Nedzi," answered Hersh's reported allegation that the CIA conducted surveillance in 35 or 40 cities with the word "Completely false."[^10]
CIA records place Hersh in contact with the Agency's congressional liaison two years before the CHAOS story. On July 5, 1972 the [[Senate Armed Services Committee]] staff told the Agency's legislative counsel that Hersh's July 3 Times article confirming cloud seeding over Indochina would draw formal inquiry.[^10] On November 30, 1972 a memorandum recorded that Representative [[Lucien Nedzi]] had told the Agency that Hersh had raised allegations of narcotics moving from Indochina on [[Continental Airlines]] flights and of Agency pressure on an American traveling to China. A second Agency document of the same period, "Comments on Allegations made to Chairman Nedzi," answered Hersh's reported allegation that the CIA conducted surveillance in 35 or 40 cities with the word "Completely false."[^11]
Minutes of the Director's morning meetings, included among the attachments to the [[CIA Family Jewels]] compilation, record the Agency's handling of Times inquiries that winter. On November 15, 1972 the Deputy Director for Plans reported that a Times reporter named Harper was working on a story linking the Agency to Cuban emigres, the break-in at the [[Chilean Embassy]], action against [[Daniel Ellsberg]] and Watergate, and concluded that such a story "could have no basis in fact" and that it would be inadvisable to try to straighten out the reporter. On December 29, 1972 the minutes record that Hersh, preparing a story on Watergate, had asked whether [[Eugenio Martinez]] had been employed by the Agency, and that the Acting Director recommended that the Agency "not assist Mr. Hersh's efforts." On January 18, 1973 Nedzi briefed Agency officials on his November conversation with Hersh, including allegations "that we are engaged in extensive domestic operations," and the Director said the Agency should assemble a senior team to outline for Nedzi "what we do and do not do in the United States."[^11]
Minutes of the Director's morning meetings, included among the attachments to the [[CIA Family Jewels]] compilation, record the Agency's handling of Times inquiries that winter. On November 15, 1972 the Deputy Director for Plans reported that a Times reporter named Harper was working on a story linking the Agency to Cuban emigres, the break-in at the [[Chilean Embassy]], action against [[Daniel Ellsberg]] and Watergate, and concluded that such a story "could have no basis in fact" and that it would be inadvisable to try to straighten out the reporter. On December 29, 1972 the minutes record that Hersh, preparing a story on Watergate, had asked whether [[Eugenio Martinez]] had been employed by the Agency, and that the Acting Director recommended that the Agency "not assist Mr. Hersh's efforts." On January 18, 1973 Nedzi briefed Agency officials on his November conversation with Hersh, including allegations "that we are engaged in extensive domestic operations," and the Director said the Agency should assemble a senior team to outline for Nedzi "what we do and do not do in the United States."[^12]
Hersh's front-page article of December 22, 1974 (datelined December 21) reported, from "well-placed Government sources," that the CIA had conducted "a massive illegal domestic intelligence operation during the Nixon Administration against the antiwar movement and other dissident groups," that files on at least 10,000 American citizens were kept by a special unit reporting to [[Richard Helms]], and that a check of the Agency's domestic files ordered by [[James R. Schlesinger]] had produced evidence of dozens of other illegal activities. The article said Colby had been informed the previous week of the Times inquiry and quoted him at a Council on Foreign Relations meeting: "I think family skeletons are best left where they are, in the closet." The clipping survives in the Agency's own internal press digest of December 27, 1974.[^12]
Hersh's front-page article of December 22, 1974 (datelined December 21) reported, from "well-placed Government sources," that the CIA had conducted "a massive illegal domestic intelligence operation during the Nixon Administration against the antiwar movement and other dissident groups," that files on at least 10,000 American citizens were kept by a special unit reporting to [[Richard Helms]], and that a check of the Agency's domestic files ordered by [[James R. Schlesinger]] had produced evidence of dozens of other illegal activities. The article said Colby had been informed the previous week of the Times inquiry and quoted him at a Council on Foreign Relations meeting: "I think family skeletons are best left where they are, in the closet." The clipping survives in the Agency's own internal press digest of December 27, 1974.[^13]
### The Glomar Explorer
The CIA's internal history of [[Project Azorian]] records that the first press leak was in the [[Los Angeles Times]] in February 1975 and that "extraordinary efforts by DCI Colby and others were able to contain the spread of the story for a time."[^13] A note in the State Department's Foreign Relations series, citing CIA Executive Registry files, states that Colby urged Hersh to delay publication in conversations on February 1, 1974 and February 10, 1975, and that on March 19, 1975, the day after [[Jack Anderson]] broadcast the story, the Times, the Los Angeles Times and the Washington Post published front-page accounts.[^14] Hersh's March 19 Times article reported the project's purpose, cost and results; at a [[White House]] meeting that morning Colby told [[Gerald Ford]], "I go back to the U-2," in arguing against official confirmation.[^15]
The CIA's internal history of [[Project Azorian]] records that the first press leak was in the [[Los Angeles Times]] in February 1975 and that "extraordinary efforts by DCI Colby and others were able to contain the spread of the story for a time."[^14] A note in the State Department's Foreign Relations series, citing CIA Executive Registry files, states that Colby urged Hersh to delay publication in conversations on February 1, 1974 and February 10, 1975, and that on March 19, 1975, the day after [[Jack Anderson]] broadcast the story, the Times, the Los Angeles Times and the Washington Post published front-page accounts.[^15] Hersh's March 19 Times article reported the project's purpose, cost and results; at a [[White House]] meeting that morning Colby told [[Gerald Ford]], "I go back to the U-2," in arguing against official confirmation.[^16]
### Contra drug trafficking coverage
The record compiled by the Senate subcommittee chaired by [[John Kerry]] places the Times in the 1985 and 1986 press chronology of the Contra supply network. It lists Times reports on July 8, 1985 (the statements of the mercenaries [[Steven Carr]] and [[Peter Glibbery]] that they had flown weapons to the Contras), on August 8, 1985 (a front-page report that [[National Security Council]] aides were helping the Contras raise money from private sources), and on August 25, 1985 (on [[John Hull]] as the FDN contact in [[Costa Rica]]). It lists a May 6, 1986 Times report on page A6 quoting a [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] spokesman that charges regarding gunrunning were false and that "all leads have been completely exhausted." The same chronology records that at a meeting that day with Kerry's staff a Justice Department official said the department's public statements to the contrary were "inaccurate," and that [[Leon Kellner]], the United States Attorney in Miami, later testified that he told the spokesman, [[Pat Korten]], that his statements to the Times had not been correct. On June 12, 1986 the Times carried Hersh's front-page article on Panama's General [[Manuel Noriega]].[^16]
The record compiled by the Senate subcommittee chaired by [[John Kerry]] places the Times in the 1985 and 1986 press chronology of the Contra supply network. It lists Times reports on July 8, 1985 (the statements of the mercenaries [[Steven Carr]] and [[Peter Glibbery]] that they had flown weapons to the Contras), on August 8, 1985 (a front-page report that [[National Security Council]] aides were helping the Contras raise money from private sources), and on August 25, 1985 (on [[John Hull]] as the FDN contact in [[Costa Rica]]). It lists a May 6, 1986 Times report on page A6 quoting a [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] spokesman that charges regarding gunrunning were false and that "all leads have been completely exhausted." The same chronology records that at a meeting that day with Kerry's staff a Justice Department official said the department's public statements to the contrary were "inaccurate," and that [[Leon Kellner]], the United States Attorney in Miami, later testified that he told the spokesman, [[Pat Korten]], that his statements to the Times had not been correct. On June 12, 1986 the Times carried Hersh's front-page article on Panama's General [[Manuel Noriega]].[^17]
[[Gary Webb]] wrote in *Dark Alliance* that in May 1986 the Justice Department spokesman [[Terry Eastland]] had "planted a false story in the New York Times" that the department had cleared the Contras, and that the Washington Post and the Times "decided in 1986 that there was no story here."[^17]
[[Gary Webb]] wrote in *Dark Alliance* that in May 1986 the Justice Department spokesman [[Terry Eastland]] had "planted a false story in the New York Times" that the department had cleared the Contras, and that the Washington Post and the Times "decided in 1986 that there was no story here."[^18]
The Times's two articles on the Mercury News series appeared on October 20 and 21, 1996, according to the Justice Department Office of the Inspector General, which also recorded that the Times concluded, from unnamed sources, that there was "no evidence" that [[Norwin Meneses]] or [[Danilo Blandon]] had ties to the CIA or held official positions with the Contras.[^18] Webb wrote that the Times and the Los Angeles Times "took the same tack" as the Post, admitting the basic facts and arguing that they did not prove what the series had not claimed.[^19] On May 11, 1997 the Mercury News editor [[Jerry Ceppos]] published a column acknowledging shortcomings in the series; Webb wrote that the Times, "which hadn't found the original series newsworthy enough to mention," carried the column on its front page and praised Ceppos's courage in an editorial.[^20]
The Times's two articles on the Mercury News series appeared on October 20 and 21, 1996, according to the Justice Department Office of the Inspector General, which also recorded that the Times concluded, from unnamed sources, that there was "no evidence" that [[Norwin Meneses]] or [[Danilo Blandon]] had ties to the CIA or held official positions with the Contras.[^19] Webb wrote that the Times and the Los Angeles Times "took the same tack" as the Post, admitting the basic facts and arguing that they did not prove what the series had not claimed.[^20] On May 11, 1997 the Mercury News editor [[Jerry Ceppos]] published a column acknowledging shortcomings in the series; Webb wrote that the Times, "which hadn't found the original series newsworthy enough to mention," carried the column on its front page and praised Ceppos's courage in an editorial.[^21]
On July 17, 1998 the Times reported on its front page, under the headline "C.I.A. Says It Used Nicaraguan Rebels Accused of Drug Tie," that the Agency "continued to work with about two dozen Nicaraguan rebels and their supporters during the 1980s despite allegations that they were trafficking in drugs." Representative [[Maxine Waters]] read the headline and sentence into the [[Congressional Record]] that day and stated that the report appeared to come from a leak of the still classified review by Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]].[^21] Webb wrote that the article reported the decision to keep the paid agents "was made by top officials at headquarters," and that the Los Angeles Times and the Post did not take it up.[^22]
On July 17, 1998 the Times reported on its front page, under the headline "C.I.A. Says It Used Nicaraguan Rebels Accused of Drug Tie," that the Agency "continued to work with about two dozen Nicaraguan rebels and their supporters during the 1980s despite allegations that they were trafficking in drugs." Representative [[Maxine Waters]] read the headline and sentence into the [[Congressional Record]] that day and stated that the report appeared to come from a leak of the still classified review by Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]].[^22] Webb wrote that the article reported the decision to keep the paid agents "was made by top officials at headquarters," and that the Los Angeles Times and the Post did not take it up.[^23]
### Inslaw
On October 21, 1991 the Times op-ed page carried "A High-Tech Watergate" by former Attorney General [[Elliot Richardson]], counsel to [[INSLAW]]. The article stated that former Justice Department employees had told Richardson that [[Earl Brian]] was "linked to a scheme to take Inslaw's stolen software" for a $250 million Justice Department contract, cited claims by [[Michael Riconosciuto]], "an out-of-fiction character believed by many knowledgeable sources to have C.I.A. connections," that the software had been taken as a payoff connected to the [[October Surprise]], and described the death of the freelance journalist [[Danny Casolaro]], whom Richardson said had been murdered although authorities concluded suicide. Brian sued; on November 29, 1995 the New York Court of Appeals, in an opinion by Judge Titone, held the article to be nonactionable opinion.[^23]
On October 21, 1991 the Times op-ed page carried "A High-Tech Watergate" by former Attorney General [[Elliot Richardson]], counsel to [[INSLAW]]. The article stated that former Justice Department employees had told Richardson that [[Earl Brian]] was "linked to a scheme to take Inslaw's stolen software" for a $250 million Justice Department contract, cited claims by [[Michael Riconosciuto]], "an out-of-fiction character believed by many knowledgeable sources to have C.I.A. connections," that the software had been taken as a payoff connected to the [[October Surprise]], and described the death of the freelance journalist [[Danny Casolaro]], whom Richardson said had been murdered although authorities concluded suicide. Brian sued; on November 29, 1995 the New York Court of Appeals, in an opinion by Judge Titone, held the article to be nonactionable opinion.[^24]
### The 2017 AATIP article
The Times published "[[December 2017 New York Times AATIP Report|Glowing Auras and 'Black Money': The Pentagon's Mysterious U.F.O. Program]]" on December 16, 2017 under the bylines of [[Helene Cooper]], [[Ralph Blumenthal]] and [[Leslie Kean]]. It stated that the Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program was run by [[Luis Elizondo]], that it began in 2007 and was "largely funded at the request of [[Harry Reid]]," and that most of the money went to a company run by [[Robert Bigelow]]; it discussed a video of a 2004 encounter between Navy jets and an unidentified object.[^24] [[Bryan Bender]] reported in [[Politico]] that [[Christopher Mellon]], by then a paid adviser to [[To The Stars Academy of Arts & Science]], had acted as Elizondo's "unofficial public relations manager" and "started dangling the story to the New York Times, POLITICO and several other mainstream outlets," that the Times "was granted permission to broadcast the videos," and that Politico was shown the videos but not given copies. Both papers published on December 16, 2017.[^25]
The Times published "[[December 2017 New York Times AATIP Report|Glowing Auras and 'Black Money': The Pentagon's Mysterious U.F.O. Program]]" on December 16, 2017 under the bylines of [[Helene Cooper]], [[Ralph Blumenthal]] and [[Leslie Kean]]. It stated that the Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program was run by [[Luis Elizondo]], that it began in 2007 and was "largely funded at the request of [[Harry Reid]]," and that most of the money went to a company run by [[Robert Bigelow]]; it discussed a video of a 2004 encounter between Navy jets and an unidentified object.[^25] [[Bryan Bender]] reported in [[Politico]] that [[Christopher Mellon]], by then a paid adviser to [[To The Stars Academy of Arts & Science]], had acted as Elizondo's "unofficial public relations manager" and "started dangling the story to the New York Times, POLITICO and several other mainstream outlets," that the Times "was granted permission to broadcast the videos," and that Politico was shown the videos but not given copies. Both papers published on December 16, 2017.[^26]
### Footnotes
[^1]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, section "Covert Relationships with the United States Media." https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf
[^2]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on the New York Times (reprinted at carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php; read through the Internet Archive capture, https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php). Bernstein attributes the account to unnamed CIA officials.
[^3]: Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," passages on the secrecy agreement, C. L. Sulzberger, Turner Catledge's 1974 letter to Stuart Loory, and Dulles. Same capture as note 2.
[^4]: Crewdson, John M. "C.I.A. Tried in 50's to Recruit Times Man," *The New York Times*, January 30, clipping in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP89B00236R000500090011-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00236r000500090011-8
[^5]: Kempster, Norman. "Bush Urges Secrecy on Reporters List," *The Washington Star*, February 10, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100040124-3
[^6]: Gay, Lance. "Did Senate Unit Help Minimize CIA's Press Aid?" *The Washington Star*, September 12, 1977, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050080-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050080-1
[^7]: Crewdson, John M., and Joseph B. Treaster. "The Worldwide C.I.A.: A Secret Shaper of Public Opinion," *The New York Times*, December 26, 1977, p. 1 (date as cited in Webb, *Dark Alliance*, notes to chapter 27), clipping in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01314R000300240002-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000300240002-5
[^8]: CIA memorandum, "New York Times Series," May 3, 1966, CIA Reading Room document C06878474. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06878474
[^9]: Maury, John M. Memorandum for the record, "Senate Armed Services Committee Interest in Hersh Story re 'Rainmaking,'" OLC 72-0768, July 5, 1972, with Seymour M. Hersh, "Cloud Seeding in Indochina Confirmed," *The New York Times*, July 3, 1972, CIA-RDP75B00380R000100030115-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000100030115-5
[^10]: Memorandum for the record, "Representative Nedzi's Conversation of Today with Seymour Hersh of the New York Times," OLC 72-1162, November 30, 1972, CIA-RDP75B00380R000100030019-2 (https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000100030019-2); CIA, "Comments on Allegations made to Chairman Nedzi, Intelligence Subcommittee of House Armed Services Committee, by Seymour Hersh," CIA-RDP75B00380R000200050121-5 (https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000200050121-5).
[^11]: CIA, Director's morning meeting minutes, entries of November 15, 1972, December 29, 1972, January 18, 1973 and February 20, 1973, in the "Family Jewels" compilation, CIA Reading Room document 0001451843, minutes pp. 00302 to 00303 and following. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001451843
[^12]: Hersh, Seymour M. "Huge C.I.A. Operation Reported in U.S. Against Antiwar Forces, Other Dissidents in Nixon Years," *The New York Times*, December 22, 1974, as reprinted in CIA, "News, Views and Issues," No. 21, December 27, 1974, CIA-RDP77-00432R000100340001-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp77-00432r000100340001-9
[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Project AZORIAN: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer," *Studies in Intelligence*, Fall 1985, CIA Reading Room document 0005301269 (declassified January 4, 2010). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0005301269
[^14]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, National Security, 1973-1976, document 197 (Memorandum of Conversation, March 19, 1975), editorial notes 2 and 3. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d197
[^15]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, document 183 (editorial note on the Hersh article of March 19, 1975) and document 197 (Colby: "I go back to the U-2."). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d183
[^16]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (Kerry Committee report), December 1988, chronology entries for July 8, 1985, August 8 and 25, 1985, May 6, 1986 and June 12, 1986, and Kellner deposition of November 8, 1988 (Korten). https://archive.org/details/KerryCommitteeReport
[^17]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998, chapter 27 and notes ("Eastland had a history," citing Joel Millman, "Narco-terrorism: A Tale of Two Stories," *Columbia Journalism Review*, September/October 1986). https://archive.org/details/dark-alliance-the-cia-the-con-gary-webb
[^18]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, *The CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy: A Review of the Justice Department's Investigations and Prosecutions* (December 1997), chapter 1. https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch01p1.htm
[^19]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, chapter 27.
[^20]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, chapter 27 (Ceppos column of May 11, 1997).
[^21]: *Congressional Record*, House of Representatives, July 17, 1998, p. H5847 (remarks of Rep. Maxine Waters, "CIA Admits Ties to Contra Drug Dealers"). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_cr/h980717-cia.htm
[^22]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, epilogue.
[^23]: Richardson, Elliot L. "A High-Tech Watergate," *The New York Times*, October 21, 1991, as described in *Brian v. Richardson*, 87 N.Y.2d 46, 660 N.E.2d 1126 (N.Y. Court of Appeals, November 29, 1995). https://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/I95_0246.htm
[^24]: Cooper, Helene, Ralph Blumenthal and Leslie Kean. "Glowing Auras and 'Black Money': The Pentagon's Mysterious U.F.O. Program," *The New York Times*, December 16, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/16/us/politics/pentagon-program-ufo-harry-reid.html (Internet Archive capture, https://web.archive.org/web/2023id_/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/16/us/politics/pentagon-program-ufo-harry-reid.html)
[^25]: Bender, Bryan. "The Hidden History of How Washington Embraced UFOs," *Politico Magazine*, May 28, 2021. https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/05/28/ufos-secret-history-government-washington-dc-487900 (Internet Archive capture). Mellon's role is as characterized by Bender.
[^9]: "The Law: The Times v. Its Law Firm," *Time*, August 2, 1971, p. 42. https://archive.org/details/time-1971-11-15 (file "Time 1971-08-02")
[^10]: Maury, John M. Memorandum for the record, "Senate Armed Services Committee Interest in Hersh Story re 'Rainmaking,'" OLC 72-0768, July 5, 1972, with Seymour M. Hersh, "Cloud Seeding in Indochina Confirmed," *The New York Times*, July 3, 1972, CIA-RDP75B00380R000100030115-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000100030115-5
[^11]: Memorandum for the record, "Representative Nedzi's Conversation of Today with Seymour Hersh of the New York Times," OLC 72-1162, November 30, 1972, CIA-RDP75B00380R000100030019-2 (https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000100030019-2); CIA, "Comments on Allegations made to Chairman Nedzi, Intelligence Subcommittee of House Armed Services Committee, by Seymour Hersh," CIA-RDP75B00380R000200050121-5 (https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000200050121-5).
[^12]: CIA, Director's morning meeting minutes, entries of November 15, 1972, December 29, 1972, January 18, 1973 and February 20, 1973, in the "Family Jewels" compilation, CIA Reading Room document 0001451843, minutes pp. 00302 to 00303 and following. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001451843
[^13]: Hersh, Seymour M. "Huge C.I.A. Operation Reported in U.S. Against Antiwar Forces, Other Dissidents in Nixon Years," *The New York Times*, December 22, 1974, as reprinted in CIA, "News, Views and Issues," No. 21, December 27, 1974, CIA-RDP77-00432R000100340001-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp77-00432r000100340001-9
[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Project AZORIAN: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer," *Studies in Intelligence*, Fall 1985, CIA Reading Room document 0005301269 (declassified January 4, 2010). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0005301269
[^15]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, National Security, 1973-1976, document 197 (Memorandum of Conversation, March 19, 1975), editorial notes 2 and 3. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d197
[^16]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, document 183 (editorial note on the Hersh article of March 19, 1975) and document 197 (Colby: "I go back to the U-2."). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d183
[^17]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (Kerry Committee report), December 1988, chronology entries for July 8, 1985, August 8 and 25, 1985, May 6, 1986 and June 12, 1986, and Kellner deposition of November 8, 1988 (Korten). https://archive.org/details/KerryCommitteeReport
[^18]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998, chapter 27 and notes ("Eastland had a history," citing Joel Millman, "Narco-terrorism: A Tale of Two Stories," *Columbia Journalism Review*, September/October 1986). https://archive.org/details/dark-alliance-the-cia-the-con-gary-webb
[^19]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, *The CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy: A Review of the Justice Department's Investigations and Prosecutions* (December 1997), chapter 1. https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch01p1.htm
[^20]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, chapter 27.
