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2026-06-13 2026-10-14 Johns Hopkins University
Johns Hopkins
Johns Hopkins University
JHU
Organization
Academic
USA
ColdWar
Intelligence
Bioethics
Private Organization Johns Hopkins University is a Baltimore research university whose Army-funded Operations Research Office conducted classified psychological-warfare and counterinsurgency studies that prefigured Project Camelot. 1876 Baltimore, Maryland
type with start end role fn
contractor_to U.S. Army 1948 1961 Operations Research Office contract 3
type with role fn
contractor_to U.S. Navy Applied Physics Laboratory, university affiliated research center sponsor 6
type with reverse start end role fn
head_of Lincoln Gordon true 1967 1971 President 29
type with reverse start end role fn
employed_by Harold Abramson true 1928 1929 instructor in medicine 23
type with reverse start end role fn
employed_by John C. Whitehorn true 1957 1957 chairman of the psychiatry department 27
type with reverse start role fn
funded Bloomberg Philanthropies true 2018 financial aid gifts of $1.8 billion (2018) and $1 billion (2024) 40
type with start end role fn
participant_in Event 201 2019 2019 host, Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security 42

Johns Hopkins University is a private research university in Baltimore, Maryland, founded in 1876 as the first American university built on the German research-university model. Its administration of large federal contract-research organizations made it an institutional hub for Cold War military and intelligence science.12

Operations Research Office

From 1948 the university operated the Operations Research Office (ORO) under U.S. Army contract, a classified body that conducted operations analysis during the Korean War and studies of psychological warfare and unconventional conflict.12 A 1995 history of federally funded research centers prepared by the Office of Technology Assessment records that ORO had been in existence for two years when the Korean War began in 1950, that its director Ellis A. Johnson personally led a team of four into the battle area, and that the contingent grew to eight teams of 40 analysts. Over 100 ORO staff, subcontractors and consultants worked in Japan and Korea, and 113 of them received the Korean Service Medal of the United Nations Command. The field work included evaluations of close air support, the use of indigenous manpower and the effectiveness of leaflets, and the author S. L. A. Marshall worked as an ORO consultant and wrote a primer of Chinese tactics that was distributed to platoon level in the Eighth Army.3

The same history states that the Army's interest in psychological warfare in Korea led it to establish the Human Resources Research Office (HumRRO) in 1951 under a contract administered by George Washington University, and that most of ORO's human factors work passed to HumRRO and later to the Special Operations Research Office (SORO). It describes SORO as formed in 1957 as a contract agency under The American University to specialize in what is now called low-intensity conflict or guerrilla warfare.3 SORO and its successor CRESS ran the controversial Project Camelot counterinsurgency study.12

The OTA history states that ORO was dissolved and a new organization established in June 1961, and that the change was made so that the Army could remove Johnson. According to that history, Johns Hopkins, ORO's administrative organization, was not willing to remove Johnson under Army pressure, and the two parties agreed to terminate the contract. The Army then established the Research Analysis Corporation (RAC); a new contract between the Army and RAC took effect on September 1, 1961, and ORO's research program, personnel, physical assets, leases and contracts for supplies and services transferred to it. The history adds that a senior ORO staff member quipped that RAC stood for "Relax and Cooperate."3

Applied Physics Laboratory

The university's Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) was founded on March 10, 1942, three months after the United States entered the Second World War, as part of a federal effort to mobilize scientific resources for wartime problems. It was assigned the task of finding a more effective way for ships to defend themselves against enemy air attacks, and it designed, built and tested the radar proximity fuze known as the VT fuze.4 The laboratory describes the fuze as having been judged, along with the atomic bomb and radar, one of the three most valuable technology developments of the war, and states that the government, the university and APL then committed to continue their relationship, after which the laboratory became a major contributor to guided missiles and submarine technologies.4 APL became a major Navy research center and one of the largest university-affiliated defense laboratories in the United States.1

APL describes itself as a not-for-profit university affiliated research center.5 Its 2025 description states that "APL's UARC sponsor is the U.S. Navy," and that each university affiliated research center has a primary sponsor and a primary contract that define the limits of competition.6 The same document says APL performs sponsored work for "the Intelligence Community," along with the DOW, NASA and other agencies.6