[^21]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, chapter 27 (Ceppos column of May 11, 1997).
[^22]: *Congressional Record*, House of Representatives, July 17, 1998, p. H5847 (remarks of Rep. Maxine Waters, "CIA Admits Ties to Contra Drug Dealers"). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_cr/h980717-cia.htm
[^23]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, epilogue.
[^24]: Richardson, Elliot L. "A High-Tech Watergate," *The New York Times*, October 21, 1991, as described in *Brian v. Richardson*, 87 N.Y.2d 46, 660 N.E.2d 1126 (N.Y. Court of Appeals, November 29, 1995). https://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/I95_0246.htm
[^25]: Cooper, Helene, Ralph Blumenthal and Leslie Kean. "Glowing Auras and 'Black Money': The Pentagon's Mysterious U.F.O. Program," *The New York Times*, December 16, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/16/us/politics/pentagon-program-ufo-harry-reid.html (Internet Archive capture, https://web.archive.org/web/2023id_/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/16/us/politics/pentagon-program-ufo-harry-reid.html)
[^26]: Bender, Bryan. "The Hidden History of How Washington Embraced UFOs," *Politico Magazine*, May 28, 2021. https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/05/28/ufos-secret-history-government-washington-dc-487900 (Internet Archive capture). Mellon's role is as characterized by Bender.

319
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Russell and Company.md
View file

@ -98,8 +98,23 @@ relations:
with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]"
reverse: true
start: 1840-01-01
end: 1846-12-31
role: "partner; succeeded Robert Bennet Forbes as chief of the house"
fn: 7
fn: 10
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]"
reverse: true
start: 1861-01-01
end: 1866-12-31
role: "partner, readmitted"
fn: 60
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Delano family]]"
reverse: true
start: 1840-01-01
end: 1866-12-31
role: "Warren Delano Jr. (1840 to 1846 and 1861 to 1866) and Edward Delano (to 1846), partners"
fn: 58
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Russell Sturgis]]"
reverse: true
@ -125,13 +140,20 @@ relations:
with: "[[Houqua]]"
start: 1829-08-01
role: "agent for the Canton merchant's foreign business, secured to the house in 1830"
fn: 15
fn: 19
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Forbes family]]"
reverse: true
start: 1857-01-01
end: 1881-12-31
role: "Francis Blackwell Forbes, partner who went to China in 1857 and moved to Europe in the early 1880s; his cousin William Howell Forbes was senior partner at Hong Kong in 1891"
fn: 73
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Opium War]]"
start: 1839-03-22
end: 1842-08-29
role: "partners at Canton signed the May 25, 1839 memorial to Congress after the opium surrender"
fn: 29
fn: 39
---
Russell and Company was an American commission house at [[Canton]], [[China]], formed by [[Samuel Russell]] of [[Middletown, Connecticut]]. [[W. C. Hunter]], a partner of the house, wrote that it "confined itself strictly to agency business."[^1] The [[Baker Library]] at [[Harvard Business School]] describes it as "the largest American commission house in China" until its demise in 1891.[^2] Its Canton correspondence includes the Turkish opium trade, and from 1830 the house kept the ship Lintin at anchor as its receiving ship in the opium anchorage off Canton.[^3][^4]
@ -140,155 +162,278 @@ Russell and Company was an American commission house at [[Canton]], [[China]], f
The [[Library of Congress]] finding aid for the firm's papers describes it as a "Trading house founded in 1819 by Samuel Russell" in Canton.[^3] Hunter, a partner from 1837 to 1842 whose 1882 book describes the Canton factories, dates the house to January 1, 1824, as the successor of Samuel Russell & Co., which he says existed from December 26, 1818 to December 26, 1823, and records that the Chinese knew the house as Kee-Chang-Hong.[^1] The National Historic Landmark nomination for Russell's Middletown house, prepared by the [[National Park Service]], places his arrival in Canton in 1819 under arrangements made by Edward Carrington and Providence merchants, and dates the commission house in partnership with [[Philip Ammidon]] to 1824.[^5] It adds that the first Canton venture returned about $15,000 to each of five partners in 1823.[^5]
From January 1, 1824, until the middle of 1830 the sole partners were Russell and Ammidon.[^1] In September 1829 [[William H. Low]] arrived from [[Salem, Massachusetts]], and in November 1830 [[Augustine Heard]] arrived from [[Boston]] in the bark Lintin under Captain R. B. Forbes. Both became partners. Low left Canton in ill health in 1833 and died at the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. Hunter lists the 1834 to 1836 admissions as [[John Cleve Green]], special agent at Canton for N. L. and G. Griswold of [[New York]], [[John Murray Forbes]], who had arrived in the Lintin in 1830 to join the office, and [[Joseph Coolidge]], who arrived in 1832. Heard retired in the same term.[^1] The nomination states that Ammidon, unable to return to Canton, was terminated from the partnership after Low and Russell accepted Heard on a recommendation in 1830.[^5]
The National Register of Historic Places nomination for the Russell Company Upper Mill in Middletown says that Russell "established his own trading station in Canton in 1818."[^6] In the National Historic Landmark nomination the Providence contract of 1819 and the voyage of the ship Fame, which reached Macao in September of that year, began the venture.[^5]
In 1837 [[Abiel Abbot Low]], a nephew of William H. Low, and Hunter were admitted, and [[Edward King]] became a partner in July of that year. [[Robert Bennet Forbes]], the elder brother of John Murray Forbes, arrived in the Bashaw in October 1838 and was admitted on January 1, 1839, becoming chief of the house.[^1] Hunter gives his departure for New York in the Niantic on July 7, 1840.[^1] The Forbes brothers were nephews of [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]], who headed the Boston house of J. and T. H. Perkins, and Robert Bennet Forbes's plans for the Lintin station in 1829 and 1830 ran through arrangements with the Perkins family and the [[Bryant and Sturgis]] house.[^6]
From January 1, 1824, until the middle of 1830 the sole partners were Russell and Ammidon.[^1] In September 1829 [[William H. Low]] arrived from [[Salem, Massachusetts]], and in November 1830 [[Augustine Heard]] arrived from [[Boston]] in the bark Lintin under Captain R. B. Forbes. Both became partners. Low left Canton in ill health in 1833 and died at the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. Hunter lists the 1834 to 1836 admissions as [[John Cleve Green]], special agent at Canton for N. L. and G. Griswold of [[New York]], [[John Murray Forbes]], who had arrived in the Lintin in 1830 to join the office, and [[Joseph Coolidge]], who arrived in 1832. Heard retired in the same term.[^1] John Murray Forbes's own notes say that he reached China in 1830, was put in by Cushing as the youngest clerk, and was privately promised admission to the firm on January 1, 1834.[^7] The nomination states that Ammidon, unable to return to Canton, was terminated from the partnership after Low and Russell accepted Heard on a recommendation in 1830.[^5]
[[Warren Delano Jr.]] joined in the term beginning in 1840 and succeeded Forbes as chief. Hunter describes him as formerly of the house of [[Russell, Sturgis and Company]] of Canton and [[Manila]].[^1] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] catalogues him as Warren Delano II (1809 to 1898), the maternal grandfather of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and dates his partnership to January 1840.[^7] [[Russell Sturgis]] became a partner on January 1, 1842.[^1]
Forbes's memoir names the first formers of the house as Samuel Russell and Philip Ammidon: "which was first formed by Messrs. Samuel Russell and Philip Ammidon, and after a few years was changed to the present firm of Russell & Co."[^8]
Forbes's own memoir gives his partnership in Russell and Company as running from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844, and again from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and says that he held the vice-consulate while in China on his last visit.[^8] Hunter's list has him admitted in 1839 and leaving for New York in July 1840.[^1]
In 1837 [[Abiel Abbot Low]], a nephew of William H. Low, and Hunter were admitted, and [[Edward King]] became a partner in July of that year. [[Robert Bennet Forbes]], the elder brother of John Murray Forbes, arrived in the Bashaw in October 1838 and was admitted on January 1, 1839, becoming chief of the house.[^1] Hunter gives his departure for New York in the Niantic on July 7, 1840.[^1] The Forbes brothers were nephews of [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]] of the [[Perkins family]], who headed the Boston house of J. and T. H. Perkins, and Robert Bennet Forbes's plans for the Lintin station in 1829 and 1830 ran through arrangements with the Perkins family and the [[Bryant and Sturgis]] house.[^9]
[[Warren Delano Jr.]] joined in the term beginning in 1840 and succeeded Forbes as chief. Hunter describes him as formerly of the house of [[Russell, Sturgis and Company]] of Canton and [[Manila]].[^1] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] catalogues him as Warren Delano II (1809 to 1898), the maternal grandfather of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and dates his partnership to January 1840.[^10] [[Russell Sturgis]] became a partner on January 1, 1842.[^1]
Forbes's own memoir gives his partnership in Russell and Company as running from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844, and again from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and says that he held the vice-consulate while in China on his last visit.[^11] Hunter's list has him admitted in 1839 and leaving for New York in July 1840.[^1]
### Samuel Russell of Middletown
The nomination gives Samuel Wadsworth Russell's dates as 1789 to 1862 and his ancestry as a line from William Russell (1612 to 1664), a founder of the Saybrook and New Haven colonies, through the Rev. [[Noadiah Russell]] (1659 to 1713), second pastor of the Congregational church at Middletown from 1698 and one of the founders of [[Yale University]], and his eldest son the Rev. William Russell (born 1690). It names his grandfather as Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727) and his father as Captain John Russell (1765 to 1801), who died insolvent.[^5] His middle name came from a great uncle, [[Jeremiah Wadsworth]] of Hartford, Commissary General of the Continental Army, who had married the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable.[^5] The nomination records that Russell was twelve when his father died, that he was an apprentice clerk to the Middletown merchants Whittlesley and Alsop, and that after a voyage that ended in 1813 he acted as Middletown commission merchant for Hull and Griswold, and that the first Russell and Company was founded in a building he had leased there.[^5]
The nomination dates his withdrawal from the Canton house to 1836, with his profits reinvested in industry, banking and western railroad stock, and gives his estate at death in 1862 as $630,000, left to his widow and his sole surviving son, Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr.[^5] Hunter records that Russell and John Perkins Cushing took their final leave of Canton in the Bashaw on February 27, 1831; the nomination says both returned to America upon completing their work in March 1831.[^5][^9] The house at Middletown, designed by [[Ithiel Town]] in 1827 to 1830, passed to [[Wesleyan University]] in 1937 by the gift of his great-grandson Thomas MacDonough Russell Jr.[^5]
The Library of Congress finding aid gives his dates as "1789-approximately 1862."[^3] Houqua's letter of January 14, 1837, held in the Library of Congress collection and quoted in the nomination, says that Russell's name had been associated with the house "during the whole course of its existence" and expresses his "sincere wish that you may live long to enjoy the fruit of your industry."[^12]
The Yale biographical sketches record that the Rev. William Russell of Middletown (Yale tutor, minister 1715 to 1761), the eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin, married Mary Pierpont in 1719 and had four sons and five daughters, of whom the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) and one other son survived him.[^10] [[Matthew Talcott Russell]] was the second son of that Noadiah Russell of Thompson, Connecticut, born March 19, 1761, a lawyer at Middletown, and the father of [[William Huntington Russell]], a co-founder of the [[Skull and Bones]] society, who was graduated from Yale in 1833.[^11][^12] The nomination says that Wadsworth had been apprenticed to his uncle Matthew Talcott of Middletown, and the Yale sketch records that Matthew Talcott Russell was named for Colonel Matthew Talcott of Middletown, who had married his aunt and paid for his education.[^5][^11] The sketch of the Rev. William Russell gives the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) as his son and the father of Matthew Talcott Russell; the nomination gives the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable as the wife of Jeremiah Wadsworth, Samuel Russell's great uncle, and names Samuel Russell's grandfather as Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727).[^5][^10][^11]
The nomination dates his withdrawal from the Canton house to 1836, with his profits reinvested in industry, banking and western railroad stock, and gives his estate at death in 1862 as $630,000, left to his widow and his sole surviving son, Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr.[^5] Hunter records that Russell and John Perkins Cushing took their final leave of Canton in the Bashaw on February 27, 1831; the nomination says both returned to America upon completing their work in March 1831.[^5][^13] The house at Middletown, designed by [[Ithiel Town]] in 1827 to 1830, passed to [[Wesleyan University]] in 1937 by the gift of his great-grandson Thomas MacDonough Russell Jr.[^5]
The Hamlin family genealogy of 1900 records Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, as the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765, died December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell (born July 7, 1727), a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were first cousins, and Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder Noadiah Russell, as their common great-grandfather.[^13] [[Kris Millegan]] calls William Huntington Russell Samuel Russell's cousin in his opening article and at pages 151 to 152, his second cousin at page 313, and, at page 52, calls Samuel Russell his uncle.[^14]
The Yale biographical sketches record that the Rev. William Russell of Middletown (Yale tutor, minister 1715 to 1761), the eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin, married Mary Pierpont in 1719 and had four sons and five daughters, of whom the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) and one other son survived him.[^14] [[Matthew Talcott Russell]] was the second son of that Noadiah Russell of Thompson, Connecticut, born March 19, 1761, a lawyer at Middletown, and the father of [[William Huntington Russell]], a co-founder of the [[Skull and Bones]] society, who was graduated from Yale in 1833.[^15][^16] The nomination says that Wadsworth had been apprenticed to his uncle Matthew Talcott of Middletown, and the Yale sketch records that Matthew Talcott Russell was named for Colonel Matthew Talcott of Middletown, who had married his aunt and paid for his education.[^5][^15] The sketch of the Rev. William Russell gives the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) as his son and the father of Matthew Talcott Russell; the nomination gives the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable as the wife of Jeremiah Wadsworth, Samuel Russell's great uncle, and names Samuel Russell's grandfather as Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727).[^5][^14][^15]
The Hamlin family genealogy of 1900 records Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, as the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765, died December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell (born July 7, 1727), a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were first cousins, and Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder Noadiah Russell, as their common great-grandfather.[^17] [[Kris Millegan]] calls William Huntington Russell Samuel Russell's cousin in his opening article and at pages 151 to 152, his second cousin at page 313, and, at page 52, calls Samuel Russell his uncle.[^18]
### The 1831 merger with Perkins and Company
The Library of Congress finding aid states that in 1831 the China trading operations of [[John P. Cushing]], [[William Perkins and Company]] of Boston, and [[Houqua]], the Canton merchant, merged with Russell and Company.[^3] The Baker Library guide to the firm's records gives the same event from the Boston side: Cushing, who had been the sole agent in Canton for Perkins and Company, arranged to dissolve the Boston house by merging its Canton business into Russell and Company in 1831.[^2]
Hunter's account is dated by deaths. Thomas T. Forbes, who had succeeded Cushing at Perkins and Company in 1828, drowned in a typhoon on August 9, 1829, with S. H. Monson, the bookkeeper of Russell and Company. Among Forbes's papers was a sealed letter to Russell and Company asking them, in case of accident, to take charge of the local business of his own firm and of J. and T. H. Perkins. They did so, "and naturally came with it that of Houqua, who had been the intimate personal friend of Mr. Cushing during his unbroken residence of over twenty years in Canton."[^15] Cushing, who was in England when the news arrived, returned to Canton in the Bashaw in August 1830, and arrangements "were then definitely concluded by which Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up, while the important foreign business of Houqua was then also definitely secured to them."[^15]
Hunter's account is dated by deaths. Thomas T. Forbes, who had succeeded Cushing at Perkins and Company in 1828, drowned in a typhoon on August 9, 1829, with S. H. Monson, the bookkeeper of Russell and Company. Among Forbes's papers was a sealed letter to Russell and Company asking them, in case of accident, to take charge of the local business of his own firm and of J. and T. H. Perkins. They did so, "and naturally came with it that of Houqua, who had been the intimate personal friend of Mr. Cushing during his unbroken residence of over twenty years in Canton."[^19] Cushing, who was in England when the news arrived, returned to Canton in the Bashaw in August 1830, and arrangements "were then definitely concluded by which Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up, while the important foreign business of Houqua was then also definitely secured to them."[^19]
The nomination describes the reorganization as one directed by Cushing: Heard was made the representative of Perkins and their associated Boston firms, Robert Bennet Forbes was given charge of the Lintin station storeship business, and John Murray Forbes was placed with the firm as an assistant in line for partnership.[^5] The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters adds that Cushing, returning from Europe, went overland to Canton to look after the Perkins business and merged it into Russell and Company before the arrival in China of Forbes's father and uncle.[^16] The Baker Library holds the Perkins and Company letter books from Canton that precede the merger, and the Library of Congress finding aid says that more Russell and Company business records are in the William Perkins and Company records at Baker Library.[^2][^3]
The nomination dates the death of Forbes, the Perkins heir who was to have taken control of the firm, to 1827.[^5]
The nomination describes the reorganization as one directed by Cushing: Heard was made the representative of Perkins and their associated Boston firms, Robert Bennet Forbes was given charge of the Lintin station storeship business, and John Murray Forbes was placed with the firm as an assistant in line for partnership.[^5] The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters adds that Cushing, returning from Europe, went overland to Canton to look after the Perkins business and merged it into Russell and Company before the arrival in China of Forbes's father and uncle.[^20] The Baker Library holds the Perkins and Company letter books from Canton that precede the merger, and the Library of Congress finding aid says that more Russell and Company business records are in the William Perkins and Company records at Baker Library.[^2][^3]
The Perkins house at Canton had been run by Ephraim Bumstead, who went out as supercargo of the ship Thomas Russell after 1798, and then by John Perkins Cushing, who went out as a clerk at sixteen in 1803; Cary has Cushing in copartnership until "the dissolution of the house in 1827," and Hunter has him at Canton until 1828.[^21][^22] A George C. Perkins of Boston, bookkeeper of Russell & Co., is named by Hunter among the men drowned in the Lantao Channel, and Forbes's memoir records the death of a Mr. George Perkins in 1854 and the retirement of Edward King and Mr. Perkins from the house in 1849.[^22][^23]
### Turkish opium and the Indian trade
The Library of Congress finding aid says that the correspondence after 1818 contains much information on the daily operation of the Canton company and on the Turkish opium trade, along with the Amsterdam commodity exchanges.[^3] Its subject index includes an entry for the opium trade with Turkey, and among the firms represented in the correspondence it lists [[Clarke and Company]], of Smyrna, [[Turkey]].[^3] The box list includes account books for 1816 to 1829 that carry a manuscript on the Chinese method of preparing opium for smoking.[^17]
The Library of Congress finding aid says that the correspondence after 1818 contains much information on the daily operation of the Canton company and on the Turkish opium trade, along with the Amsterdam commodity exchanges.[^3] Its subject index includes an entry for the opium trade with Turkey, and among the firms represented in the correspondence it lists [[Clarke and Company]], of Smyrna, [[Turkey]].[^3] The box list includes account books for 1816 to 1829 that carry a manuscript on the Chinese method of preparing opium for smoking.[^24]
The nomination's account of the trade is longer. It states that Americans, largely excluded from the Indian and Persian markets, were for a time restricted to Turkish opium transshipped through American ports, that the Perkins brothers of Boston had been associated with the Turkish opium trade since the 1780s and organized a Smyrna merchant house in 1816, and that there is no evidence that Russell took part in the opium trade during his first Canton venture.[^5] It states that by the time Ammidon left, his dealings "had made Russell & Company one of the most important American sellers of the opium in Canton, second or third in the trade behind the British firms of Jardine Matheson & Company and Dent & Company," that during the first Opium War the firm "managed to hold its position in the Turkish trade and became the third largest purveyor of the drug from India," and that by 1842 it was the largest and strongest American house in China.[^5]
Robert Bennet Forbes's memoir describes a 1828 voyage to Smyrna in the Danube, a vessel fitted out at New York by [[Sturgis and Perkins]]. He states the object plainly: "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China."[^18] He carried a credit on the [[Baring Brothers]] of about £60,000 and a cargo of coffee and specie. At Smyrna the principal American merchant was [[Joseph Langdon]]. Forbes says that he sailed from [[Vourla]] under the convoy of the United States schooner Porpoise through the Archipelago and then went on to [[Gibraltar]] to await operations on a larger scale.[^19] On the way up the Mediterranean he met the brig Leander, of Salem, bound home from Smyrna, and he suspected from her that her owner, [[Joseph Peabody]], who held an interest in the China and [[India]] trade, had been on the same errand.[^19]
The nomination adds that during Russell's senior partnership the firm sold opium for Perkins and Company on their storeship, that John Perkins Cushing began in 1818 to turn his commission business over to Russell and Company and other Canton houses, which included his opium shipments, and that in 1827 Russell solicited consignment business including "most notably the sale of opium for John Jacob Astor."[^5] Forbes writes that Russell and Company "had for some time done business at Canton previous to Mr. Cushing's leaving, and, in fact, had transacted a part of his business."[^25]
The Indian side of the trade ran through the store-ships anchored at [[Lintin]]. Forbes writes that the store-ships lay outside at Lintin and that the drug was run up the river in small boats, sometimes carried by the mandarin boats sent to protect the revenue.[^20] He gives the annual value of the trade as ten or twelve million dollars and says that the officials encouraged its introduction "from India and Turkey, not only by levying a duty on it for their own benefit, but by consuming it."[^20] Hunter says the Lintin was Russell and Company's "receiving ship" from 1830, and that she held her anchorage for nine years.[^4] Robert Bennet Forbes sought the command of the Lintin station ship in 1829 and 1830. The station ship was then the Tartar of Bryant and Sturgis, commanded by a relative of Mr. Sturgis.[^6] Forbes wrote that from January 1 to the closing of the port the commission account and the gains of the Lintin "showed a grand result."[^21]
Robert Bennet Forbes's memoir describes a 1828 voyage to Smyrna in the Danube, a vessel fitted out at New York by [[Sturgis and Perkins]]. He states the object plainly: "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China."[^26] A letter of December 27, 1796 from J. and T. H. Perkins to Mr. George Perkins at Smyrna asks about the market there for coffee and sugar, and orders of May 24, 1800 for the Perkins ship Thomas Russell direct her to Malaga, the Mediterranean including Smyrna, and Calcutta.[^27] He carried a credit on the [[Baring Brothers]] of about £60,000 and a cargo of coffee and specie. At Smyrna the principal American merchant was [[Joseph Langdon]]. Forbes says that he sailed from [[Vourla]] under the convoy of the United States schooner Porpoise through the Archipelago and then went on to [[Gibraltar]] to await operations on a larger scale.[^28] On the way up the Mediterranean he met the brig Leander, of Salem, bound home from Smyrna, and he suspected from her that her owner, [[Joseph Peabody]], who held an interest in the China and [[India]] trade, had been on the same errand.[^28]
The Indian side of the trade ran through the store-ships anchored at [[Lintin]]. Forbes writes that the store-ships lay outside at Lintin and that the drug was run up the river in small boats, sometimes carried by the mandarin boats sent to protect the revenue.[^29] He gives the annual value of the trade as ten or twelve million dollars and says that the officials encouraged its introduction "from India and Turkey, not only by levying a duty on it for their own benefit, but by consuming it."[^29] Hunter says the Lintin was Russell and Company's "receiving ship" from 1830, and that she held her anchorage for nine years.[^4] Robert Bennet Forbes sought the command of the Lintin station ship in 1829 and 1830. The station ship was then the Tartar of Bryant and Sturgis, commanded by a relative of Mr. Sturgis.[^9] Forbes wrote that from January 1 to the closing of the port the commission account and the gains of the Lintin "showed a grand result."[^30]
### The 1839 surrender at Canton
In March 1839 the imperial commissioner [[Lin Zexu]] demanded the opium held by the foreign community at Canton. The [[Chinese Repository]], published at Canton, printed the sequence. On March 21 the General Chamber of Commerce, whose chairman was [[William S. Wetmore]], resolved in a letter to the Hong merchants that there was "an almost unanimous feeling in the community of the absolute necessity of the foreign residents of Canton having no connexion with the opium traffic," and that night the Hong merchants reported that Lin would be at the Consoo house at ten the next morning unless opium was delivered.[^22] An edict of April 1 addressed the chairman of the Chamber and called on the American consul to surrender a quantity of opium not less than the British superintendent had given up.[^22] A later edict from Lin recorded that the American consul [[P. W. Snow]] had declared that "the merchants of his country, acting in obedience to the new regulations, will not presume to traffic in opium," and objected that Snow's added remark about ordering offending ships home did not accord with conforming to the law.[^23]
In March 1839 the imperial commissioner [[Lin Zexu]] demanded the opium held by the foreign community at Canton. The [[Chinese Repository]], published at Canton, printed the sequence. On March 21 the General Chamber of Commerce, whose chairman was [[William S. Wetmore]], resolved in a letter to the Hong merchants that there was "an almost unanimous feeling in the community of the absolute necessity of the foreign residents of Canton having no connexion with the opium traffic," and that night the Hong merchants reported that Lin would be at the Consoo house at ten the next morning unless opium was delivered.[^31] An edict of April 1 addressed the chairman of the Chamber and called on the American consul to surrender a quantity of opium not less than the British superintendent had given up.[^31] A later edict from Lin recorded that the American consul [[P. W. Snow]] had declared that "the merchants of his country, acting in obedience to the new regulations, will not presume to traffic in opium," and objected that Snow's added remark about ordering offending ships home did not accord with conforming to the law.[^32]
[[Charles Elliot]], the British superintendent of trade, notified Lin on March 28, 1839 that he held himself responsible for delivering 20,283 chests of opium owned by British subjects, and that as the chests came into his possession each would be delivered up.[^24] Forbes's memoir records that Elliot called on British subjects and on all who held British-owned opium to surrender it in the name of [[Queen Victoria]], and that schedules were made chest by chest for delivery to Lin's officers.[^25] Hunter gives the count: by May 2, 15,501 chests had been handed over, and the whole quantity, 20,283 chests, was completed on May 21.[^26]
[[Charles Elliot]], the British superintendent of trade, notified Lin on March 28, 1839 that he held himself responsible for delivering 20,283 chests of opium owned by British subjects, and that as the chests came into his possession each would be delivered up.[^33] Forbes's memoir records that Elliot called on British subjects and on all who held British-owned opium to surrender it in the name of [[Queen Victoria]], and that schedules were made chest by chest for delivery to Lin's officers.[^34] Hunter gives the count: by May 2, 15,501 chests had been handed over, and the whole quantity, 20,283 chests, was completed on May 21.[^35]
Hunter wrote that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium, "of which we held at the time of surrender about fifty cases of Turkey."[^27] He adds: "The English on leaving placed theirs in charge of the American houses. A large share of it fell under the control of Russell & Co."[^27] He describes a discussion among the Canton agents about charging half-commissions on consignments withdrawn from the trade, and says the charge was dropped on the quantity Russell and Company delivered up, which he gives as nearly 15,000 dollars.[^28] Forbes wrote that the American hong housed the United States consul, P. W. Snow, together with Russell and Company and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and that the foreign community was kept under strict guard while the delivery went on.[^25]
In the committee of the General Chamber of Commerce that met in March 1839 on the bond proposed by the cohong, Warren Delano Jr. moved a resolution, seconded by H. Rustomjee and carried unanimously, that the committee should not enter further correspondence of a political or personal nature with the Chinese authorities, "inasmuch as we are prisoners in our factories, surrounded by an armed force, our trade stopped."[^36]
Hunter wrote that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium, "of which we held at the time of surrender about fifty cases of Turkey."[^37] He adds: "The English on leaving placed theirs in charge of the American houses. A large share of it fell under the control of Russell & Co."[^37] He describes a discussion among the Canton agents about charging half-commissions on consignments withdrawn from the trade, and says the charge was dropped on the quantity Russell and Company delivered up, which he gives as nearly 15,000 dollars.[^38] Forbes wrote that the American hong housed the United States consul, P. W. Snow, together with Russell and Company and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and that the foreign community was kept under strict guard while the delivery went on.[^34]
### The memorial of the American merchants
A memorial dated at Canton on May 25, 1839 was printed by the [[United States House of Representatives]] as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress, first session, dated January 9, 1840 and referred to the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs]]. The caption describes it as the memorial of R. B. Forbes and others, American merchants at Canton, for a commercial agent to be sent to China to negotiate a commercial treaty, with a naval force to protect the persons and property of Americans. It is signed by Russell Sturgis, W. Delano Jr., Gideon Nye Jr., R. B. Forbes, A. A. Low, Edward King, S. B. Rawle, and Jas. Ryan.[^29]
A memorial dated at Canton on May 25, 1839 was printed by the [[United States House of Representatives]] as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress, first session, dated January 9, 1840 and referred to the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs]]. The caption describes it as the memorial of R. B. Forbes and others, American merchants at Canton, for a commercial agent to be sent to China to negotiate a commercial treaty, with a naval force to protect the persons and property of Americans. It is signed by Russell Sturgis, W. Delano Jr., Gideon Nye Jr., R. B. Forbes, A. A. Low, Edward King, S. B. Rawle, and Jas. Ryan.[^39]
The memorial states that the signers were "made prisoners in our factories" on March 22, that the commissioner had obtained "upwards of twenty thousand chests of British owned opium," valued at more than ten million dollars, and that the signers had been threatened over a bond under which a ship found bringing opium would be given up for punishment by death.[^29] It gives the opium sales at Canton by season: 3,210 chests for $3,657,000 in 1816 to 1817, 5,822 chests in 1822 to 1823, 9,535 chests in 1827 to 1828, and 23,670 chests for $15,332,759 in 1832 to 1833. It states that the receiving vessels moved from Whampoa to Lintin about 1821, that the Governor and the Hoppo had boats that received opium at Lintin, and that the officials took a fee of twenty to seventy dollars a chest.[^29]
The memorial states that the signers were "made prisoners in our factories" on March 22, that the commissioner had obtained "upwards of twenty thousand chests of British owned opium," valued at more than ten million dollars, and that the signers had been threatened over a bond under which a ship found bringing opium would be given up for punishment by death.[^39] It gives the opium sales at Canton by season: 3,210 chests for $3,657,000 in 1816 to 1817, 5,822 chests in 1822 to 1823, 9,535 chests in 1827 to 1828, and 23,670 chests for $15,332,759 in 1832 to 1833. It states that the receiving vessels moved from Whampoa to Lintin about 1821, that the Governor and the Hoppo had boats that received opium at Lintin, and that the officials took a fee of twenty to seventy dollars a chest.[^39]
The memorial also states: "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade," that most of the signers had signed a voluntary pledge to abstain from dealing in the drug, and that the drug had been "productive of much evil and of scarcely a single good to the Chinese." It continues that the signers could not "perceive the slightest ground for justification of the robbery committed upon British subjects here." It asks the government to act, if it thought fit, with Great Britain, France and Holland to obtain six demands: envoys at Peking, a fixed tariff, bonding warehouses, trade at other ports, compensation for the stoppage of trade, and limits on punishments of foreigners until Chinese laws were made known. Failing that, it asks for an agent or commissioner with a naval force to protect American commerce and to prevent any paper blockade. It names Snow as the consul whose despatches to the State Department would confirm the account and expresses "entire approbation" of his conduct.[^29]
The memorial also states: "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade," that most of the signers had signed a voluntary pledge to abstain from dealing in the drug, and that the drug had been "productive of much evil and of scarcely a single good to the Chinese." It continues that the signers could not "perceive the slightest ground for justification of the robbery committed upon British subjects here." It asks the government to act, if it thought fit, with Great Britain, France and Holland to obtain six demands: envoys at Peking, a fixed tariff, bonding warehouses, trade at other ports, compensation for the stoppage of trade, and limits on punishments of foreigners until Chinese laws were made known. Failing that, it asks for an agent or commissioner with a naval force to protect American commerce and to prevent any paper blockade. It names Snow as the consul whose despatches to the State Department would confirm the account and expresses "entire approbation" of his conduct.[^39]
On April 25, 1840, as the British blockade was expected, a petition to Lin from American houses asking that their ships be allowed to come directly to Whampoa was signed by Augustine Heard and Company, Gideon Nye Jr., A. A. Ritchie, James Ryan, Henry W. Hubbell, Olyphant and Company, Russell and Company, S. W. Lewis, Henry Fessenden, John Shillaber and Isaac M. Bull.[^30] The Chinese Repository gives Lin's reply as a declaration that it was an "egregious mistake" to think the English contemplated a blockade.[^30]
On April 25, 1840, as the British blockade was expected, a petition to Lin from American houses asking that their ships be allowed to come directly to Whampoa was signed by Augustine Heard and Company, Gideon Nye Jr., A. A. Ritchie, James Ryan, Henry W. Hubbell, Olyphant and Company, Russell and Company, S. W. Lewis, Henry Fessenden, John Shillaber and Isaac M. Bull.[^40] The Chinese Repository gives Lin's reply as a declaration that it was an "egregious mistake" to think the English contemplated a blockade.[^40]
The treaty between the United States and China was signed at the village of Wanghia (Mong-Ha in Hunter's spelling) at Macao on July 3, 1844, by [[Caleb Cushing]] and [[Qiying]]. Hunter, who dates the signing, described the two signatories as together the end of Old Canton.[^31]
The treaty between the United States and China was signed at the village of Wanghia (Mong-Ha in Hunter's spelling) at Macao on July 3, 1844, by [[Caleb Cushing]] and [[Qiying]]. Hunter, who dates the signing, described the two signatories as together the end of Old Canton.[^41]
### Opium, Houqua and the Chesapeake in 1840
Hunter records that in 1840 Russell and Company bought the British ship Cambridge, renamed her Chesapeake under the American flag, and loaded her with British goods valued at £150,000 for [[Whampoa]]. On June 22, 1840, as H.M.S. Volage took up a station off [[Chuenpi]], she sailed past it, and she was the last vessel to enter the port.[^32] When the Chinese authorities then sought a large foreign ship to anchor above a raft across the river, they applied to Warren Delano Jr., "the then chief of Russell & Co.," who had never left Canton. The Chesapeake was made over to the mandarins, her American papers were removed, and the officials fitted her out as an auxiliary defence.[^33]
Hunter records that in 1840 Russell and Company bought the British ship Cambridge, renamed her Chesapeake under the American flag, and loaded her with British goods valued at £150,000 for [[Whampoa]]. On June 22, 1840, as H.M.S. Volage took up a station off [[Chuenpi]], she sailed past it, and she was the last vessel to enter the port.[^42] When the Chinese authorities then sought a large foreign ship to anchor above a raft across the river, they applied to Warren Delano Jr., "the then chief of Russell & Co.," who had never left Canton. The Chesapeake was made over to the mandarins, her American papers were removed, and the officials fitted her out as an auxiliary defence.[^43]
Forbes's account gives the firm a separate position on the opium trade itself. He wrote that between January and July 1840 Russell and Company "controlled considerable operations" for the Canton merchant Houqua, whose shipments were made in the firm's name and were known to the consignees to be for his account. When it became certain that the English government would make stringent demands on China, it was "arranged to buy all this property amounting to millions, and account to him for the returns," so that the shipments could not be seized in England, and the firm took its usual commission.[^34] He also wrote that the firm considered it important to keep a pledge made by John Cleve Green and that it had nothing to do with opium "between 1840 and 1844," a period he placed outside his own tenure.[^35] Forbes also wrote about the money. He said the price of the surrendered drug was contested, one side arguing that it had cost $400 or $500 a chest and the other that it sold for $250 or $300 at the time of seizure.[^35] He wrote that "most of the smaller holders of scrip were great losers, and that the large agents, who sold mostly on commission, turned their attention to speculation in scrip and in the drug itself, and made large fortunes."[^35] He also wrote that he sent out the schooner Anglona for Russell and Company in early 1841, and that she raced the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin.[^36] Hunter, for his part, records that Houqua liked to compare himself with "that famous house" with which, through Russell and Company, he had had years of important business. Hunter's footnote identifies the phrase "Ba-Blo" as Baring Brothers & Co.[^37]
Forbes's account gives the firm a separate position on the opium trade itself. He wrote that between January and July 1840 Russell and Company "controlled considerable operations" for the Canton merchant Houqua, whose shipments were made in the firm's name and were known to the consignees to be for his account. When it became certain that the English government would make stringent demands on China, it was "arranged to buy all this property amounting to millions, and account to him for the returns," so that the shipments could not be seized in England, and the firm took its usual commission.[^44] He also wrote that "Russell & Co. considered it important to keep the pledge made by Mr. Green, and for a long time had nothing to do with opium; certainly not within my time, between 1840 and 1844, when my interest ceased for a time."[^45] Forbes also wrote about the money. He said the price of the surrendered drug was contested, one side arguing that it had cost $400 or $500 a chest and the other that it sold for $250 or $300 at the time of seizure.[^45] He wrote that "most of the smaller holders of scrip were great losers, and that the large agents, who sold mostly on commission, turned their attention to speculation in scrip and in the drug itself, and made large fortunes."[^45] He also wrote that he sent out the schooner Anglona for Russell and Company in early 1841, and that she raced the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin.[^46] Hunter, for his part, records that Houqua liked to compare himself with "that famous house" with which, through Russell and Company, he had had years of important business. Hunter's footnote identifies the phrase "Ba-Blo" as Baring Brothers & Co.[^47]
The city of Canton was ransomed in 1841, after Sir [[Hugh Gough]]'s British forces took the heights above it. Hunter gives the ransom as six million dollars, five million of which were paid on the 31st, and the Hong merchants contributed two million dollars toward it, of which Houqua gave 1,100,000.[^38] For Houqua's share, Captain Elliot received three promissory notes drawn by Russell and Company at thirty days in favour of Houqua, who endorsed them to Elliot's order. The notes, for 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars, were deposited for collection with [[Jardine, Matheson and Company]] and [[Dent and Company]], and Russell and Company had moved its own office to Macao.[^37] Hunter writes: "At this time the last-named house held about two and a half millions of dollars belonging to their constituent, the endorser." The sentence follows his statement that the offices of Jardine, Matheson and Company, Dent and Company and Russell and Company had been removed to Macao, and he says the notes were cashed, less a discount of a little under a thousand dollars.[^37]
The city of Canton was ransomed in 1841, after Sir [[Hugh Gough]]'s British forces took the heights above it. Hunter gives the ransom as six million dollars, five million of which were paid on the 31st, and the Hong merchants contributed two million dollars toward it, of which Houqua gave 1,100,000.[^48] For Houqua's share, Captain Elliot received three promissory notes drawn by Russell and Company at thirty days in favour of Houqua, who endorsed them to Elliot's order. The notes, for 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars, were deposited for collection with [[Jardine, Matheson and Company]] and [[Dent and Company]], and Russell and Company had moved its own office to Macao.[^47] Hunter writes: "At this time the last-named house held about two and a half millions of dollars belonging to their constituent, the endorser." The sentence follows his statement that the offices of Jardine, Matheson and Company, Dent and Company and Russell and Company had been removed to Macao, and he says the notes were cashed, less a discount of a little under a thousand dollars.[^47]
### Railroads and the partners' American institutions
Several of the partners turned to American railroads and institutions in the next decades. The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters, his daughter [[Sarah Forbes Hughes]], writes that for the ten years before 1856 his business in ships and merchandise had been "gradually decreasing," that his work was "mainly devoted to the Michigan Central," and to the enterprise already, in 1856, known by its permanent title of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, and that the ocean telegraph "was soon to do away with the old-fashioned China merchant."[^39] She quotes his notes that he was "undoubtedly very busy with the Michigan Central Railroad, and also with the small roads which then formed the embryo of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy."[^40] The two roads are the [[Michigan Central Railroad]] and the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]].
Several of the partners turned to American railroads and institutions in the next decades. The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters, his daughter [[Sarah Forbes Hughes]], writes that for the ten years before 1856 his business in ships and merchandise had been "gradually decreasing," that his work was "mainly devoted to the Michigan Central," and to the enterprise already, in 1856, known by its permanent title of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, and that the ocean telegraph "was soon to do away with the old-fashioned China merchant."[^49] She quotes his notes that he was "undoubtedly very busy with the Michigan Central Railroad, and also with the small roads which then formed the embryo of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy."[^50] The two roads are the [[Michigan Central Railroad]] and the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]].