The Terrier missile became operational aboard USS Boston in 1956. In 1957 two APL physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, developed a method of tracking satellites from the Doppler shift in the signals of the Soviet Sputnik, and in 1958 APL invented the Doppler-based Transit satellite navigation system. APL designed, built, tested and operated numerous Transit satellites in the 1960s and 1970s; the system was fully operational in 1964 and improved the ability of U.S. submarines to determine their positions.7 In 1974 APL tested an engineering development model of the AN/SPY-1 radar for the Aegis combat system system aboard USS Norton Sound, and in 1981 the guided-missile cruiser USS Ticonderoga became the first vessel with the Aegis combat system, with APL serving as technical advisor.8 APL also performed the Polaris flight-test analysis of 1957 and the Trident II accuracy evaluations of 1989.78

APL's Space Department developed a rotatable litter chair for weightlessness experiments on Skylab in 1973. APL built the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous spacecraft, launched on February 22, 1996, which became the first spacecraft to orbit an asteroid on reaching 433 Eros on February 14, 2000, and the MESSENGER spacecraft, launched on August 3, 2004, to orbit Mercury.9 The New Horizons spacecraft was designed and integrated at APL, launched on January 19, 2006, and flew past Pluto on July 14, 2015, with Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute as principal investigator.10 The Double Asteroid Redirection Test spacecraft, designed, developed and managed by APL for the NASA Planetary Defense Coordination Office, launched on November 24, 2021.9

USAspending.gov records prime contract awards to the laboratory under the recipient name "The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory LLC" (unique entity identifier C1HBCJ9RMBV3). A spending-by-awarding-agency query for that identifier, contract award types A through D, with action dates from October 1, 2007 (the earliest date the database accepts) through September 30, 2026, run on October 14, 2026, returned $19,446,135,312.75 from the Department of Defense and $4,732,501,683.12 from NASA, with smaller totals from the Department of Homeland Security ($385,438,283.40) and the Department of Health and Human Services ($95,385,866.08).11

One Department of the Air Force award in that database, delivery order FA868422F7013 under indefinite-delivery contract FA868420D7000, carries the description "NASIC FME" and a total obligation of $4,812,298. The record gives a date signed of November 21, 2021 and a period of performance from November 25, 2022 to April 30, 2026; the awarding office is AFLCMC HBKD of the Air Force, the solicitation procedure is recorded as "ONLY ONE SOURCE," and the stated authority is "MOBILIZATION, ESSENTIAL R&D (FAR 6.302-3)."12 The first action, on November 21, 2021, obligated $1,065,000, and later modifications through March 2025 added funding of $950,000, $70,000, $492,908, $742,392 and $1,491,998. The modification of February 15, 2024 carries the description "FORIEGN MATERIAL EXPLOITATION (FME) TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES (T2)" as spelled in the record, and the modification of July 9, 2024 is described as "JHU/APL PCB DR (NASIC) ADD-WORK."13

Annie Jacobsen wrote that scientists from APL built an anechoic facility inside the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, under the direction of Richard S. Cesaro, in which primates were irradiated with microwave beams at a power density similar to that of the Moscow Signal.14 An ARPA memorandum of September 27, 1967, signed by Cesaro as acting director of advanced sensors, concerns a project designated BIZARRE.15 J. Allen Hynek was supervisor of technical reports at APL from 1942 to 1946.16 Thornton Page of Johns Hopkins University is among the signatories listed on the Durant memorandum concerning the Robertson Panel.17

School of Advanced International Studies

The School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) was founded in 1943 by Paul Nitze and Christian A. Herter along with other leading statesmen. The school became a division of Johns Hopkins in 1950, and in 1989 it was renamed for Nitze.18

Among the school's alumni with intelligence careers is John E. McLaughlin, who received his SAIS master's degree in 1966. In January 2005 the school announced that he had been appointed a senior fellow of the Merrill Center for Strategic Studies. The announcement recorded that he had been deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency since October 2000 and acting director from July to September 2004, and it credited him with founding the Sherman Kent School for Intelligence Analysis.19