In 1857 the Michigan Central was in trouble. Forbes was called up from [[Naushon]] in October and asked to go to [[London]] to raise a loan of two million dollars, which the editor says might have prevented the railroad's bankruptcy.[^41] The letters print a resolution of the directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, dated October 18, 1898, which records their sorrow at Forbes's death.[^42] In the second volume he is described as chairman of the board of that road, with his cousin C. E. Perkins managing it.[^43]
In 1857 the Michigan Central was in trouble. Forbes was called up from [[Naushon Island]] in October and asked to go to [[London]] to raise a loan of two million dollars, which the editor says might have prevented the railroad's bankruptcy.[^51] The letters print a resolution of the directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, dated October 18, 1898, which records their sorrow at Forbes's death.[^52] In the second volume he is described as chairman of the board of that road, with his cousin C. E. Perkins managing it.[^53]
Samuel Russell turned to American investment after he returned to Middletown in 1831. The Library of Congress finding aid says that he founded the [[Russell Manufacturing Company]] for elastic webbing and that his real estate speculation reached [[Chicago]], [[Milwaukee]], and land in Michigan, [[Ohio]], [[Kentucky]], and [[New Jersey]].[^44] Of the later partners, the [[Landmarks Preservation Commission]] designation report for the [[Low Memorial Library]] at [[Columbia University]], given by [[Seth Low]] in honor of his father Abiel Abbot Low, says that the elder Low was a prominent tea merchant in the China trade who established an import business in 1849 and was associated with the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad and the founding of [[Newport News, Virginia]].[^45] The Trustee minutes of [[Princeton University]] record that John Cleve Green gave $200,000 for the School of Science on September 20, 1872; the John C. Green School of Science was occupied in 1874 and destroyed by fire on November 26 and 27, 1928.[^46] The university's museum reference entry on Green says that by the time President McCosh retired in 1888 Green and his residuary legatees had contributed "upwards of a million and a half, perhaps two million dollars," and describes his China fortune as derived from tea and textiles and, after the end of the East India Company's monopoly, from the opium trade, enhanced by railroad investments.[^47]
Samuel Russell turned to American investment after he returned to Middletown in 1831. The Library of Congress finding aid says that he founded the [[Russell Manufacturing Company]] for elastic webbing and that his real estate speculation reached [[Chicago]], [[Milwaukee]], and land in Michigan, [[Ohio]], [[Kentucky]], and [[New Jersey]].[^54] Of the later partners, the [[Landmarks Preservation Commission]] designation report for the [[Low Memorial Library]] at [[Columbia University]], given by [[Seth Low]] in honor of his father Abiel Abbot Low, says that the elder Low was a prominent tea merchant in the China trade who established an import business in 1849 and was associated with the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad and the founding of [[Newport News, Virginia]].[^55] The Trustee minutes of [[Princeton University]] record that John Cleve Green gave $200,000 for the School of Science on September 20, 1872; the John C. Green School of Science was occupied in 1874 and destroyed by fire on November 26 and 27, 1928.[^56] The university's museum reference entry on Green says that by the time President McCosh retired in 1888 Green and his residuary legatees had contributed "upwards of a million and a half, perhaps two million dollars," and describes his China fortune as derived from tea and textiles and, after the end of the East India Company's monopoly, from the opium trade, enhanced by railroad investments.[^57]
### The Delano family
The Franklin D. Roosevelt Library finding aid for the Delano family papers says that Warren Delano II sailed to China in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce, became associated at Canton with Russell Sturgis and Company, and in January 1840 became a partner in Russell and Company. During the [[Opium War]] he remained in Canton and [[Macao]] and served as acting consul. The panic of 1857 brought severe losses, and in 1859 he returned to China to restore his fortune. His family, including the president's mother, joined him at [[Hong Kong]] in 1862, and he died at his house [[Algonac]] on January 17, 1898.[^7] The finding aid states that the papers include material on the history of Russell and Company's financial interests in China.[^7]
The Franklin D. Roosevelt Library finding aid for the Delano family papers says that Warren Delano II sailed to China in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce, became associated at Canton with Russell Sturgis and Company, and in January 1840 became a partner in Russell and Company. During the [[Opium War]] he remained in Canton and [[Macao]] and served as acting consul. The panic of 1857 brought severe losses, and in 1859 he returned to China to restore his fortune. His family, including the president's mother, joined him at [[Hong Kong]] in 1862, and he died at his house [[Algonac]] on January 17, 1898.[^10] The finding aid states that the papers include material on the history of Russell and Company's financial interests in China, among them a series of typescript copies of letters to members of the house for 1840 and 1841 and "Houqua Accounts and Memoranda, 1865-1867."[^10]
Forbes's memoir records the terms of a later reorganization of the house in 1846, under which "W. Delano was to retire after a time" and [[Edward Delano]] remained a partner.[^48] The memoir adds that Edward Delano returned home in 1846.[^49]
The [[Delano family]] of [[Fairhaven, Massachusetts]] traced its American line to [[Philippe de Lannoy]], who reached Plymouth in 1621. Warren Delano II was a son of [[Captain Warren Delano]] (1779 to 1866) and the father of [[Sara Delano Roosevelt]], whose son was Franklin D. Roosevelt. A daughter, Deborah Perry (Dora) Delano, married [[William Howell Forbes]] of Hong Kong at Paris in 1867, and another, Annie Lyman Delano, married [[Frederick Delano Hitch]] of Shanghai in 1877.[^58] Forbes's appendix lists a W. Howell Forbes who entered the house in 1860 and remained a partner.[^59]
Forbes's appendix gives the partnership dates of Warren Delano: partner in Russell, Sturgis and Company from December 31, 1835; admitted to Russell and Company on January 1, 1840 and a partner until December 31, 1846; admitted again on January 1, 1861 and finally retired on December 31, 1866.[^60] Hunter records that when the Chinese authorities wanted a large foreign ship in 1840 the application was made to Delano, and that Delano told Forbes that Houqua was disposed to send orders to India for cotton, three ships being despatched with 100,000 pounds remitted.[^61] *The Chinese Repository* of September 1840 records that after the consul Snow embarked for New York "W. Delano, jun. esq. acts as vice-consul."[^62] In December 1841 he arranged with the hong merchants for the release of about forty survivors of the wrecked East India Company steamer Madagascar and asked that no account be published in the Canton newspapers; the commander of the steamer wrote that [[James Matheson]]'s influence "with the American consul and merchants" had secured the result.[^63] Curtis T. Henson's study of the East India Squadron records that in 1842 Delano, as vice-consul, apprised Commodore [[Lawrence Kearny]] of an outrage against American subjects.[^64]
Forbes's memoir records the terms of a later reorganization of the house in 1846, under which "W. Delano was to retire after a time" and [[Edward Delano]] remained a partner.[^65] The memoir adds that "In 1846 Mr. Edward Delano returned home."[^66]
The Hong Kong directory for 1865 lists Russell and Company at Queen's Road with Paul S. Forbes (absent), Warren Delano Jr., William H. Forbes, George Tyson, David O. Clark, Frank B. Forbes, Henry S. Grew, Richard S. Dana, W. H. Foster Jr., E. D. Barbour and Emil Vogel.[^67]
### William Huntington Russell and the Russell name at Yale
[[Franklin Bowditch Dexter]]'s biographical sketches of Yale graduates give Matthew Talcott Russell as the second son of Rev. Noadiah Russell, Yale 1750, born in 1761. He settled as a lawyer in Middletown in 1786, served sixteen years as city treasurer, and in 1797 married Mary, eldest daughter of Rev. [[Enoch Huntington]] of Middletown. The sketch says their children were seven daughters and six sons, and that "The fifth son was graduated here in 1833."[^11] The Yale obituary record gives William Huntington Russell as the son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary Huntington Russell, born in Middletown on August 12, 1809.[^12]
[[Franklin Bowditch Dexter]]'s biographical sketches of Yale graduates give Matthew Talcott Russell as the second son of Rev. Noadiah Russell, Yale 1750, born in 1761. He settled as a lawyer in Middletown in 1786, served sixteen years as city treasurer, and in 1797 married Mary, eldest daughter of Rev. [[Enoch Huntington]] of Middletown. The sketch says their children were seven daughters and six sons, and that "The fifth son was graduated here in 1833."[^15] The Yale obituary record gives William Huntington Russell as the son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary Huntington Russell, born in Middletown on August 12, 1809.[^16]
The 1856 act incorporating the [[Russell Trust Association]], the trust through which Skull and Bones conducts its corporate affairs, names William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] as its first incorporators.[^50] A letter to the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] by [[Bruce L. Reynolds]] in 2015 attributed the money for the society's 1856 building to Russell and Company, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book on the China trade.[^51]
The 1856 act incorporating the [[Russell Trust Association]], the trust through which Skull and Bones conducts its corporate affairs, names William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] as its first incorporators.[^68] A letter to the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] by [[Bruce L. Reynolds]] in 2015 attributed the money for the society's 1856 building to Russell and Company, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book on the China trade.[^69]
### Failure and closing
The Library of Congress holds records dated 1812 to 1894, chiefly from 1819 to 1840, which were given to the library by [[Thomas Macdonough Russell]] in 1931.[^3] The Baker Library records of the firm are dated 1820 to 1891, and the Baker Library's Forbes family business records include papers on the creation of the Shanghai Navigation Company, a steamboat company on the Yangtze River.[^2]
The second volume of the Forbes letters describes the last years of John Murray Forbes, who died in 1898. The editor, Sarah Forbes Hughes, writes that he was grieved by "the failure of his old house in China, Russell & Co., occasioned by some speculations in steamers and the close competition by German commission merchants." She adds that his friends, the "time-honored" Baring Brothers, had suspended payment, and that these events gave him "an actual physical shock."[^43] A footnote to that passage prints Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of the firm, which argued that its commission business alone could yield $200,000 a year net on a capital of $2,000,000, and that speculations of any sort would damage that capital.[^52]
The second volume of the Forbes letters describes the last years of John Murray Forbes, who died on October 12, 1898. The editor, Sarah Forbes Hughes, writes that he was grieved by "the failure of his old house in China, Russell & Co., occasioned by some speculations in steamers and the close competition by German commission merchants." She adds that his friends, the "time-honored" Baring Brothers, had suspended payment, and that these events gave him "an actual physical shock."[^53] A footnote to that passage prints Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of the firm, which argued that its commission business alone could yield $200,000 a year net on a capital of $2,000,000, and that speculations of any sort would damage that capital.[^70]
The [[Hong Kong Daily Press]] of July 22, 1891 reported a petition in bankruptcy before the Acting Chief Justice, E. J. Ackroyd. A Canton merchant petitioned "for the adjudication in bankruptcy" of W. H. Forbes, J. M. Forbes, A. W. Pomeroy, Chas. V. Smith and C. A. Tomes, "trading under the style of Russell & Co. at Hongkong and elsewhere." The petitioner's claim was for $1,044, and the court made an order adjudicating all the debtors bankrupts.[^53] The index to the Forbes letters lists J. Malcolm Forbes and William Hathaway Forbes as sons of John Murray Forbes; the records found do not establish whether they are the W. H. Forbes and J. M. Forbes named in the petition.[^54] On September 1, 1891 the Supreme Court of Hong Kong heard an application in a suit by No Chi Kiu and four others against Ng Woon Soon and others, which the report described as "a case arising out of the How Qua property and the failure of Messrs. Russell & Co." Counsel read an affidavit stating that Russell and Company became insolvent in June, that Hong Kong lots formerly registered in the Land Office as the property of John Murray Forbes junior had been registered in the name of a trustee for the creditors of Russell and Company, that an equitable charge by Russell and Company in favour of John Murray Forbes, trustee for How Qua, secured a sum in taels with interest at seven per cent, and that judgments of about $229,000 had been obtained against the partners in the late firm.[^55]
The [[Hong Kong Daily Press]] of July 22, 1891 reported a petition in bankruptcy before the Acting Chief Justice, E. J. Ackroyd. A Canton merchant petitioned "for the adjudication in bankruptcy" of W. H. Forbes, J. M. Forbes, A. W. Pomeroy, Chas. V. Smith and C. A. Tomes, "trading under the style of Russell & Co. at Hongkong and elsewhere." The petitioner's claim was for $1,044, and the court made an order adjudicating all the debtors bankrupts.[^71] The 1889 directory lists William H. Forbes and John M. Forbes (New York) among the partners of the firm at Hong Kong.[^72] The John Murray Forbes who was a partner at Canton in the 1830s and chaired the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy board until 1898 is not the partner of 1891, John Murray Forbes Jr. (1844 to 1921) of the [[Forbes family]].[^73] On September 1, 1891 the Supreme Court of Hong Kong heard an application in a suit by No Chi Kiu and four others against Ng Woon Soon and others, which the report described as "a case arising out of the How Qua property and the failure of Messrs. Russell & Co." Counsel read an affidavit stating that Russell and Company became insolvent in June, that Hong Kong lots formerly registered in the Land Office as the property of John Murray Forbes junior had been registered in the name of a trustee for the creditors of Russell and Company, that an equitable charge by Russell and Company in favour of John Murray Forbes, trustee for How Qua, secured a sum in taels with interest at seven per cent, and that judgments of about $229,000 had been obtained against the partners in the late firm.[^74]
The [[Hong Kong Telegraph]] of August 31, 1891 printed a letter signed A. B. McKean from the head office of the [[National Bank of China]], Limited, in Hong Kong. It reported that at a statutory meeting of shareholders in London on July 30 "an informal resolution was passed in favor of winding up the Bank," that the bank's articles of association appointed "the late firm of Russell & Co." secretaries of the bank for fifty years on a commission on profits, and that "the failure of Russell & Co. in June, and their consequent inability to carry out their part, cancels this agreement." It stated that "Rumours, absolutely false, have been circulated to the effect that the Bank has sustained heavy losses owing to the failure of Russell & Co." and that counsel's opinion in London was that the resolution of July 30 was not binding on the bank.[^56]
The Chronicle and Directory for China for 1889 gives the partners of "Russell & Co., merchants, Praya" at Hong Kong as William H. Forbes, John M. Forbes (New York), S. W. Pomeroy (London), Charles Vincent Smith (Shanghai), F. D. Bush (New York), G. H. Wheeler (Shanghai), E. H. M. Huntington and C. A. Tomes, and lists the same names at Shanghai with William H. Forbes at Hong Kong and John M. Forbes in New York.[^72] The 1892 volume's chronology of Hong Kong carries the entry "Russell & Co., suspend payment, 1891."[^75]
On December 10, 1891 the Hong Kong Daily Press printed the report of the official assignee on the last examination of Charles Alexander Tomes, a junior partner. It states that Tomes "was adjudicated bankrupt, with William Howell Forbes, the senior partner at the firm," on July 22, 1891; that William Howell Forbes, as senior partner, had admitted him by a letter without any deed of partnership; and that his admission "has never yet received the sanction of John Murray Forbes, another partner of the firm who conducted the business in New York." It adds that all the partners entered into a trust deed on June 9, 1891 for the benefit of their creditors under the laws of New York, with Henry Hannah of New York as trustee.[^76]
The Massachusetts Historical Society's genealogy for the Forbes family papers has one William Howell Forbes (1837 to 1896), a son of Paul Siemen Forbes, who lived in China, and one John Murray Forbes Jr. (1844 to 1921), a brother of Francis Blackwell Forbes, who went to China in 1857 and became a partner in Russell and Company. The John Murray Forbes Jr. folder holds business letters from Boston, New York and China for 1879 to 1906, and the collection holds letters from Francis Blackwell Forbes to William Howell Forbes, John Murray Forbes Jr., S. W. Pomeroy and G. H. Wheeler.[^73]
The [[Hong Kong Telegraph]] of August 31, 1891 printed a letter signed A. B. McKean from the head office of the [[National Bank of China]], Limited, in Hong Kong. It reported that at a statutory meeting of shareholders in London on July 30 "an informal resolution was passed in favor of winding up the Bank," that the bank's articles of association appointed "the late firm of Russell & Co." secretaries of the bank for fifty years on a commission on profits, and that "the failure of Russell & Co. in June, and their consequent inability to carry out their part, cancels this agreement." It stated that "Rumours, absolutely false, have been circulated to the effect that the Bank has sustained heavy losses owing to the failure of Russell & Co." and that counsel's opinion in London was that the resolution of July 30 was not binding on the bank.[^77]
### Footnotes
[^1]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 156-157 (house constitution, the Samuel Russell & Co. dates, the Kee-Chang-Hong name, the phrase on agency business, partner admissions and departures, Delano, Sturgis and Forbes). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^2]: Heard Library, Baker Library, Harvard Business School, collection guide, "Russell & Company records," Mss:766, 1820-1891, 25 volumes, with the history paragraph on the 1831 merger, the Perkins and Company letter books and the firm's demise in 1891; same guide, Forbes Family business records, Mss:766 1803-1942. https://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/heard/manuscript-collections.html
[^3]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," MSS38562, finding aid revised February 2024, collection summary, scope and content note, subject index, related material, container list. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 and https://lccn.loc.gov/mm80038562
[^4]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 150, the Lintin as Russell and Company's "receiving ship" from 1830 and the nine years her anchors were not raised. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^5]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8 statement of significance, pp. 8-11, drawing on Alain Munkittrick, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell (1789-1862): A Study in Ordered Investment," Wesleyan University honors thesis, 1973, which is based on the Russell & Company papers at the Library of Congress. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^6]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 131-132, his plans in 1829-1830 for the command of the Lintin station, arranged with the Perkins family and Bryant and Sturgis, whom he calls "my powerful friends," and the Tartar then on the station. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^7]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano family papers, biographical introduction to Warren Delano II (1809-1898), pp. 1-2 of the PDF, and the description of the papers. The library's numbering is Warren Delano II; this page uses the name Warren Delano Jr. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf
[^8]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 223, his partnership in Russell and Company from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844 and from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and his service as vice-consul. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^9]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 122-123, the departure of Mr. Russell and Mr. Cushing from Canton in the Bashaw, February 27, 1831. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^10]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. II (1745-1763), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, p. 90, born Middletown November 20, 1690, eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin; married Mary Pierpont August 19, 1719; four sons and five daughters, including the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket02dext
[^11]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. IV (1778-1792), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125-126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket04dextuoft
[^12]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College*, entry for William Huntington Russell, son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary (Huntington) Russell, born in Middletown, August 12, 1809. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^13]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302] for Capt. John Russell (pp. 118 to 119), [307] for Matthew Talcott Russell (p. 119) and [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, with the descent lines "(John, Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)" and "(Noadiah, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)". https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^14]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), opening article ("His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise"), pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"), p. 313 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and p. 52 ("drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^15]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118-119, the death of Thomas T. Forbes and S. H. Monson on August 9, 1829, the sealed letter to Russell and Company, Cushing's return in August 1830 and the appointment of Russell and Company as sole agents. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^16]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, editor's note on Cushing and the Perkins business at Canton, roughly p. 62. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^17]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, box 9, account books, 1816-1829, with the entry for "Notes on the Chinese Method of Preparing Opium for Smoking." https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^18]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 123-124, the voyage to Smyrna fitted out at New York by Sturgis and Perkins to procure Turkey opium for China. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^19]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 124-125, the Smyrna consignment to Joseph Langdon, the Barings credit, the convoy from Vourla under the schooner Porpoise, the passage to Gibraltar, and the brig Leander and Joseph Peabody. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^20]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 142-144, the store-ships at Lintin, the smuggling boats, the mandarin boats, the annual value of the trade, and the government's encouragement of opium from India and Turkey. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^21]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 159, the commission account and gains of the Lintin from January 1 to the closing of the port. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^22]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 7, no. 12 (April 1839), "Crisis in the Opium Traffic," the proceedings of March 21, 1839 (letter of the General Chamber of Commerce to the Hong merchants, W. S. Wetmore, chairman) and the edict of April 1, 1839. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor7121unse
[^23]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 8, no. 1 (May 1839), the edict to Elliot, Johnston, Snow and Van Basel and the commissioner's reply on the American consul's declaration. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor8118unse
[^24]: *Correspondence relating to China*, presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty (London, 1840), enclosure 21 in no. 146, Captain Elliot to the Imperial Commissioner, Canton, March 28, 1839. https://archive.org/details/CorrespondenceRelatingToChina1840
[^25]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 146-147, the surrender of British-owned opium in the name of Queen Victoria, the schedules issued chest by chest, the nominal value of 20,283 chests, the American hong with Mr. P. W. Snow, United States consul, Russell and Company, and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and the strict guard over the foreign community. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^26]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 144, the 15,501 chests given up by May 2, 1839, and the completed total of 20,283 chests on May 21. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^27]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 146, the statement that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium and held about fifty cases of Turkey at the time of surrender, and the sentences on the English placing theirs in charge of the American houses and on the share that fell under the control of Russell and Co. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^28]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 145-146 and note 1, the half-commission discussion and the charge foregone on the quantity delivered up by Russell and Company, nearly 15,000 dollars. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^29]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," January 9, 1840, referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs (U.S. Serial Set vol. 364), pp. 1-4, with the signatures dated Canton, May 25, 1839. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000
[^30]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 9, no. 1 (May 1840), the petition of American houses at Canton dated April 25, 1840 and the commissioner's reply. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor9118unse
[^31]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 154-155, the treaty of the United States signed at Mong-Ha (Macao) on July 3, 1844 by Mr. Caleb Cushing and Ke-Ying. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^32]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the purchase of the Cambridge, her renaming as the Chesapeake under the American flag, the British cargo, the sailing past the blockade station on June 22, 1840, and her arrival as the last vessel to enter the port. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^33]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the application to Mr. Delano, "the then chief of Russell & Co.," the sale of the Chesapeake to the mandarins and her fitting out as an auxiliary defence. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^34]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 161-162, the operations controlled for Houqua between January and July 1840, the purchase of the shipments to prevent their seizure in England, the shipments made in the firm's name, and the commission charged. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^35]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 160-161, the dispute over the price of the surrendered opium ($400 or $500 a chest against $250 or $300 at seizure), the passage on the holders of scrip and the speculators who made large fortunes, and the pledge made by Mr. Green with the statement that the firm had nothing to do with opium between 1840 and 1844. This is Forbes's own account. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^36]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 302, the schooner Anglona sent out in early 1841 for Russell and Company and her race with the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^37]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 46-47, the three promissory notes of 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars drawn by Russell and Company in Houqua's favour, the deposit with Jardine, Matheson and Company and Dent and Company, the sentence beginning "At this time the last-named house," the discount, and Houqua's remark "My all same, 'Ba-Blo.'" https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^38]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 45-46 (the Hong merchants' contribution of 2,000,000 dollars and Houqua's share of 1,100,000 dollars) and p. 150 (the ransom of six million dollars, five million paid on the 31st). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^39]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 160, the editor's text on John Murray Forbes's business in the 1850s, the Michigan Central, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the ocean telegraph. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^40]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 138, quoting Forbes's notes. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^41]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, pp. 168-169, the October loan request in London to prevent the Michigan Central's bankruptcy during the crisis of 1857. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^42]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, Appendix A, resolution of the board of directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, October 18, 1898. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^43]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, pp. 224-225, the editor's account of the chairmanship of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy board, C. E. Perkins, the failure of Russell and Company and the suspension of Baring Brothers and Company. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^44]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, scope and content note on Samuel Russell (1789 to circa 1862) of Middletown, the Greek Revival mansion letters of 1827-1830, the Russell Manufacturing Company, the 1831 return to Middletown, and the land speculation subjects. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^45]: New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, Designation List 139, LP-1118, "Low Memorial Library Interior," February 3, 1981, history of the donor. https://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/1118.pdf
[^46]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green School of Science," citing Trustee Minutes of September 20, 1872, with the dates of occupancy (1874) and destruction by fire (November 26-27, 1928). https://www.princetonianamuseum.org/reference/5ef15e9b-6369-491c-a2e0-cc20b816db83
[^47]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green," including President McCosh's farewell report of 1888. https://princetonianamuseum.org/reference/b5388d91-1efc-4e01-ace3-3b5d7a6e3774
[^48]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 168, the 1846 reorganization terms under which W. Delano was to retire and Edward Delano was to remain a partner. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^49]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 355, the return of Edward Delano in 1846. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^50]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856), resolution amending the charter (July 1870), and resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887). The act names William H. Russell, John S. Beach, Henry B. Harrison, Daniel C. Gilman, Henry T. Blake and Henry D. White as the body corporate, with the power of the General Assembly to amend or repeal it.
[^51]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article, citing James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
[^52]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, p. 225 and note 1, Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of Russell and Company. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^53]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, July 22, 1891, p. 2, "In Bankruptcy," before Mr. E. J. Ackroyd, Acting Chief Justice. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910722
[^54]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, index, p. 244, entries for J. Malcolm Forbes and William Hathaway Forbes, sons of J. M. F. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^55]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, September 2, 1891, p. 2, Supreme Court, 1st September, before Sir James Russell, Chief Justice, No Chi Kiu and four others v. Ng Woon Soon, Creasy Ewens and Ng Chau Fong. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910902
[^56]: *Hong Kong Telegraph*, August 31, 1891, p. 3, letter to the editor from the head office of the National Bank of China, Limited, signed A. B. McKean. https://archive.org/details/NPTG18910831
[^6]: National Register of Historic Places nomination, "Russell Company Upper Mill," Middletown, Connecticut (1986), "History" section. https://www.middletownct.gov/DocumentCenter/View/5448
[^7]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, pp. 62-64. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^8]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), addenda, p. 386. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^9]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 131-132, his plans in 1829-1830 for the command of the Lintin station, arranged with the Perkins family and Bryant and Sturgis, whom he calls "my powerful friends," and the Tartar then on the station. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^10]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano family papers, biographical introduction to Warren Delano II (1809-1898), pp. 1-2 of the PDF, and the description of the papers. The library's numbering is Warren Delano II; this page uses the name Warren Delano Jr. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf
[^11]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 223, his partnership in Russell and Company from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844 and from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and his service as vice-consul. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^12]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 15, quoting the letter of January 14, 1837 in the Library of Congress collection; Library of Congress, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," MSS38562. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^13]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 122-123, the departure of Mr. Russell and Mr. Cushing from Canton in the Bashaw, February 27, 1831. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^14]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. II (1745-1763), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, p. 90, born Middletown November 20, 1690, eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin; married Mary Pierpont August 19, 1719; four sons and five daughters, including the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket02dext
[^15]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. IV (1778-1792), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125-126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket04dextuoft
[^16]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College*, entry for William Huntington Russell, son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary (Huntington) Russell, born in Middletown, August 12, 1809. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^17]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302] for Capt. John Russell (pp. 118 to 119), [307] for Matthew Talcott Russell (p. 119) and [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, with the descent lines "(John, Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)" and "(Noadiah, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)". https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^18]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), opening article ("His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise"), pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"), p. 313 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and p. 52 ("drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^19]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118-119, the death of Thomas T. Forbes and S. H. Monson on August 9, 1829, the sealed letter to Russell and Company, Cushing's return in August 1830 and the appointment of Russell and Company as sole agents. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^20]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, editor's note on Cushing and the Perkins business at Canton, roughly p. 62. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^21]: Thomas Greaves Cary, *Memoir of Thomas Handasyd Perkins* (Boston, 1856), pp. 208 to 210. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^22]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118 to 119. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^23]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), chapter VIII, pp. 387 to 389. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^24]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, box 9, account books, 1816-1829, with the entry for "Notes on the Chinese Method of Preparing Opium for Smoking." https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^25]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), p. 134. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^26]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 123-124, the voyage to Smyrna fitted out at New York by Sturgis and Perkins to procure Turkey opium for China. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^27]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 282 to 283 and 289 to 290. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary
[^28]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 124-125, the Smyrna consignment to Joseph Langdon, the Barings credit, the convoy from Vourla under the schooner Porpoise, the passage to Gibraltar, and the brig Leander and Joseph Peabody. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^29]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 142-144, the store-ships at Lintin, the smuggling boats, the mandarin boats, the annual value of the trade, and the government's encouragement of opium from India and Turkey. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^30]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 159, the commission account and gains of the Lintin from January 1 to the closing of the port. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^31]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 7, no. 12 (April 1839), "Crisis in the Opium Traffic," the proceedings of March 21, 1839 (letter of the General Chamber of Commerce to the Hong merchants, W. S. Wetmore, chairman) and the edict of April 1, 1839. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor7121unse
[^32]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 8, no. 1 (May 1839), the edict to Elliot, Johnston, Snow and Van Basel and the commissioner's reply on the American consul's declaration. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor8118unse
[^33]: *Correspondence relating to China*, presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty (London, 1840), enclosure 21 in no. 146, Captain Elliot to the Imperial Commissioner, Canton, March 28, 1839. https://archive.org/details/CorrespondenceRelatingToChina1840
[^34]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 146-147, the surrender of British-owned opium in the name of Queen Victoria, the schedules issued chest by chest, the nominal value of 20,283 chests, the American hong with Mr. P. W. Snow, United States consul, Russell and Company, and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and the strict guard over the foreign community. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^35]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 144, the 15,501 chests given up by May 2, 1839, and the completed total of 20,283 chests on May 21. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^36]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. VII, no. 12 (April 1839), "Crisis in the Opium Traffic," minutes of the General Chamber of Commerce committee, No. 21. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor7121unse
[^37]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 146, the statement that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium and held about fifty cases of Turkey at the time of surrender, and the sentences on the English placing theirs in charge of the American houses and on the share that fell under the control of Russell and Co. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^38]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 145-146 and note 1, the half-commission discussion and the charge foregone on the quantity delivered up by Russell and Company, nearly 15,000 dollars. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^39]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," January 9, 1840, referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs (U.S. Serial Set vol. 364), pp. 1-4, with the signatures dated Canton, May 25, 1839. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000
[^40]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 9, no. 1 (May 1840), the petition of American houses at Canton dated April 25, 1840 and the commissioner's reply. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor9118unse
[^41]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 154-155, the treaty of the United States signed at Mong-Ha (Macao) on July 3, 1844 by Mr. Caleb Cushing and Ke-Ying. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^42]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the purchase of the Cambridge, her renaming as the Chesapeake under the American flag, the British cargo, the sailing past the blockade station on June 22, 1840, and her arrival as the last vessel to enter the port. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^43]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the application to Mr. Delano, "the then chief of Russell & Co.," the sale of the Chesapeake to the mandarins and her fitting out as an auxiliary defence. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^44]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 161-162, the operations controlled for Houqua between January and July 1840, the purchase of the shipments to prevent their seizure in England, the shipments made in the firm's name, and the commission charged. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^45]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 160-161, the dispute over the price of the surrendered opium ($400 or $500 a chest against $250 or $300 at seizure), the passage on the holders of scrip and the speculators who made large fortunes, and the pledge made by Mr. Green and the statement that the firm for a long time had nothing to do with opium, certainly not within Forbes's time, between 1840 and 1844 (the pledge passage is on p. 161; the Houqua passage in note 34 is at pp. 157-158). This is Forbes's own account. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^46]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 302, the schooner Anglona sent out in early 1841 for Russell and Company and her race with the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^47]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 46-47, the three promissory notes of 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars drawn by Russell and Company in Houqua's favour, the deposit with Jardine, Matheson and Company and Dent and Company, the sentence beginning "At this time the last-named house," the discount, and Houqua's remark "My all same, 'Ba-Blo.'" https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^48]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 45-46 (the Hong merchants' contribution of 2,000,000 dollars and Houqua's share of 1,100,000 dollars) and p. 150 (the ransom of six million dollars, five million paid on the 31st). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^49]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 160, the editor's text on John Murray Forbes's business in the 1850s, the Michigan Central, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the ocean telegraph. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^50]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 138, quoting Forbes's notes. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^51]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, pp. 168-169, the October loan request in London to prevent the Michigan Central's bankruptcy during the crisis of 1857. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^52]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, Appendix A, resolution of the board of directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, October 18, 1898. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^53]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, pp. 224-225, the editor's account of the chairmanship of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy board, C. E. Perkins, the failure of Russell and Company and the suspension of Baring Brothers and Company; p. 237, the date of his death, October 12, 1898. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^54]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, scope and content note on Samuel Russell (1789 to circa 1862) of Middletown, the Greek Revival mansion letters of 1827-1830, the Russell Manufacturing Company, the 1831 return to Middletown, and the land speculation subjects. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^55]: New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, Designation List 139, LP-1118, "Low Memorial Library Interior," February 3, 1981, history of the donor. https://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/1118.pdf
[^56]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green School of Science," citing Trustee Minutes of September 20, 1872, with the dates of occupancy (1874) and destruction by fire (November 26-27, 1928). https://www.princetonianamuseum.org/reference/5ef15e9b-6369-491c-a2e0-cc20b816db83
[^57]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green," including President McCosh's farewell report of 1888. https://princetonianamuseum.org/reference/b5388d91-1efc-4e01-ace3-3b5d7a6e3774
[^58]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pt. 4-6, Capt. Warren Delano and Warren Delano 2d entries, pp. 503-506. https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela
[^59]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, pp. 356-357. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^60]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, pp. 355-357. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^61]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 147 and 150. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^62]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. IX (September 1840), p. 628.
[^63]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. XI, no. XII (December 1842), "Loss of the Madagascar," pp. 641-643. https://archive.org/details/chinesereposito111unse_11
[^64]: Curtis T. Henson Jr., *Commissioners and Commodores: The East India Squadron and American Diplomacy in China* (University of Alabama Press, 1982), chapter "Commodore Kearny and the Opium War." https://archive.org/details/commissionerscom00hens
[^65]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 168, the 1846 reorganization terms under which W. Delano was to retire and Edward Delano was to remain a partner. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^66]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 356, "In 1846 Mr. Edward Delano returned home." https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^67]: *The Chronicle and Directory for China, Japan and the Philippines for 1865* (Hong Kong: Daily Press Office, 1865), "Russell & Co., Queen's Road." https://archive.org/details/1865-chronicle-and-directory-for-china-etc
[^68]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856), resolution amending the charter (July 1870), and resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887). The act names William H. Russell, John S. Beach, Henry B. Harrison, Daniel C. Gilman, Henry T. Blake and Henry D. White as the body corporate, with the power of the General Assembly to amend or repeal it.
[^69]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article, citing James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
[^70]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, p. 225 and note 1, Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of Russell and Company. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^71]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, July 22, 1891, p. 2, "In Bankruptcy," before Mr. E. J. Ackroyd, Acting Chief Justice. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910722
[^72]: *The Chronicle and Directory for China, Corea, Japan, the Philippines, etc., for the Year 1889*, Hongkong firms ("Russell & Co., merchants, Praya"), Shanghai firms ("Russell & Co., merchants, The Bund") and the Hongkong residents' list. https://archive.org/details/Directorychronicle1889
[^73]: Massachusetts Historical Society, *Forbes Family Papers, 1732-1931* (Ms. N-49), collection guide, biographical sketch of Francis Blackwell Forbes and Paul Siemen Forbes, condensed genealogy, and reel 21, 22, 27 and 28 folder lists. https://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0269
[^74]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, September 2, 1891, p. 2, Supreme Court, 1st September, before Sir James Russell, Chief Justice, No Chi Kiu and four others v. Ng Woon Soon, Creasy Ewens and Ng Chau Fong. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910902
[^75]: *The Chronicle and Directory of China, etc., for 1892*, Hongkong chronological table. https://archive.org/details/Directorychronicle1892
[^76]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, December 10, 1891, "In Bankruptcy," before Mr. E. J. Ackroyd, Acting Chief Justice, report of the Official Assignee on Charles Alexander Tomes. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18911210
[^77]: *Hong Kong Telegraph*, August 31, 1891, p. 3, letter to the editor from the head office of the National Bank of China, Limited, signed A. B. McKean. https://archive.org/details/NPTG18910831

461
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md
View file

@ -31,62 +31,62 @@ relations:
with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1948"
fn: 48
fn: 53
- type: member_of
with: "[[George W. Bush]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1968"
fn: 48
fn: 53
- type: member_of
with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1940"
fn: 56
fn: 63
- type: member_of
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1917"
fn: 41
fn: 46
- type: member_of
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1917"
fn: 41
fn: 46
- type: member_of
with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1913"
fn: 40
fn: 45
- type: member_of
with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1888"
fn: 36
fn: 41
- type: member_of
with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1918"
fn: 69
fn: 92
- type: member_of
with: "[[Payne Whitney]]"
reverse: true
role: "B.A. 1898"
fn: 73
fn: 96
- type: member_of
with: "[[Henry Luce]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1920"
fn: 53
fn: 58
- type: member_of
with: "[[William F. Buckley Jr.]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1950"
fn: 58
fn: 66
- type: member_of
with: "[[John Kerry]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1966"
fn: 62
fn: 70
- type: founded
with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]"
reverse: true
@ -103,6 +103,43 @@ relations:
reverse: true
start: "1832"
fn: 1
- type: member_of
with: "[[Harvey H. Bundy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1909
role: "member, initiated 1909, per Sutton's index"
fn: 65
- type: member_of
with: "[[William Sloane Coffin]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, class of 1949"
fn: 67
- type: member_of
with: "[[Weyerhaeuser family]]"
reverse: true
start: 1896
role: "Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser, class of 1896, recorded as Bones in the class's decennial record"
fn: 80
- type: member_of
with: "[[William Walter Phelps]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1860"
fn: 87
- type: member_of
with: "[[Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1896"
fn: 88
- type: member_of
with: "[[Wadsworth family|James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1898"
fn: 82
- type: member_of
with: "[[Lord family|Oswald Bates Lord]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1926"
fn: 85
---
Skull and Bones is a senior society at [[Yale University]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]. Its members are chosen in their junior year, spend one year on campus as initiates, and remain members for life as patriarchs. The society meets in a windowless sandstone building on [[High Street]]. Its corporate affairs run through three Connecticut entities: the Russell Trust Association, chartered by the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856; RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation formed in 1961 and recognized as a tax-exempt educational organization supporting Yale; and the Deer Island Club Corporation, formed in 1907 to operate the society's island retreat in the [[St. Lawrence River]].
@ -127,196 +164,368 @@ The Yale obituary record and Franklin Bowditch Dexter's sketches of Yale graduat
### The 1856 charter and RTA Incorporated
Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the fall of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^16]
Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the summer of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^16][^17]
The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^17] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^17] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^18] Bagg listed the same names with their class years and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next to the last as treasurer, of the association"; the next-to-last name in the act is Henry D. White, and Sutton wrote that Gilman became treasurer.[^4]
The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^18] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^18] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^19] Bagg listed the same names with their class years and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next the last as treasurer, of the association." In Bagg's list the name next to the last is Henry D. White ('51); Sutton and Millegan give the treasurer as Gilman.[^4]
On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^19] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^20] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^20][^21]
The class secretary, [[Ephraim Cutter]], listed Skull and Bones among Gilman's senior-year societies in the memorial volume the class of 1852 published in 1909.[^20] An 1876 pamphlet, The Fall of Skull and Bones, reports a framed engraving in the hall with a card reading "From the German Chapter. Presented by Patriarch D.C. Gilman of D. 50."[^21] Gilman's papers at the [[Yale University Library]], catalogued as MS 582, include correspondence from William H. Russell dated 1855, a year before the act.[^22]
The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^22] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^23] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^24] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^25]
On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^23] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^24] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^24][^25]
The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^19]
The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^26] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^27] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^28] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^29]
Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^26] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the [[Yale University Library|Yale library]], filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^25] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^27] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^28]
The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^23]
Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^30] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the Yale library, filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^29] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^31] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^32]
### Finances and the island
The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^29] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^30] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^30]
The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^33] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^34] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^34]
The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^29][^31]
The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^33][^35]
Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^24] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^25] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^32] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^25]
Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^28] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^29] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^36] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^29]
Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^33] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^25] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^19]
Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^37] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^29] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^23]
### Membership in government, intelligence and finance
Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^34] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted.
Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^38] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted.
The Yale Obituary Record for 1929 to 1930 lists among William Howard Taft's undergraduate societies "Linonia, Delta Kappa, Phi Theta Psi, He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, and Phi Beta Kappa."[^7]
[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^35] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^36] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^37] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^25] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^32] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^38] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^39] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3]
[[Horace Dutton Taft]], a son of Alphonso Taft by his second marriage, graduated from Yale University in 1883 and is listed among his Yale societies as Skull and Bones. He studied in Vienna in 1883 and 1884, the years his father was minister to [[Austria-Hungary]]. He founded the [[Taft School]] in 1890 and was its headmaster until 1936.[^39]
[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^40] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^41] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^25] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^42] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^43] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^44] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^41] The 1979 company history of Dresser Industries by [[Darwin Payne]] states that Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon had been fellow members of the society.[^45]
[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^40] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^41] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^42] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^29] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^36] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^43] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^44] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3]
[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^41] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^46] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^47] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^47]
[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^45] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^46] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^29] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^47] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^48] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^49] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^46] The 1979 company history of Dresser Industries by [[Darwin Payne]] states that Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon had been fellow members of the society.[^50]
On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^43]
[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^46] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^51] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^52] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^52]
[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^48] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^49] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^50] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^47]
On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^48]
[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^51] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^52]
[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^53] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^54] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^55] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^52]
[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^53] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^25] Leslie named Luce as well.[^32] Sutton's name index lists fourteen members of the class of 1920, among them "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^54] [[Briton Hadden]] co-founded [[Time Inc.]] with Luce in 1923. The Harvard Crimson of May 16, 1919 printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15 listing the men elected to Skull and Bones: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, Harry P. Davison, Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls. The same dispatch lists the Scroll and Key and Wolf's Head elections for 1919.[^55]
[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^56] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^57]
[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^56] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^57]
[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^58] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^29] Leslie named Luce as well.[^36] Sutton's name index lists fourteen members of the class of 1920, among them "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^59] [[Briton Hadden]] co-founded [[Time Inc.]] with Luce in 1923. The Harvard Crimson of May 16, 1919 printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15 listing the men elected to Skull and Bones: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, [[Henry P. Davison Jr.|Harry P. Davison]], Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls. The same dispatch lists the Scroll and Key and Wolf's Head elections for 1919.[^60] Sutton's index of members by class year lists "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" in the class of 1920.[^61] Sutton wrote that Henry P. Davison's "son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920."[^62]
[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^58] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^59] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^60] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^61] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^62] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^63] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^64] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^65]
[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^63] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^64]
[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^66] [[Harry Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1894.[^67] [[Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1898; Sutton's text gives the two brothers as 1894 and 1898, and his chart table prints the years in reverse.[^68] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan]].[^34]
Sutton's index lists [[Harvey H. Bundy]] under the class of 1909, and his text states that Bundy was initiated in 1909 and that he became law clerk to Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] in 1914 and 1915. Sutton calls Bundy the "key Pentagon man on the Manhattan Project."[^65]
[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^66] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^67] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^68] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^69] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^70] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^71] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^72] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^73]
Sutton's index lists [[Henry Sloane Coffin]] under the class of 1897 and a William Sloane Coffin under the class of 1900. The same index lists four other Sloanes: Henry Thompson Sloane under the class of 1866, Thomas Chalmers Sloane under 1868, William Sloane under 1895 and John Sloane under 1905.[^74] A 1953 family genealogy lists Skull and Bones among the college societies of Henry Thompson Sloane, a son of the carpet merchant William Sloane and a brother of Euphemia Sloane, whose sons were Henry Sloane Coffin and William Sloane Coffin.[^75] Ron Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that William Sloane Coffin descended from "an aptly named family with three generations of Bonesmen."[^76]
[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^77] Sutton's chart table and his index of members by class year list [[Payne Whitney]] under the class of 1894 and [[Harry Payne Whitney]] under 1898, while his text and the Yale records give Harry Payne Whitney as 1894 and Payne Whitney as 1898.[^78][^79] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]].[^38]
The Decennial Record of the Class of 1896 at Yale University (1907) lists "F. E. Weyerhaeuser," Frederick Edward Weyerhaeuser (born at Rock Island, Illinois, November 4, 1872, a son of [[Frederick Weyerhaeuser]]), and ends its list of his college societies: "He Boule. D. K. E. Bones."[^80] Sutton's membership list by class year includes "Weyerhaeuser, Frederick E." in the class of 1896, and Millegan's 2003 list carries "Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser (S&B 1896)."[^81] The same record prints his 1905 letter on the committee of the [[National Lumber Manufacturers Association]] for a chair of Applied Forestry and Practical Lumbering at the [[Yale Forest School]], which he chaired.[^80] Sutton's chart of new-wealth families lists the [[Weyerhaeuser family]] (lumber).[^38]
Sutton's index lists [[Wadsworth family|James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.]] under the class of 1898 and James Jeremiah Wadsworth under 1927. The 1914 genealogy of southern New York states of Wadsworth Jr., later Speaker of the New York Assembly, United States Senator from 1915 to 1927 and Representative from 1933 to 1951, that at Yale he "was chosen by the Skull and Bones Society."[^82] James Jeremiah Wadsworth, United States Representative to the United Nations from 1960 to 1961, is recorded as a member of the society in the finding aid of the Livingston County Historian's Office.[^83]
Sutton's index lists [[Lord family|Lords]] in the Order: George DeForest Lord (initiated 1854), Franklin Atkins Lord (1898), William Galey Lord (1922), Oswald Bates Lord (1926), Charles Edwin Lord II (1949) and Winston Lord (1959). The Yale obituary record for 1868 states that Daniel Lord's son George DeForest Lord graduated in the Yale class of 1854.[^84] The *Yale Banner and Pot Pourri* prints, under the heading "Senior Society" without naming the society, fifteen-name lists for 1921 to 1922 (including William Galey Lord) and 1925 to 1926 (including Oswald Bates Lord) that match Sutton's class lists for those years.[^85] [[Carroll Quigley]]'s list gives "Lord S&B 1854," William Galey Lord (1922), Oswald B. Lord (1926) and "Winston Bao Lord BB/S&B 1959/TC."[^86] Sutton describes the New York law firm [[Lord, Day and Lord]] as dominated by the Lord family.