Paul Linebarger of SAIS was one of eleven members of the Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel of 1955, which W. W. Rostow chaired.20 In June 2022 CNN reported that a Dutch intelligence agency had publicly identified a man who studied at SAIS under the name "Victor Muller" as Sergey Cherkasov. CNN described him as "alleged to be a Russian spy" and reported that he was known and liked by fellow students and faculty.21 Ben Buchanan became the Dmitri Alperovitch Assistant Professor at SAIS.22

MKULTRA

A CIA memorandum dated December 2, 1953, addressed to Colonel Edwards by the chief of the agency's SSD, concerns Harold Abramson. It describes him as a physician educated at Columbia University who had been chief of an allergy clinic at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York, and it records that he was an instructor in medicine at Johns Hopkins University from 1928 to 1929. The memorandum states: "Subject is a physician but not known as a psychiatrist."23 The document is among the Project MKUltra records in the CIA reading room.23

The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources held a joint hearing on the program on August 3, 1977, titled "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's program of research in behavioral modification."24 In his opening statement Senator Edward M. Kennedy said of the records the CIA had located in March 1977: "Eighty-six universities or institutions were involved."25 Stansfield Turner, the Director of Central Intelligence, stated in his prepared statement that the agency held "the names of 185 nongovernment researchers and assistants who are identified in the recovered material dealing with these 149 subprojects," and "names of 80 institutions," which "include 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundation or chemical or pharmaceutical companies or the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, in addition to those associated with the universities, and 3 penal institutions."26

John Marks wrote that after the CIA severed the Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology from Cornell University, the Society's board in 1957 included John C. Whitehorn, chairman of the psychiatry department at Johns Hopkins University, together with Carl Rogers of the University of Wisconsin and Adolf A. Berle; Marks identified Harold G. Wolff and Lawrence Hinkle as the board's president and vice president.27 D. Ewen Cameron trained in psychiatry at the Phipps Clinic at Johns Hopkins before going to Canada.28

Faculty, students and staff

Lincoln Gordon succeeded Milton S. Eisenhower as president of the university in 1967 and resigned in 1971; the Baltimore Sun recorded that his adoption of a student-faculty-administration recommendation in 1969 led to women being allowed to enter the university for the first time, and that he faced an operating deficit of more than $4 million.29 René Girard taught at the university as a professor from 1957.30 Stephen Kosslyn was an assistant professor at the university before moving to Harvard.3132 Ray Hyman took a bachelor's degree from Boston University in 1950, a master's degree in 1952 and a doctorate in February 1953 from Johns Hopkins.33 Jason Matheny holds a Ph.D. in applied economics and an M.P.H. from the university.34 Risa Heller took a master's degree in communications at the university after an undergraduate degree at the University of Michigan.3536 S. C. Gwynne took a master's degree in writing at the university.37 George R. Wackenhut directed physical education and coached at the university from 1946, and took a master's degree there in 1949.38

Hospital and medical training

Alexander M. Haig, Jr. died at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore on February 20, 2010, at the age of 85. A hospital spokesman attributed his death to complications of an infection.39

Bloomberg gifts

On Sunday, November 18, 2018, Michael Bloomberg announced a gift of $1.8 billion to his alma mater for student financial aid. The Associated Press reported that the gift was "the largest ever to any education institution in the U.S.," and quoted the university as saying it would allow Johns Hopkins to eliminate student loans in financial aid packages starting the following fall. University president Ronald Daniels said the gift would also let the institution permanently commit to "need-blind admissions."40

On July 8, 2024, Bloomberg Philanthropies gave a further $1 billion to the university. NPR reported that the gift would make tuition free for most medical students.41

Event 201

The Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, "in partnership with the World Economic Forum and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation," hosted Event 201, which the center described as a high-level pandemic exercise held on October 18, 2019, in New York.42 The center described it as a 3.5-hour tabletop exercise with fifteen players from global business, government and public health, consisting of pre-recorded news broadcasts, live staff briefings and moderated discussions.43