### The Phelps names in the class lists
Sutton's class list, compiled by Kris Millegan from the Yale Catalogue, places [[William Walter Phelps]] in the class of 1860, Henry Phelps Johnston and John Phelps Taylor in 1862, Anson Phelps Tinker in 1868, William Phelps Eno in 1882, Edward Johnson Phelps and Sheffield Phelps in 1886, Zira Bennett Phelps in 1895, Anson Phelps Stokes in 1896, Harold Phelps Stokes in 1909, Putnam Phelps in 1916, Charles Phelps Taft in 1918 and Anson Phelps Stokes Jr. in 1927.[^87] The class history of 1896 records [[Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.]], Secretary of Yale University from 1899, as "Phi Beta Kappa. He Boule. D. K. E. Bones," and names a younger brother in the class of 1909 and a son, Anson Phelps Stokes 3d, born at New Haven on January 11, 1905.[^88] A directory of fraternities published in 1899 lists William Walter Phelps and Sheffield Phelps among the Yale graduates who were members of the Order.[^89]
The senior society [[Wolf's Head]], founded in June 1883, was incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association. Rupert Hughes, in *Munsey's Magazine* for June 1894, gave Bones as the Russell Trust Association, Scroll and Key as the Kingsley Trust Association and Wolf's Head as the Phelps Trust Association; the directory of 1899 states that Wolf's Head "is incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association"; and George W. Pierson's history of Yale College lists the Kingsley Trust Association (Scroll and Key) with the date 1860 and the Phelps Trust Association (Wolf's Head) with the date 1886.[^89][^90] Its hall of 1884 to 1885 on Prospect Street, designed by McKim, Mead & White, was built for the Phelps Association.[^91]
### The Yale Unit and the Central Intelligence Agency
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^69] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^70] The Air Force biography dates the crash to July 28, 1917, over Huntington Bay, New York, and Ralph D. Paine's 1925 history records that the injury was a fractured vertebra with injury to the spinal cord.[^71]
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^92] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^93] The Air Force biography dates the crash to July 28, 1917, over Huntington Bay, New York, and Ralph D. Paine's 1925 history records that the injury was a fractured vertebra with injury to the spinal cord.[^94]
The Yale News account of the First Yale Unit states that on April 19, 1917, Tap Day in New Haven, two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida, where the unit was training, to tap students at noon. Davison was the first tapped for the society, and eleven other members of the unit were tapped with him.[^72]
The Yale News account of the First Yale Unit states that on April 19, 1917, Tap Day in New Haven, two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida, where the unit was training, to tap students at noon. Davison was the first tapped for the society, and eleven other members of the unit were tapped with him.[^95]
The Yale Obituary Record for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, who died on May 25, 1927, lists "Skull and Bones" among his undergraduate activities.[^73] A Yale Obituary Record entry for a member of the Yale Aviation Corps says the corps was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 was organized by Davison.[^74]
The Yale Obituary Record for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, who died on May 25, 1927, lists "Skull and Bones" among his undergraduate activities.[^96] A Yale Obituary Record entry for a member of the Yale Aviation Corps says the corps was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 was organized by Davison.[^97]
An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^75] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^76] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^77] The New York Times obituary of November 16, 1974 states that he left the post the following April, when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the personnel of the Agency; CIA committee minutes of October 1951 and January 1952 list him as Assistant Director for Personnel and chairman of the Career Service Committee.[^78]
An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^98] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^99] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^100] The New York Times obituary of November 16, 1974 states that he left the post the following April, when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the personnel of the Agency; CIA committee minutes of October 1951 and January 1952 list him as Assistant Director for Personnel and chairman of the Career Service Committee.[^101]
The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^77] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^79] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^80] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^77] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^81]
The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^100] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^102] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^103] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^100] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^104]
Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^82] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^82] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^77]
Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^76] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^76] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^100]
Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^47]
Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^52]
### Communications
Sutton wrote that the society had "a significant penetration into communications," and gave as its first example that "Henry Luce of Time-Life is in The Order."[^83]
Sutton wrote that the society had "a significant penetration into communications," and gave as its first example that "Henry Luce of Time-Life is in The Order."[^105]
### Sutton's hypothesis
Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^34]
Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^38]
The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), Phelps (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^34] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the Pillsbury family (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^34]
The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), [[Perkins family|Perkins]] (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), [[Phelps family|Phelps]] (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^38] [[Fabian Franklin]]'s biography of Gilman states that Edward Gilman, the progenitor of most of the Gilman name in America, came from Hingham, Norfolk, England, with his family in 1638 and settled at Hingham, Massachusetts, before removing to Exeter, New Hampshire.[^106] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the [[Pillsbury family]] (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^38]
The Yale class book of 1936 records Edmund Pennington Pillsbury (born December 22, 1913, a son of John Sargent Pillsbury of Minneapolis) as a member of Skull and Bones, together with [[Jonathan Brewster Bingham]], [[John Hersey|John Richard Hersey]] and Robert Train.[^107] Sutton's index lists him in the class of 1936 and lists John Sargent Pillsbury Jr. in the class of 1935. Sutton's index also lists Oswald Bates Lord in the class of 1926 with the notation "Mary Pillsbury (of Pillsbury flour family)," and their son [[Winston Lord]] in the class of 1959; Oswald Bates Lord's wife was [[Mary Pillsbury Lord]], a daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and a granddaughter of the Minneapolis miller Charles A. Pillsbury.
Sutton's index of members by class year lists four Perkinses: John and William Perkins in the class of 1840, Nathaniel Shaw Perkins in 1842 and Thomas Albert Perkins in 1858.[^108] The Yale Obituary Record gives John Perkins as born at Natchez in 1819, a member of Congress from Louisiana from 1853, chairman of the Louisiana secession convention in January 1861 and a member of the Confederate Congress, who left the country and returned in 1878.[^109] Kris Millegan wrote of him as "John Perkins, Jr. (S&B 1840), chairman of the 1861 Louisiana Secession Convention, who fled abroad for 13 years after the Civil War."[^110] William Perkins (1840) was a Mississippi lawyer who died on the steamer Arctic in 1854;[^111] Nathaniel Shaw Perkins (1842) was a partner in the New London whaling firm Perkins & Smith;[^112] Thomas Albert Perkins (1858) was a Brooklyn cotton merchant, and the class of 1858's biographical record prints a Skull and Bones roster that includes him.[^113]
In the text Sutton describes "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams and so on," and "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^3] He adds that "Some families, like the Whitneys, were Connecticut Yankees and acquired wealth in the nineteenth century."[^3] Sutton writes that active members "have enough influence to push their sons and relatives into The Order," and that there is "significant inter-marriage among the families."[^3]
### Other writers
Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named [[John Hersey]] and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^32]
Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named John Hersey and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^36]
[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^84]
[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^114]
Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^24][^85]
Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^28][^115]
### The Geronimo skull claim
The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^86] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^86] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^86]
The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^116] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^116] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^116]
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^69] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^69]
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^92] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^92]
Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^85] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^85] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^85] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^85] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^85]
Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^115] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^115] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^115] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^115] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^115]
The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^87] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^88] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^87] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^88]
The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^117] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^118] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^117] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^118]
In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^88] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^88] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^88]
In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^118] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^118] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^118]
### The Pancho Villa skull suit
A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^89] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^89]
A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^119] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^119]
The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^89]
The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^119]
### Footnotes
[^1]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," after the text on the three hypotheses. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^3]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), opening chapter and the passage that sets out Hypothesis One, with the old-line and new-wealth families. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^4]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), p. 52 ("modern system, which began in 1832"), pp. 145 to 147 (the Russell Trust Association, the society, its founders and catalogue) and p. 153 ("Eulogia"). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^5]: *Catalogue of the Connecticut Alpha of the Phi Beta Kappa*, August 1838, officers for 1837-8 and list of members of 1833, compared with the roster of the class of 1833 in Sutton (1983). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofconne00phib
[^6]: Anonymous pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the hall, as quoted in Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Memorandum Two, and reprinted in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones ; https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^7]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72, including the entry for his father ("Alphonso Taft (B A. 1833, LL.D. 1867) ... tutor at Yale 1835-37; member of Yale Corporation 1872-1882"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), nineteenth-century description of the hall reprinted in the appendix, passage on the earlier meeting room in the Courant building. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^9]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), pp. 145 to 146, description of the hall, its doors and roof plates and its value, reprinted in the appendix to Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^10]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. IV (1778-1792), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125 to 126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket04dextuoft
[^11]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, born in Middletown, August 12, 1809, pp. 241 to 242. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^12]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302], [307] and [638] (Capt. John Russell; Matthew Talcott Russell; Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^13]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, section 8, pp. 8-11. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^14]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. II (1745-1763), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, p. 90. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket02dext
[^15]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), opening article and pp. 151 to 152 ("cousin"), p. 313 ("second cousin") and p. 52 ("uncle"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^16]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and on Daniel C. Gilman's role as treasurer, his appointment as assistant librarian in 1856 and as librarian in 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^17]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 693 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^18]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^19]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
[^20]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^21]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^22]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^23]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^24]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^25]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^26]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^27]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^29]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^30]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^31]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
[^32]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^33]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^34]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^35]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^36]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial
[^37]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^39]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^41]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^42]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^43]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^45]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), chapter "New Command in a Troubled Era." https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^47]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^50]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^51]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^52]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), name index, class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^55]: "Tap Day Results!," special dispatch from New Haven, May 15, 1919, *The Harvard Crimson*, May 16, 1919. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1919/5/16/tap-day-results-pnew-haven-conn/
[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^57]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^58]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^59]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^60]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^63]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^64]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress
[^65]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^66]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^67]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Harry Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^68]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1898 (Whitney, Payne), and the Whitney table and text. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^69]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^70]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^71]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography. https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/ ; Ralph D. Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), chapter "Trubee, the Crippled Leader." https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
[^72]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies: Yale's pioneering pilots form first naval aviation unit" (August 17, 2014), text on Tap Day, April 19, 1917. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^73]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4
[^74]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916. https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
[^75]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
[^76]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
[^77]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^78]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974. https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html ; "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6, and "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7
[^79]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
[^80]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^81]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^82]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^83]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones* (1983), section "Communications." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^84]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb
[^85]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^86]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^87]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
[^88]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
[^89]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
[^17]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910 (New Haven, 1910), entry for the class of 1852, p. 1012 ("in the summer of 1856 was made Assistant Librarian and, two years later, Librarian of Yale College"). https://archive.org/details/1900t10obituary00yaleuoft
[^18]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 693 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^19]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^20]: Memorial Symposium of the Class of Yale 1852, Academic, held on their Classmate Daniel Coit Gilman (New Bedford, Mass., 1909), Fasciculus IX, "Contribution of the Secretary" by Ephraim Cutter, pp. 28 to 29. https://archive.org/details/fasciculiofmemor00yaleuoft
[^21]: The Fall of Skull and Bones, compiled from the minutes of the 7th regular meeting of the Order of the File and Claw (New Haven, 1876), as reproduced in Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), appendix; and in Kris Millegan (ed.), Fleshing Out Skull & Bones (2003), chapter on the Tomb.
[^22]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Guide to the Daniel Coit Gilman Papers, MS 582, compiled by Ann Ronberg (February 1971), Series I, box 2, folder 123 ("Russell, William H., 1855"). https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/4054.pdf
[^23]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
[^24]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^25]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^26]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^27]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^28]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^29]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^30]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^31]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^32]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^33]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^34]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^35]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
[^36]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^37]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^39]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1942-1943 (New Haven: Yale University, 1943), entry for Horace Dutton Taft, B.A. 1883, pp. 14 to 15. https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1942-43.pdf
[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^41]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial
[^42]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^45]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^46]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^47]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^48]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^50]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), chapter "New Command in a Troubled Era." https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
[^51]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^52]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^55]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^57]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^58]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^59]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), name index, class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^60]: "Tap Day Results!," special dispatch from New Haven, May 15, 1919, *The Harvard Crimson*, May 16, 1919. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1919/5/16/tap-day-results-pnew-haven-conn/
[^61]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 ("Davison, Harry Pomeroy"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), text on the Morgan partnership ("whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^63]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^64]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^65]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002 edition), index of members by class year (1909, 1939, 1940) and the section on the Bundy family. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^66]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^67]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^68]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^69]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^70]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^71]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^72]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress
[^73]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^74]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1866, 1868, 1895, 1897, 1900 and 1905. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^75]: *Widener, Dunton, Elkins, Broomall, and Allied Families* (1953), Sloane family chapter, pp. 125 to 129. https://archive.org/details/widenerduntonelk00unse
[^76]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^77]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^78]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^79]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1898 (Whitney, Harry Payne), the Whitney table, and the Whitney passage in the text ("Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98)"); Yale University, Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^80]: *Decennial Record of the Class of 1896, Yale College* (1907), Biographies, "F. E. Weyerhaeuser," pp. 638 to 640. https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich
[^81]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1896; Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), list of members including "Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser (S&B 1896)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones ; https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^82]: Cuyler Reynolds, ed., *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York and the Hudson River Valley*, vol. 2 (New York, 1914), p. 854 ("was chosen by the Skull and Bones Society"). https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn
[^83]: Livingston County Historian's Office, "James Jeremiah Wadsworth (1905-1984) Collection," finding aid C169 (August 2022), section II, Biographical Information; Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), membership index, class of 1927. https://livingstoncountyny.gov/DocumentCenter/View/15946
[^84]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College deceased during the academical year ending in July 1868* (New Haven, 1868), entry for Daniel Lord, class of 1814. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_0
[^85]: *The Yale Banner and Pot Pourri*, 1921-1922, "Senior Society" list. https://archive.org/details/yalebannerpotpo192122newh ; *The Yale Banner and Pot Pourri*, 1925-1926, "Senior Society" list. https://archive.org/details/yalebannerandpo00univgoog
[^86]: Carroll Quigley, *Tragedy and Hope: A History of the World in Our Time* (1966), list of Skull and Bones members. https://archive.org/details/tragedy-and-hope-a-history-of-the-world-in-our-time-carroll-quigley-1st-edition-1966
[^87]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), class-by-class list of members of the Order, "This section compiled by Kris Millegan" from the Yale Catalogue. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^88]: *History of the Class of 1896, Yale College: Decennial Record* (New Haven, 1907), biography of Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., pp. 588 to 590. https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich
[^89]: A. C. Stevens, *The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities* (1899), Yale senior societies ("Bones" men including William Walter Phelps and Sheffield Phelps; Wolf's Head "was founded at Yale by a number of members of the class of '84" and "is incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association"). https://archive.org/details/StevensACTheCyclopaediaOfFraternities1899
[^90]: Rupert Hughes, "Secret Societies at Yale," *Munsey's Magazine*, vol. 11, no. 3 (June 1894). https://archive.org/details/sim_munseys-magazine_1894-06_11_3 ; George W. Pierson, *Yale College: An Educational History, 1871-1921* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), list of senior-society trust associations. https://archive.org/details/yalecollegeeduca0000pier
[^91]: *Buildings and Grounds of Yale University* (New Haven: Yale University, 1979), entries "Phelps Association, see 77 Prospect Street; Wolf's Head" and the McKim, Mead & White building "in Richardsonian Romanesque for the Phelps Association (Wolfs Head Society)"; *McKim, Mead & White, Architects* (1983), list of works, "Phelps Association (Wolf's Head), Yale University, 1884-85." https://archive.org/details/buildingsgrounds0000yale
[^92]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^93]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^94]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography. https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/ ; Ralph D. Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), chapter "Trubee, the Crippled Leader." https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
[^95]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies: Yale's pioneering pilots form first naval aviation unit" (August 17, 2014), text on Tap Day, April 19, 1917. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^96]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4
[^97]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916. https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
[^98]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
[^99]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
[^100]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^101]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974. https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html ; "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6, and "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7
[^102]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
[^103]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^104]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^105]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones* (1983), section "Communications." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^106]: Fabian Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1910), p. 1. https://archive.org/details/lifeofdanielcoit00fran
[^107]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Thirty-Six, Yale College* (New Haven: Class Book Committee, 1936), biographical entry for Edmund Pennington Pillsbury, pp. 355 to 356 ("He belongs to Chi Psi, the Torch Honor Society, and Skull and Bones"); entries for Jonathan Brewster Bingham, John Richard Hersey and Robert Train. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00yale_0
[^108]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1840, 1842 and 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^109]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, 1886, pp. 308 to 309, entry for John Perkins, class of 1840. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof1886yale
[^110]: Kris Millegan, ed., Fleshing Out Skull & Bones (Trine Day, 2003), account of the early initiates. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^111]: Class of 1840 Statistics, Yale College, entry for William Perkins. https://archive.org/details/stat1840
[^112]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, 1900-1910, pp. 420 to 421, entry for Nathaniel Shaw Perkins. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof19001910yale
[^113]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, 1900-1910, class of 1858, entry for Thomas Albert Perkins; Fifth Biographical Record of the Class of 1858, Yale College (1908), roster of Skull and Bones. https://archive.org/details/cu31924030632487
[^114]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb
[^115]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^116]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^117]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
[^118]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
[^119]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674

210
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Standard Oil.md
View file

@ -46,47 +46,47 @@ relations:
with: "[[I.G. Farben]]"
start: 1929-11-09
role: "four agreements of November 9, 1929, and the Standard-I.G. and Jasco patent licensing"
fn: 14
fn: 20
- type: investigated
with: "[[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program]]"
reverse: true
start: 1942-03-05
end: 1942-04-07
role: "Part 11, Rubber, hearings on the I.G. Farben agreements"
fn: 14
fn: 20
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
reverse: true
start: 1942-03-25
role: "criminal information, complaint and consent decree of March 25, 1942"
fn: 38
fn: 44
- type: investigated
with: "[[Federal Trade Commission]]"
reverse: true
start: 1949-12-02
end: 1951-10
role: "international petroleum cartel staff investigation; staff report filed October 1951"
fn: 43
fn: 49
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
reverse: true
start: 1953-04-14
role: "civil antitrust complaint in the international petroleum cartel case, Civil No. 86-27"
fn: 59
fn: 65
- type: owned
with: "[[Creole Petroleum Company]]"
role: "Venezuelan subsidiary; Nelson Rockefeller sat on its board"
fn: 74
fn: 80
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Arabian American Oil Company]]"
start: 1948-12
role: "30 percent stake in Aramco from December 1948; Socony-Vacuum held 10 percent"
fn: 53
fn: 59
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Iranian Consortium]]"
start: 1954-04-01
role: "eight percent share of the 1954 consortium"
fn: 66
fn: 72
---
Standard Oil was the petroleum monopoly founded in 1870 by [[John D. Rockefeller]] that controlled roughly ninety percent of American oil refining before the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ordered its dissolution in 1911 under the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]]. The breakup created successor companies, including Standard Oil of [[New Jersey]] (later [[Exxon]]), Standard Oil of New York ([[Mobil]]), and Standard Oil of California ([[Chevron]]), whose combined assets preserved the [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]] family's financial power.[^1] Between 1929 and 1942 the New Jersey company's patent and licensing arrangements ran through the German chemical combine [[I.G. Farben]]; after the war it held a 30 percent interest in the [[Arabian American Oil Company]] (Aramco) and an 8 percent share of the 1954 [[Iranian Consortium]].