The exercise scenario was a novel zoonotic coronavirus transmitted from bats to pigs to people, modeled largely on SARS, that begins on pig farms in Brazil, is exported by air travel to Portugal, the United States and China, and ends at the 18-month point with 65 million deaths; in the scenario there is no possibility of a vaccine in the first year.44 The players listed by the center include Avril Haines, George Gao of the Chinese Center for Disease Control, Christopher Elias of the Gates Foundation and Stephen Redd of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.45 The World Economic Forum announced the exercise on October 15, 2019 as a simulation for business, government, security and public health leaders, with a live virtual stream from 8:50 to 12:30 Eastern time; it listed Haines as a former deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency and former deputy national security adviser, and quoted Tom Inglesby, director of the Center for Health Security.46

Guatemala experiments litigation

The United States Public Health Service ran sexually transmitted disease experiments on prisoners, soldiers and psychiatric patients in Guatemala from 1946 to 1948. The Fourth Circuit's opinion records that the Surgeon General, Thomas Parran, approved the proposal in 1946, that a grant including $110,450 for the Pan American Sanitary Bureau was approved, that Parran simultaneously served on the Board of Trustees of the Rockefeller Foundation, and that a junior Public Health Service officer, John C. Cutler, and his research team began infecting test subjects in February 1947. The opinion states that from May 1947 to October 1948 the researchers conducted thirty-two experiments using gonorrhea, seventeen using syphilis and one using chancroid, which involved a total of 1,308 people.47

On April 1, 2015, the Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez and other plaintiffs sued Johns Hopkins, The Rockefeller Foundation and Bristol-Myers Squibb under the Alien Tort Statute and the Guatemalan Civil Code. The complaint was filed in Baltimore City Circuit Court and removed to the District of Maryland the same day, and the federal caption is Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Johns Hopkins University, No. 1:15-cv-00950.4748

The operative complaint alleged that researchers at Johns Hopkins and the Rockefeller Foundation, "who spent their careers studying syphilis," "intentionally chose to conduct nontherapeutic, nonconsensual experiments" because doing so allowed them to identify a large pool of uninfected people and infect them.47 Bristol-Myers Squibb was voluntarily dismissed. In 2017 the district court dismissed all claims under the Guatemalan Civil Code, dismissed the Alien Tort Statute claims based on direct liability except a limited claim against the Rockefeller Foundation, and declined to dismiss the claims based on aiding and abetting and conspiracy.47

The district court later granted the defendants' motion for summary judgment. The plaintiffs appealed only the ruling as to the Rockefeller Foundation, and on March 20, 2024, the Fourth Circuit affirmed. The opinion records that the foundation paid the salary of Frederick Soper, an associate director of its International Health Division, until January 1, 1948 while he served at the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, and the court held that Soper was not an agent of the foundation while he directed the Bureau.47 The Johns Hopkins claims were not part of that appeal.47

Henrietta Lacks and the HeLa cell line

The Estate of Henrietta Lacks filed a complaint against Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. in the District of Maryland on October 4, 2021 (No. 1:21-cv-02524). Johns Hopkins is not a party to that case. The complaint alleges that Lacks was admitted to a segregated ward at Johns Hopkins Hospital with a malignant tumor of the cervix, that on February 5, 1951, while she was under anesthesia for radium treatment, a surgeon cut two circular samples of tissue, each about three quarters of an inch across, from her cervix, and that she had not been informed of or consented to the sampling. It alleges that the samples were given to a researcher at the hospital who cultured them into the HeLa cell line, that the cells were distributed to laboratories without payment to Lacks's estate, and that Thermo Fisher Scientific sells HeLa cells and products containing them. The complaint pleads a single count of unjust enrichment.49

The case was terminated on August 1, 2023.50 Chemistry World reported that the family reached a settlement with Thermo Fisher, which had been accused of profiting from HeLa cells derived from Lacks's tumour without her family's approval.51

Footnotes

  1. Lyons, Gene M. The Uneasy Partnership: Social Science and the Federal Government in the Twentieth Century. Russell Sage Foundation, 1969. ↩︎

  2. Rohde, Joy. Armed with Expertise: The Militarization of American Social Research during the Cold War. Cornell University Press, 2013. ↩︎

  3. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, "A History of the Department of Defense Federally Funded Research and Development Centers," OTA-BP-ISS-157, June 1995, pp. 20-21 (ORO in Korea, HumRRO 1951, SORO 1957 under The American University, ORO dissolved June 1961, Johnson, Johns Hopkins's refusal, the September 1, 1961 RAC contract). https://web.archive.org/web/2016id_/https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1995/9501/950106.PDF ↩︎

  4. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "History" (founded March 10, 1942; VT fuze). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history ↩︎

  5. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "About." https://www.jhuapl.edu/about ↩︎

  6. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "About APL," 2025 edition, section "APL as a UARC": "APL's UARC sponsor is the U.S. Navy"; "We perform sponsored work for a variety of government agencies, including the DOW, NASA, and the Intelligence Community." https://www.jhuapl.edu/sites/default/files/2025-07/aboutAPL-25.pdf ↩︎

  7. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "Innovations and Breakthroughs" timeline, entries "Terrier Becomes Operational" (1956), "Lab Performs First Flight Test Analysis of Polaris System" (1957), "APL Tracks Soviet Sputnik" (1957), "Transit Satellite Navigation System Invented" (1958) and "Transit Becomes Fully Operational" (1964). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history/innovations-and-breakthroughs ↩︎

  8. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "Innovations and Breakthroughs" timeline, entries "Successful Aegis Radar Testing" (1974), "The First Aegis Ship, USS Ticonderoga, Launches; APL Serves as Technical Advisor" (1981) and "APL Accuracy Evaluations Aid Development of New Trident II (D5) Missile" (December 4, 1989). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history/innovations-and-breakthroughs ↩︎

  9. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "Innovations and Breakthroughs" timeline, entries "The Space Department's Rotatable Litter Chair for Skylab" (1973), "NEAR Sets Off for Eros" (February 22, 1996), "MESSENGER Launches Toward Mercury" (August 3, 2004) and "NASA's DART Spacecraft Launches in World's First Planetary Defense Test Mission" (November 24, 2021). https://www.jhuapl.edu/about/history/innovations-and-breakthroughs ↩︎

  10. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, "New Horizons," mission page (launch January 19, 2006; Pluto flyby July 14, 2015; designed and integrated at APL; principal investigator Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute). https://www.jhuapl.edu/destinations/missions/new-horizons ↩︎

  11. USAspending.gov API, POST /api/v2/search/spending_by_category/awarding_agency/, filters: recipient_search_text "C1HBCJ9RMBV3" (the unique entity identifier of The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory LLC), award_type_codes A, B, C, D (contracts), time_period 2007-10-01 to 2026-09-30; default spending level (transactions, summing federal action obligations); queried October 14, 2026. Department of Defense $19,446,135,312.75; National Aeronautics and Space Administration $4,732,501,683.12; Department of Homeland Security $385,438,283.40; Department of Health and Human Services $95,385,866.08. https://api.usaspending.gov/api/v2/search/spending_by_category/awarding_agency/ ↩︎

  12. USAspending.gov, award CONT_AWD_FA868422F7013_9700_FA868420D7000_9700 (API /api/v2/awards/): recipient The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory LLC, awarding sub-agency Department of the Air Force, office FA8638 AFLCMC HBKD, description "NASIC FME," total obligation $4,812,298, date signed 2021-11-21, period of performance 2022-11-25 to 2026-04-30, solicitation procedures "ONLY ONE SOURCE," other than full and open competition "MOBILIZATION, ESSENTIAL R&D (FAR 6.302-3)." https://www.usaspending.gov/award/CONT_AWD_FA868422F7013_9700_FA868420D7000_9700 ↩︎

  13. USAspending.gov, transaction history of award CONT_AWD_FA868422F7013_9700_FA868420D7000_9700 (API /api/v2/transactions/): modification 0 (action date 2021-11-21, $1,065,000), P00001 (2023-05-22, $950,000), P00002 (2023-07-14, $70,000), P00003 (2024-02-15, $492,908), P00005 (2024-07-09, $742,392, "JHU/APL PCB DR (NASIC) ADD-WORK") and P00009 (2025-03-28, $1,491,998). https://www.usaspending.gov/award/CONT_AWD_FA868422F7013_9700_FA868420D7000_9700 ↩︎