@ -99,83 +99,85 @@ The appeal was brought by "The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and thirty-thr
[[Oliver Hazard Payne]], a Yale graduate of the class of 1863 and a brother of Flora Payne, the wife of [[William Collins Whitney]], served as the company's treasurer until 1884 and then sat on its board until his death in 1917, according to the Yale Obituary Record.[^9] The decree in the government's suit names "Oliver H. Payne" among the seven individual defendants, beside John D. Rockefeller and William Rockefeller, in the list reproduced in the Court's opinion.[^10] The Yale record states that Payne's nephews were [[Harry Payne Whitney]], [[Payne Whitney]] and [[Henry Payne Bingham]].[^9]
[[Ida M. Tarbell]] wrote that the [[South Improvement Company]]'s stockholders in 1872 included "O. H. Payne, Cleveland" with 180 shares, the same holding as the Rockefeller, Flagler and Bostwick interests, and that Payne "soon after became" a stockholder in the Standard Oil Company.[^11] In the House Committee on Commerce inquiry into the railroads' contracts with the Standard Oil Company, the committee summoned "O. H. Payne, treasurer of the Standard Oil Company" with the railroad officers, and Tarbell wrote that Mr. Payne "refused also to furnish the committee with information."[^12] When the Ohio legislature elected [[Henry B. Payne]] to the Senate in January 1884, Tarbell wrote that his son Oliver, "at that time treasurer of the Standard Oil Company," was one of the backers of the Payne boom at the Neil House in Columbus.[^13] The Ohio House select committee's testimony, printed as Senate Miscellaneous Document No. 106 (1886), records the Cleveland lawyer L. A. Russell answering, when asked whether he recognized "the principal officers of the great corporation known as the Standard Oil Company" among the workers for Henry B. Payne, that "there was Oliver H. Payne, Henry B. Payne's son, who was the leader and manager of the Payne forces ... Oliver Payne was at that time treasurer of the Standard Oil Company," and a member, L. C. Cole, testifying that "the Standard Oil Company, with its officers and workers, were here in force. The secretary and the treasurer of the company were here."[^14] The Senate Committee on Privileges and Elections reported on July 15, 1886 that the testimony was "merely cumulative and speculative," and the Senate voted 44 to 17 on July 23, 1886 to drop the matter.[^15] The *Evening World* of New York wrote at his death in 1917 that after the government's antitrust suits had reorganized the Standard Oil and tobacco "trusts" he withdrew from the directorates.[^16]
### Successor companies
The Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) changed its name to Exxon Corporation in November 1972; on November 30, 1999 a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon was merged into Mobil Corporation and Exxon changed its name to Exxon Mobil Corporation, a New Jersey corporation incorporated in 1882.[^11] The Standard Oil Company of California, incorporated in Delaware in 1926, took the name Chevron Corporation in 1984, ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001, and Chevron Corporation again in 2005.[^12] The Senate's 1974 print, in describing the five defendants in the 1953 cartel case, gives their then-current names as Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Mobil ([[Socony-Vacuum]] Oil Company), Socal ([[Standard Oil of California|Standard Oil Company of California]]), [[Texaco]] ([[The Texas Company]]) and [[Gulf Oil|Gulf]].[^13]
The Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) changed its name to Exxon Corporation in November 1972; on November 30, 1999 a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon was merged into Mobil Corporation and Exxon changed its name to Exxon Mobil Corporation, a New Jersey corporation incorporated in 1882.[^17] The Standard Oil Company of California, incorporated in Delaware in 1926, took the name Chevron Corporation in 1984, ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001, and Chevron Corporation again in 2005.[^18] The Senate's 1974 print, in describing the five defendants in the 1953 cartel case, gives their then-current names as Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Mobil ([[Socony-Vacuum]] Oil Company), Socal ([[Standard Oil of California|Standard Oil Company of California]]), [[Texaco]] ([[The Texas Company]]) and [[Gulf Oil|Gulf]].[^19]
### The 1929 agreements with I.G. Farben
The company's chemical relationship with I.G. Farben rested on four agreements dated November 9, 1929. [[Thurman Arnold]], the assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust, described them to the [[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program|Truman Committee]] on March 26, 1942 as the "division of the fields" agreement, the four-party agreement, the coordination agreement and the German sales agreement.[^14] Arnold testified that Standard turned its non-oil chemical processes over to I.G., and that I.G. turned over to Standard the patents and discoveries that directly concerned oil production, including synthetic gasoline, so that each company held a world monopoly in its field.[^15] The arrangement created two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled from [[Germany]] and one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil.[^16]
The company's chemical relationship with I.G. Farben rested on four agreements dated November 9, 1929. [[Thurman Arnold]], the assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust, described them to the [[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program|Truman Committee]] on March 26, 1942 as the "division of the fields" agreement, the four-party agreement, the coordination agreement and the German sales agreement.[^20] Arnold testified that Standard turned its non-oil chemical processes over to I.G., and that I.G. turned over to Standard the patents and discoveries that directly concerned oil production, including synthetic gasoline, so that each company held a world monopoly in its field.[^21] The arrangement created two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled from [[Germany]] and one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil.[^22]
Arnold gave his own account of the motive in the same testimony: "these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control."[^17] He read into the record a letter signed by [[Walter C. Teagle]] of Standard, in which each party proposed "to hold itself willing to take care of any future eventualities in a spirit of mutual helpfulness" and, if performance of the agreements were restrained or prevented "by operation of any existing or future law" or the beneficial interest of either party alienated "by operation of law or governmental authority," to "enter into new negotiations in the spirit of the present agreements."[^18]
Arnold gave his own account of the motive in the same testimony: "these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control."[^23] He read into the record a letter signed by [[Walter C. Teagle]] of Standard, in which each party proposed "to hold itself willing to take care of any future eventualities in a spirit of mutual helpfulness" and, if performance of the agreements were restrained or prevented "by operation of any existing or future law" or the beneficial interest of either party alienated "by operation of law or governmental authority," to "enter into new negotiations in the spirit of the present agreements."[^24]
Arnold identified a second set of arrangements as the Hague Memorandum, made in September 1939, which he said carried the 1929 conspiracy through the war between Germany and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. He read a letter of October 12, 1939 from [[Frank A. Howard]], the president of the [[Standard Oil Development Company]], stating that in [[Netherlands|Holland]] "They delivered to me assignments of some 2,000 foreign patents" and that the parties had worked toward "complete plans for a modus Vivendi which would operate through the term of the war, whether or not the United States came in."[^19]
Arnold identified a second set of arrangements as the Hague Memorandum, made in September 1939, which he said carried the 1929 conspiracy through the war between Germany and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. He read a letter of October 12, 1939 from [[Frank A. Howard]], the president of the [[Standard Oil Development Company]], stating that in [[Netherlands|Holland]] "They delivered to me assignments of some 2,000 foreign patents" and that the parties had worked toward "complete plans for a modus Vivendi which would operate through the term of the war, whether or not the United States came in."[^25]
[[William S. Farish]], the president of the New Jersey company, testified on March 31, 1942 and described the 1939 readjustment. The company's patent licensing had run through two American corporations, Standard-I.G. and [[Jasco]], in one of which Standard held 80 per cent and in the other 50 per cent, the Germans holding the other shares; the stock holdings represented roughly the German participations in licensing fixed by the 1929 contracts. Farish said that substantially all the patents had originated with I.G. and that legal title to most of them, especially the foreign patents, had been left in I.G. to avoid the expense of transfers.[^20] The assignments were taken by an American trustee who, if the United States went to war with Germany, would be subject to account to the [[Alien Property Custodian]] for any equitable interest of the Germans. The German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. was purchased at book value ($20,000), and the Germans retained title to their 20 per cent of the royalties.[^21]
[[William S. Farish]], the president of the New Jersey company, testified on March 31, 1942 and described the 1939 readjustment. The company's patent licensing had run through two American corporations, Standard-I.G. and [[Jasco]], in one of which Standard held 80 per cent and in the other 50 per cent, the Germans holding the other shares; the stock holdings represented roughly the German participations in licensing fixed by the 1929 contracts. Farish said that substantially all the patents had originated with I.G. and that legal title to most of them, especially the foreign patents, had been left in I.G. to avoid the expense of transfers.[^26] The assignments were taken by an American trustee who, if the United States went to war with Germany, would be subject to account to the [[Alien Property Custodian]] for any equitable interest of the Germans. The German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. was purchased at book value ($20,000), and the Germans retained title to their 20 per cent of the royalties.[^27]
The same agreements appear in the first order the Custodian issued. Vesting Order No. 1, signed by [[Leo T. Crowley]] on March 25, 1942 (the date of the consent decree) and published in the Federal Register on March 31, 1942, vested all right, title and interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G. in the Division of Fields Agreement of November 9, 1929 and the Jasco Agreement of September 30, 1930; the four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; a series of agreements of October 7, 1938 among [[Ruhrchemie]], I.G., [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[M.W. Kellogg Company|Kellogg]] on hydrocarbon synthesis; the Hague Memorandum dated September 25, 1939, effective September 1, 1939; the trust agreement executed March 8, 1940 by Walter Schaefer and Harold Koechling; and a trust agreement of August 31, 1939 among Frank A. Howard, W.E. Currie and P.L. Young. The order also vested the stock, patents and contracts of the [[Standard Catalytic Company]], the capital stock of Jasco, Inc. (including five certificates held by Schaefer and Koechling as trustees), and all patents held by or in the name of Standard-I.G. Company, Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc. or W.E. Currie, listed in four schedules.[^22] The Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943, a period in which 1,792 vesting orders were issued, lists it first and states that German holders of American patents had "acquired a substantial influence in American industry" through patent contracts, naming synthetic rubber among the affected industries.[^23][^24]
The same agreements appear in the first order the Custodian issued. Vesting Order No. 1, signed by [[Leo T. Crowley]] on March 25, 1942 (the date of the consent decree) and published in the Federal Register on March 31, 1942, vested all right, title and interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G. in the Division of Fields Agreement of November 9, 1929 and the Jasco Agreement of September 30, 1930; the four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; a series of agreements of October 7, 1938 among [[Ruhrchemie]], I.G., [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[M.W. Kellogg Company|Kellogg]] on hydrocarbon synthesis; the Hague Memorandum dated September 25, 1939, effective September 1, 1939; the trust agreement executed March 8, 1940 by Walter Schaefer and Harold Koechling; and a trust agreement of August 31, 1939 among Frank A. Howard, W.E. Currie and P.L. Young. The order also vested the stock, patents and contracts of the [[Standard Catalytic Company]], the capital stock of Jasco, Inc. (including five certificates held by Schaefer and Koechling as trustees), and all patents held by or in the name of Standard-I.G. Company, Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc. or W.E. Currie, listed in four schedules.[^28] The Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943, a period in which 1,792 vesting orders were issued, lists it first and states that German holders of American patents had "acquired a substantial influence in American industry" through patent contracts, naming synthetic rubber among the affected industries.[^29][^30]
The [[Federal Trade Commission]]'s staff later recorded the German marketing side of the relationship: an agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Royal Dutch Shell and the [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]], which together controlled more than 60 percent of the German domestic market, with the cooperation reported of the marketing subsidiaries of [[Leuna]] and I.G. Farben, and the distributor [[Deutsche Gasolin]] A.G. owned 50 percent by Standard and 50 percent by I.G. Farbenindustrie in 1933.[^25]
The [[Federal Trade Commission]]'s staff later recorded the German marketing side of the relationship: an agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Royal Dutch Shell and the [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]], which together controlled more than 60 percent of the German domestic market, with the cooperation reported of the marketing subsidiaries of [[Leuna]] and I.G. Farben, and the distributor [[Deutsche Gasolin]] A.G. owned 50 percent by Standard and 50 percent by I.G. Farbenindustrie in 1933.[^31]
### Synthetic rubber and the buna patents
Arnold told the Truman Committee that I.G. Farben had "the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber." He said that between 1932 and 1934 four rubber companies and one chemical company approached Standard seeking licenses, and that negotiations in 1932 between [[B.F. Goodrich|Goodrich]] and Standard were subject to the supervision of I.G., which refused to accept various portions of the proposed terms.[^26] Howard's letter of February 6, 1940 to [[E.J. Sadler]] stated the company's position: "The interest of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey in the buna process dates back to the original agreement of 1929 between I. G. and Jersey."[^27] Arnold also said that for Standard's own butyl development the company licensed only two rubber companies, apart from specialty companies.[^28]
Arnold told the Truman Committee that I.G. Farben had "the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber." He said that between 1932 and 1934 four rubber companies and one chemical company approached Standard seeking licenses, and that negotiations in 1932 between [[B.F. Goodrich|Goodrich]] and Standard were subject to the supervision of I.G., which refused to accept various portions of the proposed terms.[^32] Howard's letter of February 6, 1940 to [[E.J. Sadler]] stated the company's position: "The interest of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey in the buna process dates back to the original agreement of 1929 between I. G. and Jersey."[^33] Arnold also said that for Standard's own butyl development the company licensed only two rubber companies, apart from specialty companies.[^34]
The company issued a release on the day of the consent decree, introduced as Exhibit 359, which stated that "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency."[^29] Arnold asked the committee to keep the release in mind when weighing the documents, one of which showed that the company had refused to let the British have a sample of rubber as late as 1941.[^30]
The company issued a release on the day of the consent decree, introduced as Exhibit 359, which stated that "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency."[^35] Arnold asked the committee to keep the release in mind when weighing the documents, one of which showed that the company had refused to let the British have a sample of rubber as late as 1941.[^36]
### Ethyl, aviation fuel and the German plants
Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^31] In 1940 the Supreme Court recorded that Standard "owns one-half of the capital stock" of Ethyl and that "The remainder is owned by General Motors Corporation and E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company."[^32] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^33]
Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^37] In 1940 the Supreme Court recorded that Standard "owns one-half of the capital stock" of Ethyl and that "The remainder is owned by General Motors Corporation and E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company."[^38] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^39]
The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^34] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^35]
The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^40] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^41]
The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^36]
The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^42]
Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^37]
Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^43]
### The 1942 consent decree
On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^31] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^38]
On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^37] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^44]
Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^39] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^40] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^41] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^42]
Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^45] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^46] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^47] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^48]
### The Federal Trade Commission staff report
The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^43] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^44] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^45] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^46]
The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^49] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^50] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^51] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^52]
The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^47] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^48]
The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^53] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^54]
### Aramco and the Saudi concessions
Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^49] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^50]
Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^55] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^56]
Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^51] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^52] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^53] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^49]
Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^57] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^58] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^59] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^55]
In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^54] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^55] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^56]
In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^60] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^61] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^62]
### The grand jury and the cartel case
The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^43][^57] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^58] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^59]
The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^49][^63] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^64] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^65]
### Iran and the 1954 consortium
Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^58][^59] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^59][^60] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^60]
Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^64][^65] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^65][^66] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^66]
Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^61] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^62] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^63] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^60]
Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^67] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^68] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^69] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^66]
On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^64] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^65]
On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^70] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^71]
The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^66] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^67] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^68] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^69] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^70]
The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^72] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^73] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^74] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^75] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^76]
Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^60][^71] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^71]
Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^66][^77] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^77]
### Guatemala, June 1954
On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^72]
On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^78]
### Latin America and the Rockefeller Network
Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^73] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^74] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^75]
Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^79] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^80] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^81]
### Footnotes
@ -189,68 +191,74 @@ Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[La
[^8]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), opinion of Harlan, J., "concurring in part and dissenting in part." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^9]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (treasurer until 1884; board thereafter; death June 27, 1917; nephews). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
[^10]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), decree Section 2 as set out in the opinion ("the seven individual defendants"; "Oliver H. Payne"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^11]: Exxon Mobil Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1999 (filed March 23, 2000), Item 1 ("Exxon Mobil Corporation ('ExxonMobil'), formerly named Exxon Corporation, was incorporated in the State of New Jersey in 1882"; merger of Mobil Corporation into a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon on November 30, 1999) and SEC header (former conformed name Standard Oil Co of New Jersey, date of name change 1972-11-23), accession no. 0000930661-00-000656. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34088/0000930661-00-000656.txt
[^12]: Chevron Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 (filed February 21, 2025), note to Item 1 ("Incorporated in Delaware in 1926 as Standard Oil Company of California, the company adopted the name Chevron Corporation in 1984 and ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001. In 2005, ChevronTexaco Corporation changed its name to Chevron Corporation"), accession no. 0000093410-25-000009. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/93410/000009341025000009/cvx-20241231.htm
[^13]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI ("Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now Mobil), Standard Oil Company of California (Socal), The Texas Company (now Texaco), and Gulf Oil Corporation (Gulf)"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^14]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), statement of Thurman W. Arnold, Assistant Attorney General, March 26, 1942, p. 4309 (the four agreements of November 9, 1929; "division of the fields," four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; Exhibits 360 to 364-A, appendix pp. 4561-4580). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^15]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4309-4310 (allocation of fields; I.G. turning over patents directly concerning oil production, including synthetic gasoline). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^16]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4309 (two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled by Germany, one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^17]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4307-4308 ("these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^18]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4310 (letter signed by Mr. Teagle, Exhibit 367, appendix p. 4584); U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 ("Walter Teagle of Standard"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^19]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4310-4311 (The Hague Memorandum; letter of Frank A. Howard of October 12, 1939, Exhibit 368, appendix pp. 4584-4585). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^20]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of W.S. Farish, March 31, 1942, p. 4374 (Standard-I.G. and Jasco holdings of 80 and 50 per cent; patents originated with I.G.; legal title left in I.G.). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^21]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish testimony, p. 4375 (assignment to an American trustee; German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. bought at "book value ($20,000)"; Jasco settlement). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^22]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 1, "Vesting of Property of I.G. Farbenindustrie, Standard-I.G. Co., and Others," signed by Leo T. Crowley, March 25, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 2417 (March 31, 1942) (Exhibit A, items 1 to 14 and schedules A to D of patents; issued under Executive Order 9095, 7 F.R. 1971). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-03-31/pdf/FR-1942-03-31.pdf
[^23]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), Exhibit A, "List of Vesting Orders Issued by the Office of Alien Property Custodian, Mar. 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943," first entry (interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie in Standard Catalytic Co. and Jasco Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
[^24]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), p. 97 (German interests in American patents and cartels; "acquired a substantial influence in American industry"; synthetic rubber among the industries listed). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
[^25]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 325 and note (agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Shell and Anglo-Iranian in Germany; marketing subsidiaries of Leuna and I.G. Farben; Deutsche Gasolin A.G. "owned 50 percent by Standard (Now Jersey), and 50 percent by I. G. Farbenindustrie"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^26]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 ("I. G. Farben had the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber"; four rubber companies and one chemical company, 1932 to 1934; Goodrich negotiations of 1932). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^27]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (letter of Frank A. Howard to E.J. Sadler, February 6, 1940, Exhibit 371, appendix p. 4589); the same letter at pp. 4589-4590. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^28]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (butyl licensing). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^29]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4307 (Exhibit 359, release issued by Standard Oil on March 25, 1942, appendix p. 4560-4561; "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^30]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4308 (refusal to let the British have a rubber sample as late as 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^31]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information in the District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4693-4697 (defendants; Standard and General Motors each owning 50 per cent of the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, "sole producer of tetraethyl lead," p. 4697). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^32]: Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436 (1940), Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/309/cases/0436-01.json.