  14. Jacobsen, Annie. Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis. Little, Brown and Company, 2017. ↩︎

  15. ARPA memorandum ARPA-AS-TS-67-20, "Project BIZARRE," September 27, 1967, signed Richard S. Cesaro, Acting Director, Advanced Sensors, declassified copy, National Security Archive. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/rhwvuj-tzy4b/08.pdf ↩︎

  16. Biography and statement of J. Allen Hynek, Symposium on Unidentified Flying Objects, Hearings before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, House of Representatives, 90th Congress, 2d Session, July 29, 1968, pp. 1-3. https://nicap.org/books/1968Sym/1968Sym.htm ↩︎

  17. Durant memorandum, Tab A, signatures of the Robertson Panel members: Berkner, Robertson, Goudsmit, Alvarez and Page (Johns Hopkins University). ↩︎

  18. Johns Hopkins SAIS, "SAIS Founder and Arms Control Expert Paul H. Nitze Dead at 97," press release dated October 20, 2004. Nitze "founded the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) in 1943 along with Christian Herter"; the school "became a division of The Johns Hopkins University in 1950" and was renamed in 1989. https://web.archive.org/web/2019/https://www.sais.jhu.edu/news-press/sais-founder-and-arms-control-expert-paul-h-nitze-dead-97 ↩︎

  19. Johns Hopkins SAIS, press release dated January 25, 2005, "Former CIA Official John E. McLaughlin Joins SAIS as Visiting Scholar." https://web.archive.org/web/2024/https://sais.jhu.edu/news-press/former-cia-official-john-e-mclaughlin-joins-sais-visiting-scholar ↩︎

  20. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Volume XIX, National Security Policy, document 26, editorial note on the Quantico Panel, p. 84, listing the eleven members and dating the meeting. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v19/d26 ↩︎

  21. CNN, "Suspected Russian spy was well-liked by classmates, but something just seemed a little off," June 24, 2022. https://amp.cnn.com/cnn/2022/06/24/politics/russian-spy-johns-hopkins-classmates-accent-suspicious/index.html ↩︎

  22. Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies, "Ben Buchanan," faculty biography, archived October 10, 2025. http://web.archive.org/web/20251010173145/https://sais.jhu.edu/users/bbuchan ↩︎

  23. Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum, December 2, 1953, "ABRAMSON, Harold A.," from the Chief, SSD to Colonel Edwards (MKULTRA document 0000144974, CIA reading room; archive.org copy). https://archive.org/details/DOC_0000144974 ↩︎

  24. U.S. Congress, Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence and Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification, Joint Hearing, 95th Congress, 1st session, August 3, 1977. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf ↩︎

  25. Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification, Joint Hearing, August 3, 1977, opening statement of Senator Edward M. Kennedy. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf ↩︎

  26. Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification, Joint Hearing, August 3, 1977, prepared statement of Admiral Stansfield Turner, Director of Central Intelligence. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf ↩︎

  27. Marks, John. The Search for the "Manchurian Candidate": The CIA and Mind Control. London: Allen Lane, 1979, p. 156 (the 1957 board of the Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology; index entries "Johns Hopkins University, 156" and "Whitehorn, John, 156"). ↩︎

  28. Collins, Anne. In the Sleep Room: The Story of the CIA Brainwashing Experiments in Canada. Lester & Orpen Dennys, 1988. ↩︎

  29. Baltimore Sun, "Lincoln Gordon," obituary, December 22, 2009 (succeeded Milton S. Eisenhower as Hopkins president in 1967; the 1969 recommendation that admitted women; operating deficit of more than $4 million; resignation in 1971). https://www.baltimoresun.com/2009/12/22/lincoln-gordon/ ↩︎

  30. "René Girard," Encyclopædia Britannica, biography. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rene-Girard ↩︎

  31. Minerva Project, "Minerva Project Names Dr. Stephen M. Kosslyn as Founding Dean," March 12, 2013. ↩︎

  32. National Science Foundation, award 7616987 (Johns Hopkins University, September 1, 1976 to February 28, 1978). ↩︎

  33. Hyman, Ray, "Curriculum Vitae," September 1994, CIA-RDP96-00791R000100030044-7, STARGATE collection. The vita lists the February 1953 doctorate from Johns Hopkins University. ↩︎