[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^38]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^41]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^42]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^43]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^44]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^45]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^46]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^48]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^49]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^50]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^51]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^52]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^53]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850
[^55]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892
[^56]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920
[^57]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^58]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^59]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^60]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397
[^62]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^63]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^64]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411
[^65]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413
[^66]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449
[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458
[^68]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490
[^69]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496
[^70]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502
[^71]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^72]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189
[^73]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
[^74]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^75]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the
[^11]: Ida M. Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 1 (1904), p. 57. https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar01tarbuoft
[^12]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 1 (1904), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar01tarbuoft
[^13]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (1904), pp. 112 to 113. https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft
[^14]: U.S. Senate, Mis. Doc. No. 106, 49th Cong., 1st sess. (1886), testimony of L. A. Russell, p. 221, and of L. C. Cole, p. 42. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-02346_00_00-008-0106-0000
[^15]: U.S. Senate, Report No. 1490, 49th Cong., 1st sess. (July 15, 1886), https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/pdf/75_Jul_15_1886_Payne.pdf; U.S. Senate, "Henry B. Payne (Ohio)," Contested Senate Elections. https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/075Henry_Payne.htm
[^16]: "O. H. Payne Dies in His Town Home," *The Evening World* (New York), June 28, 1917, p. 15. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030193/1917-06-28/ed-1/?sp=15
[^17]: Exxon Mobil Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1999 (filed March 23, 2000), Item 1 ("Exxon Mobil Corporation ('ExxonMobil'), formerly named Exxon Corporation, was incorporated in the State of New Jersey in 1882"; merger of Mobil Corporation into a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon on November 30, 1999) and SEC header (former conformed name Standard Oil Co of New Jersey, date of name change 1972-11-23), accession no. 0000930661-00-000656. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34088/0000930661-00-000656.txt
[^18]: Chevron Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 (filed February 21, 2025), note to Item 1 ("Incorporated in Delaware in 1926 as Standard Oil Company of California, the company adopted the name Chevron Corporation in 1984 and ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001. In 2005, ChevronTexaco Corporation changed its name to Chevron Corporation"), accession no. 0000093410-25-000009. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/93410/000009341025000009/cvx-20241231.htm
[^19]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI ("Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now Mobil), Standard Oil Company of California (Socal), The Texas Company (now Texaco), and Gulf Oil Corporation (Gulf)"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^20]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), statement of Thurman W. Arnold, Assistant Attorney General, March 26, 1942, p. 4309 (the four agreements of November 9, 1929; "division of the fields," four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; Exhibits 360 to 364-A, appendix pp. 4561-4580). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^21]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4309-4310 (allocation of fields; I.G. turning over patents directly concerning oil production, including synthetic gasoline). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^22]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4309 (two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled by Germany, one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^23]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4307-4308 ("these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^24]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4310 (letter signed by Mr. Teagle, Exhibit 367, appendix p. 4584); U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 ("Walter Teagle of Standard"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^25]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4310-4311 (The Hague Memorandum; letter of Frank A. Howard of October 12, 1939, Exhibit 368, appendix pp. 4584-4585). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^26]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of W.S. Farish, March 31, 1942, p. 4374 (Standard-I.G. and Jasco holdings of 80 and 50 per cent; patents originated with I.G.; legal title left in I.G.). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^27]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish testimony, p. 4375 (assignment to an American trustee; German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. bought at "book value ($20,000)"; Jasco settlement). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^28]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 1, "Vesting of Property of I.G. Farbenindustrie, Standard-I.G. Co., and Others," signed by Leo T. Crowley, March 25, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 2417 (March 31, 1942) (Exhibit A, items 1 to 14 and schedules A to D of patents; issued under Executive Order 9095, 7 F.R. 1971). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-03-31/pdf/FR-1942-03-31.pdf
[^29]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), Exhibit A, "List of Vesting Orders Issued by the Office of Alien Property Custodian, Mar. 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943," first entry (interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie in Standard Catalytic Co. and Jasco Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
[^30]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), p. 97 (German interests in American patents and cartels; "acquired a substantial influence in American industry"; synthetic rubber among the industries listed). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
[^31]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 325 and note (agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Shell and Anglo-Iranian in Germany; marketing subsidiaries of Leuna and I.G. Farben; Deutsche Gasolin A.G. "owned 50 percent by Standard (Now Jersey), and 50 percent by I. G. Farbenindustrie"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^32]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 ("I. G. Farben had the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber"; four rubber companies and one chemical company, 1932 to 1934; Goodrich negotiations of 1932). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (letter of Frank A. Howard to E.J. Sadler, February 6, 1940, Exhibit 371, appendix p. 4589); the same letter at pp. 4589-4590. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (butyl licensing). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4307 (Exhibit 359, release issued by Standard Oil on March 25, 1942, appendix p. 4560-4561; "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4308 (refusal to let the British have a rubber sample as late as 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information in the District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4693-4697 (defendants; Standard and General Motors each owning 50 per cent of the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, "sole producer of tetraethyl lead," p. 4697). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^38]: Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436 (1940), Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/309/cases/0436-01.json.
[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^41]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^42]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^43]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^44]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^45]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^46]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^48]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^49]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^50]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^51]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^52]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^53]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^54]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^55]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^56]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^57]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^58]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^59]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^60]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850
[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892
[^62]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920
[^63]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^64]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^65]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^66]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397
[^68]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^69]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^70]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411
[^71]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413
[^72]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449
[^73]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458
[^74]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490
[^75]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496
[^76]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502
[^77]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^78]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189
[^79]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
[^80]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^81]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the

9
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Trilateral Commission.md
View file

@ -128,8 +128,15 @@ relations:
end: 1978
role: "member; resigned in 1978"
fn: 11
- type: funded
with: "[[Weyerhaeuser family]]"
reverse: true
start: 1973
end: 1980
role: "Weyerhaeuser Company listed among corporate financial supporters, as of March 31, 1980"
fn: 12
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-26
---
The Trilateral Commission is a private organization of business, political, labor and academic figures from North America, Western Europe and Japan (later the Asia Pacific), with regional offices and a published series of task force reports.

342
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md
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@ -30,83 +30,89 @@ relations:
role: "assistant professor of English; OSS Library Project collector in Istanbul from April 1943; returned to Yale in the summer of 1946"
start: 1943
end: 1946
fn: 27
fn: 31
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Richard Bissell]]"
reverse: true
role: "doctorate in economics, 1939; taught economics at Yale before moving to MIT in 1942"
start: 1939
end: 1942
fn: 36
fn: 40
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Sherman Kent]]"
reverse: true
role: "history professor before 1941; left for the OSS Research and Analysis Branch; returned in 1947 or 1949 (the CIA essays give both); left for the CIA in 1950"
start: 1933
end: 1950
fn: 35
fn: 39
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Mark A. May]]"
reverse: true
role: "professor of educational psychology; director of the Institute of Human Relations, 1935 to 1961"
start: 1927
end: 1960
fn: 39
fn: 43
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Stanley Milgram]]"
reverse: true
role: "conducted the obedience experiments in the Yale interaction laboratory; at Harvard by 1963"
start: 1960
end: 1963
fn: 42
fn: 46
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Myron S. Malkin]]"
reverse: true
role: "member of the physics faculty"
start: 1952
end: 1961
fn: 51
fn: 55
- type: employed_by
with: "[[José M. R. Delgado]]"
reverse: true
role: "Department of Psychiatry; came to Yale in 1952 as an instructor"
start: 1952
fn: 44
fn: 48
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Robert B. Livingston]]"
reverse: true
role: "School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under John F. Fulton"
start: 1946
end: 1952
fn: 45
fn: 49
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Robert Byck]]"
reverse: true
role: "Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine; testified before the House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control on July 26, 1979"
start: 1979
end: 1979
fn: 56
fn: 60
- type: employed_by
with: "[[José A. Cabranes]]"
reverse: true
role: "general counsel and director of government relations"
start: 1975
end: 1979
fn: 62
fn: 67
- type: head_of
with: "[[Richard Levin]]"
reverse: true
role: "twenty-second president"
start: 1993
end: 2013
fn: 81
fn: 86
- type: funded
with: "[[Thiel Foundation]]"
reverse: true
role: "$25,000 grant to Yale University for education, 2006"
start: 2006
end: 2006
fn: 80
fn: 85
- type: appointed
with: "[[William Sloane Coffin]]"
reverse: true
start: 1958
role: "chaplain"
fn: 103
---
Yale University is a private university in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], chartered by the [[Connecticut Colony]] in 1701 as a collegiate school. Its senior society [[Skull and Bones]], its wartime faculty recruited into the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], its psychology, psychiatry and neurophysiology laboratories, and its alumni in the federal courts and the executive branch appear in the records of intelligence services, behavioral research, parapsychology, drug policy and finance.
@ -131,166 +137,296 @@ A special act of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856 incorporated the R
In 2017 a pro se complaint, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), named Yale University, the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush and Willard Mitt Romney as defendants. It alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]] and asked for its return for burial in Mexico City. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^24] In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, twenty descendants of Geronimo sued Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones in 2009 over the removal of Geronimo's remains, which the opinion places "in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] dismissed the complaint as to all defendants in a memorandum opinion of July 27, 2010.[^25] The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 a letter of June 7, 1918 from one member to another stating that the skull of Geronimo had been taken from [[Fort Sill]] and was "safe inside" the society's building.[^26]
The senior society [[Wolf's Head]] was incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association, a date of 1886 being given for the incorporation in [[George Wilson Pierson|George W. Pierson]]'s history of the college, and its Prospect Street hall of 1884 to 1885 was built by McKim, Mead & White for the Phelps Association.[^27] The university's records carry other [[Phelps family|Phelps]] names of the same decade: a bequest of $50,000 from the alumni trustee [[William Walter Phelps]] (Yale 1860, trustee 1872 to 1892) toward Phelps Hall, with $20,000 from his family, and the Phelps Memorial Gateway of 1895.[^28] [[Edward John Phelps]], United States minister to Great Britain, was Kent Professor of Law at Yale from 1881 until his death in 1900, and a professorship of commercial law and contracts bearing his name was founded in 1887.[^29] [[Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.]] (Yale 1896) was Secretary of the University from 1899 to 1921.[^30]
### The Library Project, the Research and Analysis Branch and X-2
Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^27] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^28] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^29]
Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^31] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^32] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^33]
[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^30] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^31] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^32] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^33]
[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^34] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^35] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^36] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^37]
[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^34] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^35]
[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^38] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^39]
[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^36] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^37]
[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^40] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^41]
### The 1958 Conference on America's Human Resources
A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^38]
A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^42]
### The Institute of Human Relations and behavioral research
The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^39] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^40]
The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^43] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^44]
The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^41]
The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^45]
[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^42]
[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^46]
### Neuroelectric research, psychoenergetics and the STARGATE file
[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^43] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^44]
[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^47] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^48]
The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^45]
The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^49]
[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^46] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^47] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^48]
[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^50] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^51] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^52]
A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^49] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^50]
A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^53] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^54]
### Physics, the Space Shuttle and Dimona
[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^51] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^52]
[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^55] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^56]
### Walt Rostow, Eugene Rostow and the Yale Law School
[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^53] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^54] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^55]
[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^57] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^58] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^59]
### Pharmacology and the 1979 cocaine hearings
[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^56] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^57] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^58]
[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^60] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^61] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^62]
### Yale-China
The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^59] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^60]
The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^63] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^64]
### Courts, the Law School and the executive branch
Alphonso Taft, Yale class of 1833, was a tutor at Yale from 1835 to 1837 and a member of the Yale Corporation from 1872 to 1882; Yale gave him the LL.D. in 1867.[^61] His son [[William Howard Taft]], Yale class of 1878, held the Kent Professorship of Law in Yale College and the professorship of constitutional law in the Law School from 1913 to 1921. He was a member of the Yale Corporation from 1906 to 1913 and again from 1922 to 1925.[^61]
Alphonso Taft, Yale class of 1833, was a tutor at Yale from 1835 to 1837 and a member of the Yale Corporation from 1872 to 1882; Yale gave him the LL.D. in 1867.[^65] His obituary record states that his 1872 election to the Corporation came in the year members of that body were for the first time elected by the alumni, and that he held the seat until he declined to stand again in 1882.[^66] His son [[William Howard Taft]], Yale class of 1878, held the Kent Professorship of Law in Yale College and the professorship of constitutional law in the Law School from 1913 to 1921. He was a member of the Yale Corporation from 1906 to 1913 and again from 1922 to 1925.[^65]
[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^62] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^63]
[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^67] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^68]
[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^64] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^65] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^66] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^67] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^68] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^69] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^70]
[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^69] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^70] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^71] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^72] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^73] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^74] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^75]
Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^71] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^72] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^73] [[Cory Booker]],[^74] [[Ro Khanna]],[^75] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^76] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^77] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^78] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^79]
Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^76] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^77] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^78] [[Cory Booker]],[^79] [[Ro Khanna]],[^80] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^81] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^82] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^83] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^84]
### Money, presidents and families
The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^80] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^81] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^82] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^83] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^84]
The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^85] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^86] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^87] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^88] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^89]
The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^85] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^86] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^87] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^88]
The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^90] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^91] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^92] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^93]
Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^89] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^90] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^91]
Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^94] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^95] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^96]
[[Oliver Hazard Payne]], Yale B.A. 1863, left one million dollars to the university by his will; he died in New York City on June 27, 1917.[^92] In June 1916 his nephew [[Payne Whitney]], Yale 1898, formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. A Yale record of one of its members says the corps was formed that month, and that [[F. Trubee Davison]], Yale 1918, organized Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1.[^93]
[[Oliver Hazard Payne]], Yale B.A. 1863, left one million dollars to the university by his will; he died in New York City on June 27, 1917.[^97] The Yale Obituary Record heads the entry "Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863," but states that he remained in the class only until October 1861, when he left to accept a commission in the [[124th Ohio Infantry]], and that the Yale Corporation voted him the degree of B.A. in 1878.[^97] In June 1916 his nephew [[Payne Whitney]], Yale 1898, formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. A Yale record of one of its members says the corps was formed that month, and that [[F. Trubee Davison]], Yale 1918, organized Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1.[^98]
The Payne Whitney Gymnasium stands on Tower Parkway in New Haven, Connecticut. The Athletic Journal reported in June 1931 that it "has been given to Yale University in memory of Payne Whitney by Mrs. Whitney and the children" and was being built at a cost of at least $5,000,000.[^99] The Architectural Record of February 1933 published it as designed by [[John Russell Pope]], with a front of 310 feet on Tower Parkway and a tower 200 feet high, and beside it the Ray Tompkins House.[^100] Payne Whitney himself presented to Yale the dormitory for the varsity oarsmen at the rowing camp at Gales Ferry, and the New York Times wrote in 1927 that he had made many gifts to the university, always anonymously.[^101] His estate's trustees later named Yale University among the institutions to share a fund of $25,972,124 for public purposes.[^102]
### The Yale chaplaincy
William Sloane Coffin was appointed Yale chaplain in 1958. The New York Times announced on March 17, 1958 that he would take the post effective July 1, succeeding the retiring chaplain, and that he was then chaplain of [[Williams College]].[^103] Allen Dulles, then director of the Central Intelligence Agency, wrote to him on March 27, 1958, congratulating him on the appointment and wishing him every success in the year ahead.[^104] A 1987 feature gave his tenure at Yale as eighteen years.[^105] A 1988 Washington Times profile describes him as Yale's freedom-riding chaplain of the 1960s.[^106] His uncle [[Henry Sloane Coffin]] (B.A. 1897) had been a Fellow of Yale University from 1921 while president of [[Union Theological Seminary]],[^107] and the Sloane family had given the university the Sloane Laboratory of Physics in 1912, by Henry Thompson Sloane and William Douglas Sloane, and a recitation building and physics laboratory in 1883.[^108]
### Footnotes
[^1]: "Act for a Collegiate School," General Court of the Colony of Connecticut, October 1701 session, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from August, 1689, to May, 1706*, ed. J. Hammond Trumbull (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1868), pp. 363-364. https://archive.org/details/bwb_P9-CDP-546
[^2]: "An Act for the more full and compleat Establishment of Yale College in New Haven, and for enlarging the Powers and Priviledges thereof," General Court, May 1745, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from May, 1744, to November, 1750*, ed. Charles J. Hoadly (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1876), pp. 113-114. https://archive.org/details/publicrecordsofc009conn
[^3]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
[^4]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), p. 146. https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^5]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article; the letter cites James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
[^6]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302], [307] and [638]. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^7]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, p. 241. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^8]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315); record "RTA INCORPORATED" (account number 0059060, registered April 14, 1961, 64 High Street, New Haven), the successor corporation. https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json
[^9]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
[^10]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^11]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/
[^12]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^13]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
[^14]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^15]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^16]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220.
[^17]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the 1856 act incorporating the Russell Trust Association and the 1943 amending act, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^18]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 697 to 700; Connecticut Business Registry, account 0059060 (registered April 14, 1961). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
[^19]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021, Schedule A. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^20]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06. https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
[^21]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
[^22]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^23]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^24]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 7, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
[^25]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
[^26]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^27]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
[^28]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
[^29]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
[^30]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
[^31]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^32]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
[^33]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^34]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
[^35]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
[^36]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
[^37]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
[^38]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
[^39]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
[^40]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
[^41]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
[^42]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551
[^43]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^44]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^45]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^46]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017).
[^47]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/
[^48]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^49]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^50]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^51]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html
[^52]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12.
[^53]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
[^54]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america
[^55]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
[^56]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
[^57]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
[^58]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15.
[^59]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/
[^60]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365
[^61]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72, including the entry for his father ("Alphonso Taft (B A. 1833, LL.D. 1867) ... tutor at Yale 1835-37; member of Yale Corporation 1872-1882") and "Yale Corporation 1906-1913 and again 1922-25 ... Kent professor of law in Yale College and professor of constitutional law in the Law School 1913-1921." https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^62]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
[^63]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
[^64]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt
[^65]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org.
[^66]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*.
[^67]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts
[^68]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006).
[^69]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205.
[^70]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page.
[^71]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
[^72]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/
[^73]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html
[^74]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory
[^75]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
[^76]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016).
[^77]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
[^78]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
[^79]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
[^80]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf
[^81]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/
[^82]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
[^83]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf
[^84]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025.
[^85]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder
[^86]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page.
[^87]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/
[^88]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ
[^89]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846
[^90]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
[^91]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf
[^92]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (bequests of one million dollars each to Yale, the New York Public Library and Lakeside Hospital; death June 27, 1917). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
[^93]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916, Sheffield Scientific School ("formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916"; Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 organized by F. Trubee Davison, B.A. 1918). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
[^27]: George W. Pierson, *Yale College: An Educational History, 1871-1921* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), https://archive.org/details/yalecollegeeduca0000pier ; *Buildings and Grounds of Yale University* (New Haven: Yale University, 1979), https://archive.org/details/buildingsgrounds0000yale
[^28]: Lewis Sheldon Welch and Walter Camp, *Yale: Her Campus, Class-Rooms, and Athletics* (1899), treasurer's lists and chronology, https://archive.org/details/yalehercampuscla00welc ; *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1893-1894*, entry for William Walter Phelps, https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1893-94.pdf
[^29]: John W. Stewart, memoir in *Orations and Essays of Edward John Phelps* (New York: Harper, 1901), https://archive.org/details/orationsessaysof00phel ; Welch and Camp (1899), chronology.
[^30]: *History of the Class of 1896, Yale College: Decennial Record* (New Haven, 1907), https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich ; Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), membership list entry "STOKES, Anson P. 1896 Secretary of Yale (1899-1921)."
[^31]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
[^32]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
[^33]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
[^34]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
[^35]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^36]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
[^37]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^38]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
[^39]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
[^40]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
[^41]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
[^42]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
[^43]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
[^44]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
[^45]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
[^46]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551
[^47]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^48]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^49]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^50]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017).
[^51]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/
[^52]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^53]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^54]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^55]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html
[^56]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12.
[^57]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
[^58]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america
[^59]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
[^60]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
[^61]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
[^62]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15.
[^63]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/
[^64]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365
[^65]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72, including the entry for his father ("Alphonso Taft (B A. 1833, LL.D. 1867) ... tutor at Yale 1835-37; member of Yale Corporation 1872-1882") and "Yale Corporation 1906-1913 and again 1922-25 ... Kent professor of law in Yale College and professor of constitutional law in the Law School 1913-1921." https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^66]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1890-91* (New Haven: Yale University, 1891), entry for Alphonso Taft, class of 1833, p. 18. https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1890-91.pdf
[^67]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
[^68]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
[^69]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt
[^70]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org.
[^71]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*.
[^72]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts
[^73]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006).
[^74]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205.
[^75]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page.
[^76]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
[^77]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/
[^78]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html
[^79]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory
[^80]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
[^81]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016).
[^82]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
[^83]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
[^84]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
[^85]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf
[^86]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/
[^87]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
[^88]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf
[^89]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025.
[^90]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder
[^91]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page.
[^92]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/
[^93]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ
[^94]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846
[^95]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
[^96]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf
[^97]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (bequests of one million dollars each to Yale, the New York Public Library and Lakeside Hospital; death June 27, 1917). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
[^98]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916, Sheffield Scientific School ("formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916"; Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 organized by F. Trubee Davison, B.A. 1918). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
[^99]: John L. Griffith, "Review of the Year in Athletics," *Athletic Journal*, vol. 11, no. 10 (June 1931). https://archive.org/details/sim_athletic-journal_1931-06_11_10
[^100]: "The Payne Whitney Gymnasium and Ray Tompkins House at Yale University," *The Architectural Record*, vol. 73, no. 2 (February 1933). https://archive.org/details/sim_architectural-record_1933-02_73_2
[^101]: "Noted in Rowing at Yale" and "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, pp. 1 and 25. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324
[^102]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, section "Public Beneficiaries." https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871
[^103]: CIA Reading Room, "Former Infantry Officer Named Yale Chaplain," special dispatch to *The New York Times*, March 17, 1958, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020009-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020009-4
[^104]: Allen W. Dulles to William Sloane Coffin Jr., March 27, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800030070-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80b01676r003800030070-3
[^105]: Mary Reinholz, feature on William Sloane Coffin Jr., 1987, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00587R000100010069-7. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp91-00587r000100010069-7
[^106]: Charlotte Hays, "The peace minister," *The Washington Times*, 1988, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00587R000100010070-5. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp91-00587r000100010070-5
[^107]: *Who's Who* 1935, entry "Coffin, Rev. Henry Sloane, D.D." https://archive.org/details/whoswho1935001355mbp
[^108]: *Widener, Dunton, Elkins, Broomall, and Allied Families* (1953), Sloane family chapter, pp. 128 to 129. https://archive.org/details/widenerduntonelk00unse