  34. RAND Corporation, "Jason Matheny," staff biography. https://www.rand.org/about/people/m/matheny_jason.html ↩︎

  35. McCreesh, Shawn, "Get Me Risa Heller!" New York (Intelligencer), February 14, 2023. https://nymag.com/intelligencer/article/risa-heller-communications-profile.html ↩︎

  36. "Risa Heller," Heller firm biography, modified March 28, 2025. https://heller.inc/employee/risa-heller/ ↩︎

  37. Gwynne, S. C., author biography, scgwynne.com. https://scgwynne.com/author/s-c-gwynne ↩︎

  38. The Wackenhut Corporation, biographical sketch of George R. Wackenhut and company reports, 1969 to 1988, scanned company files on archive.org. ↩︎

  39. "Alexander Haig, Presidential Adviser, Dies," CBS News and Associated Press, February 20, 2010. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/alexander-haig-presidential-adviser-dies/ ↩︎

  40. Associated Press, "Bloomberg gives 'unprecedented' $1.8 billion to Johns Hopkins to boost financial aid," November 19, 2018 (announcement "Sunday"). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/amp/nation/bloomberg-gives-unprecedented-1-8-billion-to-johns-hopkins-to-boost-financial-aid ↩︎

  41. NPR, "Bloomberg gives $1 billion to Hopkins to make tuition free for most medical students," July 9, 2024. https://www.npr.org/2024/07/09/g-s1-8876/johns-hopkins-medical-school-bloomberg ↩︎

  42. Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, "Event 201," home page, Wayback Machine capture of 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.centerforhealthsecurity.org/event201/ ↩︎

  43. Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, "About the Event 201 exercise," Wayback Machine capture of 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.centerforhealthsecurity.org/event201/about/ ↩︎

  44. Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, "The Event 201 scenario," Wayback Machine capture of 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.centerforhealthsecurity.org/event201/scenario.html ↩︎

  45. Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, "Event 201 Players," Wayback Machine capture of 2020; World Economic Forum press release of October 15, 2019 (affiliations). https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.centerforhealthsecurity.org/event201/players/ ↩︎

  46. World Economic Forum, press release "Live Simulation Exercise to Prepare Public and Private Leaders for Pandemic Response," Geneva, October 15, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/2019id_/https://www.weforum.org/press/2019/10/live-simulation-exercise-to-prepare-public-and-private-leaders-for-pandemic-response ↩︎

  47. Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Rockefeller Foundation, No. 22-1678 (4th Cir. March 20, 2024) (published opinion, Hudson, J., joined by Wilkinson and Heytens, JJ.), on appeal from No. 1:15-cv-00950-TDC (D. Md.), pp. 2-9 (background, 1,308 participants, Parran's trusteeship, Soper's salary, the 2017 order, summary judgment). https://www.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinions/221678.P.pdf ↩︎

  48. Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Johns Hopkins University, No. 1:15-cv-00950 (D. Md.), docket entries of April 1, 2015 (complaint and notice of removal from the Circuit Court for Baltimore City, case number 24-C-15-001618). CourtListener docket 6300310. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/6300310/ ↩︎

  49. Estate of Henrietta Lacks v. Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., No. 1:21-cv-02524 (D. Md.), Civil Complaint and Request for Jury Trial (Doc. 1, filed October 4, 2021), paragraphs 5, 30-38, 45-48 and Count I. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.mdd.500650/gov.uscourts.mdd.500650.1.0.pdf ↩︎

  50. Estate of Henrietta Lacks v. Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., No. 1:21-cv-02524 (D. Md.), docket, terminated August 1, 2023. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/60620589/lacks-v-thermo-fisher-scientific-inc/ ↩︎

  51. Julia Robinson, "Justice for Henrietta Lacks as family reaches settlement with Thermo Fisher," Chemistry World, August 4, 2023. https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/justice-for-henrietta-lacks-as-family-reaches-settlement-with-thermo-fisher/4017851.article ↩︎